Offshore General Introduction Analysis

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ESDEP WG 15A
STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS: OFFSHORE
Lecture 15A.1: Offshore Structures:
General Introduction
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To identify the basic vocabulary, to introduce the major concepts for offshore platform structures, and to explain where the basic structural
requirements for design are generated.
PREREQUISITES
None.
SUMMARY
The lecture starts with a presentation of the importance of offshore hydro-carbon exploitation, the basic steps in the development process (from
seismic exploration to platform removal) and the introduction of the major structural concepts (jacket-based, GBS-based, TLP, floating). The
major codes are identified.
For the fixed platform concepts (jacket and GBS), the different execution phases are briefly explained: design, fabrication and installation.
Special attention is given to some principles of topside design.
A basic introduction to cost aspects is presented.
Finally terms are introduced through a glossary.
1. INTRODUCTION
Offshore platforms are constructed to produce the hydrocarbons oil and gas. The contribution of offshore oil production in the year 1988 to the
world energy consumption was 9% and is estimated to be 24% in 2000.
The investment (CAPEX) required at present to produce one barrel of oil per day ($/B/D) and the production costs (OPEX) per barrel are
depicted in the table below.
World oil production in 1988 was 63 million barrel/day. These figures clearly indicate the challenge for the offshore designer: a growing
contribution is required from offshore exploitation, a very capital intensive activity.
Figure 1 shows the distribution of the oil and gas fields in the North Sea, a major contribution to the world offshore hydrocarbons. It also
indicates the onshore fields in England, the Netherlands and Germany.
Condition CAPEX $/B/D OPEX $/B
Conventional
Average 4000 - 8000 5
Middle East 500 - 3000 1
Non-Opec 3000 - 12000 8
Offshore
North Sea 10000 - 25000 5 - 10
Deepwater 15000 - 35000 10 - 15
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2. OFFSHORE PLATFORMS
2.1 Introduction of Basic Types
The overwhelming majority of platforms are piled-jacket with deck structures, all built in steel (see Slides 1 and 2).

Slide 1 : J acket based platform - Southern sector North Sea

Slide 2 : J acket based platform - Northern sector North Sea
A second major type is the gravity concrete structure (see Figure 2), which is employed in the North Sea in the Norwegian and British sectors.

A third type is the floating production unit.
2.2 Environment
The offshore environment can be characterized by:
water depth at location
soil, at seabottom and in-depth
wind speed, air temperature
waves, tide and storm surge, current
ice (fixed, floes, icebergs)
earthquakes (if necessary)
The topside structure also must be kept clear of the wave crest. The clearance (airgap) usually is taken at approximately 1,50 m, but should be
increased if reservoir depletion will create significant subsidence.
2.3 Construction
The environment as well as financial aspects require that a high degree of prefabrication must be performed onshore. It is necessary to design to
limit offshore work to a minimum. The overall cost of a man-hour offshore is approximately five times that of an onshore man-hour. The cost of
construction equipment required to handle loads, and the cost for logistics are also a magnitude higher offshore.
These factors combined with the size and weight of the items, require that a designer must carefully consider all construction activities between
shop fabrication and offshore installation.
2.4 Codes
Structural design has to comply with specific offshore structural codes. The worldwide leading structural code is the API-RP2A [1]. The recently
issued Lloyds rules [2] and the DnV rules [3] are also important.
Specific government requirements have to be complied with, e.g. in the rules of Department of Energy (DoE), Norwegian Petroleum Direktorate
(NPD). For the detail design of the topside structure the AISC-code [4] is frequently used, and the AWS-code [5] is used for welding.
In the UK the Piper alpha diaster has led to a completely new approach to regulation offshore. The responsibility for regulatory control has been
moved to the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) and the operator has to produce a formal safety assessment (TSA) himself instead of complying
with detailed regulations.
2.5 Certification and Warranty Survey
Government authorities require that recognized bodies appraise the aspects of structural integrity and issue a certificate to that purpose.
The major certification bodies are:
Det norske Veritas (DnV)
Lloyds Register of Shipping (LRS)
American Bureau of Shipping (ABS)
Bureau Veritas (BV)
Germanischer Lloyd (GL)
Their requirements are available to the designer [2, 3, 6, 7, 8].
Insurance companies covering transport and installation require the structures to be reviewed by warranty surveyors before acceptance. The
warranty surveyors apply standards, if available, on a confidential basis.
3. OFFSHORE DEVELOPMENT OF AN OIL/GAS FIELD
3.1 Introduction
The different requirements of an offshore platform and the typical phases of an offshore development are summarized in [9]. After several initial
phases which include seismic field surveying, one or more exploration wells are drilled. J ack-up drilling rigs are used for this purpose for water
depths up to 100 - 120 m; for deeper water floating rigs are used. The results are studied and the economics and risks of different development
plans are evaluated. Factors involved in the evaluation may include number of wells required, fixed or floated production facilities, number of
such facilities, and pipeline or tanker off-loading.
As soon as exploitation is decided and approved, there are four main technical activities, prior to production:
engineering and design
fabrication and installation of the production facility
drilling of production wells, taking 2 - 3 months/well
providing the off loading system (pipelines, tankers, etc.).
The drilling and construction interaction is described below for two typical fixed platform concepts.
3.2 Jacket Based Platform for Shallow Water
First the jacket is installed. The wells are then drilled by a jack-up drilling unit standing close by with a cantilever rig extending over the jacket.
Slide 3 shows a jack-up drilling unit with a cantilever rig. (In this instance it is engaged in exploratory drilling and is therefore working in
isolation.)

