LEC course

C
1
Language Units:
Phonemes, morphemes, words, clauses, sentences, paragraph, words, phrases, text.
Morphology:
Variable - takes on several forms
internal forms of the parts of speech: Invariable -article, preposition,
con!unction, inter!ection
Variable parts of speech: change their forms in order to convey grammatical information
a. Lexical morphology
b. "nflectional morphology #study of paradigmatic relations, word paradigm$
Paradigm a word has to %e varia%le to have paradigm
&ords may assume in various contexts.
'all, caller, calling, calls
(yncretic form : - Lexical morphemes
)rammatical morphemes
Types of morphemes:
*ree vs. %ound #ex.+s, in calls$
Lexical #derivational$ vs. )rammatical #inflectional$
-xercises:
.. likelihood / 0 morphemes- lexical
1. faithfulness- 0 morph., lexical
0. su%consciousness -2 morph., lexical
2. shamelessly- 0 morph., lexical
3. rewrites- 0 morph., grammatical
4. writings / 0 morph., )ramm.
5 the presence of 6s+ in 7writings, proves that 6-ing+ is a lexical morpheme
1
"n order to deliver
grammatical information.
&e derive new words
from the same %ase.
5 the grammatical morpheme is always last and only appears once in a word #there can be
only one inflectional morpheme in a word, always in final position$
5 Lexical and grammatical morphemes can coexist
5 grammatical morphemes come last %ecause they do not affect the meaning of the word
(yncretism vs. suppletion
(uppletion can %e: a$ Partial / ex. go 5 gone #the sound changes$
%$ 8otal / ex. go 5 went
Types of inflection:
a. external: called, known
%. internal: foot- feet, met-meet
c. 9ero # o $: cut- cut, sheep- sheep
d. suppletion: %oy-girl
e. word order #case relation$
Abbreviations:
V %ase, can %e a paradigm too ex play
Vs 0
rd
person singular plays
Ved
1
past played
Ved
!
past participle played
Vin" present participle playin"
#i indirect ob$ect
#d direct ob$ect
#p prepositional ob$ect
Cs sub$ect complement
Co ob$ect complement
AdvC adverbial complementation
2
C
!
Lexical classes:
:pen vs. close
#pen: Closed:
a verb
b ad$ective
c adverb
d inter$ection
e noun
%rammatical cate"ories: aspect& case& comparison& "ender& mood& number& tense&
person& voice
'ynthetic( analytical mar)ers* +
, ;isylla%ic ad!ectives can follow %oth synthetic and analytical markers
ex. 8he )enitive with6s+ and with 6of+, one is the <orman genitive and the (axon or
inflectional and prepositional.
The verb and the verb phrase
8he ver% phrase structure:
=

=ead- carries the grammatical %aggage
>uxiliaries: 'omplementation:
8ense, modality, aspect, voice :i?:d? :p, 'o?'s, >dv' #ver% phrase +@P+
ad!uncts of manner?space? time$
5 there is a limit of - auxiliaries that can %e used in a @P
ex. AheB may have %een given the %ooks given =ead
3
8hey are
indefina%ly
renewa%le.
a article
b numerals
c pronoun
d con$unction
e preposition
>uxiliaries :d
5there can %e noun phrases inside a @P
5 a @P can %e made up of other phrases or even higher units, like clauses.
5 in an auxiliary string the first one is called 6operator+
8he finite ?non-finite distinction
> ver% form which conveys information
cf. (ings, sang, singing, to sing
(imple #head only$ ? complex #more than !ust a head$ @Ps
=
'omplex finite @Ps
8ype > # modal? periphrastic$: >ux
mod?per
C @ ex. can take
8ype D # perfective$: >ux
have
C @ed
1
ex. has taken
8ype ' #progressive$: >ux
%e
C @ing ex. is taking
8ype ; #passive $: >ux
%e
C @ed
1
ex. was taken
cf.
.. may %ite 5>
1. is %iting 5'
0. may %e %iting 5>C'
2. may %e %itten5 >C;
3. has %een %itten5 DC;
4. have %een %iting 5DC'
E. has %een %eing %itten 5DC'C;
F. would have %een %uilt 5>CDC;
G. doesn+t come 5>
.H. must have seen 5>CD
... must have %een seen 5>CDC;
.1. will %e writing 5>C'
.0. could have %een %eing %uilt 5>CDC'C;
=
.. @
intrans
ex. "t has rained.? (he cried.? Iohn was snoring.
1. @
ing
C'
(
#'ssu%!ect copulate$ ex. Mary is clever.? =e %ecame a cop.? 8hey were in
love.
0. @
M:<:8J><(
C :d ex. 8he cat caught the mouse.
2. @
;"8J><(
C:C: ex. ;o me a favor.? " %ought Iohn a coat.
5the direct and indirect o%!ects can swap places.
4
3. @
'PLK
C:dC 'o ex. " painted the wall white. ? 8hey %elieved Iohn innocent. #'o$
5the cause and result:
" painted the wall, so it was white.
5 chain relationship %etween @
.
C:dC'o
4. @
8J><(
C:dC>dv' ex. " put my head on his shoulders.
E. @
"<8J><(
C>dv' ex. " leaned against the wall.? 8he %ox weights .H kg.
Classification of verbs
5it is the most important part of speech
'riteria of classification:
.. Lexical morphology
1. *orm
0. Predication
2. 8ransitivity
3. *unction
1 Lexical morpholo"y:
a. ;erivation:
'lass preserving: misspell, cooperate, destruct
'lass changing: empower, sociali9e, glorify,
ver%ali9e.
