GRMENA II, 2007, p.

355-382 355
Using Lithologic Modeling Techniques for
Aquifer Characterization and Groundwater
Flow Modeling of Sohag Area, Egypt

Ayman A. Ahmed
Geology Department, Faculty of Science, Sohag University, Sohag, Egypt

Abstract
Three dimensional lithologic modeling techniques are used in this paper for
detailed characterization and groundwater flow modeling of Quaternary aquifer
system of Sohag area, Egypt. The study depends on using the well logs data and
techniques of lithologic modeling available in Rockworks software capabilities and
tools. Well logs data were used to obtain lithologic models representing the
different lithologic materials of the Quaternary aquifer system of the study area.
Groundwater flow model, using MODFLOW 2000, is built using results of the
lithologic models. Results showed that the obtained lithologic models honored the
well logs data and showed the complex sedimentary system which is mainly
composed of six lithologic categories, which are clay, clay and sand, fine sand,
coarse sand, sand and gravel, and gravel. Inter-fingering and presence of lenses is a
main characteristic of the sedimentary basin represented in the study area. A wide
range of hydraulic conductivities is present which vary spatially and controls the
groundwater flow. Heterogeneity of aquifer system is spatially represented in the
study area where different hydraulic conductivity fields are found in the different
directions. Sandy layers tend to be connected to form a certain flow continuation.
Hydraulic continuity is represented by clusters of sandy materials within the aquifer
system. Flow model results showed that the River Nile acts as a discharging line for
the Quaternary aquifer where groundwater levels are higher than those of the Nile.
Flow regime in the study area includes a downward flow from the top layer due to
infiltration from excess irrigation, flow toward the River Nile, flow out of irrigation
canals, flow into drains, inflow from the southern boundary, and outflow from the
northern boundary.

INTRODUCTION
Aquifer characterization is a matter of importance in groundwater
modeling applications where representing spatial variability has a substantial
influence on the behavior of the system. The difficulty of characterizing
subsurface heterogeneity with commonly sparse data sets severely limits the
accuracy and realism of transport models (Weissmann et al 1999). Drillers
lithologic logs data may provide excellent information about the vertical
variability of the sediments but only limited lateral variability information.
Different methods were used for modeling heterogeneity and spatial
connectivity including the methods of Indicator Point Kringing and Conditional
Indicator simulations (Ritzi et al 1994), Transition Probability-Based Indicator
Geostatistics (Carle and Fogg 1996), One and Multidimensional Continuous-
Lag Markov Chains (Carle and Fogg 1997), transition probability geostatistics
with a sequence stratigraphy framework (Weissmann and Fogg 1999,
Weissmann et al 2002 ), facies models with genetic approaches and

356 Ayman A. Ahmed

Geostatistical, Boolean or Markovian methods (Marsily et al 2005), structure-
imitating, process-imitating, and descriptive approaches (Koltermann and
Gorelick 1996).
The previous works dealing with the configuration of the Quaternary
aquifer in the study area used one-dimensional one-layer, two-dimensional one
layer and two-dimensional two layer models (Attia 1985; Abdel Moneim 1992).
In addition, heterogeneity is not treated in these models where assumptions are
applied to use homogenous, uniform thickness, and unique hydraulic properties
for layers. Although three-dimensional models are also used in recent literature
(Shamrukh 2001; Ahmed 2003), uniform layer thicknesses and uniform
hydraulic conductivities for the different aquifer layers are assumed due to
scarcity of data about the number of layers, their thickness, and elevations of top
and bottom surfaces.
Complex stratigraphy can be difficult to simulate in MODFLOW
models. MODFLOW uses a structured grid that requires that each grid layer be
continuous throughout the model domain. This makes it difficult to explicitly
represent common features such as pinchouts and embedded seams in a
MODFLOW model (J ones et al 2002). Consequently, The present study aims at
applying lithologic modeling techniques for characterization of the Quaternary
aquifer system and building a groundwater flow model for Sohag area, located
in the middle of the Nile Valley, Egypt, between latitudes 26 00
/
and 27 00
/
N
and longitudes 31 15
/
and 32 15
/
E (Fig. 1). The study depends on using the
well logs data and techniques of lithologic modeling available in Rockworks
software package (Rockware, 2002). Rockworks is used for accomplishing this
study due to its friendly user interface, capabilities of managing the pore holes
and well logs data, and ability of using alternative methods of building the
lithologic models. The obtained models were used for representing the aquifer
system and building a groundwater flow model. The generated lithologic models
are used for building a MODFLOW model based on the generated three-
dimensional lithologic framework of the study area. The lithologic models are
converted to a layered three-dimensional finite difference mesh that honors the
horizontal boundaries of the stratigraphic layers and matches the stratigraphy
defined by the lithologic models.

