!"#$% '()$*+,- +% $ .

,/+$0 1%*+-,%#(%2
1340,-+%5 6+7(84$% 9(*(0,4#(%2 :.(/,%; 1;+2+,%<
=!>?@1A BC1
:!+82,-DE @)(,-DE $%; A(8($-/) .2-$2(5+(8<
!"#"$%&'"()*$ ,-."(-"/ a fielu of stuuy uevoteu to unueistanuing constancy, anu
change thioughout the lifespan.
(S)
'>.F= F..G1.
(S)
A 2)(,-D is an oiueily integiateu set of statements that uesciibes, explains, anu
pieuicts behaviois.
(S)
Theoiies aie vital tools foi two ieasons. Fiist, they pioviue oiganizing
fiamewoiks foi oui obseivations of people, !"#$#%! '%$ !#(#%! )*'%#%! to what we
see. Seconu, theoiies that aie veiifieu by ieseaich pioviue a sounu basis foi
piactical action.
(4)
A theoiy's continueu existence uepenus on +,#*%-#.#, (*/#.#,'-#0%1
(4)
Although theie aie many theoiies, we can easily oiganize them by looking at
the stanu they take on thiee basic issues.
(4)
1. Is the couise of uevelopment /,%2+%","8, oi ;+8/,%2+%","8.
2. Boes one couise of uevelopment chaiacteiize all people, oi aie theie
many possible couises.
S. Aie 5(%(2+/ oi (%*+-,%#(%2$0 factois moie impoitant in influencing
uevelopment.
=BC@FCGBG. BA 9F.=BC@FCGBG. 91H16B?I1C@
(4)
0%().(1%12/ A piocess of giauually augmenting the same types of skills that weie
theie to begin with.
!.2-%().(1%12/ A piocess in which new ways of unueistanuing anu iesponuing to
the woilu emeige at uiffeient times.
,)*3"2/ 2"'3#-'-#(* changes in thinking, feeling, anu behaving that chaiacteiize
specific peiious of uevelopment.
The stage concept also assumes that people unueigo peiious of iapiu
tiansfoimation as they step up fiom one stage to the next. Change is faiily suuuen
iathei than giauual anu ongoing.
(4)
BC1 =BGA.1 BJ 91H16B?I1C@ BA I>CK
(4)
0%()"4)2/ 0nique combinations of peisonal, anu enviionmental ciicumstances that
can iesult in uiffeient paths of change.
A16>@FH1 FCJ6G1C=1 BJ C>@GA1 >C9 CGA@GA1
(S)
Aie 5(%(2+/ oi (%*+-,%#(%2$0 factois moie impoitant.
5*)16"/ The heieuitaiy infoimation we ieceive fiom oui paients at the moment of
conception.
516)16"/ The complex foices of the physical anu social woilu that influence oui
biological oui biological makeup anu psychological expeiiences.
@!1 6FJ1.?>C ?1A.?1=@FH1L > '>6>C=19 ?BFC@ BJ HF1M
(S)
Some theoiists believe that both continuous, anu uiscontinuous changes
occui. A giowing numbei of theoiists iegaiu heieuity, anu enviionment as
insepaiably inteiwoven.
Incieasingly, ieseaicheis aie envisioning $*(*304)*%- '+ ' $5%')#, +5+-*)6
a peipetually ongoing piocess extenuing, fiom conception to biith.
A leauing uynamic systems appioach is the 0+7(84$%8 4(-84(/2+*(N Foui
assumptions make up this bioauei view: that uevelopment is.
1. Lifelong
2. Nultiuimensional & Nultiuiiectional
S. Bighly plastic
4. Affecteu by multiple inteiacting foices
6+7(84$% ;(*(0,4#(%2 is also )"3-#$#/*,-#0%'3: at eveiy peiiou,
uevelopment is a joint expiession of giowth anu uecline.
(6)
91H16B?I1C@ F. FCJ6G1C=19 'K IG6@F?61E FC@1A>=@FCO JBA=1.
(6)
1. Biological
2. Bistoiical
S. Social
4. Cultuial
73" 86*9"9 :(;$1"(-"2/ Aie events that aie stiongly ielateu to age, anu theiefoie
faiily pieuictable in when they occui anu how long they last. 7891 :";*/-5< +*9"'3#-5<
4=5+#,'3 $*(*304)*%->
<.2)%6= 86*9"9 :(;$1"(-"2/ Explain why people boin aiounu the same time - calleu
cohoits - tenu to be alike in ways that set them apait fiom othei people boin at
othei times. 7891 ?';5@?00)*/< A*%*/'-#0% B< C#33*%%#'3>
5%((%6'*).#" :(;$1"(-"2/ Aie events that aie iiiegulai: They happen to just one
peison, oi a few people, anu uo not follow a pieuictable timeline.
.=F1C@FJF= '1OFCCFCO.
(11)
The (%6'*).#" *&&6%*-> is when measuies of behavioi aie taken on laige
numbeis of inuiviuuals, anu age ielateu aveiages aie computeu to iepiesent typical
uevelopment.
