Blood

Uses

• Supply of oxygen to tissues (bound to hemoglobin, which is carried in red cells)

• Supply of nutrients such as glucose, amino acids, and fatty acids (dissolved in
the blood or bound to plasma proteins (e.g., blood lipids)
• Removal of waste such as carbon dioxide, urea, and lactic acid
• Immunological functions, including circulation of white blood cells, and detection
of foreign material by antibodies
• Coagulation, which is one part of the body's self-repair mechanism
• Messenger functions, including the transport of hormones and the signaling of
tissue damage
• Regulation of body pH (the normal pH of blood is in the range of 7.35 - 7.45)[3]
(covering only 0.1 pH unit)
• Regulation of core body temperature
• Hydraulic functions

Composition

Blood accounts for 7% of the human body weight,[4] with an average density of
approximately 1060 kg/m3, very close to pure water's density of 1000 kg/m3.[5] The
average adult has a blood volume of roughly 5 liters, composed of plasma and several
kinds of cells (occasionally called corpuscles); these formed elements of the blood are
erythrocytes (red blood cells), leukocytes (white blood cells), and thrombocytes
(platelets). By volume, the red blood cells constitute about 45% of whole blood, the
plasma constitutes about 54.3%, white cells constitute 0.7%.

Whole blood (plasma and cells) exhibits non-Newtonian fluid dynamics; its flow
properties are adapted to flow effectively through tiny capillary blood vessels with less
resistance than plasma by itself. In addition, if all human hemoglobin were free in the
plasma rather than being contained in RBCs, the circulatory fluid would be too viscous
for the cardiovascular system to function effectively

Urine

Uses

To eliminate soluble wastes, which are toxic, most animals have excretory systems. In
humans soluble wastes are excreted by way of the urinary system, which consists of the
kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra. The kidneys extract the soluble wastes
from the bloodstream, as well as excess water, sugars, and a variety of other
compounds. The composition of urine is adjusted in the process of reabsorption
whereby certain solutes, such as glucose, are reabsorbed back into the blood stream
via carrier molecules.[citation needed] The remaining fluid contains high concentrations of urea
and other substances, including toxins. Urine flows through these structures: the kidney,
ureter, bladder, and finally the urethra. Urine is produced by a process of filtration,
reabsorption, and tubular secretion.

Composition

Urine is a transparent solution that can range from colorless to amber but is usually a
pale yellow. Urine is an aqueous solution of approximately 95% water, with the
remaining percentages being metabolic wastes such as urea, dissolved salts, and
organic compounds. Fluid and materials being filtered by the kidneys, destined to
become urine, come from the blood or interstitial fluid.

Except in cases of kidney or urinary tract infection (UTI), urine is virtually sterile and
nearly odorless. Subsequent to elimination from the body, urine can acquire strong
odors due to bacterial action. Most noticeably, the asphyxiating ammonia is produced
by breakdown of urea. Some diseases alter the quantity and consistency of the urine,
such as sugar as a consequence of diabetes.
 Infant Nutrition

Two Months
Your baby will get all of his nutrition from breast milk or an iron
fortified infant formula until he is four to six months old. There
is no need to supplement with water, juice or cereal at this
time. He should now be on a more predictable schedule and
will probably be nursing or drinking 5-6 ounces of formula
every 3-4 hours.

Feeding practices to avoid are putting the bottle in bed or

propping the bottle while feeding, putting cereal in the bottle,
feeding honey, introducing solids before 4-6 months, or
heating bottles in the microwave.

Also, avoid the use of low iron formulas, which are nutritionally
inadequate to meet the needs of a growing infant. These types
of infant formula do not contain enough iron and will put your
child at risk for developing iron deficiency anemia (which has
been strongly associated with poor growth and development
and with learning disabilities). Iron fortified formulas do not
cause colic, constipation or reflux and you should not switch to
a low iron formula if your baby has one of these problems.

Four Months
At this age, breast milk or formula is the only food that your
baby needs and he should be taking 5-6 ounces 4-6 times
each day (24-32 ounces), but you can start to familiarize your
baby with the feel of a spoon and introduce solid baby foods.
See the Guide to Starting Solids for more information,
especially if your child is at risk for developing food allergies.