5denominal- the %ase in part of the noun class
5dead!ectival- the %ase is part of the ad!ective class
5derivation allows us to create a%stract words and is important for word economy
%. 'omposition: #to$ speedwalk, #to$ snow%all, 5 the !oining of 1 free morphemes
c. 'onversation: #to$ father, #to$ %rake, #to$ email, #to$ empty
5 : morpheme: 8he morphology of -nglish is simplified, so words have simplified
paradigms, this way a word doesn+t need changes.
d. Dack formation: donateLdonation, negate, %urgle, mutate, reminisce, dominate
! .orm
5 Morphological makeup
>. (imple: get, know, holdM
D. 'ompound: lip-read, moonlightM
'. 'omplex? Phrasal ver%s: A@ C particleB
;. @er%al phrases: have %reakfast, %e in a hurry, make friends
5the noun, noun phrase, prep. have the value
/ 0redication:
5
a1 complete predication: intransitive ver%s, reflexive ver%s #they can make a
predicate on their own$
b1 incomplete predication: auxiliaries, transitive ver%s, ver%s with o%ligatory
preposition or other o%ligatory elements #they can+t form a predicate on their
own$
c1 double predication: A@ C cognate o%!ectB: live a happy life, walk a %risk walk
,initial intransitive ver%s
,can %e transitive with the co"nate ob$ect 5similar formally or semantically
, a semantic plus
, they resem%le in form and meaning
, the link can only %e semantic
- Transitivity:
.$ "ntransitive: @
1$ 8ransitive:
a. Monotransitive: @C:d
%. ;itransitive: @C:iC:d
c. 'omplex transitive: @C :dC 'o
2 .unction:
lexical(main
auxiliaries: primary and modal
'emi3auxiliaries: to have to, to have got to, to %e willing to, to %e eager toM
lin)in"(copular
catenative: to seem to be "one
5they need other ver%s to complete
The 4orpholo"y of Lexical Verbs
Jegular vs. "rregular
Jegular: @, @-s, @-ing, @-ed #@-ed.@-ed1$
"rregular: @, @-s, @-ing, @-ed., @-ed1
@er% inflections in the old code:
1) V3s:
(i5( after %ases ending in C?- voice si%ilants: catches
(5( after %ases ending in other voiced sounds: hugs
(s( after %ases ending in other voiceless sounds: comes
!1 V3ed
(id( after %ases ending in alveolar stops: evaluated, planted
(d( after %ases ending in voiced sounds: earned, learned
(t( after %ases ending in voiceless sounds: slept, stopped
6ases in true written code:
- %ermination 7V3in"& V3ed1 : the find vowel in the %ase is short, stressed, spilt in a
simple vowel: %eg?%egging? %egged, admit, permit, refer, control, prefer, run?running,
sit?sitting, %egin?%eginning
6
- Treatment of 8y9: worry- worries, worried? die-dying? lie-lying
- :etection of find silent ;e 7V3in"& V3ed1: %ehave, shave, agree-agreeing-agreed, dye,
to tiptoe
- Addition of ;e: catch- catches, fish, clash, %ox
C
-
'even classes& accordin" to three criteria
5@-ed.- @-ed1 identity
5 (uffixation #learnt, taken$
5 @owel identity in the main forms #put?put?put$
'lass . #%urn$: learn, smell, spell, spill, spoil, %uild, have, lend, make, send, spend
'lass 1 #%ring$: deal, cheep, feel, %uy, sleep, sell, teach
'lass 0 #cut$: hit, cost, cast, let, split, shut
'lass 2 #meet$: feed, hold, cling, stick, find, get, fight
'lass 3 #mow$: mow-mowed- mown- mowed, saw, sew, son, show, hew
'lass 4 #know$: %reak, choose, speak, stud, %ear, swear, %ite, hide, forget, grown,
thrown, shake, take, give, dream, fall
'lass E #swim$: %egin, sing, sink, shrink, go, run, spring, stink
The verb cate"ories
Tense& aspect& voice& mood& number& person
8ime vs. 8enseN
5 8ense: grammaticali9ed or lexicali9edN
it has %ecome %asically grammaticali9ed %ut its particular lexicali9ed
5tense: 1 category of the ver% or a category of the sentenceN
Tense as a cate"ory of the verb
tense: a deictic category
a%solute vs. relative #they are related?dependent on an a%solute tense$
ex. &hen walking in the park, " often meet her.
&hen walking in the park, " often met her.
8hey do not provide temporary information directly
0resent tense 7V3Vs1
A Unrestricted use #P8 Apresent tenseB PaCPrC*$
7
%eneric: )old is more valua%le than silver.? Iohn speaks 'hinese.
Co"nitive truth: 8wo and two is four. ? &ater %oils at .HH
H
'.
'entential statements: 8he %est defense is the attack.? 'rime doesn+t pay.
<abitual activities: &alk to work every morning.? Iohn takes riding lessons twice a
week.
6 Instantaneous present 70t='t1
0erformative sentences: Oou are under arrest.? " a%solve you of all your sins.
#ld communication:
- 'imultaneous narration: <ow he opens the doorM
- Commentaries: (mith shoots and it+s inP
- :emonstrations: " now push this %utton andM
- Exclamation: =ere comes the winnerP
C >on3specific temporal reference:
<istorical present 70t=0a1: ;ickens draws his characters from real life.? "
hear you got married.? Plane crashed #newspaper headlines$
.uture time reference 70t=.1: =e leaves for Paris tomorrow morning.