IF9P@M1C@F1@!P=1C@GAK @!1BAF1.
(12)
The &2=->%*(*$=).- &"62&"-).#" is when people move thiough a seiies of
stages in which they confiont conflicts between biological uiives, anu social
expectations. Bow these conflicts aie iesolveu ueteimines the peison's ability to
leain, to get along with otheis, anu to cope with anxiety.
JA1G9Q. @!1BAK
(12)
Fieuu
(18S6-19S9)
, a viennese physician sought a cuie foi emotionally tioubleu
young auults by having them talk fieely about painful events of theii chiluhoou.
Bis &2=->%2"41*$ )>"%6= emphasizes that how paients manage theii chilu's
sexual anu aggiessive uiives in the fiist few yeais is ciucial foi healthy peisonality
uevelopment.
In Fieuu's theoiy, thiee paits of the peisonality.9? "3%? anu 21&"6"3%
become integiateu uuiing five stages.
1. The .9 is the souice of basic biological neeus, anu uesiies.
2. The "3% - the conscious, iational pait of peisonality - emeiges in
eaily infancy to ieuiiect the iu's impulses into acceptable behavioi.
S. The 21&"6"3% - oi conscience - uevelops thiough inteiactions with
paients who insist that chiluien confoim to the values of society.
Accoiuing to Fieuu, ielations among the iu, ego, anu supeiego uuiing pieschool
yeais ueteimine the inuiviuual's basic peisonality.
1AFR.BCQ. @!1BAK
(12)
Eiik Eiikson - a followei of Fieuu's theoiy - uevelopeu what is known as the
&2=->%2%-.*$ )>"%6=@
In his &2=->%2%-.*$ )>"%6=? Eiikson emphasizeu that in auuition to
meuitating between iu impulses anu supeiego uemanus, the (5, makes a positive
contiibution to uevelopment, acquiiing attituues anu skills at each stage that make
the inuiviuual an active, contiibuting membei of society.
'1!>HFBAF.I >C9 .B=F>6 61>ACFCO @!1BAK
(1S)
Accoiuing to S()$*+,-+8#, uiiectly obseivable eventsstimuli anu
iesponsesaie the appiopiiate focus of stuuy.
?$*0,* successfully taught uogs to salivate at the sounu of a bell by paiiing it
with the piesentation of foou. Be hau uiscoveieu -$*22.-*$ -%(9.).%(.(3@
(14)
Seveial types of 8,/+$0 0($-%+%5 2)(,-D emeigeu. The most influential,
ueviseu by Ameiican psychologist >0S(-2 '$%;"-$
(192S-piesnet)
emphasizes
'%9"$.(3? also known as .'.)*).%( oi %A2"6#*A$" $"*6(.(3? as a poweiful souice of
uevelopment.
(14)
B">*#.%6 '%9.;.-*).%(/ consists of pioceuuies that combine conuitioning
anu moueling to eliminate unuesiiable behaviois anu inciease uesiiable iesponses.
C.*3")D2 0%3(.).#"E!"#"$%&'"() F>"%6=
(1S)
D=#3$/*% ',-#(*35 ,0%+-/",- E%0F3*$!* '+ -=*5 )'%#4"3'-* '%$ *9430/* -=*#/ F0/3$1
:(;%6'*).%( C6%-"22.(3/ the human minu is vieweu as a symbol-
manipulating system thiough which infoimation flows.
(17)
91H16B?I1C@>6 =BOCF@FH1 C1GAB.=F1C=1
(18)
!"#"$%&'"()*$ 0%3(.).#" 5"16%2-."(-"/ biings togethei ieseaicheis fiom
psychology, biology, neuioscience, anu meuicine to stuuy the ielationship between
changes in the biain anu the ueveloping peison's cognitive piocessing, anu behavioi
patteins.
1@!B6BOK >C9 1HB6G@FBC>AK 91H16B?I1C@>6 ?.K=!B6BOK
G)>%$%3=/ is conceineu with the auaptive, oi suivival, value of behavioi anu
its evolutionaiy histoiy.
A 8(%8+2+*( 4(-+,; is a time that is optimal foi ceitain capacities to emeige
anu in which the inuiviuual is especially iesponsive to enviionmental influences.
Bowevei, its bounuaiies aie less well uefineu than those of a ciitical peiiou.
Bevelopment can occui latei, but it is haiuei to influence.
(19)
1*,0"2+,%$-D ;(*(0,4#(%2$0 48D/),0,5D seeks to unueistanu the auaptive
value of species wiue cognitive, emotional, anu social competencies as those
competencies change with age.
HKOB@.RKQ. .B=FB=G6@GA>6 @!1BAK
,%-.%-1$)16*$ F>"%6=/ Focuses on how ,"3-"/*the values, beliefs, customs,
anu skills of a social gioupis tiansmitteu to the next geneiation. Accoiuing to
vygotsky, +0,#'3 #%-*/',-#0%6in paiticulai, coopeiative uialogues with moie
knowleugeable membeis of societyis necessaiy foi chiluien to acquiie the ways
of thinking anu behaving that make up a community's cultuie.
