ANGELES UNIVERSITY FOUNDATION

A Thesis Proposal Presented to the Faculty of the Department of Social Science and
Psychology
College of Arts and Sciences
Angeles University Foundation
Body-Modified Individuals: Their Motivations, Experiences &
Self-concept

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of
achelor of Science in Psychology
y!
allesteros" Carlo #$
Ru%en" Ivyl &ale D$

'

ANGELES UNIVERSITY FOUNDATION
Background of the study
The human body is not a thing or substance, given, but a continuous creation. The
human body is an energy system. Which is never a complete structure; never
static; is in perpetual inner self-construction and self-destruction; we destroy in
order to make it new. - Norman O. Brown
The human body is a continuous creation s social beings, people are
inclined to do whatever it takes to be heard or to be noticed. long with the
inclination to be noticed, people do different kinds of things in order to e!press
themselves such as" #oining an organi$ation that would support their views%beliefs,
e!pose themselves to arts like singing and dancing as supposed to their passion,
write blogs, and etc. lthough some would be contented in e!pressing themselves
as what the vast ma#ority would do, some people would go to the e!tremes of
altering their bodies.
&t was identified that body modification has been present a very long time ago.
&t was also believed to have been a part of a process for cultural and religious
purposes. s in 'anuel and (heehan)s study *+,,-., tattooing had a long history
even prior to the discovery of a tattooed man embedded in ice, a find that
suggested the practice occurred circa //,, B.0 *1ademackers 2 (choenthal,
344+.. ccording to 1iley and 0ahill *+,,5., historical references in accordance to
Body rt have shown multiple meanings and uses *such as sign of virility and
courage for the 1omans, added se!ual pleasure for 6ama (utra, etc..
cross time it was not only tattooing that became a trend. There was an
emergence of other kinds of body modification like piercing and other forms of

(

ANGELES UNIVERSITY FOUNDATION
body modification were considered such as branding, cutting, binding, inserting
implants to alter appearance and form of the body *7eatherstone, 3444;
(weetman, 3444 as cited in 0arroll 2 nderson, +,,+..
With the emergence of different types of body modification, a lot of people are
wondering what motivates these individuals to undergo such process. 1esearchers
have conducted studies as to why would individuals go to the e!tent of altering
their bodies. These behaviours can serve a variety of personal, interpersonal, and
social functions such as *a. establishing a personal identity or promoting
individuality, *b. e!ternali$ing important feelings, *c. strengthening self-image, *d.
establishing a sense of belonging to a given group, *e. e!pressing antisocial
feelings, and *f. symboli$ing or remembering an event or e!perience *nderson 2
(ansone, +,,/ as cited in i$enman 2 8ensen, +,,-.. The present study would
like to e!plore on the different motivations in accordance to the body modification
process coming from first-hand e!perience of the participants. (ince this could be
their own side of the story in line with the stereotypes being branded to them by the
society.
midst its rich culture, body modification is being frowned upon by the society
due to the assumption that it is related with deviant behaviors. &t is associated with
risky behaviors and being viewed as symbols of drug abuse and violence *Burger
2 7inkel, +,,+ as cited 6ahl, +,,+.. 9iven that there are faulty assumptions
misleading the public, negative perceptions resulted from this. case presented by
lbin *+,,:. in his study have shown that his sub#ect *a woman with physical
modifications. was being stared at with disgust, and even assumed by her father

)

ANGELES UNIVERSITY FOUNDATION
as being slutty with all the modifications she has done with her body; while some
are enthused by her. ;aving this as a sample situation, it can be seen that the
desire to alter the body, whatever the reason may be, can lead to negative
e!periences caused by the stigma of being body-modified. &n this case, the
researchers would like to identify, what are the different e!periences *positive
and%or negative. being undergone by the participants prior to their body
modification.
lthough studies have been conducted and concluded that there is no direct
link between having body modifications and having deviant behaviours, it is the
concern of the researchers *of this study. to know how individuals with body
modification perceive themselves and if there has been any effect on their self-
concept prior to the process of body modification, alongside with the stigma being
held to them.
lbin *+,,:. mentioned that the <interpretation changes according to the
reader=, therefore it is important to know both sides of the story. &t is not only what
the society dictates should matter in this issue, but also, it is the right of those
being #udged to be heard. 9iving the participants the opportunity to be heard, it
should give the researchers an understanding on what could have been resulted
from the different perceptions and e!periences they faced in being body-modified;
should there be a positive or negative effect on the individual)s view of themselves.

