CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

The human cardiovascular system is composed of a heart which

pumps blood through a closed system of blood vessels. The heart
is composed mostly of cardiac muscle, or myocardium. Its primary
function is to transport nutrients, water, gases, wastes, and
chemical signals throughout the body. More information on the
heart as a pump, blood fow and control of blood pressure, and
components of blood will be discussed in related pages.
The cardiovascular system transports materials throughout the
body:
1. Materials entering the body, such as oxygen via the lungs and
nutrients and water via the intestinal tract, are carried to all cells.
. Materials moved from cell to cell !intercellular communication"
including:
a" wastes products from some cell cells to the liver for processing#
b" immune cells that are present in the blood continuously for
other cells,
c" hormones from endocrine cells to their target cells
d" stored nutrients from liver and adipose tissue to all cells.
$. Materials that are expelled from the body, such as metabolic
wastes, heat, and carbon dioxide that are removed via the
%idneys, s%in, and lungs, respectively.
&s a general overview, the cardiovascular system is composed
of the heart, the blood vessels !or vasculature", and the cells and
plasma of the blood.
1. &rteries are blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart
and veins return the blood to the heart. & system of valves in the
heart and veins ensures that the blood fows in one direction.
. The heart is anatomically divided into two halves by a central
wall, or septum, into left and right halves. 'ach half is composed
of an atrium which receives blood returning to the heart and a
ventricle that pumps the blood out into the blood vessels that
serve the body. The atria and ventricles and exiting blood vessels
are separated by closable valves. (unctionally, the heart serves
as a pump in series that generates pressure to propel the blood
through the system.
$. In the lungs oxygen is pic%ed up and carbon dioxide is expelled.
The pulmonary circulation goes from the right side of the heart
!deoxygenated blood" and returns it to the left side of the heart,
with oxygenated blood.
). The systemic circulation consists of the vessels that go from
the left side of the heart to the tissues and bac% to the right side
of the heart.
The systemic circulation and the pulmonary circulation can be
traced together:
*eoxygenated blood returning from body enters the heart in the
right atrium. (rom the right atrium the blood passes through the
tricuspid valves to enter the right ventricle. The blood is then
pumped into the pulmonary arteries, passing the pulmonic valves,
where it goes to the lungs. &fter becoming oxygenated in the
lung+s capillaries, the blood is carried by the pulmonary veins to
the left atrium. It then passes through the bicuspid or mitral
valves into the left ventricle, where it is pumped into the aorta
through the aortic valves. The aorta branches into smaller and
smaller arteries that ,nally lead to capillary beds in the tissue.
-ere oxygen is exchanged for carbon dioxide and returned via
veins which .oin into the inferior vena cava !veins coming from
the lower body" and superior vena cava !from the upper body".
The I/0 and the 1/0 empty into the right atrium.
LYMPHOID SYSTEM
The lymphoid system thus constitutes a sort of 2overfow3 system
that provides for the drainage of surplus tissue fuid and lea%ed
plasma proteins to the bloodstream, as well as for the removal of
debris from cellular decomposition and infection. The important
components of the lymphoid system are
Lympa!i" ple#$ses% networ%s of lymphatic capillaries that
originate blindly in the extracellular !intercellular" spaces of
most tissues.
Lympa!i" vessels !lymphatics", a nearly body wide networ%
of thin4walled vessels that have abundant lymphatic valves.
5ymphatic capillaries and vessels occur almost everywhere
blood capillaries are found, except for example, teeth, bone,
bone marrow, and the entire central nervous system. !'xcess
tissue fuid here drains into the cerebrospinal fuid."
Lymp !5. lympha, clear water", the tissue fuid that enters
lymph capillaries and is conveyed by lymphatic vessels. 6sually
clear, watery, and slightly yellow, lymph is similar in
composition to blood plasma.
Lymp no&es% small masses of lymphatic tissue located along
the course of lymphatic vessels through which lymph is ,ltered
on its way to the venous system. 5ymphocytes reside in the
lymph node.
Lympo"y!es% circulating cells of the immune system that
react against foreign materials. !T7 8 lymphocytes".
