Hes424 Final Paper

Running head: HES 424EVALUATION OF GROUND CHIA SEED AS A FAT 1
HES424Evaluation of Ground Chia Seed as a Fat Substitute in Carrot Cake

Julia Brandt
Fontbonne University

HES 424EVALUATION OF GROUND CHIA SEED AS A FAT SUBSTITUTE IN 2

Evaluation of Ground Chia Seed as a Fat Substitute in Carrot Cake
According to the United States Center of Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], heart
disease is the leading cause of death among both men and women in the United States (U.S.
Center for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2013). Over 600,000 Americans die each year
from heart disease; this translates to 1 in every 4 deaths each year in the United States is directly
related to heart disease (U.S. Center for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2013). The CDC
stated that the Americans at risk included those with Diabetes Mellitus, are overweight or obese,
and have a poor diet, physical inactivity, and/or excessive alcohol intake. In order to beat these
shocking statistics, the CDC offers Americans lifestyle guidelines to promote heart health,
focused mainly around the diet. The CDC encourages Americans to consume diets low in
sodium, low in total fat and saturated fat, low in cholesterol, and high in fruits and vegetables
(U.S. Center for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2013).
Based on the CDCs suggestion for a diet low in total fat and saturated fat, most bakery
items should presumably be eliminated. According to recent Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada
statistics, though, Americans are unfortunately not setting down their pastries, cookies, candies,
and cakes. In 2013, sales of baked products in the United States ranged between $48 and $71
million, and it is estimated that in 2014 baked products and baked goods retail sales will total
$50 to $73 million (Government of Canada, 2012, para. 7). Of these sweets, cake is ranked third
as the most frequently consumed baked product in the United States, accounting for about 10%
of baked good consumption. This translates to $5 to $7 million spent on cake in 2014
(Government of Canada, 2012, para. 7). This is not an entirely promising forecast for American
heart health.

Fortunately, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada declared that health and wellness
bakeries are on the rise in the United States. These include markets that provide healthier baked
good options to the American public. The health and wellness bakery market comprises 28.7% of
all bakery sales in the United States (Government of Canada, 2012, para.8). Based on the CDCs
recommendations, it would be advantageous to see this health and wellness bakery market
continue to rise.
In hopes of lowering the total fat and saturated fat in a cake, researchers at a Midwestern,
private university chose to modify a popular baked goodcarrot cake. If successful, the recipe
could be disseminated to promote a satisfyingly sweet baked product that reflects the CDCs
suggestions for a diet lower in overall total fat and saturated fat.
Fat substitutions have been attempted in baked goods in the past. For example,
researchers successfully used Great Northern beans as a fat substitution in oatmeal chocolate
chip cookies (Rankin & Bingham, 2000). Although a variety of fat substitutes have been
hypothesized, not all have been successful. This may be due in part to the key role fat plays in
the baked good. In cakes, fat ingredients contribute to the overall volume, tenderness, moistness,
and flavor of the crumb. Particularly in carrot cake, with oil as the primary fat ingredient, the fat
prevents gluten formation by enveloping the protein molecules in the flour and thereby inhibiting
their ability to cling to water. As a result, oil allows for a much moister crumb (Brown, 2011, p.
482). Because of fats role in the overall acceptability of the cake crumb, certain fat substitutes
may have had trouble measuring up in the past.
According to Borneo, Aguirre and Leon (2010), though, the chia seed has been successful
as oil replacement in cakes (Borneo, Aguirre, & Leon, 2010). An ancient Mesoamerican grain,
the chia seed, is taking center stage most recently in health foods. The chia seed is derived from

the Salvia hispanica L. plant. Although it is gaining in popularity, the chia seed was a staple to
Mesoamerican society for quite some time. The chia seed was such a fundamental part of the
Central American diet that the only other foods items consumed more often were corn and beans
(Pizarro, Almeida, Samman, & Chang, 2013, p. 73).
Based on more recent research with the chia seed, it was clear why the pre-Columbian
societies chose it as a dietary staple. The chia seed contains fiber, antioxidants, protein, and, most
importantly, a very high content of -linolenic acid. The oil derived from the seed contains the
highest known content of -linolenic fatty acid (Pizarro, et al., 2013, p. 73). A 2012 research
study observing the effects of the chia seed on obese rats indicates that diets high in -linolenic
acid contribute to favorable lipid redistribution, improved insulin and glucose tolerance,
shrinkage of visceral fat storage, decreased fat accumulation in the liver, reduced inflammation,
and reduced hepatic and cardiac fibrosis (Poudyal, Panchal, Waanders, Ward, & Brown, 2012, p.
160). The researchers add in their discussion that these changes are directly related to the -
linolenic acid content of the chia seed, and declare that the fatty acid profile provides cardio and
hepatoprotection (Poudyal, Panchal, Waanders, Ward, & Brown, 2012, p. 161).
Since decreasing cardiovascular health is such a concern in American society, and given
the success in using chia seed as a fat substitute in baked products; the researchers in this study
chose to use it as a fat substitution in carrot cake. The researchers felt confident in its ability to
decrease the saturated fatty profile of the control carrot cake, and also in its capability to increase
the favorable fatty acid content of the cake, while contributing antioxidants, fiber, and protein.
Research using the chia seed as an oil replacement in cake formulations found the saturated fat
content of the cakes decreased as the omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acid contents in the cakes
increased (Borneo, et al., 2010, p. 948). This study explained that while the nutritional