0ast tense 7V3ed1: external& internal& 5ero1
,primary temporal reference Past time
7Mit is used to represent an act as done, or as regularly or ha%itually done in time wholly past
at the present moment, although it may have %een performed only a few seconds %eforeQ if
this is employed, the time of the act must %e started accurately or indicated very clearly %y the
context, so that the idea of indefiniteness or generality is entirely excluded.,
7M8he past tense com%ines two features of measuring:
a. 8he event?state must have taken place in the past with a gap %etween the completion
and the present momentQ
%. 8he speaker or writer must have in mind a definite time at which the event?state took
place.,
0ast tense: 7V3ed11
.. Past perfect reading:
a. signaled seRuentiality: " turned off the lights %efore " left.
%. unsignaled seRuentiality: " stamped the letter and " mailed it.
1. Present time reference:
a. (yntactic constraintsN :
i. Dackshifting: =e said his name was Iohn.
ii. (u%!unctive: " wish you %ehaved.? "f you comeM
%. attitudinal past:
i. ;id you want to talk to meN 5more polite
ii. " wondered if you could help me.
C
2
.uture
8
>uxiliary ver% construction:
(hall?&illC @ / neutral, colorless future
&ill- x #in con!unction with .
st
, 1
nd
, 0
rd
persons
su%!ucteN-the foretelling future
De going toC @ #futurity- intent$
future of present intention: 8hey are going to get married.? " am going to get my
driver+s license.
future of present cause: "t+s going to rain.? (he+s going to have a %a%y.
0resent tense
- as a synthetic constraint, in conditional and temporal sentences.
- it reRuires the presence in the same context of a future time adver%ial
- it is associated with the idea of immuta%ility of the events in reference to : &hat time
is the foot%all matchN? &hen is the meetingN
0resent pro"ressive
- imminent arrangement, plan or program
- it reRuires the presence of a future time adver%ial
Present Present Progressive
- more o%!ective, impersonal
" start work tomorrow.
" leave for Paris next week.
- arrangement, program
Programming:
" am starting work tomorrow.
" am leaving for Paris next week.
>uxiliary ver% construction C progressive
- "ndicates that a future even will %e in progress at a certain future moment explicitly
stated in the context.
- the use of this pattern precludes the interpretation of volition, insistence, associated
with the use of will #shall$Q the going to C ver%.
- :pen endedness C future comment #development$ : "+ll %e seeing Iohn tonight.
- higher degree of M
- De a%out to C @.
- %e a%out toC ingressive: (he is a%out to speak.
- %e to arrangement? comment: 8hey are to marry soon.
The future in the past
auxiliary ver% construction:
o %e going to C ver%
9
o past progressive
o %e a%out to? %e to C ver%
Time
(imultaneity
(eRuentiality
primitive tenses
(8 the time at which the sentence is written-spoken
J8 the time axis #past?present?future$ indicated %y the sentence #@. tense and?or time
adver%ial$
-8 moment in the time axis at which the event?state occurs.
tense of the sentence- different patterning of (8, J8, -8 to denote relations of seR.
and?or sim
a sentence to %e temporarily specific must include a J8 if the J8N is not there.
e.g.
.. Iohn went to see the play last week. >8J #J8S(8Q -8J8$
1. 8hey are having lunch. >8J #J8(8Q -8J8$
0. 8hey have already had lunch. >8J #J8(8Q -8SJ8$
2. 8hey had already had lunch when " got home. >8J #J8S(8Q -8SJ8$
3. " will %e meeting them at the station tomorrow. >8J #J85(8Q -8J8$
4. " knew we would meet again soon. >8J #J8S(8Q -85J8$
E. " will have written the letter %y the time you come %ack. >8J #J85(8Q -8SJ8$
F. =as he started work yetN >8J #J8(8Q -8SJ8$
G. 8hey are eating a large cake. >8J #J8(8Q -8J8$
.H. " have never seen her %efore. >8J #J8(8Q -8SJ8$
... 8he guests left when " got home. >8J #J8S(8Q -8J8$
.1. 8he guests had left %y the time " got home. >8J #J8S(8Q -8SJ8$
.0. Please call me as soon as you get there. >8J #J85(8Q -8J8$
.2. Dy the time we stop, we will have driven 1HH miles. >8J #J85(8Q -8SJ8$
.3. " have %een living in this house for 1H years now. >8J #J8(8Q -8SJ8$
10
8ense of the sentence #@P time
adver%ial$
8ime relations:
(8 #speech time$
J8 #reference time$
-8 #event time$
8ense of the @ #finite @P$
8ime relations:
- S PP
- PP
- 5PP
.4. 8he guests will have left %y the time " got home. >8J #J85(8Q -8SJ8$
C
?
Aspect
>spect and >ktionsart
aspect a grammatical category which stands for the different way of writing the
internal temporal constituency of a situation
aspect a matter of the speakers viewpoint or perspective on the situation such as
whether the situation is viewed as completed, %eginning, ongoing, ending or repeating.
>ktionsart inherent aspectual properties of ver%s organi9ed as sets of %inary
oppositions
aktionsart an indication of the intrinsec temporal Rualities of a situation, covering
such possi%ilities as stative vs. dynamicQ punctual vs. durativeQ continuous vs. iterative
phrase? stage meaning forms
imminence anteriority with respect to
the event proper
%e a%out to
%e to
ingressive proximity to the event to %e a%out to
%e in the point of
inceptive %eginning of the event inchantive ver%s: start,
%egin, take up
progressive iterative development #progression$
repetition of events
keep on, go on, @P type '
terminal completion? final stage of
events
end, finish, stop, cease, Ruit,
@P type D
-.g.
Iohn was reading a %ook.