Slide 3 : Cantilevered drilling rig: Self-elevating (jack-up) exploration drilling platform.
Design and construction of the topside are progressed parallel to the drilling, allowing production to start soon after deck installation. For further
wells, the jack-up drilling unit will be called once again and will reach over the well area of the production deck.
As an alternative to this concept the wells are often accommodated in a separate wellhead platform, linked by a bridge to the production platform
(see Slide 1).
3.3 Jacket and Gravity Based Platform for Deep Water
The wells are drilled from a drilling rig on the permanent platform (see Slide 2). Drilling starts after the platform is built and completely
installed. Consequently production starts between one and two years after platform installation.
In recent years pre-drilled wells have been used to allow an earlier start of the production. In this case the platform has to be installed exactly
above the pre-drilled wells.
4. JACKETS AND PILE FOUNDATION
4.1 Introduction
J ackets, the tower-like braced tubular structures, generally perform two functions:
They provide the substructure for the production facility (topside), keeping it stable above the waves.
They support laterally and protect the 26-30 inch well conductors and the pipeline riser.
The installation methods for the jacket and the piles have a profound impact on the design.
4.2 Pile Foundation
The jacket foundation is provided by open-ended tubular steel piles, with diameters up to 2m. The piles are driven approximately 40 - 80 m, and
in some cases 120 m deep into the seabed.
There are basically three types of pile/jacket arrangement (see Figure 3):
Pile-through-leg concept, where the pile is installed in the corner legs of the jacket.
Skirt piles through pile sleeves at the jacket-base, where the pile is installed in guides attached to the jacket leg. Skirt piles can be grouped in
clusters around each of the jacket legs.
Vertical skirt piles are directly installed in the pile sleeve at the jacket base; all other guides are deleted. This arrangement results in reduced
structural weight and easier pile driving. In contrast inclined piles enlarge the foundation at the bottom, thus providing a stiffer structure.
4.3 Pile Bearing Resistance
Axial load resistance is required for bearing as well as for tension. The pile accumulates both skin friction as well as end bearing resistance.
Lateral load resistance of the pile is required for restraint of the horizontal forces. These forces lead to significant bending of the pile near to the
seabed.
Number, arrangement, diameter and penetration of the piles depend on the environmental loads and the soil conditions at the location.
4.4 Corrosion Protection
The most usual form of corrosion protection of the bare underwater part of the jacket as well as the upper part of the piles in soil is by cathodic
protection using sacrificial anodes. A sacrificial anode (approximate 3 kN each) consists of a zinc/aluminium bar cast about a steel tube and
welded on to the structures. Typically approximately 5% of the jacket weight is applied as anodes.
The steelwork in the splash zone is usually protected by a sacrificial wall thickness of 12 mm to the members.
5. TOPSIDES
5.1 Introduction
The major functions on the deck of an offshore platform are:
well control
support for well work-over equipment
separation of gas, oil and non-transportable components in the raw product, e.g. water, parafines/waxes and sand
support for pumps/compressors required to transport the product ashore
power generation
accommodation for operating and maintenance staff.
There are basically two structural types of topside, the integrated and modularized topside which are positioned either on a jacket or on a
concrete gravity substructure.
5.2 Jacket-based Topsides
5.2.1 Concepts
There are four structural concepts in practice. They result from the lifting capacity of crane vessels and the load-out capacity at the yards:
the single integrated deck (up to approx 100 MN)
the split deck in two four-leg units
the integrated deck with living quarter module
the modularized topside consisting of module support frame (MSF) carrying a series of modules.
Slide 4 shows an integrated deck (though excluding the living quarters and helideck) being moved from its assembly building.

Slide 4 : Integrated topside during load out
5.2.2 Structural Design for Integrated Topsides
For the smaller decks, up to approximately 100 MN weight, the support structure consists of trusses or portal frames with deletion of diagonals.
The moderate vertical load and shear per column allows the topside to be supported by vertical columns (deck legs) only, down to the top of the
piles (situated at approximately +4 m to +6 m L.A.T. (Low Astronomic Tide).
5.2.3 Structural Design for Modularized Jacket-based Topsides
A major modularized topside weighs 200 to 400 MN. In this case the MSF is a heavy tubular structure (Figure 4), with lateral bracing down to
the top of jacket.

5.3 Structural Design for Modularized Gravity-based Topsides
The topsides to be supported by a gravity-based substructure (see Figure 2) are in a weight range of 200 MN up to 500 MN.
The backbone of the structure is a system of heavy box-girders with a height of approximately 10 m and a width of approximately 12 - 15 m (see
Figure 5).