components of the cake were favorably changed, the functional characteristics of the cake
remained unchanged. In the discussion portion of their research brief, the authors affirmed that
substituting.oil within the cake formulation with chiaup to a level of 25% maintained the
functional and sensory characteristics of the product (Borneo, et al., 2010, p. 949).
The purpose of this study was to decrease the total fat and saturated fat content of a carrot
cake recipe to yield a reduced-fat cake while maintaining the overall palatability and
acceptability of the cake by substituting chia as a fat ingredient (U.S. Food and Drug
Administration, 2013, para. 2). If successful, this would create a healthier carrot cake option for
the American public to promote a healthy cardiovascular diet.
The researchers developed hypotheses based on two factorsfat content and overall
acceptability of the carrot cake. It was hypothesized that the total fat content of the carrot cake
will decrease with the elimination of oil. It was also hypothesized that the overall acceptability of
the cake would decrease by greater than .5 with the elimination of oil.
Methods
Subjects/ Setting
Eleven untrained, undergraduate college students pursuing a Bachelor of Science degree
in Dietetics at a Midwestern, private university and one professor rated the carrot cake control
sensory characteristics using a 5-point Likert scale, and the cakes overall acceptability using 5-
point Hedonic scale (Elliot, 2014). Ten untrained, undergraduate college students pursuing a
Bachelor of Science degree in Dietetics at a Midwestern, private university and one professor
rated the modifications sensory characteristics using a 5-point Likert scale, and the cakes
overall acceptability was assessed using 5-point Hedonic scale. The sensory characteristics rated
include overall appearance, aroma, color, moistness, texture, and flavor of the baked goods

crumb (See Figures 1 and 2). Each of the control and the modified cake formulations were tested
by the panelists in a brightly-lit food demonstration kitchen/classroom environment held at 75
degrees Fahrenheit. In the assessment of the control carrot cake, the subjects were seated at two-
person tables without cardboard trifolds separating them. During the assessment of the
modifications, the panelists were again seated at two-person tables but separated by cardboard
trifolds to discourage conversation during the assessment.
Thirty-five minutes after being removed from the oven, each cake, while still in the pan,
was placed on a cooling rack for ten minutes. Once those ten minutes passed, each cake was
taken out of its pan and cooled on the rack for 10 more minutes. Each cake was then placed in
the refrigerator for five more minutes in hopes of quickly reducing its internal temperature closer
to room temperature. Once cooled to room temperature, each cake was cut using a template
developed by the researchers. After the pieces were cut, one piece from each formulation being
tested was placed on an individual cream-colored plate. Each panelist received the same cream-
colored plate with two different pieces of cake at each testing. The cakes were numbered on the
plate in accordance with their assigned number found on the scorecard in relation to the
modification. These numbers assigned were changed for every formulation. The plates were
delivered to the panelists, and each panelist tasted and rated two samples at a time every other
week in a six week period (See Table 1 for dates of testing). The order in which the formulations
were tasted by the panelists was not controlled.
Formulations
The vegetable oil was the primary fat ingredient in the control carrot cake recipe. Based upon
the total weight of the ingredients, the oil accounted for 11.0% of the weight of the formulation.
Light brown, ground chia seeds were either substituted for 5.5% or 11% of the fat in carrot cake.

The team declared that the fat substitution would be executed using ground chia seeds and
unsweetened applesauce in place of the vegetable oil called for in the control recipe. Each
modifications ingredients can be found in Table 1.
The carrot cake was prepared using the ingredients found in Table 1, the equipment
listed in Figure 3, and the procedures explained in Figures 4, 5, and 6. Four variations of the
control recipe were prepared. Two different variations were tested on each testing date. (See
Table 1 for testing dates). Most of the ingredients were held at room temperature. The eggs were
refrigerated. The butter and cream cheese used for the frosting assessed in the control recipe
were set out prior to the baking process to soften. The cake was served at 75 degrees Fahrenheit.
To standardize the control and modification formulations, the control recipe was first
converted from U.S. household measurements to metric in grams (See Table 1) (Pennington &
Douglas, 2005). Once the control recipe was converted to metric measurements, a set of four
formulations were planned.
It was discovered in the lab that the resource used to convert to ingredient measurements to
metric had some errors. For example, the amount of vanilla converted to grams using Bowes and
Church was incorrect once measured using the OXO Good Grips electronic, digital food scale.
Once the errors were identified, each was corrected using the OXO Good Grips electronic,
digital food scales in the food lab.
Objective Evaluation
The cakes volume was assessed by measuring the height of the cakes inner crumb from
top to bottom using a 12-inch ruler in the control and runs 1 and 2 only. The values were
recorded in the researchers lab notebooks and summarized in Table 2. Data were not collected
for Runs 3 and 4.