*

ANGELES UNIVERSITY FOUNDATION
Theoretical 7ramework
(elf->erification Theory *(>T. is a theory developed by William B. (wann 8r.
which proposes that people want others to see them as they see themselves. &t
was suggested by (wann *34?/, 34?- as cited in 0hen et al, +,,:. that people
desire verification of their core self-views. This theory focuses on the assumption
that people form self-views so that they can predict what others think of them and
in turn, they would know how to react on them. &t also states that if stable self-
views are essential to human functioning, those who are deprived of them should
be seriously impaired *(wann, 34?/..
(wann *34?/. identified / distinct process to create (elf->erifying (ocial
Worlds" 3. people may construct self-verifying <opportunity structures=; social
environment that satisfy their needs, +. having systematic communication self-
views to others *i.e. people may present <identity cues= highly visible signs and
symbols of who they are., and /. <seeing= non-e!istent evidence. These self-
verification processes work in a way that they help individuals ensure the stability
of their self-conceptions.
&n this theory, it is presumed that people work to maintain a degree of negative
self-view considering that people have their own flaws and weaknesses. By doing
this, they develop realistic e!pectations of themselves in lieu of what the society
perceives about them. s a whole, the self-verification process enables people to
create both in their actual social environment and in their own minds a social
reality that verifies and confirms their self-conception *@ecky, 34A5; (ecord 2
Backman, 34:3, 34:5 as cited in (wann 8r., 34?/..

+

ANGELES UNIVERSITY FOUNDATION
The (elf->erification Theory was related in the present study since it covers on
how the self-concept of the body-modified individuals affects the way they want to
be perceived by others. (ince there is a stigma on body modifications, the
participants) negative self-views on themselves help in a way that they create
realistic e!pectations on the way people see them. Thus, it may have little effect on
their self-concept which in turn help them to continue on with their normal lives and
live harmoniously with others. lso, the process of self-verification proves to be
beneficial to the participants since whatever their motivations and e!periences may
be, they could still rise to the occasion and prove to the society that there is more
to them that meets the eye.
Befinition of Terms
Body Modification - as technically defined by the Cnline 'erriam-Webster
dictionary, is the intentional alteration of the human body for religious,
aesthetic, or social reasons. ccording to lbin *+,,:., these are changes
made to the body, either self- induced or by the hand of another, that result
in alterations visible to the unaided eye.
This study aims to e!plore the e!periences of people having multiple Body
'odifications; making it the main variable of the study.
Experience - the conscious events that make up an individual life *'erriam-
Webster, +,3/.. The study will look into the e!periences our participants

,

ANGELES UNIVERSITY FOUNDATION
have undergone as they have sub#ected themselves through body
modification.
a. Stereotyping &t is a negative phenomenon being e!perienced by
body-modified individuals given the fact that there is a stigma
towards body modifications. ccording to Be'ello *+,,/., (pecific
tattoos or tattoo styles were used to identify group members and
represented a protest against conservative values of the middle
class. Thus, non-tattooed people associated body modification
practices with criminal, aggressive and deviant behaviour *as cited in
Wohlrab et al, +,,-..
The present study is concerned with the different e!periences *both
positive and negative. that the body-modified individuals go through
prior to the alteration process.
Motivation it is the inner striving conditions variously described as
wishes, desires, needs, drives, and the like.
Motives inner state that energi$es, activates, or moves, and that directs
or channels behaviour toward goals *-..
a. Physiological Motives stem directly from the physical needs of the
organism, whose satisfaction is essential to the survival or physical
well-being of the individual or the species" hunger, thirst, elimination,
pain-avoidance, mating, and so on.

-

ANGELES UNIVERSITY FOUNDATION
b. Secondary, learned, social, or psychogenic Motives strive for social
acceptance or status.
- Berelson 2 (teiner. *34:A. An nventory o! Scienti!ic "indings *pp. +/4-
+A+.. D(
This study is concerned with identifying the different factors that motivate
individuals to undergo body modification, and e!plore the different motives
behind such behaviour.
Self-concept is the way people think about themselves. &t is uniEue,
dynamic and evolving. &t is an individual)s perception of self, including self
esteem, body image and ideal self.
a. &deal self is the person the individual would like to be, such as a
good, moral, and well respected person.
b. 1eal self how the individual really thinks about himself.
c. Fublic self what the individual thinks others think of him.
*Sel!#$oncept, 0hapter 35, p. /3:.
&t is considered in this study since the researchers would like to identify the
participants) self-concept after to the process of body modification.
(tatement of the Froblem
The goal of this study is to raise social awareness as regards to the true
e!perience of individuals who have undergone body modification. &n

.

