Circuits

X-ray machine circuits comprise three main components:

o A circuit for heating the filament.
o A circuit for applying a large potential difference (high voltage)
between cathode and anode to accelerate electrons.
o A timing device to control the length of exposure.
The filament circuit
The tungsten filament at the cathode is the source of electrons used to produce
x-rays.
The number of electrons produced at the tungsten filament is dependent upon
the temperature of the filament.
A tungsten filament needs to be heated to at least !!"# to emit useful
numbers of electrons.
$lectrons are produced by thermionic emission.
%hen a metal is heated its atoms absorb energy which allows some electrons
to move a small distance from the surface of the metal.
&ig.' (adiography: x-ray machine circuit - filament
The filament circuit (&ig. ') consists of:
o A step down transformer to reduce the voltage from ! ) to '! ).
o A variable resistor to control filament current and therefore filament
temperature.
o An ammeter to give an indication of filament current which is directly
related to mA.
The tube current is directly proportional to the filament current so the ammeter
is usually placed on the secondary circuit of the high voltage circuit as
transformers are not '!!* efficient.
High voltage circuit
This circuit produces a large potential difference between cathode and anode
to accelerate electrons produced at the filament to high velocities.
+igh tension transformers convert high Amp and low ,) to mA and high ,).
&ig. (adiography: x-ray machine circuit - high
voltage
-t consists of circuits (an autotransformer and step-up transformer) (&ig. )
.
The autotransformer :
o .re-reading voltmeter and line voltage compensation.
o /easures incoming voltage and allows ad0ustments on the
autotransformer so that the incoming line voltage remains constant.
o This compensates for fluctuations in national grid.
o 1sually automatic on modern x-ray machines.
o ,) selector provides pre-determined voltage to primary turnings of the
transformer.
Step-up transformer :
o These alter the incoming voltage to ,).
o The ,) meter is placed across the primary circuit and measures
incoming voltage but calibrated to read across the x-ray tube voltage
(,)).
Transformer
/ains electricity is 2! ) and has to be modified to produce a high voltage
across the x-ray tube head and low voltage to heat the filament.
&ig.3 (adiography: x-ray machine circuit - transformer
Transformers comprise two coils of wire wound around an iron core (&ig. 3)
.
%hen current flows through one coil (primary) a magnetic field is generated
which induces a current to flow in the secondary wire coil.
The ratio of the incoming voltage to outgoing ,ilovolts is proportional to the
number of turns on both the primary and secondary side ()p4)s 5 6p46s).
-f the number of turns in the secondary coil is 7 than the number in the
primary the voltage is increased.
8tep-up transformer has many more turns on the secondary coil than the
primary coil.
The X-Ray Tube
The voltage to the tube is supplied by a circuit composing of mains electricity and a
step up transformer. A high voltage is needed to produce the ,inetic energy re9uired of
the electrons to and a relatively lower one is used for the filament cathode. This is
achieved by a potential divider circuit.
$lectrons are produced by thermionic emission in the cathode. This is heated by a
relatively low voltage supply.
At a cathode current of '!! mA: for example: ; x '!
'<
electrons will travel from the
cathode to the anode of the X-ray tube every second.They are accelerated from the
cathode to anode across an alternating high voltage - they will therefore only be
attracted in half of the cycle. As the ,inetic energy of the electrons increases: both the
intensity (number of x-rays) and the energy (their ability to penetrate) of the X-rays
produced are increased.
%hen these electrons bombard on the heavy metal atoms of the target: they interact
with these atoms and transfer their ,inetic energy to the target. These interactions
occur within a very small depth of penetration into the target. As they occur: the
electrons slow down (bra,e=) and finally come nearly to rest: at which time they can
be conducted through the x-ray anode assembly and out into the associated electronic
circuitry.
The interactions result in the conversion of ,inetic energy into thermal energy and
electromagnetic energy in the form of X-rays.
Most of the the kinetic energy is converted into heat. The electrons interact with
the outer-shell electrons of the target atoms but do not transfer sufficient energy to
these outer-shell electrons to ioni>e them. (ather: the outer-shell electrons are simply
raised to an excited: or higher: energy level. The outer-shell electrons immediately
drop bac, to their normal energy state with the emission of infrared radiation. The
constant excitation and restabili>ation of outer-shell electrons is responsible for the
heat generated in the anodes of X-ray tubes.
?enerally: more than 99% of the kinetic energy of proectile electrons is
converted to thermal energy: leaving less than '* available for the production of X-
radiation. -n this sense:the X-ray machine is a very inefficient apparatus.
The production of heat in the anode increases directly with increasing tube current.
@oubling the tube current doubles the 9uantity of heat produced.
+eat production also varies almost directly with varying the high tension voltage too.
The efficiency of X-ray production is independent of the tube current. (egardless of
what mA is selected: the efficiency of X-ray production remains constant. The
efficiency of X-ray production increases with increasing pro0ectile-electron energy. At
;! ,e): only !.A* of the electron ,inetic energy is converted to X-raysB at '! /e):
it is <!*.
Target material
The anode is made to rotate at steady speed so the point of impact continually changes
to prevent overheating. Cut it stillneeds to have:
- a high ! "proton num#er$ so that transitions of high enough energy to emit X-ray
radiation are possible
- a high melting point because so much heat energy is produced.
Tungsten is ideal (Moly#denum for softer X-rays needed for breast X-rays)
%ocal Spot
The area of the anode from which X-rays are emitted is referred to as the focal spot.
This must be as small as possible otherwise features in the image would be blurred
instead of being sharp. The anode surface is at an angle of about <!" to the electron
beam so that the X-rays effectively originate from a much smaller area than the
impact area of the beam.
The &ptions....
'ction (ffect )raph of
*ntensity
against +-,ay
photon energy
Clarity of image
-ncreasing the
tube voltage
-ncreasing the
high p.d. that
is used to
accelerate the
electrons will
give the
average
electron more
energy when
it hits the
target
8hape of
spectrum
spreads out to
encompass
higher energies
range is
increased
#haracteristics
in the same
place (natch==)
area under the
curve increases
Too high an energy of X-
ray will penetrate too
well to give good
definition - if they all get
through - no shadow -
picture=
;!-'A ,) is usually
employed - giving energy
of about 3! ,e)
A#4@#
voltage
(A# necessary
to get higher
voltages - can
use
transformers=
@# ac9uired
by electronic
rectification
and
DsmoothingD
$lectrons
produced by
thermionic
emission only
accelerated
across half of
the time=
graphs for both
are the same
except the @#
one is double
the intensity
throughout
(only
accelerated
across to target
on half of the
wave).
circuitry)
-ncreasing the
tube current
(low voltage
one=)
-ncreases the
rate of
thermionic
emission -
more
electrons hit
the target -
more X-rays
produced.
8hape of
spectrum
remains the
same
range is the
same
#haracteristics
in the same
place (natch==)
area under the
curve increases
Everall increase of
exposure of film
but bigger dose to
patient=
more heating of the target
-ncreasing
exposure time
Everall increase of
exposure of film
but bigger dose to
patient=
more heating of the target
ris, of blur due to
movement of patient - big
problem with organs that
cannot be constrained.
#hanging
Target
/aterial
An increase
in F (proton
number) will
increase the
probability of
electron
interactions
of enough
energy to
produce X-
rays - so more
X-rays will
be produced.
The
#haracteristic
pea, positions
will change -
Gs will shift
towards higher
energies (these
depend on the
target
material=).
range is the
same
area under the
curve increases
allows choice of X-ray
energies that give best
difference in attenuation
for the part to viewed.
soft X-rays are needed for
soft tissue - harder ones
for bone.
1sing a filter
(material
Absorbs
mainly lower
area under the
curve is smaller
reduces unwanted X-rays
and therefore the scatter
placed in the
X-ray beam
path)
energy X-rays
- and
produces a
DharderD more
penetrating
beam)
(as some of the
X-rays have
been absorbed).
8hape changes
as mainly X-
rays are
reduced from
the lower
energy values.
range is smaller
- but high
energy the
same.
#haracteristics
in the same
place (natch==)
due to them - better
contrast