Sensory Evaluation
Each formulation was evaluated by panelists using both a 5-point Likert and a 5-point
Hedonic scale. The scorecards used can be seen in Figures 1 and 2. The scorecards found in
Figure 1 were developed for the control carrot cake formulation. This scorecard evaluated both
the crumb and the icing portion of the cake. The scorecard found in Figure 2 was used for all
modifications. This scorecard evaluated only the crumb of the modification cakes focusing on
the possible differences that could exist within a fat substitution. These differences are based
upon the characteristics previously mentioned that fat tends to affecttenderness, moistness,
color, aroma, and flavor of the crumb The scorecard data were summarized by a team member
and descriptive statistics were assessed. (See Table 3).
Nutrition Analysis
The ingredients and amounts for each formulation were entered into Food Processor
computer software (Version 10.12.0) (See Table 1).
Results
Subjects/Setting
Eleven untrained panelists and one professor participated in the sensory evaluation of the
control carrot cake recipe using sensory scorecards in Figure 1. Ten untrained panelists and one
professor participated in the sensory evaluation of each modification using sensory scorecards in
Figure 2. Each sensory scorecard was thoroughly completed and additional comments were
provided by panelists.
Formulations
The formulations were executed as planned. No additional data to provide.


The cakes volume was assessed by measuring the height of the cakes inner crumb from
top to bottom using a 12-inch ruler during the control and Runs 1 and 2 only. The values were
recorded in the researchers lab notebooks and summarized in Table 2. The volume of the control
was slightly less than Run1. Run 2 had the lowest volume (1.0 inch). Data were not collected for
Runs 3 and 4.
Sensory Evaluation
All formulations were evaluated by each panelist using both a 5-point Likert and a 5-
point Hedonic scale. The scorecards used can be seen in Figures 1 and 2. The rating scales in
Figures 1 and 2 were not the same, and the data for the control cake is scored differently than the
subsequent modifications (See Table 3). The scorecard data were summarized by a team member
and descriptive statistics were assessed. (See Table 3). The raw sensory scorecard data is located
in the Appendix section of J. Livaudaiss paper. A few patterns in the data are worth noting.
The visual appearance of the control cake was rated between somewhat and very
visually appealing with a mean score at 1.6. The modifications appearances ranged from
slightly not visually appealing in Run 2 to somewhat visually appealing in Run 4. The
modified cake with the highest score on appearance was Run 4 at somewhat visually
appealing. Runs 1, 3, and 4 stayed fairly consistent in their visual appearance with mean scores
ranging from 3.5 to 4.0 (visually appealing to somewhat visually appealing). Run 2 received
the lowest mean appearance score of 1.9 (slightly not visually appealing).
The aroma of the cake also increased as modifications of the control carrot cake
continued. The aroma of the control carrot cake was average rated at 1.9, somewhat subtle

aroma. Throughout the modifications, the average scores for aroma remained consistent ranging
from 2.4-2.7 (somewhat subtle aroma to pleasing aroma).
The color of the cake tended to remain stable as ground chia seed replaced the vegetable
oil. The average scores for color of the crumb ranged from 3.0-3.4 (golden brown). The crumb
that received the average score of 3.4 in color, nearing the too dark end of the scale, was the
cake with 11.0% ground chia seed.
The average scores for moistness of the crumb resulted in an interesting variation. The
control carrot cake and the modifications that followed a 5.5%/5.5% formulation tended to be
rated between 2.4-2.6 ranging between slightly moist and almost pleasingly moist. The cake
that received the lowest score of 1.3, much too moist, was Run 2 which was the cake with
11.0% ground chia seed.
Although the texture of the ground chia seed upon mixing the cake seemed grainy, the
panelists never rated the modifications with ground chia seed higher than a 1.8- somewhat
grainy. Run 2, the cake with 11.0% ground chia seed received a 1.7, whereas the initial 5.5%
vegetable oil and the 5.5% ground chia seed received an average score of 1.8. No data were
collected by the researchers to evaluate the graininess of the control carrot cake.
The flavor of the control carrot cake and its modifications remained stable with average
scores ranging from 2.0-2.5 (somewhat sweet to almost pleasantly sweet). The cake that
received the lowest flavor score was Run 2, the 11.0% ground chia seed modification, at 2.0
somewhat sweet.
Nutritional Analysis
Table 1 illustrates the nutrient content of the control and each formulation. The
researchers used Food Processor computer software (Version 10.12.0). It is quite evident that the

researchers goal of decreasing the total fat and saturated fat content of the cake to reduced fat
was met (U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 2013). As the formulations progressed, the total
fat shrank sequentially from 21 grams to 4 grams per serving. The saturated fat content of the
cake also decreased from 2.4 grams in the control to .7 grams per serving in Run 4. It is clear that
the control carrot cake formulation provided the most calories, total fat, and saturated fat of the
formulations, and Run 4 had the least amount of calories, total fat, and saturated fat. The
researchers were able to eliminate 113 total calories from the control recipe to Run 4 per serving.
Seventeen grams of total fat per serving were removed from the control recipe to Run 4. This
translates to 83% decrease in total fat. The saturated fat content was also reduced, as the
researchers had hoped. The saturated fat content went from 2.4 grams in the control recipe to .7
grams in Run 4. This is a 71% decrease in total saturated fat. The fiber content increased from
the control recipe to Run 4, but it is worth noting that the highest fiber content was within Run 2,
the cake with all ground chia seed. The protein content increased per serving from 4.0 g to as
high as 6.0 g in Run 2. The researchers goal of decreasing the total fat and total saturated fat
content of the control carrot cake to make it reduced fat was clearly accomplished (U.S. Food
and Drug Administration, 2013, para.2).
Discussion
Subjects/Setting
Eleven untrained panelists and one professor participated in the sensory evaluation of the
control carrot cake recipe. Ten untrained panelists, though not always the same panelists due to
absenteeism, and one professor participated in the sensory evaluation of the subsequent
modifications to the control carrot cake recipe. Had there been a more consistent attendance to