Iohn was knocking on the door.
" read a %ook last night.
Iohn was knocking on the door.
Perfective vs. "mperfective situations #perfectum?imperfectum$
Types of aspect:
.. Perfect
1. Progressive
0. =a%itual
2. Prospective
<abitual:
5 Past only: used to
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e.g.
Iohn used to smoke a pack of cigarettes a day.
Iohn would smoke a pack of cigarettes a day.
0rospective:
7Perfect is said to %e retroactive: it esta%lishes a relationship %etween an event? state at the
time and an event which has taken place at an earlier time. (imilarly, the PJ:(P-'8"@-
connects present and future.,
Typical expressions of prospective meanin":
6e about to
6e on the point of
"ndicative meaning: %oth descri%e the su%!ect+s present state relative to the future event.
De going to:
no implication of imminent futurityQ unlike expressions of futurity it has no straight forward
time reference
e.g.
Dill will throw himself off the cliffs.
Dill is going to throw himself off the cliffs.
0ro"ressive:
.3?.4
th
centuryQ A%eC prep. C <B
.. 0rimary function: to descri%e situations seem as developing processes whose in
1. Individual phases are essentially distinct from one another.
0. 'econdary function:
a. temporariness
%. incomplete events
c. ha%itual situation holding for a relatively limited period of time
d. emotional connotations
e. iterative meaning #C punctual ver%$
f. idiosyncratic use
0erfect:
7&hile aspect is concerned with the different ways of representing the internal temporal
constituency of a situation, the perfect is rather different since it says nothing directly a%out
the situation itself, %ut rather relates some present state? effect to some previous
situation?case.,
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previous case present effect
" have lost my pen. " lost my pen three minutes ago.
Iohn has %roken his leg. Iohn %roke his leg yesterday.
e.g.
(he has %een an invalid all her life. (he still is
(he was an invalid all her life. (he is dead.
Princeton has %een visited %y -instein. 5 -instein visited Princeton.
Types of perfect:
1 0erfect of result: the present state referred to as the result of some past event.
a. Iohn has arrived.
%. " have fixed the 8@.
c. (he+s had a shower.
d. Dill has gone to >merica.
! Experiential perfect: indicates that a given situation has held at least once during
some time in the past leading up to the present.
a. Dill has %een to >merica.
%. =ave you heard her singN
/ 0erfect of persistent situation: refers to a situation which has started in the past %ut
continues into the present
a. 8hey have %een married for years.
%. (he has %een waiting here for hours.
c. " have studied -nglish for years.
d. " have %een studying -nglish for ten years.
- 0erfect of recent past: used when the present relevance of the past situation referred
to is a simply one of temporal closeness #!ust, recently, alreadyM$
a. " have !ust met Iohn.
%. (he has already had a %a%y.
C
@
AATI#>'ABT
e.g.
-ver since we %ought the car, we+ve %een traveling a%road every day.
-ver since we+ve owned the car, we+ve %een traveling a%road every day.
The Vender3Aenny aspectual classification
13
Verbs with internal temporal constituency:
Activity V0 #run, walk, drive a carM$
Accomplishments V0 7"row up, paint a picture, make a speech, %uy, draw a circle,
run a mileM$
Verbs with no internal temporal constituency:
Achievements V0 7reco"ni5e, reach, lose, find, dieM$
'tate V0 7own, have, posses& believe, wish, know, trustM1
Comrie9s classification of a)tionsart:
V'
V'
Vs
e"
Iohn is singing. 5 >telic
Iohn is making a chair. 58elic
8hey clim%ed the mountain. 58elic
8hey reached the summit. 5atelic
Voice
types of voice in -nglish
voice as a ver%? sentence category
14
0unctual
Tick, !ump, knock, arrive,
reach, sit downM
:urative
Jead, write, walk, sleep,
cook, point, drive, runM
'tative
Tnow, %elieve, like,
understand, own, %elongM
situations characteri9ed %y
lack of effort? made up of
:ynamic
Pay, run, walk, rest M
situations characteri9ed %y
effort? internal structure
Telic
;ie, clim%, %uy, draw a
circle, eat an appleM
#Processin%uilt terminal
point$
Atelic
voice constraints
actional vs. statal passives
Ruasi-passives
Voice
grammatical category which makes it possi%le to view a situation in two ways, without
change in the facts reported:
e.g.
Iohn %eat Iack. Iack was %eaten %y Iohn.
*ocus on the actor focus on the patient
5 "n -nglish there are two types of voice: an active voice which is unmarked and a passive
voice, which has morphosyntactic reali9ation.
P > ver% or a sentence categoryN
The passive transformation involves:
the use of particular complex finite @P #type ;$
the change of word order #: %ecomes ( position$
the addition of an optimal constituent #an agentive prepositional phrase$
The passive auxiliary: 6E 7formal1
The closest substitute: %ET 7less formal& preferred in imperatives and a"entless
constructions1
used in contexts where the su%!ect is not regarded as a purely possessive participant, on
the contrary, some measures of responsi%ility, intention or involvement to the su%!ect.
e.g.
)et lostP
;on+t get run overP
:ur flat is getting painted.
"+m getting vaccinated tomorrow.
Iohn got mugged last night.
8hey almost got themselves killed in a car accident.
5 as a rule& transitive verbs can occur in both active and passive constructions
ECE0TI#>':
Passive constraints:
15
ver%-related
agent-related
o%!ect-related
semantic
style
@er%-related constraints:
transitive ver%s in certain uses cannot %e passivi9ed:
8his color %ecomes you.
8en >.M. suit me.