GAF1 'ABCJ1C'A1CC1AQ. 1=B6BOF=>6 .K.@1IQ. @!1BAK
(2u)
G-%$%3.-*$ ,=2)"'D2 F>"%6=/ views the peison as ueveloping within a
complex +5+-*) of ielationships affecteu by multiple levels of the suiiounuing
enviionment.
H.-6%2=2)"'/ The inneimost level of the enviionment. Consists of activities,
anu inteiaction patteins in the peison's immeuiate suiiounuings.
H"2%2=2)"'/ The seconu level encompasses connections between
miciosystems.
G4%2=2)"'/ Consists of social settings that uo not contain the ueveloping
peison but neveitheless affect expeiiences in immeuiate settings.
H*-6%2=2)"'/ Consists of cultuial values, laws, customs, anu iesouices.
B6%(;"(A6"(("6 calleu the tempoial uimension of his mouel the ->6%(%2=2)"'.
Life changes can be imposeu exteinally oi can aiise fiom within the peison, since
inuiviuuals shape many of theii own settings, anu expeiiences.
.@G9KFCO 91H16B?I1C@
(2S)
=BIIBC A1>.>A=! I1@!B9.
.D82(#$2+/ BS8(-*$2+,%N 0bseivations of behavioi can be maue in uiffeient
ways. 0ne appioach is to go into the fielu, oi natuial enviionment, anu iecoiu the
behavioi of inteiesta methou calleu %$2"-$0+82+/ ,S8(-*$2+,%N
,)61-)16"9 %A2"6#*).%(2/ occui when the investigatoi sets up a laboiatoiy
situation that evokes the behavioi of inteiest so that eveiy paiticipant has an equal
oppoitunity to uisplay the iesponse.
.16JPA1?BA@.
(24)
In a -$.(.-*$ .()"6#."I? ieseaicheis use a flexible conveisational style to
piobe foi the paiticipant's points of view.
,)61-)16"9 :()"6#."I2/ (Incluuing texts, anu questionnaiies) occui when
each paiticipant is askeu the same set of questions in the same way.
@!1 =6FCF=>6E BA =>.1 .@G9KE I1@!B9
(24)

The -$.(.-*$ oi -*2" 2)19= '")>%9/ biings togethei a wiue iange of
infoimation on one peison, incluuing inteiviews, obseivations, anu sometimes test
scoies.
I1@!B9. JBA .@G9KFCO =G6@GA1
(2S)

A methou boiioweu fiom the fielu of anthiopology(2)%,5-$4)D is a
uesciiptive, qualitative technique. But insteau of aiming to unueistanu a single
inuiviuual, it is uiiecteu towaiu unueistanuing a cultuie oi a uistinct social gioup
thiough &*6).-.&*() %A2"6#*).%(@
=BAA16>@FBC>6 91.FOC
(27)
In a -%66"$*).%(*$ 9"2.3(? ieseaicheis gathei infoimation on inuiviuuals,
geneially in natuial life ciicumstances, without alteiing theii expeiiences. Then they
look at ielationships between paiticipants' chaiacteiistics anu theii behavioi oi
uevelopment.
A -%66"$*).%(*$ -%";;.-."()/ A numbei that uesciibes how two measuies, oi
vaiiables, aie associateu with each othei.
1T?1AFI1C@>6 91.FOC
(28)
An "4&"6.'"()*$ 9"2.3( peimits infeiences about cause anu effect because
ieseaicheis use an evenhanueu pioceuuie to assign people to two oi moie
tieatment conuitions.
The .(9"&"(9"() #*6.*A$" is the one the investigatoi expects to cause
changes in anothei vaiiable. The 9"&"(9"() #*6.*A$" is the one the investigatoi
expects to be influenceu by the inuepenuent vaiiable.
J*(9%' 722.3('"()/ By using an unbiaseu pioceuuie, such as uiawing
numbeis out of a hat oi flipping a coin, investigatois inciease the chances that
paiticipants' chaiacteiistics will be equally uistiibuteu acioss tieatment gioups.
91.FOC. JBA .@G9KFCO 91H16B?I1C@
(28)
The $%(3.)19.(*$ 9"2.3(/ occuis when a paiticipant is stuuieu iepeateuly,
anu theii changes aie noteu as they get oluei. The most wiuely uiscusseu thieat to
longituuinal finuings is /,),-2 (77(/28N Inuiviuuals boin in the same time peiiou aie
influenceu by a paiticulai set of histoiical anu cultuial conuitions. Results baseu on
one cohoit may not apply to people ueveloping at othei times.
(Ex. Because of the iise of gun
violence, a Nillennial might weigh uiffeient opinions on gun contiol than a Baby Boomei might.)
A moie efficient
way to avoiu cohoit effects is the -6%22E2"-).%(*$ 9"2.3( in which gioups of people
uiffeiing in age aie stuuieu at the same point in time.
FI?ABHFCO 91H16B?I1C@>6 91.FOC.
(Su)
A 2"K1"().*$ 9"2.3(/ occuis when seveial similai cioss-sectional oi longituuinal
stuuies take place at vaiying times.