the modification sensory evaluations, the mean scores for the carrot cake modifications with chia
seed may have altered.
Because the setting of the control carrot cake evaluation was not as tightly controlled as
the subsequent modification evaluations, lacking place dividers and direction for the subjects, the
control cake sensory evaluations may have been influenced by the panelists peers.
Formulations
The researchers attended to weight equivalents within each formulation. Therefore,
results obtained were not secondary to formulation changes.
The responsibility of fat in a baked item is to tenderize the crumb by enveloping the
proteins in the flour and preventing the proteins absorption of water resulting in gluten
formation (Brown, 2011, p. 482). Fat also contributes to the baked goods overall volume by
entrapping air particles in the creaming process (Brown, 2011, p. 482). Because the carrot cake
called for vegetable oil as opposed to butter or shortening, creaming did not occur. Instead, it
was an emulsion which eliminated air particles and a denser, moister crumb resulted (Brown,
2011, p. 482). Lastly, the fat ingredient contributes to a baked goods flavor. Fats also enhance
other ingredients flavor and aroma (Brown, 2011, p. 387).
As the vegetable oil was eliminated from the formulations and the ground chia seed was
introduced, the volume tended to decrease as the crumb became moister and denser. Although
one may assume that the volume decreased as the cake became sunken and heavy because of the
elimination of oil, this was not one of the reasons that it did. As previously mentioned, oil-
shortened cakes do not contribute to the volume of the crumb. Instead, oil-shortened cakes rely
on chemical leavers like baking soda to enhance the crumbs volume. Perhaps the error lies not

in the elimination of oil and the introduction of ground chia seed, but instead a measuring error
of the baking soda or a lack of increase in baking soda based on the food science of the chia seed
(Brown, 2011, p. 486). Another possibility contributing the decrease in volume of the crumb
could be related to the high fiber content of the chia seed in comparison to the lack of fiber in the
oil. According to prior research, the high fiber content of the chia could have hindered the
leavening process, therefore resulting in a denser crumb (Pizarro et. al., 2013, p. 76). Prior
research also noted that the volume of their cakes tended to decrease as chia seed percentage
increased yielding a much denser crumb (Borneo et. al, 2010, p.949).
Another reason why the modifications volumes tended to vary was baking time. On both
modification testing dates, the cakes were removed prematurely from the oven resulting in an
uncooked center crumb. The volume measured by the researchers, when measured, was based on
the fully cooked crumb, not the sunken, heavy middle of the cake. This error in measuring the
volume of the cake explains why a drastic variance in volume did not exist as it so obviously
should have based on the uncooked, sunken cakes observed by the researchers.
Sensory Evaluation
The scorecards used can be seen in Figures 1 and 2. The scorecards differ from the
control testing and the subsequent modifications due to panelists reports of confusion in using
the first scorecard (Figure 1). Therefore, the rating scales in Figures 1 and 2 were not the same,
and the data for the control cake is scored differently than the subsequent modifications (See
Table 3).
The researchers summarized the sensory evaluations for the control and each
modification that followed by calculating the mean, median, and mode scores for each sensory
characteristic on the sensory scorecards. The mean score has been deemed most informative,

though, allowing for variance in panelist responses. These averaged scores for each sensory
characteristic can be seen in Table 3.
Traditional buttercream frosting was used for the control carrot cake recipe, but removed
from the modifications that followed because of the researchers disinterest in testing both the
icing and the cake. The lack of icing on the carrot cake modifications seemed to displease the
panelists instantly, leaving them unsatisfied. Multiple sensory scorecards had where is the
icing? scribbled in the margins. Therefore, sensory evaluations may have reflected this sense of
letdown felt by the panelists.
The visual appearance of the control cake was rated between somewhat and very visually
appealing with a mean score at 1.6. The modifications appearances ranged from slightly not
visually appealing in Run 2 to somewhat visually appealing in Run 4. The cake with the
highest score on appearance was Run 4 at somewhat visually appealing. The control cake
tended to receive a more positive visual appearance score because of its addition of frosting. The
comments within the appearance section of the scorecards tended to note how good to frosting
looked. Runs 3, 4, and 5 stayed fairly consistent in their visual appearance with mean scores
ranging from 3.5 to 4.0 (visually appealing to somewhat visually appealing). Run 2 received
the lowest mean appearance score of 1.9 (slightly not visually appealing). This was the cake
that did not have any other fat ingredient besides the ground chia seed.
Excluding the control cake, the cakes rated highest on appearance with mean scores
ranging from 3.5-4 (visually appealing to somewhat visually appealing) were the cakes that
had 5.5% ground chia seed. The other 5.5% of fat ingredient that was used, however, did not
seem to make a difference. Run 1, the modification that used 5.5% vegetable oil and 5.5%
ground chia seed received a mean score of 3.5 on appearance. Run 3, the modification that used

