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Human Anatomy, First Edition
McKinley & O'Loughlin
Chapter 28 Lecture Outline:
The Reproductive System
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Reproductive Systems
Ensure the sexual maturation of each individual.
Produce the gametes.
Male and female structures are derived from common
developmental tissues and serve a common function
in adults (homologues).
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Comparison of the Female and
Male Reproductive Systems
Primary sex organs called gonads.
ovaries in females and
testes in males
Produce gametes which unite to form a new individual.
oocytes
sperm
Gonads produce large amounts of sex hormones which affect
maturation, development, and changes in the activity of the
reproductive system organs.
estrogen and progesterone in the female
androgens in the male
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Comparison of the Female and
Male Reproductive Systems
Both have accessory reproductive organs, including duct
systems to carry gametes away from the gonads toward the site
of fertilization (in females) or simply to the outside of the
body (in males).
Fertilization occurs when male and female gametes meet.
copulation, coitus, sexual intercourse
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Comparison of the Female and
Male Reproductive Systems
Primarily nonfunctional and dormant until puberty.
At puberty, external sex characteristics become more
prominent.
breast enlargement in females
pubic hair in both sexes
reproductive organs become fully functional
gametes mature
gonads secrete sex hormones
Both reproductive systems produce gametes.
Female typically produces and releases a single oocyte monthly.
Male produces 100,000,000s of (sperm) daily.
male gametes are stored for a short time
if they are not expelled from the body within that period,
they are resorbed
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Perineum
Diamond-shaped area between the thighs that is circumscribed
anteriorly by the pubic symphysis, laterally by the ischial
tuberosities, and posteriorly by the coccyx.
2 distinct triangle bases are formed by an imaginary horizontal
line extending between the ischial tuberosities of the ossa
coxae.
Anterior triangle, called the urogenital triangle, contains the
urethral and vaginal orifices in females and the base of the
penis and the scrotum in males.
Posterior triangle, called the anal triangle, is the location of the
anus in both sexes.
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Anatomy of the Female
Reproductive System
Peritoneum folds around the various pelvic organs and creates
two major dead-end recesses, or pouches.
anterior vesicouterine pouch forms the space between the
uterus and the urinary bladder
posterior rectouterine pouch forms the space between the
uterus anteriorly and the rectum posteriorly
Primary sex organs of the female are the ovaries.
Accessory sex organs include the uterine tubes, uterus, vagina,
clitoris, and mammary glands.
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Ovarian Follicles
Within the cortex are thousands of ovarian follicles.
Consist of a type of oocyte surrounded by follicle cells (or
granulosa cells), which are nurse cells that support the oocyte.
Several different kinds of ovarian follicles, each representing a
different stage of development.
Oogenesis is the maturation of a primary oocyte to a secondary
oocyte.
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Before Birth
The process of oogenesis occurs in a female fetus before birth.
At this time, the ovary contains primordial germ cells called
oogonia, which are diploid cells, meaning they have 23 pairs of
chromosomes.
During the fetal period, the oogonia start the process of
meiosis, but they are stopped at prophase I . At this point,
the cells are called primary oocytes.
At birth, the ovary of a female child is estimated to contain
approximately 1.5 to 2 million primordial follicles within its
cortex.
The primary oocytes in the primordial follicles remain arrested in
prophase I until after puberty.
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From Puberty to Menopause
During childhood ovaries are inactive, and no follicles develop.
Atresia occurs, in which some primordial follicles regress or
break down.
By the time she reaches puberty only about 400,000 primordial
follicles remain.
At puberty, the hypothalamus releases GnRH (gonadotropin-
releasing hormone), which stimulates the anterior pituitary to
release FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone) and LH (luteinizing
hormone).
The levels of FSH and LH vary in a cyclical pattern and produce
a monthly ovarian cycle.
The three phases of the ovarian cycle: are the follicular phase,
ovulation, and the luteal phase.
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The Three Phases of the Ovarian Cycle
Follicular phase occupies days 113 of an approximate 28-day
ovarian cycle.
Ovulation occurs on day 14 of a 28-day ovarian cycle and is defined
as the release of the secondary oocyte from a vesicular follicle.
only one ovary ovulates each month
Luteal phase occurs during days 1528 when the remaining follicle
cells in the ruptured vesicular follicle turn into a corpus luteum.
secretes progesterone and estrogen that stabilize and build up the
uterine lining, and prepare for possible implantation of a fertilized
oocyte
has a life span of about 1013 days if the secondary oocyte is not
fertilized
it regresses and becomes a corpus albicans
the uterine lining to be shed as menstruation
menarche
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After Menopause
The time when a woman is nearing menopause is called
perimenopause.
estrogen levels begin to drop, and
a woman may experience irregular periods, skip some periods, or
have very light periods
When a woman has stopped having monthly menstrual
cycles for 1 year and is not pregnant, she is said to be in
menopause.