Cereal is the first solid you should give your baby and you can
mix it with breast milk, formula or water and feed it to your
baby with a spoon (not in a bottle). Start by feeding one
tablespoon of an iron-fortified Rice cereal at one feeding and
then slowly increase the amount to 3-4 tablespoons one or two
times each day. This is a very important source of iron for your
growing infant (especially if you are breastfeeding). You can
then start with vegetables at about six months of age.

Your baby will probably have given up middle of the night

feedings by this age. If not, slowly reduce how much you are
putting in the bottle each night and gradually stop this feeding
all together.

Feeding practices to avoid are putting the bottle in bed or

propping the bottle while feeding, putting cereal in the bottle,
feeding honey, using a low-iron formula or heating bottles in
the microwave.

Six Months
While continuing to give 4-5 feedings of breast milk or formula
(24-32 ounces) and 4 or more tablespoons of iron fortified
cereal each day, you can now start to give well-cooked,
strained, or mashed vegetables or commercially prepared
baby foods. Start with one tablespoon of a mild tasting
vegetable, such as green beans, peas, squash or carrots and
gradually increase to 4-5 tablespoons one or two times each
day.

Start fruits about a month after starting vegetables and again,

gradually increase to 4-5 tablespoons one or two times each
day. You can use peeled, cooked, or canned fruits (but only
those packed in light syrup or water) that have been
blenderized or strained. You can also begin to offer 4-6 ounces
of 100% fruit juices. Start by mixing one part juice with two
parts of water and offer it in a cup only. Delay giving finger
foods or meat and other protein foods until infants are eight to
nine months old.

To avoid having to supplement with fluoride, prepare

powdered/concentrated formula with fluorinated tap water. If
you are using ready-to-feed formula, or bottled or filtered water
only, then your baby may need fluoride supplements.

Your baby will probably have given up middle of the night

feedings by this age. If not, slowly reduce how much you are
putting in the bottle each night and gradually stop this feeding
all together.

Feeding practices to avoid are putting the bottle in bed or

propping the bottle while feeding, putting cereal in the bottle,
feeding honey, using a low-iron formula, offering juice in a
bottle or heating bottles in the microwave.

Nine Months
While continuing to give 3-4 feedings of breast milk or formula
(24-32 ounces) and 4 or more tablespoons of cereal,
vegetables and fruit one or two times each day, you can now
start to give more protein containing foods. These include well-
cooked, strained or ground plain meats (chicken, beef, turkey,
veal, lamb, boneless fish, or liver), mild cheese, peanutbutter,
or egg yolks (no egg whites as there is a high chance of
allergic reactions in infants less than 12 months old). If using
commercially prepared jars of baby food, do not use
vegetables with meat as they have little meat and less protein
and iron than jars with plain meat. Start with 1-2 tablespoons
and increase to 3-4 tablespoons once each day. If your baby
doesn't seem to like to eat plain meat, then you can mix it with
a vegetable that they already like as you offer it.

You should start to offer soft table foods and finger foods at
this age. Give soft, bite-size pieces of food, such as soft fruit
and vegetable pieces, pastas, graham or saltine crackers, and
dry cheerios, but do not give these foods if the child is going to
be unattended in case of choking. Over the next three months
your baby's diet will begin to resemble that of the rest of the
families, with 3 meals and 2 snacks each day. You can also
give4-6 ounces of 100% fruit juice in a cup.

To avoid having to supplement with fluoride, prepare

powdered/concentrated formula with fluorinated tap water. If
you are using ready-to-feed formula, or bottled or filtered water
only, then your baby may need fluoride supplements.

Your baby will probably have given up middle of the night

feedings by this age. If not, slowly reduce how much you are
putting in the bottle each night and gradually stop this feeding
all together.

Feeding practices to avoid are changing to regular milk before

your child is twelve months old, putting the bottle in bed or
propping the bottle while feeding, feeding honey, using a low-
iron formula, offering juice in a bottle or heating bottles in the
microwave.