MATERIALS AND METHODS
Geologic framework
The area of study is a part of the Nile Valley which is geologically
investigated by many authors such as Sandford and Arkell 1939; Shukri 1950;
Butzer and Hansen 1968; Said 1962, 1975, 1981, 1983, 1990; Wendorf and
Schild 1976, 1980; Issawi et al 1978; Issawi 1983; Paulissen and Vermeersch
1987; Issawi and McCauley 1992; Mahran 1993; and Omer 1996. The
sedimentological sequence of the study area is mainly represented by the Lower
Eocene limestone, Plio-Pleistocene sands, gravels and clays and the recent
sediments (Fig. 1). The Lower Eocene rocks are represented by Thebes
Formation (thin bedded limestone with chert bands and flent nodules) forming
the plateau bounding the Nile Valley on both sides. The Upper Pliocene-
Pleistocene sediments form three belts extending nearly parallel to the course of
the River Nile (Mahran 1993) with
Using Lithologic Modeling Techniques for Aquifer Characterization 357



Figure 1: Regional geologic map of Sohag area (Modified from Said 1962).

different facies distributions (Fig. 2); The inner belt (nearer to the Eocene
limestone scarp) and is composed at the lower part of fine grained sandstone,
siltstone, and claystone intercalations (Madmoud Formation), followed upward
by conglomerates dominated sequence (Armant Formation) intertonguing with
breccia and conglomerates (Issawia Formation) at the top. Sediments of the
inner belt started with accumulation of flood plain facies of Madmoud
Formation, followed with upward by deposition of three interfingering facies;
the alluvial fan and the lacustrine facies of Armant Formation and the talus
facies of Issawia Formation. The middle belt is represented by sandstones
dominated sequence (Qena sandstones) which are overlain by polygenetic
conglomerates and sandstones of Abbassia Formation. Sediments of this belt
were accumulated under conditions ranging from fluviatile channels at the base
(Qena sandstones) to alluvial fans at the top (Abbassia Formation). The outer
belt (nearer to the cultivated land) and is composed of shales, laminated
sandstone, siltstone, and claystones (Dandara Formation) which are overlain and
laterally intertonguing with El Gir conglomerates.The sediments of this belt

358 Ayman A. Ahmed

exhibit three interfingering facies; the alluvial fan facies comprises El Gir
conglomerates, the flood plain and the lacustrine facies constitute Dandara
Formation. Recent sediments are represented by the alluvium (cultivated lands)
located between the Plio-Pleistocene sediments and the River Nile.





Figure 2: Facies distribution in the study area (Mahran 1993).

Hydrogeologic framework
The study area belongs to the arid region of North Africa which is
generally characterized by hot summer and cold winter with low rainfall. Air
temperature ranges between 36.5
o
C (summer) and 15.5 (Winter), relative
humidity ranges between 51 61% (Winter), 33-41% (Spring), and 35 42%
(Summer). Surface water hydrology of Sohag area is represented by the River
Nile, irrigation canals, and drains (Fig. 1). The area gets the irrigation water
from the River Nile and the main irrigation canals which take water from the
River Nile upstream of Nag-Hammadi Barrages. These canals are West Nag-
Hammadi and East Nag-hammadi canals with a total length of 130 and 150 km
respectively. Other large canals that take water from the main canals include El-
Baliana, El-kasra, El-Girgawia, and Tahtawia canals. The drainage system in the
study area is mainly represented by Main Girga drain, El-Baliana drain,
Akhmim Main drain, Tahta drain, El-Kasra drain, and El Kheikh Marzok drain.
These drains are running from south to north parallel to the irrigation canals.
There are other lateral minor drains include bani Himail, Bar Khael, Bakri, and
Awlad Ali drains. The irrigation canals and drains in the study area cover an
area of about 8.5 km
2
. The Quaternary aquifer system in the study area is
formed by the alluvial deposits of the Nile and consists of two layers having
distinct hydraulic properties (Fig. 3). The upper layer is the clay-silt member,
which has low horizontal and vertical permeability. It functions as a semi-
confining layer to the underlying aquifer. The clay-silt member is laterally
extensive, having greater thickness near the river channel and vanishing near the
valley fringes where it is overlain by desert sands. The lower layer, the graded
Using Lithologic Modeling Techniques for Aquifer Characterization 359

sand member, forms the main aquifer having high horizontal and vertical
permeability. The lower boundary of the aquifer may be considered impervious
due to the presence of extensive and thick deposits of the Pliocene clays of very
low permeability. The lateral boundaries along the sides of the valley are not
impervious. The horizontal permeabilities of the formations and hydraulic
gradients, however, are small enough to justify the assumption that no flow
occurs across these boundaries (MPWWR 1988). The aquifer geometry differs
from one locality to another (Attia 1974). The thickness of this aquifer as well as
its width differs from one locality to another (Farrag 1982). The water in this
aquifer is found under semi-confined conditions, and in other localities it is
present under unconfined conditions where the Nile silt is absent. The aquifer is
essentially restricted to the valley and also to the bottom of the adjacent desert
valleys.