The age at onset typically is between 45 and 55 years
follicles stop maturing, and significant amounts of estrogen and
progesterone are no longer being secreted
a womans endometrial lining does not grow, and she no longer
has a menstrual period
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Uterine Tubes
The uterine tubes, also called the fallopian tubes or oviducts,
extend laterally from both sides of the uterus toward the
ovaries.
In these tubes, the secondary oocyte is fertilized, and the pre-
embryo begins to develop as it travels toward the uterus.
Usually it takes the pre-embryo about 5 to 6 days to reach the
lumen of the uterus.
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The Uterus Serves Four
Functions
Site for implantation.
pre-embryo implants into the inner uterine wall and
becomes connected to the uterine lining
Supports, protects, and nourishes the developing embryo/fetus
forms a vascular connection with the mothers uterine wall
that later develops into the placenta
Ejects the fetus at birth after maternal oxytocin levels increase
to initiate the uterine contractions of labor.
Site for menstruation.
if an oocyte is not fertilized or after a baby is expelled, the
muscular wall of the uterus contracts and sheds its inner
lining as menstruation
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Wall of the Uterus
Composed of three concentric tunics:
Perimetrium
Myometrium
Endometrium
The outer tunic of most of the uterus is a serosa called the
perimetrium.
continuous with the broad ligament
The myometriumis the thick, middle tunic of the uterine wall
formed from three intertwining layers of smooth muscle.
in the nonpregnant uterus, the muscle cells are less than
0.25 millimeters in length
during the course of a pregnancy, smooth muscle cells
increase both in size and in number
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Uterine (Menstrual) Cycle and
Menstruation
The menstrual phase occurs approximately during days 15
of the cycle. This phase is marked by sloughing of the functional
layer and lasts through the period of menstrual bleeding.
The proliferative phase follows, spanning approximately days
614. The initial development of the functional layer of the
endometrium overlaps the time of follicle growth and estrogen
secretion.
The last phase is the secretory phase, which occurs at
approximately days 1528. During the secretary phase,
increased progesterone secretion from the corpus luteum results
in increased vascularization and development of uterine glands.
If the oocyte is not fertilized, the corpus luteum degenerates,
and the progesterone level drops dramatically.
Without progesterone, the functional layer lining sloughs off,
and the next menstrual phase begins.
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Vagina
The vagina is a thick-walled, fibromuscular tube that forms the
inferior-most region of the female reproductive tract and
measures about 10 centimeters in length in an adult female.
The vagina connects the uterus with the outside of the body
anteroventrally, and thus functions as the birth canal.
The vagina is also the copulatory organ of the female, as it
receives the penis during intercourse, and it serves as the
passageway for menstruation.
The vaginal wall is heavily invested with both blood vessels and
lymphatic vessels.
The vaginas relatively thin, distensible wall consists of three
tunics:
an inner mucosa, a middle muscularis, and an outer
adventitia
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External Genitalia
The external sex organs of the female, are collectively called the
vulva.
The mons pubis is an expanse of skin and subcutaneous
connective tissue immediately anterior to the pubic symphysis.
covered with pubic hair in postpubescent females
labia majora
labia minora
clitoris located at the anterior regions of the labia minora
glans
prepuceisan external fold of the labia minora that forms
a hoodlike covering over the clitoris.
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Mammary Glands
Each mammary gland, or breast, is located within the anterior thoracic
wall and is composed of a compound tubuloalveolar exocrine gland.
Breast milk contains proteins, fats, and a sugar to provide nutrition to
infants.
The nipple is a cylindrical projection on the center of the breast. It
contains multiple tiny openings of the excretory ducts that produce
breast milk.
The areola is the pigmented rosy or brownish ring of skin around the
nipple. Its surface often appears uneven and grainy due to the
numerous sebaceous glands immediately internal to the surface.
The color of the areola may vary, depending upon whether or not a
woman has given birth. In a nulliparous woman (a woman who has
never given birth), the areola is rosy or light brown in color.
In a parous woman (a woman who has given birth), the areola may
change to a darker rose or brown color.
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Anatomy of the Male
Reproductive System
Primary gonads are the testes
Accessory sex organs include:
a complex set of ducts and tubules leading from the testes
to the penis
a group of male accessory glands
the penis, which is the organ of copulation
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Scrotum
Male gametes often exhibit abnormal or completely curtailed
development when exposed to elevated temperatures.
Consequently, both the male gonads and the first portion of the
duct system, which is the site of early sperm maturation and
development, reside outside the body proper within a skin-
covered sac called the scrotum.
When the testes are exposed to elevated temperatures, the skin
of the scrotal sac becomes thin as a result of dartos relaxation.
At the same time, another muscle (the cremaster muscle)
relaxes to allow the testes to move inferiorly away from the
body. The testes temperature becomes less than normal body
temperature.
The opposite occurs if the testes are exposed to cold.
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Testes
The spaces surrounding the seminiferous tubules are called
interstitial spaces. Within these spaces reside the interstitial
(Leydig) cells, which produce hormones called androgens.
There are several types of androgens, the most common one
being testosterone.