The substructure of the deck is rigidly connected to the concrete column and acts as a beam supporting the deck modules. This connection
introduces wave-induced fatigue in the deck structure. A recent development, foreseen for the Norwegian Troll platform, is to provide a flexible
connection between the deck and concrete column, thus eliminating fatigue in the deck [10].
6. EQUIPMENT AND LIVING QUARTER MODULES
Equipment modules (20-75 MN) have the form of rectangular boxes with one or two intermediate floors.
The floors are steel plate (6, 8 or 10 mm thick) for roof and lower floor, and grating for intermediate floors.
In living quarter modules (5-25 MN) all sleeping rooms require windows and several doors must be provided in the outer walls. This requirement
can interfere seriously with truss arrangements. Floors are flat or stiffened plate.
Three types of structural concepts, all avoiding interior columns, can be distinguished:
conventional trusses in the walls.
stiffened plate walls (so called stressed skin or deck house type).
heavy base frame (with wind bracings in the walls).
7. CONSTRUCTION
7.1 Introduction
The design of offshore structures has to consider various requirements of construction relating to:
1. fabrication.
2. weight.
3. load-out.
4. sea transport.
5. offshore installation.
6. module installation.
7. hook-up.
8. commissioning.
A documented construction strategy should be available during all phases of the design and the actual design development should be monitored
against the construction strategy.
Construction is illustrated below by four examples.
7.2 Construction of Jackets and Topsides
7.2.1 Lift Installed Jackets
The jacket is built in the vertical (smaller jackets) or horizontal position (bigger jackets) on a quay of a fabrication site.
The jacket is loaded-out and seafastened aboard a barge. At the offshore location the barge is moored alongside an offshore crane vessel.
The jacket is lifted off the barge, upended from the horizontal, and carefully set down onto the seabed.
After setting down the jacket, the piles are installed into the sleeves and, driven into the seabed. Fixing the piles to the jacket completes the
installation.
7.2.2 Launch Installed Jackets
The jacket is built in horizontal position.
For load-out to the transport barge, the jacket is put on skids sliding on a straight track of steel beams, and pulled onto the barge (Slide 5).

Slide 5 : J acket being loaded onto barge by skidding
At the offshore location the jacket is slid off the barge. It immerses deeply into the water and assumes a floating position afterwards (see Figure
6).

Two parallel heavy vertical trusses in the jacket structure are required, capable of taking the support reactions during launching. To reduce forces
and moments in the jacket, rocker arms are attached to the stern of the barge.
The next phase is to upright the jacket by means of controlled flooding of the buoyancy tanks and then set down onto the seabed. Self-upending
jackets obtain a vertical position after the launch on their own. Piling and pile/jacket fixing completes the installation.
7.2.3 Topsides for a Gravity-Based Structure (GBS)
The topside is assembled above the sea on a temporary support near a yard. It is then taken by a barge of such dimensions as to fit between the
columns of the temporary support and between the columns of the GBS. The GBS is brought in a deep floating condition in a sheltered site, e.g.
a Norwegian fjord. The barge is positioned between the columns and the GBS is then deballasted to mate with and to take over the deck from the
barge. The floating GBS with deck is then towed to the offshore site and set down onto the seabed.
7.2.4 Jacket Topsides
For topsides up to approximately 120 MN, the topside may be installed in one lift. Slide 6 shows a 60 MN topside being installed by floating
cranes.

Slide 6 : Installation of 60MN K12-BP topside by floating crane
For the modularized topside, first the MSF will be installed, immediately followed by the modules.
7.3 Offshore Lifting
Lifting of heavy loads from barges (Slide 6) is one of the very important and spectacular construction activities requiring a focus on the problem
when concepts are developed. Weather windows, i.e. periods of suitable weather conditions, are required for these operations.
7.3.1 Crane Vessel
Lifting of heavy loads offshore requires use of specialized crane vessels. Figure 7 provides information on a typical big, dual crane vessel. Table
1 (page 16) lists some of the major offshore crane vessels.

7.3.2 Sling-arrangement, Slings and Shackles
For lifting, steel wire ropes in a four-sling arrangement are used which directly rest in the four-point hook of the crane vessel, (see Figure 8). The
heaviest sling available now has a diameter of approximately 350 mm, a breaking load of approximately 48 MN, and a safe working load (SWL)
of 16 MN. Shackles are available up to 10 MN SWL to connect the padeyes installed at the module's columns. Due to the space required,
connecting more than one shackle to the same column is not very attractive. So when the sling load exceeds 10 MN, padears become an option.

Table 1 Major Offshore Crane Vessels
Operator Name Mode Type Lifting capacity (Tonnes)
Heerema Thor Monohull Fix 2720
Rev 1820
Odin Monohull Fix 2720
Rev 2450
Hermod Semisub Fix 4536 +3628 =8164
Rev 3630 +2720 =6350
Balder Semisub Fix 3630 +2720 =6350
Rev 3000 +2000 =5000
McDermott DB50 Monohull Fix 4000
Rev 3800
DB100 Semisub Fix 1820
Rev 1450
DB101 Semisub Fix 3360
Rev 2450
DB102 Semisub Rev 6000 +6000 =12000
Micoperi M7000 Semisub Rev 7000 +7000 =14000
ETPM DLB1601 Monohull Rev. 1600
Notes:
1. Rated lifting capacity in metric tonnes.
2. When the crane vessels are provided with two cranes, these cranes are situated at the vessels stern or bow at approximately 60 m distance
c.t.c.
1. 3. Rev =Load capability with fully revolving crane.
Fix =Load capability with crane fixed.
7.4 Sea Transport and Sea Fastening
Transportation is performed aboard a flat-top barge or, if possible, on the deck of the crane vessel.
The module requires fixing to the barge (see Figure 9) to withstand barge motions in rough seas. The sea fastening concept is determined by the
positions of the framing in the module as well as of the "hard points" in the barge.

