SOCIAL CHANGE

Definition
Social change refers to alterations, over time, in the behavior patterns, culture, and structure of
society.
It is universal. It occurs at all levels, from whole societies to microlevel social interactions.
It is sometimes predictable but more often it is not.
It may be gradual or abrupt.
Not all changes that are of interest to sociologists fall into the category of "social change".
Sources of Social Change
a. Natural environment
Human social and cultural patterns are constantly shifting to adapt to changes in the physical
environment.
b. Demographic change
Alterations in the size, composition, and distribution of the human population have led to a variety
of social changes.
c. New Ideas
New ways of thought change how people see the world, and they call for structural and cultural
adjustments.
d. New Technologies
Technologies are tools and the skills needed to manufacture and use them. Each major new
development further expands the culture base, providing more elements that can be recombi ned
to yield an even more rapid change in the future.
e. Government
Strong centralized political leadership can mobilize large-scale efforts to alter the character of a
society.
f. Competition and War
High level of competitions and war often inspires innovation.
Innovation- the social creation and institutionalization of new ideas, products, processes, or
structures.
g. Institutionalized social change
In the modern era, more and more social change is deliberately planned.
h. Social Movements
While institutional elites plan for change above, the less powerful are simultaneously organizing
social movements and pushing for change from below.
i. Science
From the double helix of DNA and the development of genetic engineering, science and
technology have brought about the enduring and far-reaching changes in social and cultural life.
j. Perceived needs
Social change is greatly affected by the needs its member perceived.

THEORIES OF SOCIAL CHANGE
A. Functionalist Theories
deal with social statics before dealing with social dynamics.
Critics- social order and stability has prevented them from giving an adequate theory of social
change.
Emile Durkheim-examined several aspects of society by asking what function they played in
maintaining the social order as a whole.
Aspects:
- Religion-had the function of providing a common set of values that enhanced the social
solidarity of the believers
- Education-function of passing culture from one generation to the next
- Economic institution- regulates the production and distribution of wealth
- Family-raises and socialized the children.
Talcott Parson-sees change not as something that disturbs the social equilibrium but as something
that alters the state of the equilibrium so that a qualitatively new equilibrium results.
Two sources of Change:
- outside the society-contact with other societies
- inside the society-adjustments that must be made to resolve strain within the system.
In simple societies, institutions are undifferentiated-a single institution serves many different
functions.
new institutions must be linked together once more by the process of integration.

B. Conflict Theories
Karl Marx believed that the character of social and cultural forms is influenced by the economic
base of society specifically, by the mode of production that is used and by the relationships that exist
between those who own and those who do not own the means of production. History is the story of conflict
between the exploiting and the exploited class. This conflict repeats itself again and again until capitalism
is overthrown by the workers and a socialist state is created. The essential point is that Marx and other
conflict theorists after him see society as fundamentally dynamic, not static. They regard conflict as a
normal, not an abnormal process, and they believe that the existing conditions on any society contain the
seeds of future social changes.

C. Modernization theory
It emerged in the 1950s as an explanation of how the industrial societies of North America and
Western Europe developed. The theory argues that societies develop in fairly predictable stages though
which they become increasingly complex. Development depends primarily on the importation of
technology as well as a number of other political and social changes believed to come about as a result.
D. Evolutionary theory
According to evolutionary theory, society moves in specific directions. Therefore, early social
evolutionists saw society as progressing to higher and higher levels.
Unilinear evolutionary theories states that all societies pass through the same sequence of stages of
evolution to reach the same destiny
Identified as the father of sociology, Auguste Comte subscribed to social evolution. He saw
human societies as progressing into using scientific methods.
Emile Durkheim, one of the founders of functionalism, saw societies as moving from simple to
complex social structures
Herbert Spencer compared society to a living organism with interrelated parts moving toward a
common end
Multilinear evolutionary theory holds that change can occur in several ways and does not
inevitably lead in the same direction. Multilinear theorists observe that human societies have evolved along
differing lines.
Contemporary social evolutionists like Gerhard Lenski, Jr., however, view social change as
multilinear
Societies generally tend to move from small- scale and simple forms of social organization to large-
scale and complex forms.