ANGELES UNIVERSITY FOUNDATION
e!ploring their e!periences, the researches would like to identify their
motivations, the different labels being branded to them, and their self-
concept after altering their bodies.
3. What were the factors that motivated the participants to undergo Body
'odificationG
+. What were the remarkable e!periences encountered by the participants
after having Body 'odificationsG
/. ;ow did the following affected the participants"
a. The positive e!periencesG
b. The stigma of being body-modifiedG
A. What is the overall (elf-concept of the participants after being body
modifiedG
(ignificance of the (tudy
The present study may help
To e!plore the e!terior e!pressions of interior currents *lbin, +,,:..
To provide relevant information pertaining to Body 'odifications as more
than skin deep.
To e!plore the e!periences of the Body-modified individuals and clarify
some pre#udices being conceived of them.
To gain insights regarding the effect of stereotyping to body-modified
individuals.

/

ANGELES UNIVERSITY FOUNDATION
To provide ideas to those people who are interested in getting body
modifications.
1eview of the 1elated @iteratures
ccording to a study conducted by lbin *+,,:. as regards to Body
'odification, he has defined it as <changes made to the body, either sel!# induced
or by the hand o! another that result in permanent alterations visible to the unaided
eye
=
. *lbin, +,,:. The most common types of Body 'odification are Tattooing and
Fiercing. <Tattoos and Body Piercings have become increasingly popular among
young people in today%s society. Many people get body piercings !or trends, some
!or personal style, and others !or se&ual stimulation. People are now getting tattoos
to show membership, loyalty, love, and to show respect !or !amily
=
*Bavis, +,,5..

'0

ANGELES UNIVERSITY FOUNDATION
lthough some kinds of modifications are also paving their way to the
people like (carification, Branding and &mplanting, a lot of studies tried to
determine as to why individuals undergo themselves through Body 'odifications. &t
was observed that most of the participants involved adolescents, particularly
0ollege (tudents. study identified a significant relationship between gender and
the intention to get a tattoo; and the significant factor in getting one is self-
e!pression *(chul$, 6arshin 2 Woodiel, +,,:..
(ome even considered factors such as underlying symptoms of se!ual
abuse, low self-esteem, borderline personality, and disorder of se!uality as body
modifications are being marked as unconscious representations *lbin, +,,:.. &t
was even suggested by 'artin *344-. 2 Finaire-1eed *34-4. that alterations may
sometimes be strategic attempts to curry favor with an admired group. side from
group affiliations, personality traits are also being considered to have an impact on
the choice being made by the individual in altering his body *Hathanson, Faulhus 2
Williams, +,,5..
&n reality, there could be Euite a lot of factors being considered in this matter,
however, it all goes down to what the ma#ority would look at it and how are they
accepting it. nd this is where the stereotypes come into place.
The view of the people with regard to Body 'odification is not really as
pleasant as what people in the ancient times would view it as part of a cultural or
religious process. lot of negativity has been given on this matter in this
generation. &t has always been linked with defiance or negative attitudes and it
could have been a by-product of the results by past researches. @ike what ;owell

''

ANGELES UNIVERSITY FOUNDATION
and his colleagues) *34-3. research have indicated wherein the tattooed
population demonstrated significantly more impulsive and sensation-seeking
behavior *Bula 2 'artin, +,3,..
Fast researches have also highlighted some several stereotypes about
those with tattoos such as being unsuccess!ul in school, coming !rom bro'en
homes, having an unhappy childhood, rarely attending church, having poor
decision#ma'ing s'ills, usually obtaining body modi!ications while inebriated, and
being easy victim to peer pressure *rmstrong, 344A; 1oberts 2 1yan, +,,+; @ane,
+,,A. *Bula 2 'artin, +,3,.. 0eniceros *344?. even implied that as the severity of
the tattoos and piercings increased, all forms of violent behavior increased *'anuel
2 (heehan, +,,-..
There was also an association of tattoos with mental illness. (ince previous
studies empirically associated it with personality disorders *rmstrong, 3443;
0aplan, 6omaroni, 2 1hodes, 344:; 0eniceros, 344?; 'easey, 34-+; Fost, 34:?.
and psychopathic personality *'c6erracher 2 Watson, 34:4; Iakamoto, et al.,
34:/. *'anuel 2 (heehan, +,,-.. &n addition to that, sociologists and other
academics, however, almost invariably describe tattooing as cultural deviance
*tkinson, +,,/; Be'ello, +,,,; 0opes and 7orsyth, 344/; &rwin, +,,,.. There are
many reasons for individuals to acEuire or undergo body modification. ccording to
Burand 2 Barlow *+,,,., one possible reason for body modification is to gain
attention through displays of e!travagance such as those that are found in people
with histrionic disorder.