7.5 Load-out
7.5.1 Introduction
For load-out three basic methods are applied:
skidding
platform trailers
shearlegs.
7.5.2 Skidding
Skidding is a method feasible for items of any weight. The system consists of a series of steel beams, acting as track, on which a group of skids
with each approximately 6 MN load capacity is arranged. Each skid is provided with a hydraulic jack to control the reaction.
7.5.3 Platform Trailers
Specialized trailer units (see Figure 10) can be combined to act as one unit for loads up to 60 - 75 MN. The wheels are individually suspended
and integrated jacks allow adjustment up to 300 mm.

The load capacity over the projected ground area varies from approximately 55 to 85 kN/sq.m.
The units can drive in all directions and negotiate curves.
7.5.4 Shearlegs
Load-out by shearlegs is attractive for small jackets built on the quay. Smaller decks (up to 10 - 12 MN) can be loaded out on the decklegs pre-
positioned on the barge, thus allowing deck and deckleg to be installed in one lift offshore.
7.6 Platform Removal
In recent years platform removal has become common. The mode of removal depends strongly on the regulations of the local authorities.
Provision for removal should be considered in the design phase.
8. STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
8.1 Introduction
The majority of structural analyses are based on the linear theory of elasticity for total system behaviour. Dynamic analysis is performed for the
system behaviour under wave-attack if the natural period exceeds 3 seconds. Many elements can exhibit local dynamic behaviour, e.g.
compressor foundations, flare-stacks, crane-pedestals, slender jacket members, conductors.
8.2 In-place Phase
Three types of analysis are performed:
Survival state, under wave/current/wind attack with 50 or 100 years recurrence period.
Operational state, under wave/current/wind attack with 1 or 5 years recurrence period, under full operation.
Fatigue assessment.
Accidental.
All these analyses are performed on the complete and intact structure. Assessments at damaged structures, e.g. with one member deleted, and
assessments of collision situations are occasionally performed.
8.3 Construction Phase
The major phases of construction when structural integrity may be endangered are:
Load-out
Sea transport
Upending of jackets
Lifting.
9. COST ASPECTS
9.1 Introduction
The economic feasibility of an offshore project depends on many aspects: capital expenditure (CAPEX), tax, royalties, operational expenditure
(OPEX).
In a typical offshore field development, one third of the CAPEX is spent on the platform, one third on the drilling of wells and one third on the
pipelines.
Cost estimates are usually prepared in a deterministic approach. Recently cost-estimating using a probabilistic approach has been developed and
adopted in major offshore projects.
The CAPEX of an installed offshore platform topside amounts to approximately 20 ECU/kg.
9.2 Capital Expenditure (CAPEX)
The major elements in the CAPEX for an offshore platform are:
project management and design
material and equipment procurement
fabrication
transport and installation
hook-up and commissioning.
9.3 Operational Expenditure (OPEX)
In the North Sea approximately 20 percent of OPEX are required for offshore inspection, maintenance and repair (IMR).
The amount to be spent on IMR over the project life can add up to approximately half the original investment.
IMR is the area in which the structural engineer makes a contribution by effort in design, selection of material, improved corrosion protection,
accessibility, basic provisions for scaffolding, avoiding jacket attachments dangerous to divers, etc.
10. DEEP WATER DEVELOPMENTS
Deep water introduces a wide range of extra difficulties for the operator, the designer and constructor of offshore platforms.
Fixed platforms have recently been installed in water of 410 m. depth, i.e. "Bullwinkle" developed by Shell Oil for a Gulf of Mexico location.
The jacket weighed nearly 500 MN.
The maximum depth of water at platform sites in the North Sea is approximately 220 m at present. The development of the Troll field situated in
approximately 305 m deep water is planned for 1993.
In the Gulf of Mexico and offshore California several fixed platforms in water depths of 250 - 350 m are in operation (Cerveza, Cognac). Exxon
has a guyed tower platform (Lena) in operation in 300 m deep water.
An option for deeper locations is to use subsea wells with flowlines to a nearby (approximately maximum 10 km) fixed platform at a smaller
water depth. Alternatively subsea wells may be used with flexible risers to a floating production unit. Subsea wells are now feasible for 300 - 900
m deep water. The deepest wells have been developed off Brasil in moderate weather conditions.
The tension leg platform (TLP) seems to be the most promising deepwater production unit (Figure 11). It consists of a semi-submersible
pontoon, tied to the seabed by vertical prestressed tethers. The first TLP was Hutton in the North Sea and recently TLP-J olliet was installed at a
530 m deep location in the Gulf of Mexico. Norwegian Snorre and Heidrun fields have been developed with TLPs as well.

11. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
The lecture starts with the presentation of the importance of offshore hydro-carbon exploitation, the basic steps in the development process
(from seismic exploration to platform removal) and the introduction of the major structural concepts (jacket-based, GBS-based, TLP,
floating).
The major codes are identified.
For the fixed platform concepts (jacket and GBS), the different execution phases are briefly explained: design, fabrication and installation.
Special attention is given to the principles of topside design.
A basic introduction to cost aspects is presented.
Finally terms are introduced within a glossary.
12. GLOSSARY OF TERMS
AIR GAP Clearance between the top of maximum wave and underside of the topside.
CAISSONS See SUMPS
CONDUCTORS The tubular protecting and guiding the drill string from the topside down to 40 to 100m under the sea bottom. After drilling it
protects the well casing.
G.B.S. Gravity based structure, sitting flatly on the sea bottom, stable through its weight.
HOOK-UP Connecting components or systems, after installation offshore.
J ACKET Tubular sub-structure under a topside, standing in the water and pile founded.
LOAD-OUT The operation of bringing the object (module, jacket, deck) from the quay onto the transportation barge.
PADEARS (TRUNNIONS) Thick-walled tubular stubs, directly receiving slings and transversely welded to the main structure.
PADEYES Thick-walled plate with hole, receiving the pin of the shackle, welded to the main structure.
PIPELINE RISER The piping section which rises from the sea bed to topside level.
SEA-FASTENING The structure to keep the object rigidly connected to the barge during transport.
SHACKLES Connecting element (bow +pin) between slings and padeyes.
SLINGS Cables with spliced eyed at both ends, for offshore lifting, the upper end resting in the crane hook.
SPREADER Tubular frame, used in lifting operation.
SUBSEA TEMPLATE Structure at seabottom, to guide conductors prior to jacket installation.
SUMPS Vertical pipes from topside down to 5-10 m below water level for intake or discharge.
TOPSIDE Topside, the compact offshore process plant, with all auxiliaries, positioned above the waves.
UP ENDING Bringing the jacket in vertical position, prior to set down on the sea bottom.
WEATHER WINDOW
A period of calm weather, defined on basis of operational limits for the offshore marine operation.
WELLHEAD AREA Area in topside where the wellheads are positioned including the valves mounted on its top.
13. REFERENCES
[1] API-RP2A: Recommended practice for planning, designing and constructing fixed offshore platforms.
American Petroleum Institute 18th ed. 1989.
The structural offshore code, governs the majority of platforms.
[2] LRS Code for offshore platforms.
Lloyds Register of Shipping.
London (UK) 1988.
Regulations of a major certifying authority.
[3] DnV: Rules for the classification of fixed offshore installations.
Det Norske Veritas 1989.
Important set of rules.
[4] AISC: Specification for the design, fabrication and erection of structural steel for buildings.
American Institute of Steel Construction 1989.
Widely used structural code for topsides.
[5] AWS D1.1-90: Structural Welding Code - Steel.
American Welding Society 1990.
The structural offshore welding code.
[6] DnV/Marine Operations: Standard for insurance warranty surveys in marine operations.
Det norske Veritas J une 1985.
[7] ABS: Rules for building and classing offshore installations, Part 1 Structures.
American Bureau of Shipping 1983.
[8] BV: Rules and regulations for the construction and classification of offshore platforms.
Bureau Veritas, Paris 1975.
[9] ANON: A primer of offshore operations.
Petex Publ. Austin U.S.A 2nd ed. 1985.
Fundamental information about offshore oil and gas operations.
[10] AGJ Berkelder et al: Flexible deck joints.
ASME/OMAE-conference The Hague 1989 Vol.II pp. 753-760.
Presents interesting new concept in GBS design.
14. ADDITIONAL READING
1. BS 6235: Code of practice for fixed offshore structures.
British Standards Institution 1982.
Important code, mainly for the British offshore sector.
2. DoE Offshore installations: Guidance on design and construction, U.K. Department of Energy 1990.
Governmental regulations for British offshore sector only.
3. UEG: Design of tubular joints (3 volumes).
UEG Offshore Research Publ. U.R.33 1985.
Important theoretical and practical book.
4. J . Wardenier: Hollow section joints.
Delft University Press 1981.
Theoretical publication on tubular design including practical design formulae.
5. ARSEM: Design guides for offshore structures welded tubular joints.
Edition Technip, Paris (France), 1987.
Important theoretical and practical book.
6. D. J ohnston: Field development options.
Oil & Gas J ournal, May 5 1986, pp 132 - 142.
Good presentation on development options.
7. G. I. Claum et al: Offshore Structures: Vol 1: Conceptual Design and Hydri-mechanics; Vol 2 - Strength and Safety for Structural design.
Springer Verlag, London 1992.
Fundamental publication on structural behaviour.
8. W.J . Graff: Introduction to offshore structures.
Gulf Publishing Company, Houston 1981.
Good general introduction to offshore structures.
9. B.C. Gerwick: Construction of offshore structures.
J ohn Wiley & Sons, New York 1986.
Up to date presentation of offshore design and construction.
10. T.A. Doody et al: Important considerations for successful fabrication of offshore structures.
OTC paper 5348, Houston 1986, pp 531-539.
Valuable paper on fabrication aspects.
11. D.I. Karsan et al: An economic study on parameters influencing the cost of fixed platforms.
OTC paper 5301, Houston 1986, pp 79-93.
Good presentation on offshore CAPEX assessment.
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and wind farms. Nearly 40 years of focus on these specialized requirements have made SACS the analysis
mainstay for most of the worlds offshore engineers. Virtually all of the worlds energy companies specify
SACS software for use by their engineering rms across the lifecycle of offshore platforms. Three options
of the SACS software suites are available: Offshore Structure Enterprise for comprehensive capabilities
required for typical offshore jackets, wharfs, and dolphin structures; Offshore Structure Advanced for
static topside and deck analysis; and Offshore Structure for static structural analysis.
SACS ANALYSIS PACKAGES
Pile Structure Design:
Soil/Pile/Structure Interaction Analysis
This non-linear add-on package permits non-linear soil/pile/
structure interaction analysis of fixed offshore structures with
multiple fixed supports using the PSI program modules. It requires
the use of the Offshore Structure, Offshore Structure Advanced, or
Offshore Structure Enterprise package.
Collapse:
Plastic Non-Linear Add-On
This add-on package performs advanced plastic analysis including
pushover, ship impact, and blast non-linear analysis. It requires the use
of the Offshore Structure, Offshore Structure Advanced, or Offshore
Structure Enterprise package.
Fatigue Advanced Dynamic Response:
Fatigue Package with Dynamic Response
This Advanced Dynamic Fatigue package contains the modules required
to determine the wind fatigue damage of a dynamic system. This
package contains DYNPAC, Fatigue, Interactive Fatigue, and Dynamic
Response. It requires the use of the Offshore Structure, Offshore
Structure Advanced, or Offshore Structure Enterprise package.
