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Constructivisms Impact on the Use of Technology in K-12 Classrooms:

An Annotated Bibliography

The selection of articles in this annotated bibliography help to explain how constructivist
theories are influencing the adoption and integration of technology in todays K-12 classrooms.
The articles fall into three major groupings: case studies which embed technology and a
constructivist approach in K-12 settings, the evolution of constructivism, and the development
of student and teacher beliefs about learning and technology. Some articles span more than a
single category. I intentionally tried to capture a balance of viewpoints so that an impartial
perspective is presented. As I critiqued the articles, I began to notice common threads weaved
throughout the pieces that went beyond the factual information of learning theories, the
psychology of learning, and human development. Almost all of the articles that discussed
technology indicated that simply introducing technology, without planning and professional
development, did not have a significant impact on student learning. Some studies even showed
declines in student achievement. Another recurring theme is that a constructivist approach is
sometimes presented as the panacea for successful technology integration. Finally, I had the
impression that teachers are feeling pressure to adopt constructivist models, even though they
dont fully understand them, or necessarily believe in the theory.

Case Studies Which Embed Technology And a Constructivist Approach in K-12 Settings
Addressing the nets for students through constructivist technology use in K-12 classroom.
Niederhauser, D., & Lindstrom, D. (2006). Addressing the nets for students through
constructivist technology use in K-12 classroom. Journal of Educational Computing
Research, 34(1), 91-128. doi:10.2190/E0X3-9CH0-EE2B-PLXG

This piece examines the notion that a constructivist approach, coupled with technology, can
improve student learning. It begins by pointing out how early technology use was ineffective as
it focused on drill and practice activities, and then how teachers gradually adopted a
constructivist mentality for using technology and results improved. Technology has shifted from
the tool to deliver content to a tool to facilitate thinking. In the conclusion, the author
recognizes a shift in teacher attitudes towards a constructivist approach, but adds that many of
the activities failed to push students to their potential. Project based activities became more
common, but several standards in the NETS*S framework were not addressed in their activities.
This article helped me to see a theme running through other pieces I reviewed, and that is
teachers are trying to adopt constructivist reform but they dont really know how to do it. They
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are using a piecemeal approach, without a comprehensive understanding of the theory, so they
are inconsistent in their implementation.

Technology as a Tool: Applying an Instructional Model to Teach Middle School Students to
Use Technology as a Mediator of Learning
Reid-Griffin, A., & Carter, G. (2004). Technology as a tool: Applying an instructional model to
teach middle school students to use technology as a mediator of learning. Journal of
Science Education and Technology, 13(4), 495-504.

Infusing technology into a curriculum is not a guarantee that enhanced student learning will
take place. In this article, a middle school classroom is the focus for a nine week study of how
instruction can be organized to allow for the integration of technology within the science
curriculum. A socio-constructivist perspective provides the framework for the study, and
Vygotskys mediators of learning are emphasized. Scaffolding techniques are used to identify
the roles of teachers and students. By using the technology for data collection and analysis
purposes, the study explored the role of technology as a tool of mediation. The study involved
23 students from a gifted and talented program, so the results, while positive, could be biased.
The author repeatedly stressed the idea that proper planning for the use of technology is
critical for success, and that teachers had to reexamine their role to become a facilitator for
learning. The article made me contemplate the order in which technology gets introduced. Do
the tools precede teacher understanding, or vice-versa? If the technology isnt available, how
will teachers learn to use it? If the teachers arent supported in the use of the technology, will it
waste away, or worse, be forced into use with negative results?

Tools, Time and Strategies for Integrating Technology Across the Curriculum.
Taylor, L. M., Casto, D. J., & Walls, R. T. (2004). Tools, time and strategies for integrating
technology across the curriculum. Journal of Constructivist Psychology, 17(2), 121-136.
doi:10.1080/10720530490273908

In this article, Taylor and Walls report on the findings of a WV school that emphasized
constructivist techniques along with the integration of technology, to create an environment
where learning-by-doing and collaboration were valued. Their results showed a statistically
significant increase in teacher use of technology, student use of technology, and an increase in
student learning. In general, the study revealed small group use of technology was more
effective than students working alone with the technology. A major component to the study
was the involvement of the teachers. Participants had to create constructivist lesson plans
spanning at least three disciplinary content areas and attend a week of training. Teachers were
given tools, time and the strategies to build their lessons. The results were very positive, but
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the study acknowledges that the selected group of teachers volunteered to participate in the
program and the result could vary if teachers were not as invested in the activity. I am not
confident these results would be replicated in a typical school. This program made a concerted
effort to train the teachers, and the teachers committed an enormous amount of time to create
the content. The project does show that when technology is supported, great results can be
achieved, but in practice many schools wont have these resources available.
Technology Integration and The Classroom Learning Environment: Research for Action.
Harwell, S. H., Gunter, S., Montgomery, S., Shelton, C., & West, D. (2001). Technology
integration and the classroom learning environment: Research for action. Learning
Environments Research, 4(3), 259-286. doi:10.1023/A:1014412120805