Figur 3: General hydrogeologic section of Sohag area (RIGW 1990)

Lithologic modeling of Quaternary aquifer system
The investigated subsurface lithologic well logs for the study area
indicate that the area is composed of six categories which are clay, clay and
sand, fine sand, coarse sand, sand and gravel, and gravel. The sedimentary
sequence encountered in the study area revealed the complexity of the
sedimentary basin and heterogeneity of Quaternary aquifer system. 3D
representation of lithologic logs indicates that direct correlation between well
logs cant be obtained from the conventional 2D representation (Fig. 4).
Consequently, the present paper used the lithologic modeling techniques based
on the solid modeling concept provided in Rockworks software package
(Rockware, 2002) in which a true three-dimensional gridding process, used to
create a box of regularly-spaced nodes from irregularly-spaced data by
interpolating measured values of lithology types. The Geological Utilities Solid
/ Model tool creates solid models from X, Y, Z, and G data listed in the main

360 Ayman A. Ahmed

datasheet. The Borehole Manager Lithology menu tool is used to create solid
models from lithology. Once it knows the dimensions of the study area, the
program divides it into three dimensional cells or "voxels" which their
dimensions are automatically or user-determined. Each voxel is defined by its
corner points or nodes. Each node is assigned the appropriate X, Y, and Z
location coordinates according to its relative placement within the study area
(Fig. 5).

Lithologic modeling methods
There are several methods offered to perform the three-dimensional
interpolation of data. Each operates differently, and each has strengths and
differences as follows (Rockworks, 2002):
1) Closest Point: The most basic solid modeling method, in which the
value of a voxel node is set to be equal to the value of the nearest data
point.
2) Distance to Point: This method assigns each solid model node a
value equal to the distance to the closest control point. The distance is
recorded in your X,Y, Z units.


Figure 4: Boreholes showing 3-D representation of lithology in the study area.

Using Lithologic Modeling Techniques for Aquifer Characterization 361


Figure 5: Three dimensional cells "voxels" to be obtained by interpolating
measured values of lithology types.

3) Inverse Distance: Isotropic, Anisotropic, or Weighted. This method
assigns a voxel node value based on the weighted average of
neighboring data points, either all points or those directionally
located, using fixed or variable weighting exponents.
4) Isotropic: The program will use all of the available data points when
computing a voxel nodes value, useful when modeling uniformly
distributed data in nonstratiform environments.
5) Anisotropic: Instead of using all available control points for the
Inverse-Distance modeling, the program will look for the closest
point in each 90-degree sector around the node, useful for modeling
drill-hole based data in stratiform deposits.
6) Weighting: Uses all data points, but weights them differently based
on their horizontal and vertical positioning from node. Useful for
controlling the lenticularity of the model.
7) Directional Weighting: This functions like the Inverse Distance
method except that you can specify a trend direction and strength,
and the program will vary the weighting exponent so that points
along the trend influence the node more than closer points
perpendicular to the trend.
8) Horizontal Biasing: This method functions like the Inverse Distance
method except that the user can define a vertical distance from each
voxel node beyond which points will no longer be used in computing
the node value
9) Horizontal Lithoblending: This method should be used for creating
lithology solid models (for Profiles, Fences, and Models) in the
Borehole Manager

Lithologic model dimensions
The Grid Dimensions options are used to establish the number of
nodes to be created in the grid model and the boundary coordinates of the
model. The model dimensions for the present lithologic models are set as 72 X
nodes with X spacing of 1000 m, 80 Y nodes with Y spacing of 1000 m, and 37
Z nodes with Z spacing of 5 m.



362 Ayman A. Ahmed

Creating a three-dimensional lithology block diagram
The Borehole Manager's Lithology / Model tool is used to create a
three-dimensional block diagram that illustrates lithology types of the modeled
area. The lithologies will be color-coded based on their background colors in the
Lithology Table. During the process of building the block diagram, the program
will create a solid model of the lithologies using the lithoblend algorithm.
Optional surface filtering is available to zero-out nodes above a unit or ground
surface, and/or below a unit.

Generating the lithologic models of study area
In this part, lithologic modeling techniques are applied to characterize the
Quaternary aquifer system of study area and using the obtained lithologic
models for building the groundwater flow model using the different capabilities
and tools of Rockworks. Two main steps are used for creating lithologic models
as follows:


a) Preparing the project database
The Borehole Manager tool is used for preparation of the project database
including the well locations, elevation, and depth to top and bottom of the
different sedimentary materials for each boreholes. Fifty boreholes available in
the study area were used for building the lithologic models. The depth of these
wells is ranging from 15 to 48 m below ground surface. Elevations of ground
surface of the used boreholes ranges from 41.95 to 66.32 m. The sediments
encountered from top to bottom include clay, clay and sand, fine sand, coarse
sand, sand and gravel, and gravel.

b) Creating the lithologic models
For creating the lithologic models of Quaternary aquifer in the study area,
different models are created to show the three-dimensional representation of
lithology in the different zones including terraces and floodplain. The Borehole
Manager's Lithology / Model tool is used to create a three-dimensional block
diagram that illustrates lithology types of the modeled area. The lithologies will
be color-coded based on their background colors in the Lithology Table. Five
models are created as follows (Fig. 6):

Flood plain facies model 1: This model is created using all boreholes located
in the flood plain cultivated land. 27 boreholes are used.

