Shyam Bhakta

Reimer
ChmEng 140
10 December 2012
Demonstration of the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat

I: A major motivating factor for the birth of thermodynamics in the 19
th
century and the
supersession of the caloric theory of heat by the kinetic theory of heat was the discovery of a
mechanical equivalent of heat, which established that mechanical energy and internal energy
are interconvertible; a certain amount of mechanical work is required to produce a certain
amount of heat. Prior to the kinetic theory, it had been thought that a self-repelling, massless
gas called caloric flows from warmer to cooler bodies, transmitting heat. Inspired by the
proposition of the kinetic theory of heat by his predecessors, J ames J oule made a pivotal
contribution to the preponderance of the kinetic theory by his work in establishing precisely
how much work is necessary to raise the temperature of water by a certain amount. The
establishment of work-heat equivalence gave rise to the theory of conservation of energy.
Here, we attempt to simulate J oules pivotal experiment and in doing so learn something
about thermodynamics.

II: m =mass
= density
V =volume
g =gravitational acceleration on
surface
h =displacement from
surface
C
P
=(H/T)
P
=specific heat capacity *

T =temperature
U
g
=gravitational potential energy
U
thermal
=thermal energy
n =number of drops of the weight

(
,

,
)
1.134 kg 9.81
m
s
2
6.5 m =
0.92g
mL
250 mL 2.177
J
g

19

= 6.9245

= 6.9245 for

= 1

= 1.44 for n = 10


Calculation of the specific heat capacity of canola oil was obtained by using a cubic function,
C
P
=-7E-08T
3
+2E-05T
2
+0.0009T +2.1536, R =0.9999, to fit the data in the following
publication in order to find the specific heat capacity at 19C.
* O.O. Fasina, Z. Colley. Viscosity and specific heat of vegetable oils as a function of
temperature: 35 to 180 C. Inter. J. Food Prop., 11 (4) (2008), pp. 738746
III: The apparatus, used to convert
mechanical energy to thermal energy of
the oil, consists of a Thermos
vacuum flask with a carved, fitted
Styrofoam lid through which the
mercury thermometer and paddle are
passed into the flask. The paddle is a
wooden paint sampler taped to a bolt
passing through a lid-protecting washer
outside the lid, terminating at a fixed
half of the locking mechanism. This
locking mechanism accommodates the
grooves of the upper half of the
mechanism, which is glued to a long bolt
wound with fishing wire to form the
spool. The bolt passes through a metal
loop and duct tape loop taped to
horizontal beams of wooden paint
samplers, taped to a vertical dowel. The
loops hold the bolt vertically with
minimal rotational restriction for the
purpose of resisting the tension on the
fishing wire from the metal disc weight it
is tied and taped to. Another wooden
dowel is used to guide the wire over the ledge of the window as the disc weight falls down. After
the weight has fallen, it is pulled up to the ledge, and the spool is spun to rewind the wire before
subsequent drops of the trial.








IV: A) The design had to be inexpensive and simple enough to construct in a short time due to
limited funds and human capital, and it had to be operable without external power sources.
Under these criteria, the design also had to maximize the conversion of mechanical energy to the
thermal energy of the oil and minimize passage of energy to other bodies and conversion of
energy to other forms. The first set of criteria prompted the choice of an apparatus mimicking
that of J oulesa falling weight inducing the agitation of a chosen liquid by a paddle. The
rotating mechanism to produce agitation had to be limited in mass in order for rotational work to
be negligible, and friction in the design had to be avoided and minimized wherever possible.
Reliability of the apparatus had to be minimized to the minimum necessary to conduct the three
trials in order to minimize wastage of money and human capital. Directions restricted the heat
collection material to be restricted to water and oil. Canola oil was chosen due to its lower
specific heat capacity than waters 4.186 J /gK.
B) & C) As per the calculations, ~7 drops should have raised the oils temperature by 1C,
which is the theoretical maximum for a 100% efficient apparatus. We decided to do 10 drops,
knowing there would be energy loss. Even after ten drops of the weight, the temperature was
only raised by 0.3C, 20.8% of the expected 1.44C from ten drops, giving our apparatus a
20.8% efficiency for conversion of mechanical energy to the oils thermal energy. The apparatus
performed suboptimally. We were hoping for at least 70-80% efficiency. J oules results were far
more accurate when compared to modern calculations of the specific heat capacity of water than
our experiment would have been in calculating the specific heat capacity of canola oil.
D) Detraction of mechanical energy to thermal energy of bodies other than oil was found in the
significant friction between the bolt and the loops supporting it vertically, between the wire and
the dowel, between the lid and the washer protecting its breakage, and between the paddle and
the orifice in the lid. The heavy bolt and locking mechanisms and the paddle and wire deducted
rotational energy while being spun. Perhaps the most significant error was acquired in the ~2 min
required to disjoin the locking mechanism and rewind the apparatus for subsequent drops. In that
time, thermal energy of the oil was lost to the container and the air above it, which was able to
circulate with the air outside through the space around the paddles widening hole in the lid.
E) We considered dropping the weight from a height seven story height, which would mean only
a single drop per trial was necessary to, under 100% efficiency, raise the oil temperature by 1C,
and would remove the need of rewinding the apparatus for subsequent drops in the trial,
significantly reducing heat loss. This option was attractive, but ruled out due to safety issues with
dropping a 2.5 lb metal disc weight from such a height. It was also considered that the paddle be
attached to gears on an axle of a cart, such that when the cart is rolled down an incline,
mechanical energy from the rotation of the wheels is used to turn the paddle in the oil. This
would, however, be less efficient than dropping a weight to drive the paddle, as rotational work
on the wheels contributes to the energy loss in addition to the rotational work on the paddle.
F) With infinite time and resources, I would improve the principle of this design by designing
the device to operate with a horizontal paddle, such that the wooden dowel and its friction would
be eliminated due to not having to redirect the wire. The bolt would be replaced with a thin
carbon fiber rod (strong, yet light) with two magnetic bands at the interface of the rod and the
loops supporting it. The metal and tape loops supporting the spool would be replaced with
opposite pole magnets, so that the tension force can be counteracted by the frictionless magnetic
force. The rod would pass into a vacuum-sealed chamber with walls packed with a silica rogel,
one of the best insulators. The volume of the chamber would be precisely 250 mL plus the
volume of a thin, multi-paneled carbon fiber paddle, passing through a vacuum tight orifice.
Residual air would be vacuumed out. A digital temperature probe inside the chamber would
relay the temperature. The apparatus would be positioned horizontally off a 45 m height in a
climate controlled facility before releasing the weight. Rotational work and heat loss through the
container would be calculated and deducted from the expected temperature.








All other materials were procured from the preexisting belongings of group members.