5.5% ground chia seed and 5.5% unsweetened applesauce also received a mean score of 3.5 on
appearance. Clearly the panelists were not contributing the appearance of the cake to the
presence of the vegetable oil. In fact, Run 4, the modification that consisted of 5.5% ground chia
seed and 5.5% unsweetened applesauce and the replacement of pecans with golden raisins
received the highest average score in appearance at 4.0somewhat visually appealing.
Panelist comments about the cake with the raisins included feedback like love the colors and
looks great!. The golden color of the raisins tended to stand out and lighten the inner crumb of
the cake, whereas the darker brown pecans may have simply blended in more so with the darker
crumb.
The aroma of the cake also increased as modifications of the control carrot cake
continued. The aroma of the control carrot cake was average rated at 1.9, somewhat subtle
aroma. This was because of the icing on the control carrot cake distracting from the aroma of
the crumb of the cake. Once the icing was removed in Run 1, the average scores for aroma
remained consistent ranging from 2.4-2.7 (somewhat subtle aroma to pleasing aroma). This
suggests that the substitution of fat ingredients did not alter the fats role in aroma of the baked
good. The fatty acid profile of the ground chia seed contributed to the baked goods aroma just as
the vegetable oil did. In fact, the modification with the highest rating in aroma at 2.7 was Run 2,
the cake with 11.0% ground chia seed.
The color of the cake tended to stay stable as ground chia seed replaced the vegetable oil.
The average scores for color of the crumb ranged from 3.0-3.4 (golden brown). The crumb that
received the average score of 3.4 in color, nearing the too dark end of the scale, was the cake
with 11.0% ground chia seed. This score is easily explained. The chia seed, even with the use of
a lighter-colored chia seed as the researchers used, provides much more color than the

translucent vegetable oil. This, too, was noted in prior research using ground chia as a fat
substitute. In Pizarro et. al.s experimentation with chia flour, the color also tended to darken as
more chia was introduced in the formulation (Pizarro et. al., 2013, p. 77).
The average sensory evaluation scores of moistness of the crumb resulted in an
interesting variation. Unlike the research, which noted little to no change in moisture of the
crumb as chia was substituted for fat, the moisture of the crumb in the carrot cake formulations
tended to vary with chia seed substitution (Pizarro et. al., 2013, p. 77). The control carrot cake
and the modifications that followed a 5.5%/5.5% formulation tended to be rated between 2.4-2.6
ranging between slightly moist and almost pleasingly moist. The cake that received the
lowest score of 1.3, much too moist, was Run 2 which was the cake with 11.0% ground chia
seed. Within the other modifications, the liquid nature of the oil or applesauce offset the mealy
ground chia seed, but in Run 2, it was simply the grainy ground chia seed. One would assume
that the ground chia seed inhibited gluten formation much more so by itself than when the other
liquid ingredients were present. Another possible reason for an increase in moisture with the
substitution of chia for oil is explained within the research. Pizarro et. al. note that traditional fat
ingredients act as a moisture barrier in the baked good (Pizarro et. al., 2013, p. 77). As the high
fiber ground chia seed was substituted for oil, the cake was able to hold on to much more
moisture than the oil previously could (Pizarro et. al., 2013, p. 77) An interesting fact to note,
however, is the baking time as previously mentioned. The cake in Run 2 was removed from the
oven entirely too soon, and was not fully cooked. Therefore, a moister crumb is an obvious
consequence to an undercooked cake.
Although the texture of the ground chia seed upon mixing the cake seemed grainy, the
panelists never rated the modifications with ground chia seed higher than a 1.8- somewhat

grainy. Run 2, the cake with 11.0% ground chia seed received a 1.7, whereas the initial 5.5%
vegetable oil and the 5.5% ground chia seed received an average score of 1.8. The researchers
were unable to determine why the panelists deemed the 5.5% substitution modification grainier
than the 11.0% substitution. Perhaps because the 5.5% modification was given to the panelists
first, they were not used to the ground chia seed, and as they continued to eat, their palates
adjusted to the difference in texture. It is unfortunate that no data were collected by the
researchers to evaluate the graininess of the control cake carrot, as moisture of the modifications
cannot be compared to the control recipe.
The flavor of the control carrot cake and its modifications remained stable with average
scores ranging from 2.0-2.5 (somewhat sweet to almost pleasantly sweet). The cake that
received the lowest flavor score was Run 2, the 11.0% ground chia seed modification, at 2.0
somewhat sweet. Had the researchers altered the formulations based upon ground chia seed
substitution, attempting to increase the white sugar to balance the earthy taste of the chia using a
high-ratio formulation, perhaps average flavor scores would have hit more around 3.0
pleasantly sweet.
Nutritional Analysis
As Table 1 illustrates, the nutrition analysis of the control carrot cake versus the
modifications that followed differ. In a domino-effect pattern, the total fat and saturated fat
continued to decrease with each modification. The elimination of the vegetable oil and the
substitution of ground chia and applesauce contributed to this 17 gram decrease in total fat per
serving. The fat content of vegetable oil accounted for 14 grams of total fat in one tablespoon
(ConAgra Foods, Inc., 2014). Chia seeds, on the other hand, have 3 grams of total fat in one
tablespoon (10 grams) (Nutiva, Inc., 2014).