Fatigue Advanced Wave Response:
Fatigue Package with Wave Response
This Advanced Dynamic Fatigue package contains the modules
required to determine the fatigue damage of a dynamic system
subject to wave loads. This package contains DYNPAC, Fatigue,
Interactive Fatigue, and Wave Response. It requires the
use of the Offshore Structure, Offshore Structure Advanced,
or Offshore Structure Enterprise package.
Fatigue Enterprise:
Fatigue Package with Wave Response
and Dynamic Response
This Advanced Dynamic Fatigue package contains the modules
required to perform any dynamic deterministic, time history, or
spectral fatigue analysis. This package contains DYNPAC, Fatigue,
Interactive Fatigue, Dynamic Response, and Wave Response. It
requires the use of the Offshore Structure, Offshore Structure
Advanced, or Offshore Structure Enterprise package.
Wind:
Wind Turbine Package
The Wind Turbine package is comprised of the following packages
necessary for wind turbine platform design: Offshore Structure
Enterprise, Pile Structure Design, Collapse, and Fatigue Enterprise.
The package also contains the SACS interfaces to the GH Bladed and
FAST wind turbine aero-elastic modules. Full automation including
multi-core analysis capability is included for efcient analysis of a
large number of time history simulations.
Marine:
Marine Installation Add-On
The Marine Installation Add-on package permits launch and upending
analysis. The package includes the Launch and Flotation program
modules, and requires the use of the Offshore Structure, Offshore
Structure Advanced, or Offshore Structure Enterprise package.
Marine Enterprise:
Hull Modeling and Meshing, Motions,
and Stability Analysis
The Marine Enterprise Add-on provides modeling and meshing
of vessel hulls, calculation of stability, and prediction of vessel
motions. It can be used for new or existing FPSO studies, as well
as for transportation and installation analysis. It links with the Tow
module for calculation of motions induced loads and downstream
code checking and fatigue calculations. The package contains
the Hull Modeler, Hull Mesher Motions, and Stability modules,
and requires the use of the Offshore Structure, Offshore Structure
Advanced, or Offshore Structure Enterprise package.
Ship Impact Analysis
Motions prediction on an FPSO.
Parametric Study for the Fatigue Design of a Wind Turbine
Transition Piece
The following add-on modules extend the functionality of any of the three Offshore Structure suites.
SACS Executive:
Common Interface to Program Suite
Controls and connects all elements of the SACS system
Launches all SACS interactive programs
Executes all batch program analyses
Allows access to all SACS system conguration settings,
including system le location and security key settings
Includes command line help and power buttons for the most
commonly executed tasks
Species analysis options without changing data input le
Precede:
Interactive Full Screen Graphics Modeler
Model generation capabilities include geometry, material
and section properties, and loading
Automatic input error detection
Maintains data backup
Beam and/or nite element modeling including plate
and shell elements
Automatic offshore jacket and deck generation
User dened input units
Cartesian, cylindrical, or spherical mesh generation
Automatic weight or load generation including gravity, pressure,
and skid mounted equipment loads
Seastate data generation capabilities
Extensive plotting and reporting capabilities
Code check parameter generation including K-factors and
compression ange unbraced lengths
Allows SACS model les to be converted into 3D SAT le format
compatible with AutoCAD, and other CAD systems
Physical member support capabilities
Professional and other ACIS-enabled CAD packages
Supports full 3D geometry and section properties
Allows SACS model les to be ported directly to a PDMS macro
le, which creates the 3D model in PDMS
Supports PDMS section libraries in addition to creating PDMS
sections for sections dened in the SACS model
Logging functionality
ISM Export to ProSteel and other steel detailing systems
Data Generator:
Interactive Data Generation for all Programs
Intelligent full screen editor that labels and highlights data elds
and provides help for data input
Form-lling data input available as well as full screen mode
Automatic data checking
Seastate:
Environmental Loads Generator
Ability to view plot les on screen
Sends viewed plots to printer/plotter
Supports HP-GL, Postscript, DXF, Windows devices
Metale (WMF), and SACS NPF plot le
Allows plot size, character size, margins, formats, etc.
Ability to modify chart settings
Full implementation of API 21
st
edition
Supports ve wave theories
Current included or excluded
Generates load due to wind, gravity, buoyancy,
and mud ow
SACS has applications for all types of offshore structures & vessels
Offshore System Types
1. Fixed Platforms
2. Compliant Tower
3. Tension Leg Platforms
4. Semi-Submersibles
5. FPSOs
The following software modules extend the functionality of any of the three Offshore Structure suites and are either
included within those packages or available as add-on modules. Please consult your Bentley representative for product
specics relative to your needs.
Marine growth, ooded, and non-ooded members
RAO and acceleration loading including non-structural weights
Moving loads generation
Diameter, Reynolds number, and wake encounter effects
dependent drag and inertia coefcients
Weight load cases
Forces on non-structural bodies
Deterministic and random wave modeling for dynamic response
Member hydrodynamic modeling for static and dynamic analysis
SACS IV Solver:
Static Beam and Finite Element Analysis
Beam elements including tubulars, tees, wide anges,
channels, angles, cones, plate and box girders, stiffened
cylinders, and boxes
Solid and plate elements (isotropic and stiffened)
Discrete Kirchoff Theory (DKT) thin-plates
Isoparametric 6-, 8-, and 9-node shell elements
Library of AISC, U.K., European, German, Chinese, and
Japanese cross sections, as well as user-dened libraries
Member, plate and shell local and global offsets
Beam and nite element thermal loads
Elastic supports dened in global or reference joint
coordinate system
Specied support joint displacements
Unlimited load cases
P-delta effects
Master/slave DOF
Post:
Beam and Finite Element Code
Check and Redesign
Beam and plate element code check and redesign
API (including 21
st
edition), AISC, LRFD, Norsok, Eurocode 3,
Canadian, DNV, British Standards, and Danish DS449
code check
Plate panel checks in accordance to DnV-RP-C201
Creates updated model with redesigned elements
Modify code check parameters
Load combination capabilities
Supports codes from 1977 to present
Detailed and summary reports
Hydrostatic collapse analysis
Span (multi-member effects)
ISO 19902
Joint Can:
Tubular Joint Code Check and Redesign
Present and past codes including latest API
21
st
edition, supplement 2, and LRFD, Norsok, DS449,
and Canadian
API earthquake and simplied fatigue analysis
ISO 19902
Connection strength (50 percent) check
Overlapping joints analyzed
Minimum and extreme seismic analysis
Postvue:
Interactive Graphics Post Processor
Interactive member and tubular joint code check
and redesign, with the option to print code check
details for latest AISC, ASD and LRFD, API,
ISO 19902 codes
Display shear and bending moment diagrams
Display deected shapes for static and dynamic analyses
Color plate stress contour plots