Terraces models 2, 3, and 4: Three models are created to represent lithologic
types for terraces east and west of the river Nile. At these sites there are few
boreholes used for building the lithologic models. 7 boreholes are used for
model 2, 8 boreholes are used for model 3 and 6 boreholes are used for
model 4 respectively.

Quaternary aquifer system composite model: This model is created using all
boreholes (50 boreholes) in the study area to represent the overall configuration
of the aquifer system. The ground surface is used as the top boundary of the
Using Lithologic Modeling Techniques for Aquifer Characterization 363

model to cutoff any interpolated lithology above ground surface and to obtain a
close representation of the real world in the study area.

Fence diagrams and lithology cross sections
To study the Quaternary aquifer characterization, heterogeneity, and
connectivity, fence diagrams and cross sections are created from the lithologic
models using tools and capabilities of Rockworks as follows:

Lithology fence diagrams:
Using capabilities of Rockworks, three-dimensional fence diagrams were
constructed to show the change in lithology types at different directions in the
study area. Distribution of lithologic types, horizontal and vertical relations were
illustrated by constructing fence diagrams for the study area (Fig. 7). Fence
diagrams showing only the sandy layers were also constructed to show
connectivity of sandy materials (Fig. 8).




Figure 6: Lithologic models showing the three dimensional representation of the
sedimentary system in the study area: Model 1; flood plain. Models 2, 3
and 4; old alluvial plains (terraces). Model 5; a composite model for the
whole area.


364 Ayman A. Ahmed



Figure 7: Lithologic fence diagrams showing aquifer heterogeneity in the study area.

Lithology cross sections:
Using capabilities of Rockworks, seven lithologic cross sections were
drawn across the Nile Valley in the study area to show the change in lithology
and configuration of the aquifer system at different locations (Fig. 9).


Figure 8: Lithologic fence diagrams showing continuity of sandy layers in the study
area: A) Continuity between layers of clay and sand, fine sand, coarse sand,
sand and gravel, and gravel. B) Continuity of coarse sand. C) Continuity
between fine and coarse sand. D) Continuity between layers of fine sand,
coarse sand, and sand and gravel. E) Continuity between layers of fine sand,
coarse sand, and sand and gravel in the different directions.
Using Lithologic Modeling Techniques for Aquifer Characterization 365




Figure 9: Lithologic cross sections extracted from lithologic models.


Building groundwater flow model
A groundwater flow model was built to show how to use lithologic
models in groundwater flow models and to illustrate its benefits in model
conceptualization and aquifer characterization. Results of the lithologic models
are used to build the groundwater flow model. Other necessary input data are
used from different sources such as hydraulic properties, recharge, pumping
rates, boundary and initial conditions. Groundwater Vistas was chosen as a pre-
and post-processor to build the groundwater flow models. Groundwater Vistas is
a graphical user interface and data visualization package developed by J ames
Rumbaugh and Dough Rumbaugh 1996 (Environmental Simulations Inc., 1996),
supports many groundwater models including MODFLOW. The U. S.
Geological Surveys (USGS) MODFLOW (McDonald and Harbaugh, 1988) is a
modular, three-dimensional, finite-difference groundwater flow model and
which is widely applied in groundwater modeling and used in the present work.
MODFLOW 2000 (Harbaugh et al. 2000) was used to model the area


Exporting lithologic models to MODFLOW
For building the groundwater flow model of study area, the composite
lithologic model (model 5) is used as it represents the overall configuration of
study area. To obtain a well defined representation of lithologic materials, the
composite lithologic model is exported as slices of 5 meters thickness. The total
slices exported are found to be 36 slices which will require the MODFLOW grid
discritization to be 36 layers in the vertical direction whereas the horizontal grid
configuration will remain the same as used in the lithologic models. The
lithologies are extracted in terms of their thickness and topography for each
surface of the slices (Fig. 10).


366 Ayman A. Ahmed




Figure 10: Representing lithologic models in MODFLOW.


Adjusting model grid and importing lithologies
The MODFLOW model grid is adjusted to coincide with the lithologic
model dimensions. The model grid was constructed as 80 rows by 70 columns
with grid spacing of 1000 m, and vertically, the model was divided into 37
layers (5 m each) to coincide with the exported 37 lithologic slices representing
the real representation of lithologic types in the modeled area. The lithologies
were imported into MODFLOW in a sequence of steps to represent the
lithologic model. Topography of each slice was used to represent the different
elevations of the hydrostratigraphic layers in the study area. The slices are
exported using Rockworks tools to different formats supported in Groundwater
Vistas.