Lympoi& organs% includes all the structures dedicated to the
circulation and production of lymphocytes, such as the thymus,
red bone marrow, spleen, tonsils.
The smaller lymphatic vessels .oin to form to larger and these
enter into large collecting vessels, called lymphatic trun%s, which
unite to form either the right lymphatic duct or the thoracic duct.
Te rig! lympa!i" &$"! drains lymph from the body9s right
upper :uadrant !right side of head, nec%, and thorax plus the
right upper limb". &t the root of the nec%, it enters the .unction of
the right internal .ugular and right subclavian veins, the right
venous angle.
' Te !ora"i" &$"! drains lymph from the remainder of the
body. The lymphatic trun%s draining the lower half of the body
merge in the abdomen, sometimes forming a dilated collecting
sac, the cisterna chyli. (rom this sac !if present", or from the
merger of the trun%s, the thoracic duct ascends into and then
through the thorax to enter the left venous angle
&lthough this is the typical drainage pattern of most lymph,
lymphatic vessels communicate with veins freely in many parts of
the body. 0onse:uently, ligation of a lymphatic trun% or even the
thoracic duct itself may have only a transient e;ect as a new
pattern of drainage is established through more peripheral
lymphatico venous<and later inter lymphatic<anastomoses.
&dditional functions of the lymphoid system include:
(U)CTIO)S o* !e LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
The main functions of the lymphatic system are as follows:
the main function of the lymphatic system is to "olle"! an&
!ranspor! !iss$e +$i&s from the intercellular spaces in all
the tissues of the body, bac% to the veins in the blood
system#
it plays an important role in re!$rning plasma pro!eins !o
!e ,loo&s!ream#
Diges!e& *a!s are a,sor,e& and then transported from
the villi in the small intestine to the bloodstream via the
lacteals and lymph vessels.
new lympo"y!es are man$*a"!$re& in !e lymp
no&es#
antibodies !manufactures in the lymph nodes" assist
the ,o&y !o ,$il& $p an e-e"!ive imm$ni!y !o
in*e"!io$s &iseases#
5ymph nodes play an impor!an! role in !e &e*ense
me"anism o* !e ,o&y. They ,lter out micro4organisms
!such as bacteria" and foreign substances such as toxins,
etc.
it !ranspor!s large mole"$lar "ompo$n&s .s$" as
en/ymes an& ormones0 *rom !eir man$*a"!$re&
si!es !o !e ,loo&s!ream.
Applie&1
The 1pread of 0ancer
0ancer invades the body by contiguity !growing into ad.acent
tissue" or by metastasis !the dissemination of tumor cells to sites
distant from the original or primary tumor". Metastasis occurs by
one of three ways:
1. *irect seeding of serous membranes of body
cavities..5ymphogenous spread !via lymphatic
vessels".$.-ematogenous spread !via blood vessels".It is
surprising that often even a thin fascial sheet or serous
membrane defects tumor invasion. -owever, once a
malignancy penetrates into a potential space, the direct
seeding of cavities<that is, of its serous membranes<is
li%ely.
5ymphogenous spread of cancer is the most common route for
the initial dissemination of carcinomas !epithelial tumors", the
most common type of cancer. 0ells loosened from the primary
cancer site enter and travel via lymphatics. The lymph4borne cells
are ,ltered through and trapped by lymph nodes, which thus
become secondary !metastatic" cancer sites. The pattern of
cancerous lymph node involvement follows the natural routes of
lymph drainage. Thus when removing a potentially metastatic
tumor, surgeons stage the metastasis !determine the degree to
which cancer has spread" by removing and examining lymph
nodes that receive lymph from the organ or region in the order
the lymph normally passes through them. Therefore, it is
important for physicians to literally %now the lymphatic drainage
2bac%ward and forward3<that is, !1" to %now what nodes are
li%ely to be a;ected when a tumor is identi,ed in a certain site or
organ !and the order in which they receive lymph" and !" to be
able to determine li%ely sites of primary cancer sites !sources of
metastasis" when an enlarged node is detected.
