SOLUTION: CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

PRE LAB QUESTION

Q1. Pressure head will vary along the pipe. Explain why this is the case.

The pressure head varies along the pipe because of:

(a) The interchange between pressure and kinetic energy

The energy in the flow consists of potential energy, kinetic energy and pressure energy. In this
case, the potential energy is constant because the pipe is horizontal. When, the cross-sectional
area of the pipe changes, so too does the flow velocity (and therefore the kinetic energy).
Therefore, changes in velocity result in changes in pressure energy in order to satisfy
conservation of energy.

For example, at a contraction, the flow velocity increases, meaning that the pressure head
must decrease.

(b) Energy losses due to friction

Friction from the pipe walls causes a head loss (hL) this loss is seen in the pressure head. It
cannot cause a loss in velocity head, as the flow rate through the system is a constant (by
conservation of mass).

(c) Losses to turbulence at points where the pipe geometry changes

At points where the geometry changes, mechanical energy is lost to turbulence. Again, this loss
is seen in the pressure head.
(1.5 marks)

Pipe Configuration

Table 1. Geometry of Experimental Apparatus
A B C D E
F
G


Example of Experimental Results
(NOTE TO MARKERS: Ideally, the students should have a wider range of flow rates than
shown here).
Table 2. Example of Experimental Data
Run 1 Run 2 Run 3 Run 4
Measuring Tank Volume (L)
Distance
from
Upstream
Head to
Piezometer
(mm)
50 50 50 50
Discharge Time (s) 16 25 18 21
Upstream Head - Manometer 1
(mm)
0 990 1000 990 995
Piezometer 2 (mm) 340 960 985 965 975
Piezometer 3 (mm) 540 960 985 965 975
Piezometer 4 (mm) 740 960 985 965 975
Piezometer 5 (mm) 940 955 985 960 970
Piezometer 6 (mm) 1140 955 980 960 970
Piezometer 7 (mm) 1340 775 900 815 850
Piezometer 8 (mm) 1540 750 890 795 835
Piezometer 9 (mm) 1740 730 880 775 820
Piezometer 10 (mm) 1940 710 870 760 810
Piezometer 11 (mm) 2140 830 925 860 885
Piezometer 12 (mm) 2340 850 935 875 905
Piezometer 13 (mm) 2540 860 935 880 905
Piezometer 14 (mm) 2600 470 760 560 650
Piezometer 15 (mm) 2800 615 825 680 745
Piezometer 16 (mm) 3000 615 825 680 750
Piezometer 17 (mm) 3200 615 825 680 750
Piezometer 18 (mm) 3400 615 825 680 750

Q = U x A (1)
Where, A = x D
2

4

Cross
Section
Description of
Cross Section
Distance from
Upstream Head
(mm)
Inside
Diameter
(mm)
Cross-
sectional
Area (mm
2
)
Cross-
sectional
Area (m
2
)
A Constant 0 - 1140 74.2 4324.1195 0.0043241
B Contraction 1140 - 1340 - - -
C Extended Venturi 1340 - 1940 43.9 1513.6272 0.0015136
D Expansion 1940 - 2140 - - -
E Constant 2140 - 2540 74.2 4324.1195 0.0043241
F Orifice Plate 2540 - 2600 44 1520.5308 0.0015205
G Constant 2600 - 3400 74.2 4324.1195 0.0043241
Table 3. Calculation of Velocities
Run 1 Run 2 Run 3 Run 4
Cross-
sectional
Area, A
(m
2
)
Measuring Tank Volume (L) 50 50 50 50
Measuring Tank Volume (m
3
) 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05
Discharge Time (s) 16 25 18 21
Flow Rate, Q (m
3
/s) 0.003125 0.002 0.002778 0.002381
Velocity Section A, U
A
(m/s) 0.72269 0.462522 0.642392 0.550621 0.004324
Velocity Section C, U
C
(m/s) 2.064577 1.321329 1.83518 1.573011 0.001514
Velocity Section E, U
E
(m/s) 0.72269 0.462522 0.642392 0.550621 0.004324
Velocity Section F, U
F
(m/s) 2.055203 1.31533 1.826847 1.565869 0.001521
Velocity Section G, U
G
(m/s) 0.72269 0.462522 0.642392 0.550621 0.004324


QUESTIONS

Q2. Why is it important to keep the constant head tank full?

It is important to keep the constant head tank full so that the water flows through the pipe at a
constant flow rate. The force of the water in the constant head tank governs the pressure at the
main supply valve that determines the flow rate of the water. Thus, if the level of water in the
tank rises or falls, then the flow rate of the water through the pipe will not be constant.
Therefore, it is important to keep the constant head tank at an overflowing level for the duration
of the experiment in order to ensure that the flow rate of the water through the pipe is constant.
(1 mark)



Q3. Plot the hydraulic grade lines for the four discharges. What does this plot tell you
about the interchange of different types of energy as the water flows through the
different configurations?

In Figure 1, hydraulic grade lines are plotted from the data in Table 2.