Hydraulic properties, initial and boundary conditions
The different hydraulic properties of lithologic types in the study area
were gathered from the available literature (RIGW, 1980; Barber and Carr,
1981; Attia et al, 1983; Attia, 1985; Abdel Moneim, 1988; MPWWR, 1988;
Abdel Moneim and Abu El Ella, 1996; Abd El Bassier, 1997; RIGW, 1997;
Shamrukh et al 2001; Warner et al 2001; Ahmed, 2003). Studying the different
values determined for the hydraulic parameters, approximate averages were
determined for the different zones of the aquifer to be used as initial parameters
for the groundwater flow model. The hydraulic properties of each lithologic
material was assigned a hydraulic value (hydraulic conductivity, specific
storage, specific yield) of the equivalent hydrostratigraphic unit in the model
grid. The initial conditions used for the present model are the average known
heads in the study area based on the available data and hydrogeologic maps.
Boundary conditions for study area include constant heads, River (River Nile,
irrigation canals), drains, recharge, lower and lateral boundaries of the model
domain (Fig. 11). The south and north boundaries are assigned a constant head
boundary to represent the flow of groundwater from south to north in the
modeled area. The average hydraulic gradient in the study area (0.0016) was
used for calculating the specified heads for the south and north boundaries for
nodes where hydraulic heads are unknown. The lower boundary of the aquifer
may be considered impervious due to the presence of extensive and thick
Using Lithologic Modeling Techniques for Aquifer Characterization 367

deposits of the Pliocene clays of very low permeability (Fig. 4a and Fig. 4b).
The east and west boundaries are assigned a no-flow boundary as flow from
these boundaries is almost negligible due to the presence of impervious layers.


Figure 11: Boundary conditions, observation targets and pumping wells in the study
area.


River Nile, irrigation canals and drains
Hydraulic parameters of River Nile and irrigation canals are used from
different sources (Abdel Moneim 1992; Sohag Ministry of Irrigation 1999)
(Table 1). Due to lack of data about the thickness of the river bed, it is assumed
as 1 meter. Drains are set as 4 m width and drain stage was set as 4 m below
ground surface. Water levels at River Nile and irrigation canals at start and end
of each reach in the study area are plotted on Fig. 12a and Fig. 12b.






368 Ayman A. Ahmed




Table 1: Base level and width of River Nile and irrigation canals at start and end of
reaches.

Parameter River Nile
West
Nag
Hammadi
East
Nag
Hammadi
El-Kasra
El-
Baliana
Tahtawia
El-
Gergawia
Location Start End Start End Start End Start End Start End Start End Start End
Base
level
(m asl)
53.03 41.07 60.09 51.5661.4258.8660.2558.5562.2758.6156.41 54.63 52.49 50.6
Width
(m)
700 700 35.7 35.7 24.6 24.6 18.3 18.3 22.5 22.5 22.5 22.5 14.9 14.9







Fig. 12a Monthly water levels in irrigation canals at the start of reach in the study
area.

Using Lithologic Modeling Techniques for Aquifer Characterization 369



Fig. 12b Monthly water levels in irrigation canals at the end of reach in the study
area.

Recharge
In the study area, the aquifer recharge is mainly due to infiltration from
applied irrigation water. Due to lack of information about distributed recharge in
the study area, where no records are available about the geographical
distribution of different crops with appropriate mapping for the study area, the
crop water requirements are analyzed to estimate the approximate recharge
rates. Using the mathematical relations between crop water requirements,
applied water, leaching requirements, and recharge rates, the latter were
estimated. Recharge rates in the study area were calculated using
evapotranspiration (ET) using the following relation (Allen et al 1998):

SW SF CR DP RO P I ET + + =
Where;
I: Irrigation or applied water, P: rainfall, RO: surface runoff, DP: deep
percolation, CR: capillary rise, SF: change in subsurface flow over the
time period, SW: change in soil water content over the time period
Neglecting capillary rise (CR), and change in soil water content (SW), the
above equation can be more simplified as follows:
DP I ET =

Deep percolation or recharge (DP) can then be estimated as follows:
ET I DP =

Leaching requirement: In general, leaching requirement can be represented as
follows:
ET LR %) 20 10 ( =

370 Ayman A. Ahmed


Irrigation efficiency: Irrigation efficiency can be represented as follows:
I
LR ET
I
ef
+
=
where;
8 . 0 4 . 0 < <
ef
I
Consequently
ET
I
LR ET
ET I DP
ef

+
= =

Due to efficiency in crop types and actual fields for different seasons, the
average values of crop water requirements are used to calculate the average
recharge rates for the study area. The selected values for the leaching
requirement and irrigation efficiency are 10 and 70 % respectively.

