ALOHA

Areal Locations of Hazardous Atmospheres (ALOHA Ver. 5.2)

(The following description was drawn from ALOHA ver. 5.2 Help Software.)
ALOHA was developed b the !.S. "nvironmental #rotection Agenc and the $ational
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration to sim%late airborne releases of ha&ardo%s
chemicals. The $ational Safet 'o%ncil distrib%tes ALOHA and provides technical
s%pport. ALOHA is accepted for off(site conse)%ence analses re)%ired for ris*
management planning reg%lations in 'alifornia+ ,elaware+ $ew -erse and $evada.
ALOHA %ses the .a%ssian model to predict how gases that are abo%t as b%oant as air
will disperse in the atmosphere. S%ch /ne%trall(b%oant0 gases have abo%t the same
densit as air. According to this model+ wind and atmospheric t%rb%lence are the forces
that move the molec%les of a released gas thro%gh the air so that as an escaped clo%d is
blown downwind+ /t%rb%lent mi1ing0 ca%ses it to spread o%t in the crosswind and %pward
directions. According to the .a%ssian model+ an crosswind slice of a moving poll%tant
clo%d loo*s li*e a bell(shaped c%rve+ high in the center and lower on the sides. The
following are feat%res of ALOHA.
!sed for heav gas (based on ,".A,2S) and ne%trall b%oant (.a%ssian) gas
modeling3
"stimates so%rce strength3
!sed in releases from tan*s+ p%ddles+ and pipes3
'alc%lates indoor air infiltration3
'ontains an e1tensive chemical librar+ which is %ser e1pandable3
"stimates gas clo%d area and concentration over time in varing environmental
conditions3
!ses weather data that can be entered b the %ser or directl from a meteorological
station (list of /ALOHA(read0 portable meteorological meas%rement stations)3
#lots to1ic clo%d /footprint0 onto area maps3
Has eas(to(%se graphic interface and displa3
2ncl%des mapping program+ called 4A5#LOT (tm)+ %sing digiti&ed mapping data or
other mapping images3 also enables c%stomi&ed overlas showing area facilities and
v%lnerable pop%lations3
Available for 6indows or 4acintosh platforms.
4odel O%tp%ts
ALOHA plots a /footprint+0 which represents the area within which the gro%nd(level
concentration of a poll%tant gas is predicted to e1ceed o%r level of concern (LO') at
some time after a release begins. ALOHA footprints can be a%tomaticall scaled and
displaed on a grid or scaled to a %ser(selected scale in ALOHA7s 8ootprint window.
On ALOHA7s footprint plot+ the shaded area represents the footprint itself. ,ashed lines
along both sides of the footprint represent %ncertaint in the wind direction. The wind
rarel blows constantl from an one direction. As it shifts direction+ it blows a poll%tant
clo%d in a new direction. The /%ncertaint lines0 aro%nd the footprint enclose the region
within which+ abo%t 9: o%t of 2; times+ the gas clo%d is e1pected to remain. The lower
the wind speed+ the more the wind changes direction+ so as wind speed decreases+ the
%ncertaint lines become farther apart. The form a circle when wind speed is ver low.
A c%rved+ dashed line leads from the end of one %ncertaint line+ across the tip of the
footprint+ to the end of the other %ncertaint line. This line represents the farthest
downwind e1tent of the footprint+ if the wind were to shift to rotate the footprint towards
either %ncertaint line.
Limitations
9. ALOHA cannot be more acc%rate than the information o% give it to wor*
with. <%t even when o% provide the best inp%t val%es possible+ ALOHA+
li*e an model+ can be %nreliable in certain sit%ations+ and it cannot model
some tpes of releases at all.