8hey have a nice house.
8his lecture all holds 1HH students.
Iohn lacks confidence.
=e represents his father.
Prepositional ver%s:
8hey look after the child well. 5 8he child is well looked after.
8hey arrived at the expected result. 5 8he expected result was arrived at.
>gent-related constraints:
the agent phrase is optional
the passive is the normal construction when the agent is difficult to specify? unknown,
when the agent is too o%vious, or when the speaker prefers to leave the agent
unspecified.
-.g.
- Many people were killed during the war.
- &e were caught in a traffic !am.
- =e was %orn is .GFH.
- Iohn was accused of murder.
5 >gentless passives are especially characteristic of the official documents, text%ooks,
scientific articles, instructions, rules etc.
-.g. (moking in here is strictly prohi%ited.
:%!ect-related constraints:
passivi9ation is impossi%le if the o%!ect is expressed %y? includes a reference, reciprocal or
possessive pronoun.
- Iohn hurt himself.
- Iohn and Iack hurt each other.
- (he shook her head.
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(emantic constraints:
passive trends to %e associated with the informational function of the language:
it is felt as more o%!ective, impersonal and therefore preferred in scientific discourse.
>ctional @s. (tatal Passive:
8he window was %roken.
8he house was sold.
>ux
D-
C @-ed
1
@
':P
C 's #ad!ectival$
test: active counterpart use of another @
':P
? use of a 7pure, ad!ective
modifications %y adver%ials
'ause -ffect
;ynamic vs. (tatic descriptions
Duasi passive constructions:
structures that are passive in meaning rather than form
5'onstructions including active ver%s with passive value:
- 8he %ooks sold Ruickly.
- 8he potatoes don+t peel easily.
- 8he medicine tasted %itter.
- 8his %ed sleeps true people.
5)erund forms with passive meaning:
=is car wants washing.
5 'onstructions with factitive? causative ver%s:
" had my flat painted.
5'onstructions with prepositions which can introduce Ruasi-agents:
- &e are interested in literature.
- =e is fascinated with her.
- " am worried a%out Iane+s health.
C
E
4##:
17
grammatical category which stands for the linguistic means of suppletion used to refer to a
situation as factual or non-factual, real or un-real, assertive or non-assertive
in -nglish mood- related distinctions rest upon the *"<"8-- <:<-*"<"8- opposition:
@(.
*inite ver%-forms:
- have person and num%er distinctions
- will necessarily pertain to the past?present? future time sphere
- >re context dependent, due to the high num%er of syncretic forms.
The Indicative:
is used to refer to real, factual, satiations or assertions
has a full range of temporal references.
The 'ub$unctive:
- occurs in contexts involving non3 factuality 7the indicative$
- 'an also %e formed in main clauses and in simple sentences.
Types of sub$unctive:
1 4andative sub$unctive 7V1
- occurs in su%ordinate clauses introduced %y 78=>8,, after a relatively small
class of ver%s #7ver%o dicendi,$ or after expressions of recommendation,
resolution, surprise
- it is used in formal style
e.g. 8he Parliament voted that the present law %e changed. ? 8here was a
suggestion that Iohn %e fired.
! .ormulaic sub$unctive:
- occurs in certain stereotyped, conventional, or traditional phrases %uilt on
patterns of little productivity in the language:
- e" Come what may& <eaven forbid& lon" live friendship& so be it& suffice it
to say& far be it from me& be as it may& "od bless you+
/ The FwereG sub$unctive:
- used to express factual remoteness in con!unction with conditional
constructions introduced %y : "* ?U<L-((? (UPP:(-? (UPP:("<)
?"M>)"<-
- it also occurs in clauses functioning as complement to the ver% &"(= or after
constructions with: "8 "( 8"M-? &:UL; J>8=-J? =>; D-88-J
18
"<;"'>8"@-
(UDI:<'8"@-
"MP-J>8"@-
"<*"<"8"@-
)-J:U<;
P>J8"'"PL-
- e.g. "f this were true, we would have to change our plans.? " wish we met more
often.? "+d rather they left now.
Time reference of sub$unctive
defective time reference: past and present
-.g. &e wish we had met you %efore that. ? "+d rather they left now.
'ub$unctive eHuivalent:
1 'hould infinitive: "t is told that he should resign.? 8here was a suggestion that Iohn
should %e fired.?
! Fputative shouldG in I. clauses& exclamation or rhetorical Huestions: "f they
should arrive sooner, tell them to wait.? =ow should " knowN? 8hat you should dare
contradict meP
/ Iould3 infinitive: it stands as a more colloRuial variant of the su%!unctive after &"(=
: " wish you would %ehave.5 " wish you %ehaved.? " wish you would see me. 5
&ould have seen me.
- 4ay * infinitive: it is an alternative to formulate the su%!unctive: Long live our
friendship.? May our friendship live long.
- in such clauses it can express wish& purpose& comparison: May you never
set foot in this house againP? "t looks as it may rain.
- it can also recur in con$unction with verbs or expressions denotin" feelin"
or after impersonal constructions with introductory IT: "+m afraid " might
get lost.? " hope you may recover soon.
2 4i"ht* Infinitive
- it is a more tentative variant of 4ay* Infinitive
? Infinitive constructions:
- 8here was a suggestion to fire Iohn.
- &e+ll hold hands not to get lost.
C
J
I40EBATIVE
etymologically it performs a directive function, %ut the illocutionary force of the imperative
goes %eyond reRuests and commands- warnings, invitations, prohi%ition, wishes, suggestions
and imprecations.
it displays certain features of syntactic structure, i.e. the su%!ect is optimal, the
circumstances with L-8, the non-occurrence in con!unction with modals.