The foundation for this article is a joint endeavor between a university and a grade 6 school
which focused on learning environments, constructivist viewpoints and integrating technology
into the curriculum. The results did not show any statistical significance that student
perceptions of the classroom learning environment changed over the study period. The article
cites research that says teachers who are not skilled with the technology use it primarily for
productivity uses. The learning environment approach puts the students as active participants
in the education process. The piece frequently refers to the need for careful consideration of
teacher and student epistemology and their motivational factors. Genuine use of technology
requires ongoing commitment from teachers. I was disappointed that the study did not show
an improvement in student performance because these are the types of activities I have seen
used in my school district. The article reinforces the notion that there are a multitude of factors
that need to be considered to achieve positive outcomes when integrating technology, and
simply just providing technology available offers little to no educational value.

Use of Technology for Constructivist Learning in a Performance Assessment Class.
Juniu, S. (2006). Use of technology for constructivist learning in a performance assessment
class. Measurement In Physical Education and Exercise Science, 10(1), 67-79.
doi:10.1207/s15327841mpee1001_5

Susana Juniu explores a project-based learning activity that exemplifies a constructivist
approach to using technology to support problem solving. She emphasizes the role educational
technology can play when student tasks are meaningful and authentic. In this article, she
presents a group of software applications that can be used to support a constructivist
approach, such as databases, concept map and spreadsheets. She also goes over the design of
an inquiry based curriculum unit for a health and physical education class which challenges
students to identify the level of obesity in their high school, and then conclude how this data
relates to physical activity. Throughout the piece, the Importance of creating a context that
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resembles an authentic activity is stressed repeatedly. While the author offers an interesting
argument for linking a constructivist approach to educational technology, the piece does not
offer much supporting data, or any justification that this approach is more effective than
another.

Evolution of Constructivism
Constructivism and Science Education: Some Epistemological Problems
Matthews, R. (1993). Constructivism and science education: Some epistemological
problems. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 2(1), 359-370.

This article traces constructivism back to the empiricist epistemology of Aristotle and then
describes its influence on current science and math curricula. Matthews explores multiple
theories that have shaped the current understanding of constructivism. He delivers one of the
easier to read summaries of competing and supporting theories of constructivism. There is little
mention of technology in this article, but his focus areas of math and science are often where
technology is typically deployed in schools, so I found the information aligned with my topic. By
examining a multitude of theories, and the connections amongst them, it became easier for me
to understand why defining any single learning theory is such a difficult task.

The Warrant for Constructivist Practice within Educational Technology
Bopry, J. (1999). The warrant for constructivist practice within educational technology.
Educational Technology Research and Development, 47(4), 5-26.

This is an interesting article, though I found it challenging to comprehend. The author questions
whether technology can be integrated into a constructivist approach, and proposes that in a
truly constructivist reality that instructional design is pointless. Bopry cites several formal
definitions of constructivism, objectivism and then explains the idea of representational
realism. There are several informative tables that compare representational realism and
enactive constructivism. Without these tables, I would not have understood many of the
concepts. After the extreme ideas presented in the introduction, Bopry offers a more moderate
representation of constructivism, and stresses the importance for critical consideration of the
epistemological foundations of the field of educational technology. The aspect I liked most
about this article was its focus on educational technology. While other articles addressed
integrating technology into classrooms from a teacher or student perspective, this piece
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connected learning theories to the work of educational technologists, like myself, so I felt more
connected to the material.

Technology in a Constructivist Classroom
Ferguson, D. (2001). Technology in a constructivist classroom. Information Technology in
Childhood Education Annual. 2001(1), 45-55.

This article begins by offering the idea that a constructivist approach to education could be the
solution needed to seamlessly embed technology into curricula. It explains how technology has
changed the culture of a generation of children, but schools are struggling to catch up with the
rapid advancements. Ferguson presents the idea that a guiding philosophy for educational
reform is needed and that constructivism could be at the center. The tone is optimistic and the
author presents constructivism in a very positive manner. Very little supporting data is
presented, but many references to other works are included. An approach for building
constructivist web-based technology projects is presented in detail. The article reads like a call
to action for changing how technology should be used in educational settings.

The Development of Student and Teacher Beliefs About Learning and Technology
Accounting for the Child in the Design of Technological Environments: A Review of
Constructivist Theory
Freier, N. (2009). Accounting for the child in the design of technological environments: A
review of constructivist theory. Children, Youth and Environments, 19(1), 144-169.

While this article focuses on the design of technology, the same reasoning could apply to the
appropriate selection of technology within a classroom setting. I believe this piece can easily be
reinterpreted with a classroom mindset, and that is why I chose to include it. Freier explores
the idea that designing a technology rich environment must account for the six facets of
interactional constructivist development in a child: embodied, situated, dynamic, intentional,
social and moral. He examines competing theories such as constructivism, and the nativist and
empiricist positions on learning. Cognitive and biological development are discussed from the
nature versus nurture prospective. Vygotskys zone of proximal development resurfaces in this
piece, as it has in several other articles. Freier concludes by providing a detailed examination of
the design process for technology with regard to each of the six facets above. I have not seen
many other publications which presented a moral argument in the design of technology. It
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made wonder, that as technology specialists, do we have obligations that go beyond just the
intended learnings of the lesson plan when we expose students to technology?