2. ALOHA7s res%lts can be %nreliable when the following conditions e1ist=
a. >er low wind speeds?ALOHA7s footprint acc%ratel depicts a
poll%tant clo%d7s location onl if the wind direction does not change
from the val%e that o% entered. .enerall+ wind direction is least
predictable when wind speed is low. To show how m%ch the clo%d7s
position co%ld change if the wind were to shift direction+ %nder the
partic%lar weather conditions that o% enter+ ALOHA draws two
dashed lines+ one along each side of the footprint. ALOHA predicts
that abo%t :5 percent of the time+ the wind will not shift direction
eno%gh to steadil blow the poll%tant clo%d o%tside of either line. The
wider the &one between the lines+ the less predictable is the wind
direction and the more li*el it is to change s%bstantiall. At the lowest
wind speeds acceptable to ALOHA (abo%t 2 *nots+ or 9 meter per
second+ at a height of @ meters)+ these lines form a circle to indicate
that the wind co%ld blow from an direction.
b. >er stable atmospheric conditions?!nder the most stable
atmospheric conditions+ there is %s%all ver little wind and almost no
mi1ing of the poll%tant clo%d with the s%rro%nding air. .as
concentrations within the clo%d can remain high far from the so%rce.
The clo%d spreads slowl+ and high gas concentrations ma b%ild %p in
valles or depressions and remain for long periods of time+ even at
distances far from the release point. ALOHA does not acco%nt for
b%ild%p of high gas concentrations in low(ling areas.
c. 6ind shifts and terrain steering effects?ALOHA ass%mes that wind
speed and direction are constant (at an given height) thro%gho%t the
area downwind of a chemical release. ALOHA also e1pects the gro%nd
below a dispersing clo%d to be flat and free of obstacles. 2n realit+
tho%gh+ the wind tpicall shifts speed and direction as it flows %p or
down slopes+ between hills and down into valles+ t%rning where
terrain feat%res t%rn. 2n %rban areas+ wind flowing aro%nd a large
b%ilding forms eddies and changes direction and speed+ significantl
altering a clo%d7s shape and movement. Thro%gh streets bordered b
large b%ildings can generate a /street canon0 wind pattern that
constrains and f%nnels a dispersing clo%d. ALOHA ignores these
effects when it prod%ces a footprint plot.
d. 'oncentration patchiness+ partic%larl near the so%rce?$o one can
predict gas concentrations at an partic%lar instant downwind of a
release+ beca%se the res%lt partl from random chance. 2nstead+
ALOHA shows o% concentrations that represent averages for time
periods of several min%tes (it %ses the laws of probabilit as well as
meteorologists7 *nowledge of the atmosphere to do this). ALOHA
predicts that average concentrations will be highest near the release
point and along the centerline of an poll%tant clo%d+ and will drop off
smoothl and grad%all in the downwind and crosswind directions.
However+ especiall near the so%rce of a release+ wind eddies p%sh a
clo%d %npredictabl abo%t+ ca%sing gas concentrations at an moment
to be high in one location and low in another. 4eanwhile+ the average
concentrations are li*el to behave appro1imatel as ALOHA predicts.
As the clo%d moves downwind from the release point+ these eddies
shift and spread the clo%d+ evening o%t concentrations within the clo%d
so that the become more similar to ALOHA7s predictions.
@. Avoid %sing ALOHA7s .a%ssian model to predict how a large heavy gas
clo%d will disperse. Large gas clo%ds that are denser than air (/heav
gases0) are not b%oant+ and disperse in a ver different wa. The are
affected b gravit and other forces besides wind and t%rb%lence. As the
move downwind+ the remain m%ch lower to the gro%nd than ne%trall(
b%oant clo%ds and flow li*e water. .ro%nd(level concentrations within
s%ch clo%ds ma reach m%ch higher levels at some locations than the
.a%ssian model wo%ld predict.
/Heav gases0 form vapor clo%ds that are heavier and denser than air.
Heav gases incl%de not onl gases with molec%lar weights heavier than air
(the average molec%lar weight of air is abo%t 2: *ilograms per *ilomole)+
b%t sometimes also gases s%ch as anhdro%s ammonia that are normall
lighter than air+ b%t that are stored li)%efied %nder press%re. Li)%efied gases
tpicall escape from storage as a cold+ heav clo%d containing a mi1t%re of
gas and fine aerosol droplets. A release of s%ch a mi1t%re is called a two(
phase flow. The aerosols weigh the clo%d down and ma*e it more dense+ and
their evaporation cools the clo%d.