'ub$ectless imperatives:
- occur in most types of directive clauses
- no tense, aspect or voice distinctions, rare exceptions in: =ave done with itP? Up and
%e doingP? De seatedP? De preparedP? De goneP? )et lost.
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'ub$ect * Imperative
- there are imperatives which retain their su%!ect and which cannot com%ine with
politeness markers such as 7please,: Oou, %e RuietP? (peak up, youP? (ome%ody
answer the phone.? -very%ody clap your hands.? Iohn and Mary stand over here.
Constructions with LET 7>o second person sub$ects1
- Let me have a look.? Let+s give you a hand.? "f anyone disagrees, let them speak now.?
Let+s go.
>e"ative imperatives:
- ;o5 ;on+t
- assertive elements 5 non-assertive elements
- e.g. :pen the door. 5 ;on+t open the door.? (ome%ody open the door. 5 ;on+t
anyone open the door
- elliptical commands: (hall " open a windowN 5yes, do.? <o, don+t.
>on3finite verb forms
infinitive, gerund, participle
forms in the @ paradigm which do not fit in the general description of the category of the
Mood.
The infinitive
:istribution:
.. (hort?plain? %are:
C modals, perception ver%s, causative 7make,
C modal idioms #would rather? sooner? had %etter$
C catenative ver%s #let, help$
C 7why, Ruestions
1. Long? to
C auxiliaries #ought to, have to, %e to, used to$
C perception ver%s in the passive
C 'ausative 7make, in passive
C linking ver%s #seem, appear, change, happen$
%rammatical features:
- aspect and voice distinctions:
o 8o %e writing, to have seen, to %e seen
- temporal contrast, present vs. past: to say vs. to have said
Infinitival constructions:
- Accusative* Infinitive: "+d like him to come earlier.
- >ominative* Infinitive: =e was supposed to meet us here.
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- F.or3ToG Infinitive: "t+s time for you to go.
- Absolute infinitival constructions: =e left home, never to return.
The %erund
:istribution:
- >spectual ver%s: start, stop, finish, %egin, cease, take up, give up, Ruit, go on, keep
onM
- ver%s of feeling: like, en!oy, hate, avoidM
- ver%s like :need, want, reRuire, deserve in Ruasi- passive constructions
- impersonal constructions with introductory "8
- words? expressions like 7%usy,, 7near,, 7feel like,M
- ver% features: @-ing displays tense, aspect and voice contrast, the a%ility to take on :
d
:
seeing, having seen, %eing seen, having %een seen.
- noun features: a%ility to take modifiers, at sentence level, it performs functions that are
typical of <Ps, 's, '
%rammatical features 7Fverbal normG1
- =unting wild animals is cruel.?8he hunting of wild should %e for%idden %y law.
- =e was suspected of driving recklessly.? =e was charged with reckless driving.
Constructions with the %enitive:
- )enitiveC )erund: (he resented his taking all the credit.? <o%ody noticed he coming
late.
- >ccusative C )erund: (he resented him taking all the credit.? -xcuse me yawning.
The 0articiple 7V3in"& V3ed1
;istri%ution:
-@-ing is usually formed in complex @P type '
-@-ed1 is usually formed in complex @Ps types D and ;
)rammatical features #7@er%al ad!ectives,$
- *lying planes can %e dangerous.
- :ur %usiness is growing.
- :ur %usiness is growing plants.
@er% status: 8he a%ility to take an :d and adver%ial modifiers #@-ing$Q the a%ility to take an
agentive phrase #@-ed1$Q relative time reference
- <o one saw him leaving the %uilding.
- =e left laughing silently.
C
1K
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>d!ective status: when in ad!ectival compounds: )ood-looking, heart-%reaking, for-fetched,
frost-%ittenM
e.g. Iohn is insulting.
Co%!ect >ux
D-
C @-ing Cintensifier # another @ link$Q @ link C's #participial ad!.$
- on the processN
- on the stateN
5'onstructions with the participle:
Present participle constructions
.. Accusative * 0resent 0art: " saw him coming.? " listened to Iohn talking to his
friend.
1. <ominativeC Present part.: (he was seen leaving the house at dawn.
0. >%solute present part. constructions: &eather permitting, we shall go on a trip.
2. Prepositional a%solute present part constructions: 8he children were playing with their
mother watching them.
Past participle construction:
.. >ccusative C past participle: =e had his license suspended.? =e heard his name called.
1. >%solute past part constr.: :ur work done, we all went home.? 8he play finished, the
audience %urst into applause.
- regret, forget, remem%er:
o " regret to say that the proposal was re!ected.
o " regret saying that the proposal was re!ected.
o " forgot to lock the door.? " didn+t lock the door.
o " forgot locking the door.? " locked the door, %ut " forgot it.
8he infinitive particulari9es and the gerund generali9esP
Auxiliary verbs
0rimary verbs(auxiliaries
4odal auxiliaries
Primary auxiliaries:
>uxiliaries
helpers
wituretN lexical meaning
with grammatical function
with lexical function #7have,$
to %e, to have, to do
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<
Auxiliaries Complementation
Tense& modality& aspect& voice #i(#d(#pL Co(CsL AdvC 7V0 ad$unct of
manner(time(space1
Type A& 6& C& :
To be
- F paradigm forms #paradigm suppletive$
- linking ver%
- auxiliary #aspectual, voice$ / types D, '
- regular forms: %e, %eing
- partially suppletive: %een
- 3 suppletive forms #totally$: am, are, is, was, were
To have
- lexical ver% #stativeQ dynamic meaning$
- auxiliary #aspectual$ type D
- stative sense: to posses
- =ave you got any moneyN? <o, " haven+t got any.