Twelve Months
You may now give your baby homogenized whole cow's milk.
Do not use 2%, low fat, or skim milk until your child is 2-3
years old. Your baby's diet will begin to resemble that of the
rest of the families, with 3 meals and 2 snacks each day. You
should limit milk and dairy products to about 16-24 oz each
day (in a cup or bottle) and juice to 4-6 oz each day (offered in
a cup only) and offer a variety of foods to encourage good
eating habits later.

Your child should want to feed himself with his fingers and a
spoon or fork and should be able to drink out of a cup. The
next few months will be time to stop using a bottle. Remember
that your baby's appetite may decrease and become pickier
over the next few years as his growth rate slows. Your baby
will probably have given up middle of the night feedings by this
age. If not, slowly reduce how much you are putting in the
bottle each night and gradually stop this feeding all together.

To avoid having to supplement with fluoride, use fluorinated

tap water. If you are using bottled or filtered water only, then
your child may need fluoride supplements (check with the
manufacturer for your water's fluoride levels).

Feeding practices to avoid are giving large amounts of sweet

desserts, soft drinks, fruit-flavored drinks, sugarcoated cereals,
chips or candy, as they have little nutritional value. Also avoid
giving foods that your child can choke on, such as raw carrots,
peanuts, whole grapes, tough meats, popcorn, chewing gum
or hard candy.

Nutrition for childhood

Nutrition and children

Although their growth is slower than in infancy, school-aged children still have high
nutritional needs but fairly small appetites. So it's crucial all meals and snacks continue
to be rich in nutrients and energy. The food choices children make during the crucial
years of development can influence their future health risk and can also influence food
habits in later life.

A structured eating plan with regular meals and snacks is important to establish good
eating habits. Ensure there's also plenty of variety - burgers and chips are fine
occasionally, but not for every meal.

A limited number of foods makes it difficult to obtain the full range of nutrients. Make
sure your child has a range of foods based on each of the main food groups.
Energy

School children still have a high energy requirement for growth and activity, but
increasing numbers are becoming overweight. This is because they’re eating too many
calories and not being active enough to use up the extra energy they’ve eaten.

If you think your child is putting on too much weight, don't make a big issue of it.
Instead, encourage physical activity in whatever form (football, netball, walking the dog,
cycling, swimming and so on).

Base meals and snacks on the five main food groups, but limit fatty and sugary snacks.

An overweight child still needs a nutrient-packed diet that provides all the essential
building blocks for growth and development. Encouraging healthy eating should ensure
children maintain a healthy weight. Make sure the whole family is eating healthily to
provide good role models.

Calcium

This mineral is important for healthy bone development. Good sources include dairy
products such as milk, cheese, yoghurt and fromage frais, as well as fortified orange
juice, green leafy vegetables, cereals, sesame seeds and tofu.

Your child should ideally aim for three servings of calcium-rich food a day - for example,
a 150ml glass of milk, a small pot of yoghurt and a small matchbox-sized piece of
cheese.

Folate

This vitamin is important for growth, but intake is low in some children, especially those
who skip breakfast because fortified cereals are a good source of folate. Other sources
include bread, green leafy vegetables and pulses.

Iron

This mineral helps to keep red blood cells healthy. Insufficient iron intake can lead to
iron-deficiency anaemia, but this is much less common in primary school–aged children
than their younger and older siblings.

Good sources of iron include red meat, liver, fortified breakfast cereals, beans and
pulses.

To help absorb the iron more effectively from non-meat sources, combine it with vitamin
C-rich foods such as citrus fruits and fruit juice.
Fatty and sugary foods

This group includes spreading fats (such as butter), cooking oils, sugar, biscuits, cakes,
crisps, sweets, cream and ice cream, chocolate and sugary drinks. These foods
shouldn't be eaten too often and, when they are, should only be consumed in small
amounts.

They're loaded with calories, fat and sugar, and don't necessarily contain many vitamins
and minerals. Also, sugary foods and drinks (including fruit juice) can increase the risk
of dental decay.

Limit the amount of sugar and sweets eaten, and offer them at the end of meals, rather
than in-between.