Hydraulic Grade Line
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Distance Along Pipe Length (mm)
H
y
d
r
a
u
l
i
c

H
e
a
d

(
m
m
)
Run 1 Run 4 Run 3 Run 2


Figure 1. Hydraulic Grade Line for Each Run
(1.5 marks)


As the water flows into contractions (e.g. 6-7 or 13-14), the hydraulic head drops dramatically
due to the increase in velocity head (and therefore the drop in pressure head). Conversely, at
expansions (e.g. 10-11), the hydraulic head increases dramatically.
(1.5 marks)


Q4. Plot the total energy lines for the four discharges. Compare the slopes of the total
energy line in the larger and smaller pipes. Why are they different?

The total energy lines are presented in Figure 2 (data in Table 4).













Table 4. Total Head Calculations
Piezometer
Number
Hydraulic Head (mm) Velocities (m/s)
Run 1 Run 2 Run 3 Run 4 Run 1 Run 2 Run 3 Run 4
1 990 1000 990 995 0.72269 0.462522 0.642392 0.550621
2 960 985 965 975 0.72269 0.462522 0.642392 0.550621
3 960 985 965 975 0.72269 0.462522 0.642392 0.550621
4 960 985 965 975 0.72269 0.462522 0.642392 0.550621
5 955 985 960 970 0.72269 0.462522 0.642392 0.550621
6 955 980 960 970 0.72269 0.462522 0.642392 0.550621
7 775 900 815 850 2.064577 1.321329 1.83518 1.573011
8 750 890 795 835 2.064577 1.321329 1.83518 1.573011
9 730 880 775 820 2.064577 1.321329 1.83518 1.573011
10 710 870 760 810 2.064577 1.321329 1.83518 1.573011
11 830 925 860 885 0.72269 0.462522 0.642392 0.550621
12 850 935 875 905 0.72269 0.462522 0.642392 0.550621
13 860 935 880 905 0.72269 0.462522 0.642392 0.550621
14 470 760 560 650 2.055203 1.31533 1.826847 1.565869
15 615 825 680 745 0.72269 0.462522 0.642392 0.550621
16 615 825 680 750 0.72269 0.462522 0.642392 0.550621
17 615 825 680 750 0.72269 0.462522 0.642392 0.550621
18 615 825 680 750 0.72269 0.462522 0.642392 0.550621
Piezometer
Number
Velocity Head (mm) Total Head (mm)
Run 1 Run 2 Run 3 Run 4 Run 1 Run 2 Run 3 Run 4
0 26.61985 10.90349 21.03297 15.45279 1016.62 1010.903 1011.033 1010.453
340 26.61985 10.90349 21.03297 15.45279 986.6199 995.9035 986.033 990.4528
540 26.61985 10.90349 21.03297 15.45279 986.6199 995.9035 986.033 990.4528
740 26.61985 10.90349 21.03297 15.45279 986.6199 995.9035 986.033 990.4528
940 26.61985 10.90349 21.03297 15.45279 981.6199 995.9035 981.033 985.4528
1140 26.61985 10.90349 21.03297 15.45279 981.6199 990.9035 981.033 985.4528
1340 217.2517 88.9863 171.6557 126.1144 992.2517 988.9863 986.6557 976.1144
1540 217.2517 88.9863 171.6557 126.1144 967.2517 978.9863 966.6557 961.1144
1740 217.2517 88.9863 171.6557 126.1144 947.2517 968.9863 946.6557 946.1144
1940 217.2517 88.9863 171.6557 126.1144 927.2517 958.9863 931.6557 936.1144
2140 26.61985 10.90349 21.03297 15.45279 856.6199 935.9035 881.033 900.4528
2340 26.61985 10.90349 21.03297 15.45279 876.6199 945.9035 896.033 920.4528
2540 26.61985 10.90349 21.03297 15.45279 886.6199 945.9035 901.033 920.4528
2600 215.2834 88.18009 170.1005 124.9718 685.2834 848.1801 730.1005 774.9718
2800 26.61985 10.90349 21.03297 15.45279 641.6199 835.9035 701.033 760.4528
3000 26.61985 10.90349 21.03297 15.45279 641.6199 835.9035 701.033 765.4528
3200 26.61985 10.90349 21.03297 15.45279 641.6199 835.9035 701.033 765.4528
3400 26.61985 10.90349 21.03297 15.45279 641.6199 835.9035 701.033 765.4528


Total Energy Lines
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Distance Along Pipe Length (mm)
T
o
t
a
l

H
e
a
d

(
m
m
)
Run 1 Run 2 Run 3 Run 4


Figure 2. Total Energy Line for Each Run
(1.5 marks)

The slope of the total energy line is greater in the smaller pipe than in the larger pipe. From the
Darcy-Weisbach equation, it can be seen that the slope of the total energy line is given by

g
U
D
f
L
h
dx
dh
L
2
2

= .

In the smaller pipe, (i) D is lower and (ii) the velocity head is greater. These both contribute to a
greater slope in the smaller pipe (ignoring small differences in friction factor).