Heav gases behave in a complicated wa when the escape from storage. A
heav gas clo%d first sl%mps awa from the so%rce in all directions+ then
flows downwind li*e water+ propelled b the wind+ gravitational sl%mping+
and its forward moment%m. As it moves downwind+ air is stirred into the
clo%d+ and it becomes less and less dense+ event%all behaving li*e a
ne%trall b%oant gas. ALOHA ta*es more time to model this behavior than
to predict dispersion of a ne%trall b%oant gas.
A. ALOHA doesn7t acco%nt for the effects of=
a. 8ires or chemical reactions?The smo*e from a fire+ beca%se it has
been heated+ rises before it moves downwind. ALOHA doesn7t acco%nt
for this initial rise. 2t also doesn7t acco%nt for the b(prod%cts of
comb%stion+ or for chemical reactions generall. ALOHA ass%mes that
a dispersing chemical clo%d does not react with the gases that ma*e %p
the atmosphere+ s%ch as o1gen and water vapor. However+ man
chemicals react with dr or h%mid air+ water+ other chemicals+ or even
themselves. <eca%se of these chemical reactions+ the chemical that
disperses downwind might be ver different from the chemical that
originall escaped from containment. 2n some cases+ this difference
ma be s%bstantial eno%gh to ma*e ALOHA7s dispersion predictions
inacc%rate.
b. #artic%lates?ALOHA does not acco%nt for the processes that affect
dispersion of partic%lates (incl%ding radioactive particles).
c. Sol%tions and mi1t%res?ALOHA is designed to model the release and
dispersion of p%re chemicals onl3 the propert information in its
chemical librar is not valid for chemicals in sol%tion or for mi1t%res
of chemicals. 2t7s diffic%lt for an model to correctl predict the
behavior of a sol%tion or a mi1t%re of chemicals beca%se it7s diffic%lt
to acc%ratel predict chemical properties s%ch as vapor press%re for
sol%tions or mi1t%res. ALOHA7s predictions are greatl affected b
this and other chemical properties. 6hen an incorrect propert val%e is
%sed in ALOHA+ the model7s release rate and dispersion estimates will
not be valid.
d. Terrain?ALOHA e1pects the gro%nd below a lea*ing tan* or p%ddle
to be flat+ so that the li)%id spreads o%t evenl in all directions. 2t does
not acco%nt for pooling within depressions or the flow of li)%id across
sloping gro%nd.
'hemical 5eactivit 'onsiderations in ALOHA
To predict how a poll%tant clo%d will disperse in the atmosphere+ ALOHA ass%mes that
the molec%les in the clo%d do not react with each other or with the gases that ma*e %p the
atmosphere+ s%ch as o1gen and water vapor. That is+ ALOHA ass%mes that the
molec%les that disperse in the atmosphere are the same molec%les that originall escaped
from a container. However+ this is not alwas tr%e. Some chemicals react with dr or
h%mid air+ water+ other chemicals+ or even themselves. <eca%se of these chemical
reactions+ some or all of the molec%les that disperse downwind sometimes ma be ver
different from the molec%les that originall escaped from containment. The ma be
heavier or lighter than the original molec%les+ ma have different properties and behave
differentl in the atmosphere+ and ma be more or less to1ic than the original chemical.
2n some cases+ these differences ma be s%bstantial eno%gh to ma*e ALOHA7s dispersion
predictions inacc%rate.
9. Air(5eactive 'hemicals= Some of the chemicals in the ALOHA librar are
*nown to react readil with air. The reaction is rapid+ and often the chemical
spontaneo%sl catches fire. The b%rning chemical can endanger anone
close to the point of release. A to1ic clo%d probabl will form if an air(
reactive chemical is released. 2f the clo%d reacts with air+ however+ ALOHA
cannot acc%ratel predict the threat &one+ since it does not acco%nt for
effects of chemical reactions.
2. 6ater 5eactive 'hemicals= Some of the chemicals in the ALOHA librar are
*nown to spontaneo%sl react with water. S%ch reactions are rapid and often
prod%ce to1ic bprod%cts and heat. <oiling and splattering li)%id can pose a
special ha&ard to responders if a chemical spills on water or wet gro%nd+ or
if water is spraed on the chemical. "ven when the available water is limited
to the h%midit in the air+ a reaction can occ%r that prod%ces to1ic
bprod%cts and affects the dispersion of the to1ic clo%d. ALOHA cannot
acc%ratel predict the threat &one if there is a chemical reaction.