Dr. -nglish auxiliary vs. >m. -nglish lexical ver%
;ynamic sense #to receive, to take, to experience$ C causative
7=ave, in Ruasi-passive: ;id you have a good timeN? (he didn+t have her photographs taken.
To do
- lexical ver%#full paradigm$
- periphrastic auxiliary #o%!ective paradigm: no non-finite ver% forms- only past and
present$
;istri%ution:
- "n sentences negated %y <ot in the present? past indicative and in negative imperative:
=e didn+t want to go.? ;on+t goP
- "n Ruestions involving su%!ect-operator inversion, when the ver% is in the simple
present? past indicative: ;oes she know thatN? &hat did they sayN
- -xceptions: positive 7&=-, Ruestions %eginning with the su%!ect: &hat happenedN?
&ho said thatN
- "n tag Ruestions or in reduced Ruestions where the operator is not accompanied %y the
main ver% #the lexical ver%$: =e doesn+t mind, does heN
- >s a froN-form with anaphoric function: &ho said thatN " didP
23
- "n empiric and in persuasive constructions: Oou do look lovely today.? Oou did give me
a fright.
- "n sentences with reversed word order due to negative and semi-negative adver%ials in
typical positions: Little did we know a%out his plans.? (eldom did they see such
malice.
C
11
4odal Auxiliaries
4odality:
Modal auxiliaries form a closed-class of term in the -nglish ver% system. 8hey
make a semantic contri%ution to the sentence through the meaning and function
which are generally grouped under the heading: M:;>L"8O.
Modality relates to the language user+s attitude or !udgment as to the possi%ility?
pro%a%ility? likelihood that the event descri%ed in the sentence is true. :ver the
fact that it exists in all languages, is commonly classified as a language universal.
Modality is the 7grammaticali9ation of speakers, #su%!ective$ attitudes and
opinions.
8ypes of modality #Palmer$:
.. epistemic: concerned with matters of knowledge, %eing or opinion, other than
fact
1. ;iureticN: at concerned with the necessity or possi%ility of acts performed %y
modality responsi%le agents.
Uuirk:
.. intrinsic: permission, o%ligation, volition associated with the idea of human control
over the events
1. extrinsic: possi%ility, necessity, prealictionN involving human !udgment of what+s
unlikely to happen
- modali9ers in -nglish: auxiliaries, adver%ials
- the criteria along which modals are signed out from other classes of auxiliaries are
%ased on syntactic, morphological and semantic features.
- modal auxiliaries typically com%ine with short infinitives #except from: U(-; and
:U)=8 $: =e may come over.
- modal aux ca only recur as operators #complex finite @Ps , type >$: =e may come
later.
- modal aux have defective of paradigm: @, @-s, @-ing, @-ed., @-ed1
- Modals will only enter a paradigmatic relation with one another, %ut not in
syntagmatic com%ination: (tudents who can, may su%mit their papers %efore the
deadline.
- 8hey may com%ine with semi-aux. or other aux.: &e may have to sell the house.
- modal aux can %e mode negative %y simply adding the negative particle: =e cannot
do it.? 8hey may not come.
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- (cope of negation:
o immediate negation: 8hey may not come.
o eventual negation: 8hey may not come.
- modal aux have a%normal time reference:
o see-saw
o can- could
o " saw her yesterdayM
o " could drive a car when " was .3.
- there is a lack of semantic restriction %etween su%!ect and the modal aux: 8he man
hopes to %e there at 3. ? the %us ought to %e there at 3.
Communicative function of modal auxiliaries
Ability 7 expressin" ability( lac) of ability& capability& capacity1
0ossibility:
1 0ermission: Can& could: 'an you hear meN? 'an they swimN
no future time reference
couldpotentiality
! Ability: be able to& be capable of& mana"e to
potentialityperformance
>ctual reali9ation
e.g.
Iohn could fix a car long %efore he %ecame a mechanic.
Iohn was a%le to fix the car.
8he line was %usy, so " wasn+t a%le to call her.
8he lecture hall can sit 1HH students.
Possi%ility:
- >ssertive contexts: 8he road can %e %locked.#theoretic possi%ility$? 8he road may %e
%locked. #actual possi%ility$
- "nterrogative and negative contexts: 'an the road %e %lockedN? 8he road can %e
%locked.
- 7May not, is found in parallel constructions with 7may, and in constructions where
the idea of possi%ility is com%ined with two of uncertainty.
e.g.
=e may or may not %e telling the truth.
Jelax, things may not %e so %ad.
(he may not have recogni9ed him.#eventual negation: "t may %e the case thatM$
(he can+t have recogni9ed him. #"mmediate negation: "t is impossi%le thatM$
Pro%a%ility vs, Lack of pro%a%ility
'ould and might more tentative variants of possi%ility
'an and may
25
8here could %e something wrong with the light switch, %ut of course " might %e wrong.
Oou could? might have %een more careful. #'riticism$
Oou could? might have told me %efore. #'omplaint$
Permission #asking for? giving? denying permission$
-.g.