E. Cyclical Theories
The cyclical theorists also see a series of stages through which societies must pass. But, instead of
ending in a final stage of perfection, they see a return to the starting point for another round.
According to Oswald Spengler (1880-1936), a German philosopher, each great civilization passing
through successive stages of birth, growth, and decline, with the completed cycle covering about a
thousand years.
Spengler pointed out that the fate of civilizations was a matter of destiny. He concluded that the
western societies were entering a period of decay as evidenced by wars, conflicts and social breakdown
that heralded their doom.
Pitirim Sorokin (1889-1968), claimed that all great civilizations are in an endless cycle of three
cultural systems:
The idealistic culture, in which a blend of supernatural beliefs and evidefice- based rationality
created the ideal society; and
The sensate culture stresses those things which can be perceived directly by the senses. It is
practical, hedonistic, sensual and materialistic.
Ideational culture emphasizes those things which can be perceived only by the mind. It is abstract,
religious concerned with faith and ultimate truth. It is the opposite of the sensate culture.
Arnold Toynbee (1889-1975), an English historian, also viewed the fate of great civilization as birth,
growth, decay, and death.
He focus on the key concepts of challenge and response each new civilization is able to learn
from the mistakes and to borrow from cultures of others. It is therefore possible for each new cycle to offer
higher level of achievement.
Population as a Source of Social Change
Population - the whole number of people or inhabitants in a country or region (Merriam-Webster)
Growth Rate = births deaths + (in-migration out-migration)
Thomas Malthus an English economist who wrote a famous book in 1798 called An Essay on the Principle
of Population.
Malthus Theorem
He [Malthus] argued that while population grows geometrically (from 2 to 4 to 8 to 16 and so forth), the
food supply increases only arithmetically (from 1 to 2 to 3 to 4 and so on) (Henslin, 1999, p.556)
- This meant that if births go unchecked, the population of a country, or even the world will outstrip
its food supply

*New Malthusians a group of demographers who points out that the worlds population is
following an exponential growth curve if growth doubles during approximately equal
intervals of time, it suddenly accelerates.

*Anti- Malthusians a group of demographers who believe in a modern demographic
transition a three stage historical process of population growth and later stabilization, which
occurs because of the value that societies place on preserving and producing life
- Some foresee a demographic free fall which is explained by a notion that as countries
industrialize, women become more educated, postpone marriage, and reduce the number
they bear, thus resulting to population shrinkage a population becoming smaller
Determinants of Population Change:
Demography the science dealing with the size, distribution, and composition of, and changes in
population
A. Fertility Rate number of children the average woman bears
Birth Rate the number of live births per 1000 members of a population in a given year
*The worlds overall fertility rate is 3.0
*Highest Birth rate Niger, Western Africa: 46.84
*Lowest Birth Rate Monaco: 6.79
Fecundity the number of children that women are capable of bearing
*Fecundity of women around the world is 20 children each which is much higher than the
fertility rate
Familism the high value individuals place on having children

B. Mortality death and death rates within a population
Crude Death Rate the number of deaths per year per 1000 population
*Highest Death rate South Africa: 17.36
*Lowest Death rate Qatar: 1.54
Infant Mortality Rate the number of deaths among the infants under 1 year of age per 1000
live births
Life Expectancy the number of years of life remaining to an average person of a certain age
Social Causes of Death
1. Marital Status people who marry have a better chance of surviving than people who
never marry; people who never marry have lower death rates than those who are
divorced and widowed
2. Sex Roles mortality differences between males and females due to the different male
and female roles a society dictates
3. Minority Status higher social class gives a person advantages, rights, powers,
privileges, and material things not available to those in the lower class

C. Migration the movement of people from one geographic area to another in order to
establish a new residence
Net Migration Rate the difference between the number of immigrants and emigrants per
1000 population
- This does not affect the global population because people simply shift their residence
from one country to another
1. Immigration the process of people moving in a country
Push and Pull Factors motivates people to embark on immigration
*Push factors the things that people want to escape
Ex. Poverty, lack of religious and political rights, political persecution
*Pull factors the magnets that draw people to a new land
Ex. Chance for higher wages, better jobs, family in the other country
United Sates of America the worlds number one choice of immigrants
- admits more immigrants each year than all other nations of the world combined
2. Emigration the process of people moving out of a country
Flow of Migration in the World
Least Industrialized Nations ---------------- Industrialized Countries
Population Composition term used to refer to the characteristics of a population
Population Pyramids often called the tree of ages, portrays the age and sex composition of a
population
A. Sex Composition it is measured by the sex ratio, the number of males per 100 females
*105 male: 100 female the ratio for the world population
B. Age Composition
C. Rural / Urban Residence
D. Religion
E. National Origin
F. Marital Status
G. Income
H. Education
I. Occupation
Effects of Population to Social Change
Fertility Reduction Policies
Ex. Chinas One Child Policy in order to curb the nations birth rate, punishing of couples who have 2 or
more children and fining women who are pregnant with a second child 20 percent of their pay if they
refuse to have an abortion was done
1. Family Planning Strategy rests on the assumption that if contraceptives are made readily
available, the information regarding the value and need for birth planning is disseminated
widely, people will reduce the fertility
2. Developmental Strategy low fertility rate is closely tied to modernization; encourage
economic development on the agricultural economy which favors large families
3. Societal strategy call on government to fashion policies that will change demographic
behaviour
Pronatalist Policies
1. The use of temporary maternal salary
2. Manipulating housing and employment systems to encourage child bearing
3. Sets of Profamily Incentives extra vacation time, 6 month maternity leave, etc.
4. Outlawing abortion