Piaget's theory of cognitive development is a comprehensive theory about the nature and

development of human intelligence, first developed by Jean Piaget. It is primarily known as

a developmental stage theory, but in fact, it deals with the nature of knowledge itself and how humans
come gradually to acquire, construct, and use it. To Piaget, cognitive development was a progressive
reorganization of mental processes as a result of biological maturation and environmental experience.
Children construct an understanding of the world around them, then experience discrepancies between
what they already know and what they discover in their environment.
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Moreover, Piaget claims the idea
that cognitive development is at the center of human organism and language is contingent on cognitive
development. Below, there is first a short description of Piaget's views about the nature of intelligence and
then a description of the stages through which it develops until maturity.
Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development
What is Psychosocial Development?
Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development is one of the best-known theories of personality in
psychology. Much like Sigmund Freud, Erikson believed that personality develops in a series of stages.
Unlike Freud's theory of psychosexual stages, Erikson's theory describes the impact of social
experience across the whole lifespan.
One of the main elements of Erikson's psychosocial stage theory is the development of ego identity.
Ego identity is the conscious sense of self that we develop through social interaction. According to
Erikson, our ego identity is constantly changing due to new experiences and information we acquire in
our daily interactions with others.
When psychologists talk about identity, they are referring to all of the beliefs, ideals, and values that
help shape and guide a person's behavior. The formation of identity is something that begins in
childhood and becomes particularly important during adolescence, but it is a process that continues
throughout life. Our personal identity gives each of us an integrated and cohesive sense of self that
endures and continues to grow as we age.
In addition to ego identity, Erikson also believed that a sense of competence motivates behaviors and
actions. Each stage in Erikson's theory is concerned with becoming competent in an area of life. If the
stage is handled well, the person will feel a sense of mastery, which is sometimes referred to as ego
strength or ego quality. If the stage is managed poorly, the person will emerge with a sense of
inadequacy.
In each stage, Erikson believed people experience a conflict that serves as a turning point in
development. In Erikson's view, these conflicts are centered on either developing a psychological
quality or failing to develop that quality. During these times, the potential for personal growth is high,
but so is the potential for failure.
Stage Basic
Conflict
Important
Events
Outcome
Infancy (birth
to 18 months)
Trust vs.
Mistrust
Feeding Children develop a sense of trust when caregivers
provide reliabilty, care, and affection. A lack of this will
lead to mistrust.
Early Childhood Autonomy vs. Toilet Training Children need to develop a sense of personal control
(2 to 3 years) Shame and
Doubt
over physical skills and a sense of independence.
Success leads to feelings of autonomy, failure results
in feelings of shame and doubt.
Preschool (3 to
5 years)
Initiative vs.
Guilt
Exploration Children need to begin asserting control and power
over the environment. Success in this stage leads to a
sense of purpose. Children who try to exert too much
power experience disapproval, resulting in a sense of
guilt.
School Age (6
to 11 years)
Industry vs.
Inferiority
School Children need to cope with new social and academic
demands. Success leads to a sense of competence,
while failure results in feelings of inferiority.
Adolescence
(12 to 18
years)
Identity vs.
Role
Confusion
Social
Relationships
Teens need to develop a sense of self and personal
identity. Success leads to an ability to stay true to
yourself, while failure leads to role confusion and a
weak sense of self.
Young
Adulthood (19
to 40 years)
Intimacy vs.
Isolation
Relationships Young adults need to form intimate, loving
relationships with other people. Success leads to
strong relationships, while failure results in loneliness
and isolation.
Middle
Adulthood (40
to 65 years)
Generativity
vs. Stagnation
Work and
Parenthood
Adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast
them, often by having children or creating a positive
change that benefits other people. Success leads to
feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while
failure results in shallow involvement in the world.
Maturity(65 to
death)
Ego Integrity
vs. Despair
Reflection on
Life
Older adults need to look back on life and feel a sense
of fulfillment. Success at this stage leads to feelings of
wisdom, while failure results in regret, bitterness, and
despair.

Sullivan's Interpersonal Theory
Harry Stack Sullivan (September 18, 2013l psychiatry or Interpersonal Psychoanalysis
He proposed interpersonal theory of personality.
He explained the role of interpersonal relationships and social experiences in shaping personality.
He also explained about the importance of current life events to psychopathology.
The theory further states that the purpose of all behavior is to get needs met through interpersonal interactions and
decrease or avoid anxiety.
S t a g e s o f d e v e l o p m e n t
Sullivan explained six developmental stages called "epochs" or heuristic Stages in Development.
Stages (Epochs) Characteristics
1 Infancy (Birth-18 months) Gratification of needs
2 Childhood (18 mo-6 yrs) Delayed gratification
3 Juvenile era(6-9 yrs) Formation of peer group
4 Preadolescence (9-12 yrs) Developing relationships within same gender
5 Early Adolescence (12-14 yrs) Identity
6 Late Adolescence (14-21 yrs) Forming lasting, intimate relationships
Sullivan explained about three types of self:
o The good me versus the bad me based on social appraisal and the anxiety that results from negative
feedback
o The not me refers to the unknown, repressed component of the self.
Sullivan's theory explains about anxiety, self system and self-esteem:
o Security operations those measures that the individual employs to reduce anxiety and enhance security.
o Self system all of the security operations an individual uses to defend against anxiety and ensure self
esteem
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
Maslow wanted to understand what motivates people. He believed that individuals
possess a set of motivation systems unrelated to rewards orunconscious desires.
Maslow (1943) stated that people are motivated to achieve certain needs. When one
need is fulfilled a person seeks to fulifil the next one, and so on.
The earliest and most widespread version of Maslow's (1943, 1954)hierarchy of
needs includes five motivational needs, often depicted as hierachical levels within a
pyramid.
This five stage model can be divided into basic (or deficiency) needs (e.g. physiological, safety, love, and
esteem) and growth needs (self-actualization).

One must satisfy lower level basic needs before progressing on to meet higher level growth needs.
Once these needs have been reasonably satisfied, one may be able to reach the highest level called self-
actualization.

Every person is capable and has the desire to move up the hierarchy toward a level of self-actualization.
Unfortunately, progress is often disrupted by failure to meet lower level needs. Life experiences
including divorce and loss of job may cause an individual to fluctuate between levels of he hierarchy.

Maslow noted only one in a hundred people become fully self-actualized because our society rewards
motivation primarily based on esteem, love and other social needs.

Freud's Stages of Psychosexual Development
Proposed by the famous psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud, the theory of psychosexual development
describes how personality develops during childhood. While the theory is well-known in psychology, it is
also one of the most controversial theories. Freud believed that personality develops through a series of
childhood stages in which the pleasure-seeking energies of the id become focused on certain erogenous
areas. This psychosexual energy, or libido, was described as the driving force behind behavior.

Psychoanalytic theory suggested that personality is mostly established by the age of five. Early
experiences play a large role in personality development and continue to influence behavior later in life.

If these psychosexual stages are completed successfully, the result is a healthy personality. If certain
issues are not resolved at the appropriate stage, fixation can occur. A fixation is a persistent focus on an
earlier psychosexual stage. Until this conflict is resolved, the individual will remain "stuck" in this stage.
For example, a person who is fixated at the oral stage may be over-dependent on others and may seek
oral stimulation through smoking, drinking, or eating.