Some sugar-free or diet drinks can also cause decay because of their acidity. Milk or
water is the best drink between meals.

School meals
School dinners in England are subject to strict nutritional guidelines, and other rules
cover school tuck shops and vending machines. Primary schools now have to stipulate
the vitamin content of school meals, and secondary schools need to do so from 2009.

The Scottish and Welsh governments are also developing legislation to tighten up on
school dinner food choices.

Encourage your child to:

• always choose foods rich in protein, such as meat, poultry, fish, eggs, cheese or
beans, but encourage them not to eat pies, pasties, sausages or burgers every
day as these are very high in fat
• choose at least one starchy food - bread, jacket potatoes, boiled potatoes, rice or
pasta
• eat at least one portion of vegetables – raw, cooked alone, or as part of a salad
• eat a piece of fruit - fresh, dried or juiced

Ideas for packed lunches

It's easy to slip into offering your child the same food every day in a packed lunch.
There are many types of bread that can add variety to sandwiches. Try pitta bread,
chapattis, crusty rolls, muffins or bagels with one of these healthy fillings:

• Chicken with a low-fat dressing and salad

• Grated cheese and pickle
• Bacon, lettuce and tomato
• Tuna and tomato
 • Salmon and cucumber
• Hummus and red pepper

Other suitable items include:

• Fruit, both fresh or dried

• Cheese cubes
• Pot of yoghurt or a yoghurt drink
• Cherry tomatoes or sticks of vegetables
• Small pot of potato, pasta or rice salad
• Hard-boiled egg
• Fruit juice or soup in a flask

Snack ideas
Some children need a snack between meals, often around the time they arrive home
from school. Encourage healthier options rather than filling up on crisps, savoury items
or sweets. Try offering the following:

• Crunchy muesli and yoghurt

• Toasted crumpet or teacake
• Fresh fruit
• Low-fat yoghurt or fromage frais
• Nuts, seeds or dried fruit
• Small carton of milk
• Fruit smoothies
• Cheese and crackers or oatcakes
• Slice of fruit loaf or malt loaf

uses of bones

Functions:
1. Support: provides framework that supports and anchors all soft organs. Leg bones
act as pillars to support the body trunk, and the ribs support the thorax wall.
2. Protection: skull and vertebrae surround soft tissue of the nervous system, and the rib
cage protects vital thoracic organs.
3. Movement: skeletal muscles use the bones as levers to move the body.
4. Storage: fat stored in the interior of the bones. Bone matrix serves as a storehouse
for various minerals.
5. Blood Cell Formation: hematopoiesis occurs within the marrow cavities of the bones.
Composition

Bone Structure - Gross Anatomy:

With few exceptions, all long bones have the same general structure.

Diaphysis: "shaft" which constitutes the long axis of the bone. Constructed of a thick
collar of compact bone that surrounds a cavity. The medulla cavity in adults contains fat
(yellow marrow).

Epiphyses: "ends" or extremities. They are usually more expanded than the diaphyses.
A thin layer of compact bone forms the exterior and the interior contains spongy bone.

Epiphyseal plate: In young bones, cartilage is present at the junction of the diaphysis
and epiphysis. This is the growth area that allows bones to lengthen.

Epiphyseal line: remnant of the epiphyseal plate. After puberty the cartilage of the
epiphyseal plate is converted to bone and no further growth is possible.

Periosteum: the outer surface of the diaphysis which is covered and protected by a
double layered membrane. Connective tissue consisting primarily of bone-forming cells
(osteoblasts). Provides an insertion or anchoring point for tendons and ligaments.

Endosteum: internal bone surfaces are covered with a delicate connective tissue
membrane. Covers the trabeculae of spongy bone in the narrow cavities and lines the
canals that pass through the compact bone.

Articular Cartilage: where long bones articulate at epiphyseal surfaces, the bony
surfaces are covered with articular (hyaline) cartilage which cushions the bone ends
and absorbs stress during joint movement.

The other bones share a simple design. They consist of thin plates of periosteum-
covered compact bone on the outside and endosteum covered spongy bone within.
They have no shaft or epiphyses.