(educing
beam si>e less scatter - better
contrast - especially if a
collimator is used (lead
grid that only allows X-
rays in a particular
direction to get through.
&ocal spot si>e 8mall focal spot produces
sharp images
C1T also intense heating
of target
Artificial
#ontrast
/edia
8ee Carium
/eal and
$nema
#learly outlines the inner
surface of internal bodily
organs by coating them in
a radio-opa9ue material -
barium sulphate.
-ntensifying
8creens
@ecreases the
re9uired
exposure
time.
/a,e image
clearer with a
lower X-ray dose
@etectors photographic
film
+-,ay -iffraction .rimer
X-rays are electromagnetic radiation similar to light: but
with a much shorter wavelength. They are produced
when electrically charged particles of sufficient energy
are decelerated. -n an X-ray tube: the high voltage
maintained across the electrodes draws electrons toward
a metal target (the anode). X-rays are produced at the
point of impact: and radiate in all directions. Tubes with copper targets: which
produce their strongest characteristic radiation (G ') at a wavelength of about '.A
angstroms: are commonly used for geological applications.
-f an incident X-ray beam encounters a crystal lattice: general
scattering occurs. Although most scattering
interferes with itself and is eliminated
(destructive interference): diffraction
occurs when scattering in a certain direction is in phase with
scattered rays from other atomic planes. 1nder this condition
the reflections combine to form new enhanced wave fronts that
mutually reinforce each other (constructive interference). The
relation by which diffraction occurs is ,nown as the Cragg law
or e9uation. Cecause each crystalline material has a
characteristic atomic structure: it will diffract X-rays in a
uni9ue characteristic pattern.
The basic geometry of an X-ray diffractometer involves a
source of monochromatic radiation and an X-ray detector
situated on the circumference of a graduated circle centered on
the powder specimen. @ivergent slits: located between the X-ray source and the
specimen: and divergent slits: located between the
specimen and the detector: limit scattered (non-
diffracted) radiation: reduce bac,ground noise: and
collimate the radiation. The detector and specimen holder
are mechanically coupled with a goniometer so that a
rotation of the detector through x degrees occurs in
con0unction with the rotation of the specimen through x degrees: a fixed :' ratio.
A curved-crystal monochromator containing a graphite crystal is normally used to
ensure that the detected radiation is monochromatic. %hen positioned properly 0ust in
front of the detector: only the G radiation is directed into the detector: and the GH
radiation: because it is diffracted at a slightly different angle: is directed away. The
signals from the detector are filtered by pulse-height analysis: scaled to measurable
proportions: and sent to a linear ratemeter for conversion into a continuous current.
#ommon output devices include strip-chart recorders: printers: and computer
monitors.