@. Self(5eactive 'hemicals= The molec%les of some chemicals Boin together to
form larger molec%les or brea* apart to form smaller molec%les. These
reactions can ca%se the molec%lar weight of molec%les in a dispersing clo%d
to be different from that of the molec%les that escaped from containment.
ALOHA will allow you to model any reactive chemical. 6hen o% select an air( or
water(reactive chemical+ ALOHA will alert o% that the chemical is reactive and will
describe the tpe of reaction and reaction prod%cts to e1pect. ALOHA will not alert you
when o% select a self(reactive chemical.
Definitions
Terms Used in ALOHA
The following definitions were ta*en from the ALOHA Help Software.
Le!el of "oncern or Output "oncentration# A level of concern (LO') is a threshold
concentration of an airborne poll%tant+ %s%all the concentration above which a ha&ard
ma e1ist. ALOHA plots a /footprint+0 which represents the &one where the gro%nd(level
poll%tant concentration is predicted to e1ceed o%r LO' at some time after a release
begins.
The $mmediatel% Dan&erous to Life or Health ($DLH) level is the defa%lt LO' in
ALOHA (chec* the /2,LH0 help topic to learn more abo%t this LO'). An 2,LH has been
established for abo%t one(third of the chemicals in ALOHA. Co% ma choose to %se either
the 2,LH+ when a val%e is available+ as o%r LO'+ or another threshold concentration.
<esides the 2,LH+ a variet of to1ic thresholds have been established b several
organi&ations3 chec* the references listed below to learn abo%t some of them. You can
add your own default LOC for any chemical to ALOHA7s chemical librar. ALOHA
then will %se o%r LO' b defa%lt rather than the 2,LH for the selected chemical.
Threshold limits# The American 'onference of .overnmental 2nd%strial Hgienists
(A'.2H) p%blishes recommended occ%pational e1pos%re limits for ha&ardo%s chemicals.
The TL>+ or threshold limit value, is the ma1im%m airborne concentration of a given
ha&ardo%s chemical to which nearl all wor*ers can be e1posed d%ring normal D(ho%r
wor*das and A;(ho%r wor*wee*s for an indefinite n%mber of wee*s witho%t adverse
effects. Do not use TLV values alone to eval%ate the relative to1icit of different
chemicals or to identif safe or ha&ardo%s conditions d%ring an accidental chemical
release.
TL>(T6A is the ma1im%m allowable time weighted average concentration for an D(ho%r
da and A;(ho%r wor* wee*. TL>(T6A val%es are obtained either from ind%strial
e1perience+ from e1perimental h%man and animal st%dies+ or from a combination of both.
2f a TL>(T6A level has been established for a chemical that o% select+ this val%e will be
displaed on ALOHA7s Te1t S%mmar window.
'ta(ilit% "lass# The atmosphere ma be more or less t%rb%lent at an given time+
depending on the amo%nt of incoming solar radiation as well as other factors.
4eteorologists have defined si1 /atmospheric stabilit classes+0 each representing a
different degree of t%rb%lence in the atmosphere. 6hen moderate to strong incoming
solar radiation heats air near the gro%nd+ ca%sing it to rise and generating large eddies+ the
atmosphere is considered /%nstable+0 or relativel t%rb%lent. !nstable conditions are
associated with atmospheric stabilit classes A and <. 6hen solar radiation is relativel
wea*+ air near the s%rface has less of a tendenc to rise and less t%rb%lence develops. 2n
this case+ the atmosphere is considered /stable+0 or less t%rb%lent+ the wind is wea*+ and
the stabilit class wo%ld be " or 8. Stabilit classes , and ' represent conditions of more
ne%tral stabilit+ or moderate t%rb%lence. $e%tral conditions are associated with relativel
strong wind speeds and moderate solar radiation.
Stabilit class has a big effect on ALOHA7s prediction of footprint si&e. !nder %nstable
conditions+ for e1ample+ a dispersing gas will mi1 rapidl with the air aro%nd it. ALOHA
will displa a SHO5T"5 footprint than it wo%ld for more stable conditions+ beca%se the
poll%tant will be dil%ted more )%ic*l below o%r level of concern (LO').