ET
ET ET
e rech DP
+
=
7 . 0
1 . 0
) arg (
The estimated recharge rates for old and new agricultural lands in the study area
are listed in Table 2.

Table 2. Estimated recharge rates (m/day) for the old and newly reclaimed lands in
the study area.

Month J an Feb Mar Apr May J un J ul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Old
lands
0.0011 0.0010 0.0014 0.00150.00160.00210.00240.00230.00220.0019 0.0017 0.0018
Newly
reclaimed
lands
0.0022 0.0021 0.0027 0.00300.00320.00410.00470.00460.00440.0037 0.0034 0.0035


Groundwater extraction
In the study area, the main discharge from the aquifer system is
represented groundwater extraction by pumping wells. 73 pumping wells were
identified and traced from the hydrogeological maps of Sohag (RIGW 1997).
Due to shortage of information about exact pumping rates and duration where
pumping rates are listed as a range in the hydrogeological maps of Sohag area
(<1000, 1000 - 5000, and 5000 25000 m
3
/day), assumptions are applied to
estimate the pumping rates. Assuming that the pumping rates are comparable to
the applied water and recharge, the pumping rates are assigned a relative
percentage. The higher the recharge, the higher pumping rates. Where the
highest recharge occurs in J uly (assuming that the highest applied water is
equivalent to the highest water requirement and in turn the pumping rates), the
pumping rates are assumed as 100 % (the maximum pumping rates), and the
other percentages for different months are estimated accordingly (Table 3).




Using Lithologic Modeling Techniques for Aquifer Characterization 371

Table 3. Estimated groundwater pumping rates in the study area (m3/day).
J un Well Type J an Feb Mar Apr May
[A] <1000 461.3 397.3 582.5 622.9 683.5 848.5
[B] 1000 - 5000 2306.4 1986.5 2912.5 3114.5 3417.5 4242.4
[C] 5000 - 25000 11532.0 9932.7 14562.3 15572.4 17087.5 21212.1
Well Type J ul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
[A] <1000 1000.0 966.3 909.1 791.2 707.1 750.8
[B] 1000 - 5000 5000.0 4831.6 4545.5 3956.2 3535.4 3754.2
[C] 5000 - 25000 25000.0 24158.2 22727.3 19781.1 17676.8 18771.0

Stress periods, time steps, and simulation time
n for this study as a conceptual
roundwater flow model calibration
librated using a combination of
manua
ydraulic conductivities K
h
including K
x
, K
y
for all lithologic
b) nductivities K for all lithologic types.
ed K
z
for River Nile.
nals.
The able 4a and
Table 4b.
A transient two-year simulation is chose
model for further applications. The model was run as a transient due to transient
data used and difficulties of establishing a steady state condition for the model.
To establish an appropriate initial condition, the first stress period was assigned
a steady-state type. The model is divided into 24 stress periods (each of 30.42
days length), with 30 time steps with a multiplier of 1.2 and using the (PCG2)
solver package. The first stress period is assigned a steady-state condition to
establish a suitable condition for the rest of the stress periods. Results of the last
12 stress periods are considered in the present study.

G
The groundwater flow model was ca
l and automated parameter estimation techniques. Initial hydraulic
parameters are used from the available literature. Due to scarcity of information
about hydraulic parameters of lithologic type in the study area, each unit is
assumed to be of unique hydraulic value through out the model domain. Also,
riverbed hydraulic conductivities of River Nile, irrigation canals and drains were
assumed to be unique for a given reach. The hydraulic parameters were then
manually adjusted in an iterative process until good agreement was obtained
between modeled and observed heads at 29 observation targets (Fig. 13). Final
calibration was performed using an automated parameter estimation program,
PEST (Doherty et al. 1994). Due to lack of certain hydraulic values for the
different parameters, all hydraulic parameters are calibrated based on the
minimum and maximum values as constrains. The calibration of parameters is
done using the automated techniques described in Groundwater Vistas
(Environmental Simulations Inc., 1996). The parameters are grouped into seven
groups as follows:
a) Horizontal h
types in the model (clay, clay and sand, fine sand, coarse sand, sand and
gravel, and gravel).
Vertical hydraulic co
z
c) Specific storage S
s
for all lithologic types.
d) Specific yield S
y
for all lithologic types.
e) Vertical hydraulic conductivities of riverb
f) Vertical hydraulic conductivities of riverbed K
z
for irrigation ca
g) Vertical hydraulic conductivities of drainrbed K
z
for drains.
calibrated parameters used in the present model are listed in T

372 Ayman A. Ahmed




Fig. 13. Observed and computed heads at observation wells in the study area.


able 4a. Initial and calibrated hydraulic parameters for the study area.
Sy

T

Kh (m/day) Kz (m/day) Ss (m-1) logic
Calibrated
Litho
type Initial
(Ky)
Initial Calibrated