May "? 'an " use your phoneN
'an " help youN #offer$
'an you hold thisN #reRuest$
" may leave now. #"+ll allow you toM$
" can leave now. #Oou are allowed toM$
=e could use his father+s car whenever he wanted. # ha%itual permissionQ past time
reference.$
:n the day he turned .F he was allowed to drive his father+s car. #single occasionQ
past time reference$
&hen we were children, we were not allowed to stay up after .H, nor could we go out
after dark. # in some contexts free variation$
0rediction:
the most common way to express prediction is %y means of 7will, in all the person+s the
formal su%stitute of predictive 7will, is 7shall, in the first person. #&e shall meet him at the
airport.$
Predictions refer to a past moment or can %e made from a past time perspective.
present prediction is comparatively rare:
o 8here is someone at the door. 8hat+ll %e Iohn.
o 8his will %e your luggage.
o 8his is >nn and that would %e her hus%and.
7&ill, in timeless statements of predicta%ility: :il will flow on water.? Doys will %e
%oys.? >ccidents will happen.
=a%itual prediction 7will, in conditioned sentences type 9ero: "f you press this %utton
the light will go on.
Predictive 7will,, 7would, in descriptions of present ha%its or characteristic %ehavior:
8hey will?would sit in the front of 8@ for hours.
>ecessity 7deoreticM(epistemic1
Oou must stay in %ed if you want to recover soon.
8o %e healthy, a plant must receive a good supply of %oth sunshine and moisture.
#deoriticN necessity.$
-pistemic necessity: M involves a !udgment? usually the speakers, as to what can %e expected
to %e the case, the speaker makes an assumption on the %asis of some prior knowledge or
experience: 8here+s someone at the door. "t must %e Iohn.
26
interrogative and negative contexts: 'an the %ook %e Iohn+sN? "t cannot %e Iohn+s.
>lternative expressions of epistemic necessity: 8he play should? ought to %e over %y
now.? "f you can drive a truck, driving a car shouldn+t %e hard.
'cale of certainty:
There is a boo) on the des)
"t is Iohn+s.
"t must %e Iohn+s.
"t should %e Iohn+s.
"t may %e Iohn+s.
"t could %e Iohn+s.
"t might %e Iohn+s.
#bli"ation: 7expressin" obli"ation( lac) of obli"ation(prohibition& "oin"(as)in" for
instructions& "ivin" orders1
" must go now. #o%ligation %y internal reasons, authority exercised %y the speaker$
" have #got$ to go. #o%ligation is external$
negative contexts: 8hey must not go. #negative o%ligation$? Must we goN <o, you
needn+t. #lack of o%ligation$
(he shouldn+t have Ruit her !o%.# the speaker+s authorityC idea of non-fulfillment of
the o%ligation$
#bli"ation and lan"ua"e re"ister 7specificNtechnical discourse& instructional textsO
should=must1
8he user should carefully read this instruction manual %efore operating this unit.
Legal? Ruasi-legal discourse, written in 0
rd
person su%!ect: shall must
8he 'ommittee shall consist of the =ead of ;epartment and three mem%ers of the
>cademic staff elected annually.
#rders:
&ith 1
nd
and 0
rd
person su%!ects: Oou shall do exactly as " say.? you shall %e punished if
you diso%ey.
with .
st
person su%!ect, to consult the wishes of the addressee: Let+s dance, shall weN?
&hat shall we do tonightN go for a movieN
Oou should come and visit more often. #the speaker expresses what he?she thinks to %e
appropriate for the situation referred to Asometimes with a counter factual meaningB$
Oou children should help me tidy up this place.# possi%ility can?could used in a Ruasi-
implicative manner to suggest a course of action to the addressee.
Volition: 7expressin" intention& willin"ness( unwillin"ness& insistence1
Intention: #weak volition$: "+ll %uy you lunch.? &e shall act in your %est interest.
27
Iillin"ness( unwillin"ness: &ill you do me a favorN? 8hey won+t listen to my
explanations.
Insistence: 7stron" volition1: "f you will go out without your overcoat, what do you
expectN? Oour father shall hear a%out this threat.
<ypothesis: 7past tense models can be used to denote hypothesis in both main an sub3
classes1
e" Conditional clauses: 7real condition( unreal condition( ne"ative condition1 The
typical mar)ers of hypothetical meanin" are FshouldG and FwouldG& with a 1
st
person
sub$ect that can express hypothetical meanin" in the main clause: &e should go to their
party if they invite us.
Past tense models can %e used to express the hypothetical version of modalities such as:
a%ility, possi%ility etc.
e.g.
&ould you like to !oin usN
"+d hate to upset you.
Let me know if you should hear from them.# putative 7should,, su%!unctive
construction$
4ar"inal modal auxiliaries
:are& need& ou"ht to& used to
:are and need:
main ver%s and more restrictively, modal auxiliaries
as main ver%s they com%ine with long infinitives, have @-s, @-ing, @-ed forms
and can occur in almost any context.
as modal auxiliaries, they take short infinitives, have defective paradigm and tend
to occur in non-assertive contexts #negative and interrogative$: =e daren+t comeP?
;are he comeN? he needn+t come.? need he comeN
Modal 7dare,: a%normal time reference, @ can %e used written %oth present and past time
references: 8hey wondered if she dare speak. #>lso @-ed$? *ormulaic 7dare,: " dare say.
Modal 7need,: no tense contrast, past time reference is achieved %y need C perfect infinitive
constructions: (he need not have said that. #'ontrafactual implication$
:ught to:
normally takes a long infinitive, occasionally, it may com%ine with a short infinitive in
non-assertive contexts: 8hey ought not do that kind of thing,? :ught we have done itN
Used to:
less of a modal auxiliary, as an auxiliary of tense and aspect
28
it fits into the class of marginal modals from a formal point of view, it can occur %oth
as operator and with 7;o, support, this explains the two spelling variations: use to?
used to: =e used to smoke.? =e used not to smoke #operator in negative context$
29