Although the adrenal cortex secretes a small amount of
androgens, the vast majority of androgen release is via these
interstitial cells in the testis, beginning at puberty.
These hormones cause males to develop the classic
characteristics of axillary and pubic hair, deeper voice, and
sperm production.
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Spermatic Cord
The blood vessels and nerves to the testis travel from within the
abdomen to the scrotum in a multilayered structure called the
spermatic cord.
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Epididymis
The epididymis is a comma-shaped structure composed of an
internal duct and an external covering of connective tissue.
Its head lies on the superior surface of the testis, while the
body and tail are posterior to the testis.
Internally, the epididymis contains a long, convoluted duct of
the epididymis, which is approximately 4 to 5 meters in length.
Sperm must reside in the epididymis for a period of time to
become mature and fully motile.
If they are expelled too soon, they lack the motility necessary to
travel through the female reproductive tract and fertilize an
oocyte.
If sperm are not ejected from the male reproductive system in a
timely manner, the old sperm degenerate in the epididymis.
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Ductus Deferens
When sperm leave the epididymis, they enter the ductus
deferens, also called the vas deferens.
The ductus deferens is a thick-walled tube that travels within
the spermatic cord, through the inguinal canal, and within the
pelvic cavity before it reaches the prostate gland.
The ampulla of the ductus deferens unites with the proximal
region of the seminal vesicle to form the terminal portion of the
reproductive duct system, called the ejaculatory duct.
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Urethra
Transports semen from the ejaculatory duct to the outside of
the body.
Subdivided into:
prostatic urethra that extends through the prostate gland
membranous urethra that travels through the urogenital
diaphragm
penile urethra that ends through the penis
Sperm leave the body through the urethra.
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Accessory Glands
The vagina has a highly acidic environment to prevent bacterial
growth.
Sperm cannot survive in this type of environment, so an alkaline
secretion called seminal fluid is needed to lessen the acidity of
the vagina and bring pH values closer to neutral.
As the sperm travel through the reproductive tract (a process
that can take several days), they are nourished by nutrients
within the seminal fluid.
The components of seminal fluid are produced by accessory
glands:
seminal vesicles
prostate gland
bulbourethral glands
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Seminal Vesicles
The paired seminal vesicles are located on the posterior surface
of the urinary bladder adjacent to the ampulla of the ductus
deferens.
Each seminal vesicle is an elongated, pouchlike hollow organ
approximately 58 centimeters long.
It is the proximal portion of each seminal vesicle that merges
with a ductus deferens to form the ejaculatory duct.
The seminal vesicles secrete a viscous, whitish-yellow alkaline
fluid containing both fructose and prostaglandins.
The fructose is a sugar that nourishes the sperm as they travel
through the female reproductive tract, while the prostaglandins
promote the widening and slight dilation of the external os of
the cervix.
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Prostate Gland
A compact encapsulated organ that weighs about 20 grams and
is shaped like a walnut, measuring approximately 2 cm by 3 cm
by 4 cm.
Located immediately inferior to the bladder.
Secretes a slightly milky fluid that is weakly acidic and rich in
citric acid, seminalplasmin, and prostate-specific antigen (PSA).
citric acid is a nutrient for sperm health
seminalplasmin is an antibiotic that combats urinary tract
infections
PSA acts as an enzyme to help liquefy semen following
ejaculation
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Bulbourethral Glands
Paired, pea-shaped bulbourethral glands (or Cowpers glands)
are located within the urogenital diaphragm on each side of the
membranous urethra.
Each gland has a short duct that projects into the base of the
penis and enters the spongy urethra.
Their secretory product is a clear, viscous mucin that forms
mucus when mixed with water.
As a component of the seminal fluid, this mucin protects the
urethra and serves as a lubricant during sexual intercourse.
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Semen
Seminal fluid from the accessory glands combines with sperm
from the testes to make up semen.
When released during intercourse, semen is called the ejaculate,
and it is normally about 3 to 5 milliliters in volume and contains
approximately 200 to 500 million spermatozoa.
In a sexually active male, the average transit time of human
spermatozoafrom their release into the lumen of the
seminiferous tubules, passage through the duct system, and
appearance in the ejaculateis about 2 weeks.
Since semen is composed primarily of seminal fluid, a male who
is very active sexually may have a reduced sperm count
because there are fewer sperm to be released from the
epididymis; however, the total semen volume remains close to
normal for that individual.
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Aging and the Reproductive
Systems
Our reproductive systems are basically nonfunctional for several
years following birth. When we reach puberty, hormonal
changes in the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary gland
stimulate the gonads to begin producing sex hormones.
Thereafter, changes occur in many body structures, the
reproductive organs mature, and gonads begin to produce
gametes.
Gametes stop maturing in females in their 40s or 50s, and
menopause occurs.
A reduction in hormone production that accompanies
menopause causes some atrophy of the reproductive organs
and the breasts.
The vaginal wall thickness decreases, as do glandular secretions
for maintaining a lubricated and moist lining.
The uterus shrinks and atrophies, becoming much smaller than
it was before puberty.
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