Tracing Teachers' Use of Technology in a Laptop Computer School: The Interplay of Teacher
Beliefs, Social Dynamics, and Institutional Culture
Windschitl, M., & Sahl, K. (2002). Tracing teachers' use of technology in a laptop computer
school: The interplay of teacher beliefs, social dynamics, and institutional culture. American
Educational Research Journal, 39(1), 165-205.

The authors, Windschitl and Sahl, provide details about a two-year study of three middle school
teachers, and show how the presence of technology can cause teachers to shift their pedagogy
to a more constructivist approach. They explain how technology can become a catalyst for
change, but point out that current literature does not offer clear evidence as to why this
changes occurs. They connect sociocentric perspectives and situative theory to explain how
teachers rely on social networking and collaboration with peers using technology, to advance
the integration of technology in their own practice. Data supports that when schools have a rich
technology infrastructure and social support networks for teachers, that constructivist practices
are more likely to be used. The focus of their investigation takes place at a middle school
implementing a laptop initiative. The article offers compelling arguments for understanding the
environment, and teacher willingness to embrace the use of technology in innovative manners,
before undertaking such an initiative. The social aspect of learning which was presented was
the most interesting for me. I often think of technology use taking place in individual settings,
but this article made a compelling argument that technology works best in small groups. It
reminded of the work of Sugata Mitra and his SOLE concept.

Science Teachers Beliefs as Barriers to Implementation of Constructivist-Based Education
Reform
Feyziolu, E. (2012). Science teachers' beliefs as barriers to implementation of
constructivist-based education reform. Journal of Baltic Science Education, 11(4), 302-317.

This article was intriguing because it focused on teachers beliefs and not student learning. It
also did not include a technology component. I included this article because it approached
constructivism from a different slant. I found the language and presentation to be thought
provoking. The author mentions how teachers might need to be convinced to adopt a
constructivist belief. If you believe in something, how much convincing is really required? He
offers a paradox where the same teacher represents himself as a constructivist in a science
lecture setting, but not in a science laboratory class. Has this teacher really adopted the
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constructivist approach, or is he simply applying a technique? Throughout the piece, I get a
sense of a constant struggle between the individuals beliefs, and the beliefs that the teachers
feel they should adopt, such as constructivism.


Emerging Theories and Strategies
Beyond the Theoretical Impasse: Extending the applications of Transactional Distance Theory
Gokool-Ramdoo, S. (2008). Beyond the theoretical impasse: Extending the applications of
transactional distance theory. International Review of Research in Open and Distance
Learning, 9(3).

Transactional distance theory tries to explain the unique problems that occur when there is
physical distance between the student and teacher. Technology, specifically the Internet, has
accelerated the rate that distance learning classes are being offered. I found this to be an
interesting article, as I have experienced many of the issues discussed in the paper. I think the
author did a thorough job presenting the issue. Especially interesting was the progression that a
student goes through as they reach the end of their academic studies. These students require
less support and can work with greater transactional distance. It is also important to recognize
that TDT requires students that are independently motivated.

Epistemological and methodological issues for conceptualization, development, and
assessment of ICT-TPCK: Advances in technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPCK)
Angeli, C. & Valanides, N. (2009). Epistemological and methodological issues for
conceptualization, development, and assessment of ICT-TPCK: Advances in technological
pedagogical content knowledge (TPCK). Computers & Education, 52, 154-168.

This is a great article. It is well written and easy to understand. The content connected with me
as I have been a proponent of TPCK for several years. My role as a technology integration
specialist relies on assisting teachers to develop their technological and pedagogical knowledge.
The ICT-TPCK framework clearly identifies the areas to focus on and helps define roles and
responsibilities. For teachers that are struggling integrating technology into their classroom,
this is a great approach. The content also is important for administrators, as it can serve as the
basis for tailoring professional development.

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Connectivism: Learning theory of the future or vestige of the past?
Kop, R., & Hill, A. 2008. Connectivism: Learning theory of the future or vestige of the
past? The International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 9(3).

This article helped me understand just how difficult it is to define a theory. The authors lay out
arguments for the adoption of connectivism as a formal theory of learning. At times the
authors appear desperate in their arguments, or maybe it is just frustration. As I progress
through this course, sometimes I feel the same way. Just when a theory starts to align with my
beliefs, I learn another theory, and my beliefs are challenged. I keep trying to find a single
theory that works for me, but the more theories I learn about, the more difficult this appears.
Connectivism does align nicely with Web 2.0 tools, and in the end the authors conclude that
connectivism may not be a separate theory, but rather plays a role in the emergence of new
pedagogies.