The amounts of fiber and protein increased with the use of chia seed as well. This is due
to the chia seeds protein and fiber content and the vegetable oils lack of protein and fiber
entirely.
Conclusion
The purpose of this study was to decrease the total fat and saturated fat content of a carrot
cake recipe to yield a reduced-fat cake while maintaining the overall palatability and
acceptability of the cake by substituting chia as a fat ingredient It is now evident that the
substitution of ground chia seed for vegetable oil did result in a reduced fat carrot cake with a
higher protein and fiber content. It is possible to use ground chia seed in place of vegetable oil in
carrot cake with sensory characteristics either improving or remaining relatively stable. The best
formulations, in terms of sensory evaluation and overall acceptance, were cakes with 5.5%
ground chia seed and 5.5% unsweetened applesauce. In conclusion, the researchers reject the H
O
fat content hypothesis that the total fat content in the carrot cake will not change with each
subsequent modification. The researchers also accept the null hypothesis that the overall
acceptability of the carrot cake will not decrease by greater than .5 with the elimination of oil.
Limitations
An obvious limitation to this study was time. Perhaps if more time was allotted, more
formulations could have been developed and tested to give more fat substitution results and
sensory data. Because only two testing dates with only three hours of time were available, the
researchers were not able to test any more modifications.
Due to the fact that all of the panelists and the professor that participated in the sensory
evaluation were either pursuing or practicing degrees in Dietetics, their evaluations may have

been influenced by the promise of a healthier cake. The Dietetic students and professor may have
had a more flexible palate based on their acceptance of health foods.
The final limitation to this study was timing. The researchers developed their
formulations prior to fully reviewing the literature and learning more about the chemical
dimension of the chia seed. Therefore, the researchers simply developed formulations based off
of more trial and error, rather than concrete facts about how to chia seed would behave as a fat
substitute in a cake. Perhaps if the research about chia had been explored more thoroughly prior
to formulation development, more evidence-based formulations could have been tested.
Areas of Future Research
Future research would be useful in the following areas: subjects/settings, formulations,
and equipment used. Future trials may benefit by being evaluated by a more unbiased panelist
group. Future research could be done in the success of chia seed gel, as opposed to ground chia
seed, in the acceptability as a fat substitute in carrot cake. Some research has been conducted in
the success rate of chia seed gel used as an egg or oil replacer in cake formulations. A chia seed
gel is formed when the seeds are soaked in water for a period of time. The hydrocholloidal
property of the chia seed absorbs the water and creates a gel (Borneo et. al., 2010, pp.947-949).
Future modifications could be developed to alter the degree of fat substitution to yield a certified
low-fat cake as opposed to a reduced-fat cake. Future formulations would benefit in longer
baking times, proper volume measurement, and perhaps cupcake pans to encourage a more
thorough, evenly-baked product, instead of 13X9 or loaf pans.


References
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or oil replacer in cake formulations. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 110
(6), pp. 946-949. doi: 10.1016/j.jada.2010.03.011.
Brown, A. (2011). Cakes and cookies. In Understanding food: Principles & preparation (4
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%20Search&event10=1&e7=Home%20Page&soid=sr_results_p1i1
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commonly used. (18th ed.). Baltimore, MD: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
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belingnutrition/ucm064911.htm


Table 1
Ingredients and Nutrition Content for Carrot Cake Prepared with Various Fat Substitutes.
Variable Carrot cake formula
Control Run 1 Run 2 Run 3 Run 4
With buttercream frosting 5.5% oil 11.0% chia 5.5% applesauce
5.5% chia 5.5% chia
5% raisins
(2/25/14) (3/11/14) (3/11/14) (4/8/14) (4/8/14)
Ingredient (g)
Eggs 200.0 200.0 200.0 200.0 200.0
Vegetable oil 280.0 144.5 0.0 0.0 0.0
White sugar 400.0 400.0 400.0 400.0 400.0
Vanilla extract 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0
All-purpose flour 250.0 250.0 250.0 250.0 250.0
Baking soda 9.6 9.6 9.6 9.6 9.6
Baking powder 7.3 7.3 7.3 7.3 7.3
Salt 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0
Ground cinnamon 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0
Grated carrots 384.0 384.0 384.0 384.0 384.0
Chopped pecans 128.0 128.0 128.0 128.0 0.0
Butter, softened 120.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Cream cheese, softened 224.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Confectioners sugar 480.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Vanilla extract 3.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Chia seeds, ground 0.0 144.5 280.0 144.5 144.5

Applesauce, unsweetened 0.0 0.0 0.0 144.5 144.5
Raisins, golden 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 128.0
Nutrition content of the cake
Per serving (serves 18)
Energy (kcal) 339.0 320.0 288.0 254.0 226.0
Energy from fat (kcal) 184.0 148.0 100.0 80.0 34.0
Fat (g) 21.0 17.0 11.0 8.8 4.0
Saturated fat (g) 2.4 2.0 1.0 1.0 0.7
Fiber (g) 2.0 5.0 7.0 5.0 4.0
Protein (g) 4.0 5.0 6.0 5.0 5.0
Nutrition content of the frosting
Per serving (serves 18)
Energy (kcal) 235.0
Energy from fat (kcal) 123.0
Fat (g) 14.0
Saturated fat (g) 6.0
Fiber (g) 1.0
Protein (g) 2.0
*Ground chia seeds with a Vitamix on speed 8 until fully ground (about 45 seconds).