Code check and redesign by individual or group
of elements
Supports same codes as post module
Extensive reporting and plotting capabilities
Color-coded results and unity check plots
Creates updated input model le for re-analysis
Labels UC ratio, stresses, and internal forces
on elements
Automatic Joint Meshing
Concrete:
Reinforced Concrete Code Check
and Redesign
Rectangular, Circular, Tee, and L cross sections
Beam, bi-axial beam-column, slab, and wall elements supported
Multiple reinforcement patterns can be specied
Code check per ACI 318-89 (Revised 1992)
Shear reinforcement check and redesign
Reinforcement development length check
Deection and creep calculation
Second order/P-delta analysis capabilities
Fatigue:
Fatigue Life Evaluation and Redesign
Spectral, time history, and deterministic fatigue analysis
Cyclic stress range calculation procedures include wave search,
curve t, and interpolation
SCF calculations recommended by API (including 21
st
ed.
supplements), HSE, DNV, DS449 and Norsok Codes
Automatic redesign
API (including 21st ed. supplements), AWS, HSE, and Norsok
thickness dependent recommended S-N curves
Multiple run damage accumulation
Pierson-Moskowitz, JONSWAP, Ochi-Hubble double peak,
simplied double peek, and user-dened spectra
Automated or user-specied connection details
Pile fatigue analysis
Creates wave spectra from scatter diagram
Uses Paris equation to predict crack growth rate due to
cyclic stresses
Load path dependent joint classications
Includes wave spreading effects
Reservoir (rain ow) cycle counting method
ISO 19902
Interactive Fatigue:
Interactive Fatigue Life Evaluation
Shows the 3D view of the connection and allows braces to be
selected with the mouse
Reads connection defaults when joint and/or brace is/are
selected, thus eliminating the need to calculate and display
SCFs before viewing capacity or modifying properties
Recognizes all SCF and S-N options available in the batch program
Allows SCF theory to be changed for any type connection, including
in-line connections and connections with user dened SCFs
Reports have been expanded and reworked to make them
easier to read
Reports and plots can be displayed on the screen and/or
saved to a le
Automatic redesign
GAP:
Non-linear Analysis With One-way Elements
Accurate simulation of load out or transportation analysis using
one-way elements
Tension or compression gap elements with initial gap
General non-linear elements
Friction element
PSI:
Non-linear Soil, Pile, and Structure Interaction
Beam column effects included
Non-uniform piles
P-Y and T-Z curves, axial adhesion and springs
API P-Y, T-Z, skin friction and adhesion data generated from soil
properties per API
API P-Y / T-Z Soil
API Adhesion Soil
User Dened P-Y / T-Z Soil
User Dened Adhesion Soil
PSI:
Full structural analysis and pile code check API, LRFD, Norsok,
HSE, DS449, Canadian, and DNV
Offset P-Y & T-Z curves for mudslides
Full plotting and graphical representation of soil data and results,
including stresses, P-Y, T-Z curves
Soil liquefaction effects
Pile:
Isolated 3D Pile Analysis
Beam column and pile batter effects included
Uses PSI soil data
Optional pile head springs
Specify force at or below pile head
Specify pile head displacements
Specied pile head forces or displacements
Automatic generation of linear equivalent pile stubs for dynamic
or static analysis
Same plotting and code check features as PSI
Superelement:
Automated Substructure Creation
and Application
Unlimited number of superelements
Up to 1,000 interface joints per superelement
Translation and rotation of superelements
User dened stiffness matrices
Full stress recovery
Superelements can contain other superelements
Translation and rotation of superelements
Combine:
Common Solution File Utility
Combines dynamic and static results from one or multiple
solution les
Combines results from analyzes having different member,
plates, etc.
Superimposes mode shapes
Worst-case combination of dead loads with
earthquake response
Determine extreme wave loads from input spectra
Large Deflection (LDF):
Large Deflection Analysis
Iterative solution for geometric
Solves plate membrane problems
Accounts for P-delta effects nonlinearities
Collapse:
Non-linear Collapse Analysis
Linear and non-linear material behavior
Non-linear springs
Sequential load stacking capability
Activate and deactivate elements
Joint exibility options
Non-linear Elasto-plastic Deformations
Impact analysis with automatic unloading, built-in DnV ship
indentation curves and energy absorption functionality
Load cases may contain loading and/or specied displacements
Includes geometric nonlinearities
Plastic members and nite elements
Includes piles with non-linear soils and plasticity
Plastic DKT plates
Dynpac:
Dynamic Characteristics
Householder-Givens solution
Guyan reduction of non-essential degrees of freedom
Lumped or consistent structural mass generation
Automatic virtual mass generation
Complete seastate hydrodynamic modeling
User input distributed and concentrated mass
Non-structural weight modeling
Full 6 DOF modes available for forced response analysis
Wave Response:
Dynamic Wave Response
Deterministic and random waves
Pierson-Moskowitz, Jonswap, Ochi-Hubble, and user wave spectra
Harris, Von Karmon, and Kaimal wind spectra
Fluid-structure relative velocity and acceleration accounted for
Modal Acceleration and non-linear uid damping
Closed form steady state response in the frequency domain
Equivalent static load output for accurate stress recovery
Zero crossing and RMS responses
Time history analysis of wave and wind and time history load
Buoyancy dynamic loads included
Stress, internal load, base shear, and overturning moment
transfer function plots available
Full coupling with Fatigue program
Elastic dynamic response of oating structures including stingers
Input and output Power Spectral Densities with
Probability Distributions
Special features for wind turbine analysis
Dynamic Response:
General Dynamic Response and Earthquake Analysis
Frequency domain analysis
Time history, response spectrum or PSD-based
driven input
Time history and harmonic-force driven input
SRSS, CQC and peak modal combinations
API response spectra library and user input spectra
Wind spectral loading capability
Structural and uid damping
Vibration analysis with multiple input points with
user specied frequencies and phasing
General periodic forces decomposed by Fourier analysis
Ice dynamics analysis
Engine/compressor vibration analysis
Response spectrum output at any joint
Stability and Upending Analysis
Dual Hook Capabilities
Buoyancy Tanks, Valves,
User Dened Buoyancy
Flotation and Upending Analysis
2013 Bentley Systems, Incorporated. Bentley, the B Bentley logo, and SACS are either registered or unregistered trademarks or service marks of Bentley Systems,
Incorporated or one of its direct or indirect wholly owned subsidiaries. Other brands and product names are trademarks of their respective owners. CSR#3260 09/13
Find out about Bentley
at: www.Bentley.com/
Offshore
Contact Bentley
1-800-BENTLEY (1-800-236-8539)
Outside the US +1 610-458-5000
Global Ofce Listings
www.bentley.com/contact
System Requirements
Processor:
Core 2 processor or better
Operating System:
Windows 7 or Windows 8
RAM:
Minimum 2 GB of RAM
Hard Disk:
Minimum 2 GB of free hard disk space
Display:
Graphics card supporting Open GL
128 MB RAM or greater video
card with 1280x1024 or higher
video resolution
SACS
Equivalent static load and incremental load output