0ancerous nodes
'nlarge as the tumor cells within them increase# however, unli%e
swollen infected nodes, cancerous nodes are not usually painful
when compressed.
Lymphangitis, Lymphadenitis, and Lymphedema
Lymphangitis and lymphadenitis are secondary infammations of
lymphatic vessels and lymph nodes, respectively. These
conditions may occur when the lymphoid system is involved in
chemical or bacterial transport after severe in.ury or infection.
The lymphatic vessels, not normally evident, may become
apparent as red strea%s in the s%in, and the nodes become
painfully enlarged. This condition is potentially dangerous
because the uncontained infection may lead to septicemia !blood
poisoning". Lymphedema, a locali=ed type of edema, occurs when
lymph does not drain from an area of the body. (or instance, if
cancerous lymph nodes are surgically removed from the axilla
!armpit", lymphedema of the limb may occur.
Respira!ory sys!em
Respiration consists of:
1. Breathing (inspiration and expiration),
2. Gaseous Exchange (exchange of gases
between the lungs/blood and blood/tissues and
ice!ersa).
"t is controlled by the #utonomic $erous %ystem
(#$%), more specifically by the &edulla 'blongata.
2asi" S!r$"!$re o* !e Respira!ory Sys!em
(ere is the simplest possible statement of the structure of the respiratory system as
a flow!chart indicating the route by which oxygen flows into the body ia the
airways and traels to the surfaces at which gaseous exchange with tissues occurs:
Upper Respiratory Tract :
NARES
NASO PHARYNX
EPIGLOTTIS(larynx
TRA!HEA
Lo"er Respiratory Tract :
TRA!HEA
(#I$I!ATES INTO % #RON!HI
#RON!HIOLES
UPPER LO&ER
AL'EOLAR (U!TS AL'EOLAR (U!TS
AL'EOLAR SA!S AL'EOLAR SA!S
LO3ER RESPIRATORY TRACT
Memorable Facts about the Human Respiratory System
)here are two lungs in the body consisting of * million aleoli that
constitutes the total surface area of about 2 tennis courts (per normal adult).
#ll of the blood in the body circulates through the lungs each time it passes
around the body.
"f laid end!to!end the capillaries of the lungs would stretch for approx. ++
miles (,- .m).
Diges!ive sys!em
)he digestie system is made up of the digestie tract/a series of hollow organs
0oined in a long, twisting tube from the mouth to the anus/and other organs that
help the body brea. down and absorb food (see figure).
'rgans that ma.e up the digestie tract are the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small
intestine, large intestine/also called the colon/rectum, and anus. "nside these
hollow organs is a lining called the mucosa. "n the mouth, stomach, and small
intestine, the mucosa contains tiny glands that produce 0uices to help digest food.
)he digestie tract also contains a layer of smooth muscle that helps brea. down
food and moe it along the tract.
)wo 1solid2 digestie organs, the lier and the pancreas, produce digestie 0uices
that reach the intestine through small tubes called ducts. )he gallbladder stores the
lier3s digestie 0uices until they are needed in the intestine. 4arts of the nerous
and circulatory systems also play ma0or roles in the digestie system.
Why is digestion important
5hen you eat foods/such as bread, meat, and egetables/they are not in a form
that the body can use as nourishment. 6ood and drin. must be changed into smaller
molecules of nutrients before they can be absorbed into the blood and carried to
cells throughout the body. 7igestion is the process by which food and drin. are
bro.en down into their smallest parts so the body can use them to build and
nourish cells and to proide energy.
Renal Sys!em
"ntroduction to the renal system
8omponents of the renal system
9idneys and ureters
:ladder
;rethra

"ntroduction to the renal system
)he renal system consists of all the organs inoled in the formation and release
of urine. "t includes the .idneys,ureters, bladder and urethra.
Function o! renal system
1. Maintenance of electrolyte concentration in '0(!'>T?&0'5565&? (56I*"
. Maintenance of water balance
$. 'xcretion of waste products
). ?egulation of blood pressure
@. ?egulation of red blood cell concentration
A. &cid base balance
Components of the renal system
"idneys and ureters
.