Table 2
Volume of Each Carrot Cake Formulation
Variable Carrot cake formula
5.5% oil 11.0% chia 5.5% applesauce
5.5% chia 5.5% chia
5% raisins
Height (in) 1.4 1.5 1.0 no data no data


Table 3
Mean Scores for the Sensory Characteristics and Overall Acceptability of Carrot Cake Crumb
Sensory characteristic Formulation
With buttercream frosting 5.5% oil 11.0% chia 5.5% applesauce
5.5% chia 5.5% chia
5% raisins

Appearance 1.6 3.5 1.9 3.5 4
Aroma 1.9 2.5 2.7 2.4 2.5
Color 3.1 3.1 3.4 3 3.2
Moisture no data 2.4 1.3 2.2 2.6
Texture 2.4 1.8 1.7 1.6 1.5
Flavor 2.5 2.5 2.0 2.3 2.4
Acceptability 4 3.2 2.1 3.6 3.6
*Scale for sensory attributes:
Sensory scorecard in Figure 1
Appearance: 1=very visually appealing; 2= somewhat visually appealing; 3= visually appealing;
4= slightly not visually appealing; 5= not visually appealing
Aroma: 1=no aroma; 2= somewhat subtle aroma; 3= pleasing aroma; 4= somewhat strong aroma;
5= unpleasant aroma
Color: 1=much too pale; 2=somewhat pale; 3= golden brown; 4= somewhat dark; 5= much too
dark
Texture: 1=much too moist; 2= slightly moist; 3= pleasing texture; 4= slightly too dry; 5= much
too dry
Flavor: 1=not at all sweet; 2= somewhat sweet; 3= pleasantly sweet; 4= somewhat too sweet; 5=
much too sweet
Overall acceptability: 1= dislike very much; 2= dislike somewhat; 3= neither like nor dislike; 4=
like somewhat; 5= liked very much
Sensory scorecard in Figure 2
Appearance: 1= not visually appealing; 2= slightly not visually appealing; 3=visually appealing;
4=somewhat visually appealing; 5=very visually appealing
Aroma: 1=no aroma; 2=somewhat subtle aroma; 3=pleasing aroma; 4=somewhat strong aroma;
5=unpleasant aroma
Color: 1=much too pale; 2= somewhat pale; 3=golden brown; 4=somewhat dark; 5=much too
dark

Moisture: 1=much too moist; 2=slightly moist; 3=pleasingly moist; 4=slightly too dry; 5=much
too dry
Texture: 1=not at all grainy; 2=somewhat grainy; 3=grainy; 4=somewhat too grainy; 5=much too
grainy
Flavor: 1=Not at all sweet; 2=Somewhat sweet; 3=Pleasantly sweet; 4=Somewhat too sweet;
5=Much too sweet
Overall acceptability: 1= dislike very much; 2=dislike somewhat; 3=neither like nor dislike;
4=like somewhat; 5=liked very much


Cake
Judges Name: Date:
Instructions: Start by judging the appearance and aroma of #581, then eat half of the sample and
rate the remaining characteristics. After sampling, rate your overall satisfaction with the cake.
Repeat this procedure for sample #361.
Characteristic 581 Comments 361 Comments
1. Overall
Appearance
1= not visually
appealing
2= slightly not
visually appealing
3=visually
appealing
4=somewhat
visually appealing
5=very visually
appealing

2. Aroma of
Frosting
1=no aroma
2=somewhat subtle
aroma
3=pleasing aroma
4=somewhat strong
aroma
5=unpleasant aroma

3. Color of
Frosting
1=much too pale
2= somewhat pale
3=white
4=somewhat dark
5=much too dark

4. Flavor of
frosting
1=Not at all sweet
2=Somewhat sweet
3=Pleasantly sweet
4=Somewhat too
sweet
5=Much too sweet


5. Aroma of
Crumb
1=no aroma
2=somewhat subtle
aroma
3=pleasing aroma
4=somewhat strong
aroma
5=unpleasant aroma

6. Color of Crumb
1=much too pale
2= somewhat pale
3=golden brown
4=somewhat dark
5=much too dark

7. Texture of cake
1=much too moist
2=slightly moist
3=pleasingly moist
4=slightly too dry
5=much too dry

8. Flavor of cake
1=Not at all sweet
2=Somewhat sweet
3=Pleasantly sweet
4=Somewhat too
sweet
5=Much too sweet

Overall, how
would you rate
each item
1= dislike very
much
2=dislike somewhat
3=neither like nor
dislike
4=like somewhat
5=liked very much

Figure 1
Scorecard used to evaluate carrot cake control recipe.