resulting from earthquake, ship impact, dropped object
and blast analysis. This loading can be used for
subsequent linear static analysis or for non-linear
collapse analysis
Ship impact analysis
Dropped object analysis
Launch:
Jacket Launch Analysis
Full launch motion time history analysis including
hydrodynamic forces in all directions
Time history of jacket and barge motions
All phases of launch included
Unbalanced loads generated for any position
Launch sequence plot capability including barge and
jacket silhouette for designated steps
Anchor restraints
Flotation:
Jacket Flotation and Upending Analysis
Color coded snapshots of each upending step
Stability and upending analyses
Initial oating and on bottom positions provided
Upending steps can include multiple commands
Dual hook capabilities
Buoyancy tanks, valves, user-specied buoyancy
and weights and hydrodynamic overrides
Inclusion of marine growth for de-commissioning
Properties, forces, and positions plotted vs. step
Upending forces including gravity, sling loads, buoyancy,
and buoyancy tank loads generated for any step of the
upending sequence
Upending phase summary reports including pitch, roll,
and yaw angles, mud line clearance, etc.
Tow:
Transportation Inertia Load Generator
Input motion for six degrees of freedom
Output location for selected points
Automatic weight calculation
User input member and joint weights
Generates distributed member and plate loads
Converts user dened loads into inertias
MTO:
Material Take-Off, Weight Control,
and Cost Estimation
Member lengths including cuts
Steel tonnage and CG location
Material list, cost estimate, and weight
control reports
Weld volume requirements and cost
Required protective anodes and cost
Surface area calculations by elevation
Anode calculation in accordance to NACE SPO176-2007
(formerly RP0176-2003) and DnV-RP-B401
Transportation Analysis
Tow Analysis
Combine Multiple Common Solution Files
Static Analysis with Non-linear GAP Elements
Seafastener Design

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Equivalent static load and incremental load output

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