)he .idneys are large, bean!shaped organs towards the bac. of the abdomen
(belly).
)he .idney can be diided into two distinct regions. )here is an outer red!brown
part (cortex) and inner lighter coloured part (medulla). )he cortex is made up of
special units called corpuscles, nephrons, and a system of straight and cury
collecting tubules supplied by many blood essels. "n the outer part of the .idney,
there are many nephrons which act as filtering units. <ach nephron is supplied by a
ball of small blood essels, called glomeruli. # diagram of a single glomerulus is
seen below. :lood is filtered through the small blood essels to produce a mixture
that is the precursor of urine. )his mixture then passes through more tubules,
where water, salt and nutrients are reabsorbed.
)he inner part of the .idney (the medulla) is a continuation of the speciali=ed
nephrons in the .idney. # small blood essel networ. called the asa recta supplies
the medulla. <ach .idney is supplied by the renal arteries, which gie off many
smaller branches to the surrounding parts of the .idneys. Renal eins drain the
.idney.
Bladder
)he bladder is a pyramid!shaped organ which sits in the pelis (the bony structure
which helps form the hips). )he main function of the bladder is to store urine and,
under the appropriate signals, release it into a tube which carries the urine out of
the body. $ormally, the bladder can hold up to >-- m? of urine. )he bladder has
three openings: two for the ureters and one for the urethra (tube carrying urine out
of the body).
)he bladder consists of smooth muscles. )he main muscle of the bladder is called
the detrusor muscle. <mptying of bladder is controlled by both #utonomic
nerous system and somatic motor neres.
#rethra
)he male urethra runs from the bladder to the tip of the penis.
)he female urethra. "t is a tube running from the bladder nec. and opening into an
external hole located at the top of the aginal opening. #s the female urethra is
shorter than the male urethra, it is more li.ely to get infections from bacteria in the
agina.
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
'n of the ma0or organ systems of the body. )he chief function of the reproductie
system is to ensure surial of the species. 5hat follows applies principally
to ertebrate reproduction, especially human reproduction.
'ther systems in the body, such as the endocrine and urinary systems, wor.
continuously to maintain homeostasis for surial of the indiidual. #n indiidual
may lie a long, healthy, and happy life without producing offspring, but if the
species is to continue, at least some indiiduals must produce offspring.
5ithin the context of producing offspring, the reproductie system has four
functions:
)o produce oa (eggs) and sperm cells
)o transport and sustain these cells
)o nurture the deeloping offspring
)o produce hormones
)hese functions are diided between the primary and secondary, or accessory,
reproductie organs. )he primary reproductie organs, or gonads, consist of
the oaries and testes. )hese organs are responsible for producing the egg and
sperm cells @ the gametes @ and for producing hormones . )hese hormones
function in the maturation of the reproductie system, the deelopment of sexual
characteristics, and hae important roles in regulating the normal physiology of the
reproductie system. #ll other organs, ducts, and glands in the reproductie system
are considered secondary, or accessory, reproductie organs. )hese
structures transport and sustain the gametes and nurture the deeloping offspring.
6or more details, see:
&ale reproductie system
6emale reproductie system
Male Reproducti$e System
)he male reproductie system,
li.e that of the female
(see female reproductie
system), consists of those
organs whose function is to
produce a new indiidual, i.e.,
to accomplish reproduction.
)his system consists of a pair of
testes and a networ. of
excretory ducts (epididymis, ductus deferens (as deferens), and e0aculatory ducts),
seminal esicles, the prostate gland, the bulbourethral glands, and the penis.
testes
duct system
accessory glands
penis
male sexual response and hormonal control
Female reproducti$e system
)he organs of the female
reproductie system produce
and sustain the female sex
cells (egg cells
or oa), transport these cells
to a site where they may be
fertili=ed by sperm, proide a
faorable enironment for the
deeloping fetus, moe the fetus to the outside at the end of the deelopment
period, and produce the female sex hormones . )he female reproductie system
includes the oaries, 6allopian tubes, uterus, agina, accessory glands, and external
genital organs.