Initial Calibrated
(Ss)
Initial

Calibrated
(Sy) (Kh)
(Kx)
(Kz) (Kz) (Ss) (Sy)
Clay 5 2.375 1.575 5 0.33 0.015 0.000625 0.02 0.15
Sand
15 7.75 5.665 15 2.825 0.01 0.00018 0.04 0.2
Fine sand 25 22.75 5 16.8 25 5.815 0.001 0.0001709 0.12 0.25
Coarse 50 82.5 65.45 50 36.77 0.0001 0.000156 0.2 0.32
sand
Sand a
Gravel
nd 5 75 125 76.7 75 57.68 0.00001 0.000125 0.22 0.36
Gravel 150 175 175 150 96.4 0.00001 0.00001 0.24 0.4



Clay and 7
Using Lithologic Modeling Techniques for Aquifer Characterization 373

Table 4b. Hydraulic conductivities of riverbed for River Nile, irrigation canals and
rains.
(m/day) (m/day)
d

Reach type Reach name Initial (Kz) Calibrated (Kz)
River Nile River Nile 15 0.425
East Nag Hammadi
canal
15 0.2243
West Nag Hammadi
canal
15 0.2142
El-Kasra canal 15 0.1254
El-Baliana canal 15 0.1739
El-Gergawia canal 15 0.1535


rigation canals Ir

Tahtawia canal 15 0.1434
Main Girga Drain 15 0.377
El-Kasra Drain 15 0.347
Main Sohag Drain 15 0.417
Tahta Drain 15 0.467
Kom Badr Drain 15 0.333


Major Drains
n

Akhmim Main Drai 15 0.325

RESULTS
Aquifer characterization
Results of lithologic models indicate that the Quaternary aquifer system
in the study area is mainly compos ologic categories, which are clay,
, coarse sand, sand and gravel, and gravel. These
nd the generated three-dimensional
nce diagrams revealed that there is a wide range of hydraulic conductivities in
ge of hydraulic conductivities and their
patial variation in the study area, sandy materials tend to be connected to form

ed of six lith
clay and sand, fine sand
categories are represented as spatially repeated sequences that have significant
spatial changes in terms of their occurrence, thickness of individual categories,
and elevation of top and bottom of each layer. Interfingering and presence of
lenses is a main characteristic of the sedimentary basin represented in the study
area. Due to these characteristics, heterogeneity of the aquifer system are
represented by a spatial variation in hydraulic conductivities ranging between
clay and gravel (Fig. 6, Fig. 7 and Fig. 9).

Aquifer heterogeneity
Results of the lithologic models a
fe
the modeled area which vary spatially and controls the groundwater flow regime
and will have a great importance if these models will be used in contaminant
transport studies. Heterogeneity of aquifer system is spatially represented in the
study area where different hydraulic conductivity fields are found in the
different directions (Fig. 7 and Fig. 9).

Hydraulic continuity of sandy materials
Due to presence of a wide ran
s
a certain continuation which is more important in groundwater flow as well as in
case of contaminant transport. Hydraulic continuity is represented by clusters of
sandy materials within the aquifer system as illustrated in the fence diagrams of
sandy layers (Fig. 8).

374 Ayman A. Ahmed

ow model results showed that the general groundwater
flow in the study area is from south to north and is affected by the River Nile
discharging line for the aquifer. Highest contour are
encoun
a drain for the
in the River Nile.
canals when water levels in the
4)
5) outflow from the northern

Groundwa
The groundwater balance for the study area was calculated as different
lements with daily rates such as constant head, storage, flux of river and canals,
e to constant head is about 8.12E+05, storage
is abo

Groundwater flow
Groundwater fl
where it acts as a
tered at the outer parts of the valley (63 m at the eastern side and 61 m at
the western side), whereas lower contour are encountered adjacent to the River
Nile (51 m). Groundwater flow model results showed that there is a hydraulic
interaction between the River Nile, irrigation canals, and the aquifer system.
Recharge, River Nile, and irrigation canals are the main boundaries controlling
the aquifer system. In arid and semi-arid regions, the surface water streams are
generally recharging the aquifer system. The Nile Valley is a special case where
irrigation is the main recharge and groundwater levels are generally higher than
the water levels in the River Nile. Exceptions are found at the locations where
dams or barrages are present where the accumulated water behind the dams or
barrages is higher than the groundwater levels and river is recharging the aquifer
system. The groundwater flow regime in the modeled area revealed different
flow components that could be summarized as follows (Fig. 14):
1) Downward flow from the upper active layers due to infiltration from
irrigated lands.
2) Flow toward the River Nile, where the Nile acting as
groundwater aquifer in cases where groundwater levels are higher
than water levels
3) Flow out of and into irrigation canals where the water levels in these
canals are higher than groundwater levels, whereas at some cases
flow occurs towards the irrigation
canals drop to below groundwater levels.
Flow into drains where the groundwater levels are higher than the
drain stages.
Inflow from the southern boundary and
boundary where the general flow in the system occurs from south to
north.
ter flow model budget
e
wells, and recharge. The inflow du
ut 3.03E+05 m
3
/day, river and canals is about 2.69E+06 m
3
/day, and
recharge is about 3.56E+06 m
3
/day. On the other hand, the outflow is calculated
as due to constant head, storage, wells, river and canals, and drains. The outflow
due to constant head is about 2.47E+05, storage is about 1.20E+05 m
3
/day, river
and canals is about 5.73E+06 m
3
/day, wells is about 2.04E+05 m
3
/day, and
drains is about 1.09E+06 m
3
/day. Model results showed that recharge
components in the study area include inflow from applied irrigation and seepage
from irrigation canals (Fig. 15a and Fig. 15b) whereas discharge from the
aquifer system includes groundwater extraction through pumping wells,
groundwater seepage into the River Nile and drains (Fig. 15a and Fig. 15b).
Using Lithologic Modeling Techniques for Aquifer Characterization 375