(1.5 marks)


BONUS MARK: Does your total energy line increase anywhere? Why is/isn't this
possible? Suggest a reason why your measurements indicate a rise in total energy
along a certain portion of the pipe.

The total energy line should not increase in the absence of pumps. It should only decrease,
due to the effects of pipe friction and losses at the Venturi & orifice. However, a slight increase
in the total head is observed between 11-13 (after the Venturi expansion). This is due to flow
separation; the flow exits the contraction as a high-velocity jet, without encompassing the
entire cross-sectional area of the pipe. That is, the effective area of the pipe there is less than
the area of the larger pipe (A). So, by estimating the velocity from Q/A, we underestimate the
velocity head at 11 at 12. This leads to an apparent increase from 11-13.
(1 mark)
Q5. Using the Darcy-Weisbach equation, determine the friction factor f of the smaller
pipe (stations 7-10) for each run. Also, calculate the Reynolds number in the smaller
pipe for each run. Plot your values on a Moody diagram and use them to obtain an
estimate for the roughness ( ) of the smaller pipe.

The friction factor is found using the Darcy Weisbach equation, using the hydraulic head loss
(which equals the total head loss) between piezometers 7 and 10. The calculation and results
for each run are shown in Table 5.

Table 5. Calculation of Friction Factor Using Head Loss

Run 1 Run 2 Run 3 Run 4
Hydraulic Head at Piezometer 7
(mm)
775 900 815 850
Hydraulic Head at Piezometer 10
(mm)
710 870 760 810
Change in Hydraulic Head between
7 and 10 (mm)
65 30 55 40
Head Loss between 7 and 10, h
L
(m) 0.065 0.03 0.055 0.04
Diameter, D (m) 0.0439 0.0439 0.0439 0.0439
Length, L (m) 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6
Velocity, U (m/s) 2.064577 1.321329 1.83518 1.573011
Friction Factor, f 0.021891 0.024667 0.023443 0.023206


Table 6. Calculation of Reynolds Numbers

Run 1 Run 2 Run 3 Run 4
Diameter, D (m) 0.0439 0.0439 0.0439 0.0439
Velocity, U (m/s) 2.064577 1.321329 1.83518 1.573011
Reynolds Number, Re 90634.93 58006.36 80564.39 69055.19

(2 marks)


If the values of f and Re are plotted on the Moody diagram, they fall (roughly) on the line for
which /D = 0.001. That is 0.001 x 44 mm = 0.04 mm (very roughly).
[NOTE TO MARKERS: You will get a wide range of results here]
(1 mark)



Q6. Determine the discharge coefficient for the Venturi meter (CV) using the pressure
drop between stations 6 and 7 for PHV. Is CV a true constant, or does it vary with
Reynolds number?






Table 9. Calculation of Coefficients of Discharge of Venturi Meter

Run 1 Run 2 Run 3 Run 4
Flow Rate, Q (m
3
/s) 0.003125 0.002 0.002778 0.002381
Throat Diameter, D
T
(m) 0.0439 0.0439 0.0439 0.0439
Throat Cross-sectional Area, A
T
(m
2
) 0.001514 0.001514 0.001514 0.001514
Original Diameter of Pipe, D
P
(m) 0.0742 0.0742 0.0742 0.0742
Piezometer 6 (mm) 955 980 960 970
Piezometer 7 (mm) 775 900 815 850
Head Loss between 6 and 7, h
V
(m) 0.18 0.08 0.145 0.12
Venturi Discharge Coefficient, C
V
1.029109 0.987945 1.019204 0.960302

(1 mark)

CV is not a true constant. It increases with decreasing Reynolds number (this is more apparent
when the students have a wide range of Reynolds numbers)
(0.5 marks)


Q6. Determine the head loss coefficients KV and KO using the total head loss between
stations 6 and 13 for the Venturi, and stations 13 and 14 for the orifice plate. Which is
greater and why?

Table 11. Calculation of Loss Coefficients KV

Run 1 Run 2 Run 3 Run 4
Velocity Section C, u
T
(m/s) 2.064577 1.321329 1.83518 1.573011
Piezometer 6 (mm) 955 980 960 970
Piezometer 13 (mm) 860 935 880 905
Head Loss between 6 and 13, H
V
(m) 0.095 0.045 0.08 0.065
Venturi Loss Coefficient, K
V
0.437281 0.505696 0.466049 0.515405


Table 12. Calculation of Loss Coefficients KO

Run 1 Run 2 Run 3 Run 4
Velocity Section F, u
O
(m/s) 2.055203 1.31533 1.826847 1.565869
Piezometer 13 (mm) 860 935 880 905
Piezometer 14 (mm) 470 760 560 650
Head Loss between 13 and 14, H
O
(m) 0.39 0.175 0.32 0.255
Orifice Loss Coefficient, K
O
1.811565 1.984575 1.881241 2.040461

(1 mark)

The loss coefficient is much greater for the Orifice than for the Venturi. This is because the
change in geometry at the Orifice is much more abrupt, meaning that more energy will be lost
to turbulence there.
(1 mark)