En&o"rine Sys!em
)he endocrine system is a system of glands, each of which secretes a type
of hormone into the bloodstream to regulate the body. )he endocrine system is an
information signal system li.e the nerous system. (ormones regulate many
functions of an organism, including mood, growth and
deelopment, tissue function, and metabolism. )he field of study that deals with
disorders of endocrine glands is endocrinology, a branch of internal medicine.
)hey are two types of glands endocrine and exocrine glands.
<$7'8R"$< A?#$7%
#ny of arious glands producing hormonal secretions that pass directly into the
bloodstream. )he endocrine glands include the thyroid, parathyroid3s, anterior and
posterior pituitary, pancreas, adrenals, pineal, and gonads. #lso called ductless
gland
EXOCRINE GLANDS
# gland that secretes a substance out through a duct. )he exocrine glands include
the saliary glands, sweat glands and glands within the gastrointestinal tract. )he
exocrine glands are the Bglands of external secretion.B
)he endocrine system is made up of a series of ductless glands that produce
chemicals called hormones..
"n addition to the speciali=ed endocrine organs mentioned aboe, many other
organs that are part of other body systems, such as
the .idney, lier, heart and gonads, hae secondary endocrine functions. 6or
example the .idney secretes endocrine hormones such as erythropoietin and renin.
('R&'$<% R<?<#%<7 :C
Pos!erior pi!$i!ary lo,e Tyroi&
post pituitary
Bxytocin
/asopressin
.an!i&i$re!i"
ormone0ADH
PA)CREAS
insulin
glucagon
1omatostatin
-ypothalamus
Thyrotropin4releasing
hormone
.TRH0
*opamine
.Prola"!in4
ini,i!ing
ormone0 DA OR
PIH
Crowth hormone4
releasing hormone
.5HRIH0
1omatostatin.SS0
.grow! ormone4
ini,i!ing
ormone05HIH
Conadotropin4
releasing
hormone.5nRH0
0orticotropin4
releasing
hormone.CRH0
O#y!o"in 6 ADH
&nterior
pituitary
Crowth hormone
.soma!o!ropin0
5H
Thyroid4
stimulating
hormone
.!yro!ropin0TS
H
&drenocorticotro
pic hormone
."or!i"o!ropin0
ACTH
(ollicle4
stimulating
hormone.(SH0
5uteini=ing
hormone
.LH0
Drolactin
Tyroi& glan&
Triiodothyronine.T70
Thyroxine
.!e!raio&o!yronine
0T8
0alcitonin
9ID)EY A&renal glan&s
A&renal me&$lla
[Adrenal cortex) (Catecholamines)
Parathyroid Repro&$"!ive Sys!em

Ovarian follicle /

Corpus luteum
Testes

Se"re!e& ormone
?enin .Primarily0
'rythropoietin .EPO0
0alcitriol .:%;<4
&iy&ro#yvi!amin
D70
T
Se"re!e& ormone
Clucocorticoids ."ie+y cortisol0
Mineralocorticoids ."ie+yaldostero
ne0
&ndrogens .in"l$&ing *-'& an&test
osterone0
Se"re!e& ormone
&drenaline .epineprine0
.Primarily0
Eoradrenaline .norepine
prine0
Se"re!e& ormone
Drogesterone
'strogens
Inhibin
Se"re!e& ormone
Darathyroid
hormone.PTH0
Se"re!e& ormone
&ndrogens ."ie+y testos
terone0
'stradiol
Inhibin
I)TE5UME)TARY SYSTEM
:ecause the s.in (?. integumentum, a coering) is readily accessible and is one of
the best indicators of general health, careful obseration of it is important in
physical examinations. "t is considered in the differential diagnosis of almost eery
disease. )he s.in proides:
Heat regulation
Sensation
Synthesis and storage of itamin 7.
)he s%in, the bodyDs largest organ, consists of the epidermis, a superficial cellular
layer, and the dermis, a deep connectie tissue layer.