Flux into and out of River Nile irrigation canals, and drains is plotted on Fig. 16
a, Fig. 16b, Fig. 16c and Fig. 16d.



Fig. 14. Computed groundwater flow in the study area.




Fig. 15a. Computed groundwater budget for the study area.



376 Ayman A. Ahmed




Fig. 15b. Computed groundwater flux into and out of River Nile, irrigation canals and
drains in the study area.






Fig. 16a: Monthly computed groundwater flux into and out of irrigation canals
3
/day).


(m


Using Lithologic Modeling Techniques for Aquifer Characterization 377





Fig. 16b: Monthly computed groundwater flux into the River Nile (m
3
/day).





Fig. 16c: Monthly computed groundwater flux into drains (m
3
/day).



378 Ayman A. Ahmed


Fig. 16d: Monthly computed groundwater flux into main Sohag drain (m
3
/day).

DISCUSSION

Importance of using lithologic models in groundwater modeling
Lithologic models gives a three dimensional representation of the
subsurface, it illustrates the spatial relations between boreholes, it indicates the
presence of lenses, and it gives a general configuration of the aquifer system.
Using lithologic models in groundwater models is a better way of representing
aquifer systems. The groundwater flow model based on the solid models
provide detailed characterization of the subsurface and clear idea about the
pathways or flow regime that could help in developing the contaminant transport
models for the study area.
Results of the present study revealed that the obtained lithologic
models honored the boreholes data and showed the complex sedimentary system
in the study area. Because these models depend on interpolation schemes and
filling the gap between the boreholes, it is worse mentioning that the expected
lithologic representation between boreholes may not reflect the real situation as
it depends on the number of boreholes to use. The more boreholes to use, the
more accurate resolution the model will be. Due to scarcity of data and lack of
detailed configuration of the subsurface, these models are good to be used for
aquifer characterization with recommendation to use more boreholes to get a
finer resolution.
Although borehole data used in this study are not close enough to get a
finer resolution of the subsurface, assumptions on number of layers, thickness,
elevation of top and bottom surfaces, as well as representation of clayey lenses
in groundwater flow model are avoided. Another benefit that gained from this
study is representing heterogeneity and clayey lenses with real three-
dimensional representation of the subsurface.

Uncertainty, assumptions and limitations
As lithologic models are generated from boreholes and using
interpolation scheme, the resolution of the obtained model depends on the
number of boreholes and distance between them. The more boreholes to be
used, the more resolution of the model obtained. Consequently, using the current
Using Lithologic Modeling Techniques for Aquifer Characterization 379

lithologic models for building the groundwater flow model is better than
assuming a homogeneous 2 or 3-layer model. Caution should be taken into
consideration when using the presented lithologic models in contaminant
transport studies, as sandy and clayey materials may be more exaggerated in
areas where boreholes are not enough. Lithologic models are built assuming that
the used boreholes are representative of the exact sedimentary sequences in the
study area. This assumption may work in areas where boreholes are close to
each other and may not work in other areas where boreholes are sparse.
The resolution of the lithologic models used is 1000 m in the horizontal
direction, whereas 5 m in the vertical direction. Consequently, lens features may
be exaggerated or over stretched with the model cells and consequences of this
stretching is probable errors in the exact pathways of groundwater flow and
contaminant transport if this model will be used for studying contaminants.

Using the current lithologic and groundwater flow models
The obtained lithologic models in the present study are useful in
conceptualizing the Quaternary aquifer system in the study area and designing
groundwater flow models as a lot of assumptions will be avoided regarding
representation of the hydrogeologic setting of the aquifer system and model
layering. The present models could be also extended to be used in contaminant
transport as heterogeneity of the aquifer system is well represented and
continuity between sandy layers could be illustrated. For prediction purposes, it
is recommended to implement more boreholes to get a finer resolution and more
accurate results. This extended model could be also used for studying
groundwater contamination. We defer this study to a forth-coming paper.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author wishes to thank anonymous reviewers for their insightful comments
and constructive suggestions.


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