Cake
Judges Name: Date:
Instructions: Start by judging the appearance and aroma of #xxx, then eat half of the sample and
rate the remaining characteristics. After sampling, rate your overall satisfaction with the cake.
Repeat this procedure for sample #xxx.
Characteristic xxx Comments xxx Comments
1. Overall
Appearance
1= not visually
appealing
2= slightly not
visually appealing
3=visually
appealing
4=somewhat
visually appealing
5=very visually
appealing

2. Aroma of
Crumb
1=no aroma
2=somewhat subtle
aroma
3=pleasing aroma
4=somewhat strong
aroma
5=unpleasant aroma

3. Color of Crumb
1=much too pale
2= somewhat pale
3=golden brown
4=somewhat dark
5=much too dark

4. Moisture of
crumb
1=much too moist
2=slightly moist
3=pleasingly moist
4=slightly too dry
5=much too dry

8. Texture of
crumb
1=not at all grainy
2=somewhat grainy
3=grainy
4=somewhat too


grainy
5=much too grainy
5. Flavor of cake
1=Not at all sweet
2=Somewhat sweet
3=Pleasantly sweet
4=Somewhat too
sweet
5=Much too sweet

Overall, how
would you rate
each item
1= dislike very
much
2=dislike somewhat
3=neither like nor
dislike
4=like somewhat
5=liked very much

Figure 2
Scorecard used to evaluate carrot cake Runs 1-4.


GE Profile gas oven at 350 degrees F
13 X 9 metal pan
2 large graters using the smallest grain
OXO Good Grips electronic, digital food scales
4 large (908 g) glass bowls
2 (Cheryl, I need to re-measure this bowl) medium glass bowls
Vitamix
Sunbeam hand mixer
1 large spatula
1 large wire rack
Figure 3
Equipment used for carrot cake formulation


1. Place rock in the center of the oven (fifth position from the top).
2. Preheat oven to 350 degrees F (should preheat within 10 minutes).
3. Grate 384 g of carrots into a large glass bowl.
4. Weigh all wet ingredients (See Table 1 for amounts) using an OXO Good Grips food scale
5. Pour measured wet ingredients into a large (908 g) glass bowl.
6. Weight all dry ingredients (See Table 1 for amounts) by spooning ingredients into desired
bowl using an OXO Good Grips electronic, digital food scale
7. Pour measured dry ingredients into wet ingredients.
8. Combine dry ingredients with wet ingredients.
9. Stir in 384 g of grated carrots.
10. Fold in 128 g of chopped pecans.
11. Grease and flour a 13 X 9 (221 g) metal pan using butter (4 g) and all-purpose flour (6 g).
12. Pat sides of pan over a trash can to evenly disperse flour, covering entire inner surface of the
pan.
13. Pour cake batter into prepared pan. (1610 g of batter)
14. Bake cake in the preheated oven for 45 minutes, or until a toothpick inserted into the center
of the cake comes out clean. Let cool in pan for 10 minutes, then turn out onto a wire rack and
cool for 10 minutes. Place cake on rack in the refrigerator for cool for an additional 5 minutes.
15. Remove .5 inch of the edges around the cake, and cut the cake using the template 1.75 inch
by 1.75 inch square per piece.
16. To make frosting: (Refer to the amounts noted in Table 1). In a large glass bowl, combine
butter, cream cheese, and half of the confectioners sugar. Beat with a hand-held mixer until
combined. Add the other half of confectioners sugar and vanilla. Beat until smooth and creamy.
Frost the cooled cake.
17. To make glaze: (Refer to the amounts noted in Table 1). In a medium glass bowl, combine
orange zest, juice, and confectioners sugar. Whisk for about 5 minutes or until smooth. Pour
onto cooled cake.


Source: Recipe adapted from Elliot, T. (2014). Carrot cake III; Retrieved from:
http://allrecipes.com/Recipe/Carrot-
CakeIII/Detail.aspx?event8=1&prop24=SR_Title&e11=carrot%20cake%20iii&e8=Quick%20Se
arch&event10=1&e7=Home%20Page&soid=sr_results_p1i1

Figure 4
Formulation instructions used for control.


4. Grind 144.5 g (Modification 1)/ 280 g (Modification 2) of light brown chia seeds in a Vitamix
on speed 8 for about 45 seconds or until fully ground.
11. Fold in 128 g of chopped pecans.
pan.
14. Pour cake batter into prepared pan.
Source: Recipe adapted from Elliot, T. (2014). Carrot cake III; Retrieved from:

Figure 5
Formulation instructions used for modifications 1 & 2.

4. Grind 144.5 g of light brown chia seeds in a Vitamix on speed 8 for about 45 seconds or until
fully ground.
11. Fold in 128 g of golden raisins.
pan.
14. Pour cake batter into prepared pan.
Source: Recipe adapted from Elliot, T. (2014). Carrot cake III.; Retrieved from:

Figure 6
Formulation instructions used for modifications 3 & 4.

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Running head: HES 424EVALUATION OF GROUND CHIA SEED AS A FAT 1

HES424Evaluation of Ground Chia Seed as a Fat Substitute in Carrot Cake

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