)he epidermis is a eratini!ed e"ithelium!that proides a protectie outer
surface# )he epidermis has no blood essels or lymphatics. )he a$ascular
e"idermis is nourished by the underlying $asculari!ed dermis# )he s.in is also
supplied with afferent nere endings that are sensitie to touch, irritation (pain),
and temperature. &ost nere terminals are in the dermis, but a few penetrate the
epidermis.
)he dermis is a dense layer of interlacing collagen and elastic fibers# )hese fibers
proide s.in tone and account for the strength and toughness of s.in.
)he s.in also contains many speciali=ed structures. )he deep layer of the dermis
contains hair %ollicles, with associated smooth arrector muscles and sebaceous
glands. 8ontraction of the arrector muscles o! hairs (?. musculi arrector "ili)
erects the hairs, causing goose bumps. 8ontraction of the arrector muscles causes
compression of the sebaceous glands and helping them to secrete their oily product
onto the s.in surface. )he eaporation of the watery secretion (sweat) of the s&eat
glands from the s.in proides a thermoregulatory mechanism for heat loss
(cooling). #lso inoled in the loss or retention of body heat are the small arteries
(arterioles) within the dermis. )hey dilate to fill su"er%icial ca"illary 'eds to
radiate heat (s.in appears red) or constrict to minimi=e surface heat loss (s.in,
especially of the lips and fingertips, appears blue). 'ther s.in structures or
deriaties include the nails (fingernails, toenails), the mammary glands, and the
enamel of teeth.
?ocated between the oerlying s.in (dermis) and underlying deep fascia,
the subcutaneous tissue (superficial fascia) is composed mostly of loose
connecti$e tissue and stored %at and contains sweat glands, su"er%icial 'lood
$essels, lym"hatic $essels, and cutaneous ner$es . )he neuroascular structures
course in the subcutaneous tissue, distributing only their terminal branches to the
s.in.
)he subcutaneous tissue proides for most of the bodyDs fat storage, so its thic.ness
aries greatly, depending on the personDs nutritional state. "n addition, the
distribution of subcutaneous tissue aries considerably in different sites in the same
indiidual. 8ompare, for example, the relatie abundance of subcutaneous tissue
eident by the thic.ness of the fold of s.in that can be pinched at the waist or
thighs with the anteromedial part of the leg (the shin, the anterior border of the
tibia) or the bac. of the hand, the latter two being nearly deoid of subcutaneous
tissue. #lso consider the distribution of subcutaneous tissue and fat between the
sexes: "n mature females, it tends to accumulate in the breasts and thighs, whereas
in males, subcutaneous fat accumulates in the lower abdominal wall.
%ubcutaneous tissue participates in thermoregulation, functioning as insulation,
retaining heat in the bodyDs core. "t also proides padding that protects the s.in
from compression by bony prominences, such as those in the buttoc.s.
&'(EG#ME'()R* S*S(EM
S%in +olor Signs in ,hysical -iagnosis
:lood flow through the superficial capillary beds of the dermis affects the color of
s.in and can proide important clues for diagnosing certain clinical conditions.
5hen the blood is not carrying enough oxygen from the lungs, such as in a person
who has stopped breathing or in a person haing a defectie circulation that is
sending an inadeEuate amount of blood through the lungs, the s.in can appear
bluish or cyanotic. )his occurs because the oxygen!carrying hemoglobin of blood
is bright red when carrying oxygen (as it does in arteries and usually does in
capillaries) and appears deep, purplish blue when depleted of oxygen, as it does in
eins. 8yanosis is especially eident where s.in is thin, such as the lips, eyelids,
and deep to the transparent nails.
Burns are caused by thermal trauma, ultraiolet or ioni=ing radiation, or chemical
agents. :urns are classified, in increasing order of seerity, based on the depth of
s.in in0ury
(st)degree *su"er%icial+ 'urn (e.g., sunburn): damage is limited to the
epidermis
,nd)degree *"artial)thicness+ 'urn- epidermis and superficial dermis are
damaged with blistering (superficial 2nd degree) or loss (deep 2nd degree
.rd)degree *%ull)thicness+ 'urn- the entire thic.ness of the s.in is damaged
and perhaps underlying muscle