'(

ANGELES UNIVERSITY FOUNDATION
7urthermore, a study that was conducted by @yons and (nyder *344:.
described the reasons why college men and women undergo body modification.
7or men, their main reason was to identify what group they are in or affiliating with.
Women, however, rated tattoos and piercing to make themselves more
individuali$ed and se!ual. 0ultural traditions also are a reason on why individuals
undergo such practice. ccording to Be'ello *3445., other reasons for body
modification are to carry on cultural traditions. s we can all see, body modification
is becoming mainstream in our society today, but, even though there are a lot of
stigmas and negative sides about body modification, Tigge mann 2 9older
*+,,:. stated that those who are body modified or individuals who possesses such
do see themselves as uniEue, not necessarily in a negative way, but rather in the
domain of having a distinctive appearance.
lthough there were researches, which indicated a correlation of body
modifications with negative or defiant behaviors, there were also studies wherein it
was also empirically proven that there could be no correlation as regards to
alterations being made in the body with defiant behaviors. The authors of a
research entitled (Tattoos and Body Piercings as ndicators o! Adolescent )is'#
Ta'ing Behaviors* concluded that the presence of tattoos and body piercings in
adolescents does not necessarily indicate risk-taking behavior in particular
individuals, however, it should not be taken lightly by parents, teachers and health
care providers *0arroll, 1iffenburgh, 1oberts 2 'yhre, +,,+.. 7orbes *+,,3. even
suggested that tattoos might not always connotate signs of rebellion or impromptu
actions in drunken states. This was supported by a study conducted by 0oe,

')

ANGELES UNIVERSITY FOUNDATION
;armon, >erner, and Tonn *344/., which had come to a conclusion that tattoos
generally were not marks of defiance, but rather, primarily were characteri$ed by
collaborative elements particularly among peers *7irmin, Tse, 7oster 2 ngelini,
+,,?..
'ethodology
1esearch Besign
J!ploratory 1esearch design was used in this study since the aim of the study is to
gain information to the lived e!periences of the participants and the phenomena of
which they were motivated to have their bodies modified, and in turn was
stereotyped in the process. Bue to its fle!ibility, it was used in order to have a vast
knowledge on how the individuals, who participated in this study, perceive
themselves in line with the views of the society.

'*

ANGELES UNIVERSITY FOUNDATION
1esearch 'ethod
The method that was chosen for this study was &nterpretative Fhenomenological
nalysis *&F. since it gives more emphasis on the <lived e!periences= of the
individuals and with how participants themselves make sense of their
e!periences. ccording to @ester, *3444., the purpose of the phenomenological
approach is to illuminate the specific, to identify phenomena through how they are
perceived by the actors in a situation. &n addition to that, &F also emphasi$es that
the research e!ercise is a dynamic process with an active role for the researcher in
that process. Cne is trying to get close to the participant)s personal world, to take,
in 0onrad)s *34?-. words, an Kinsider)s perspective), but one cannot do this directly
or completely. *(mith 2 Csborn, +,,-. &F is also a strongly idiographic approach
concerned with detailed analysis of the case either as and end in itself or before
moving to similarly detailed analyses of other cases.
1esearch Frocedure
(nowball sampling was used in selecting the participants in this study for the
researchers to be able to ma!imi$e the information that could be acEuired through
chain of contacts. tkinson 2 7lint, *+,,A. added that snowball sampling may be
defined as a techniEue for gathering research sub#ects through the identification of
an initial sub#ect who is used to provide the names of other actors. These actors
may themselves open possibilities for an e!panding web of contact and inEuiry.
7or the participant)s, they will be given an informed consent for them to have an
idea about the study that will be done. >oluntary participation is very much

'+

ANGELES UNIVERSITY FOUNDATION
stressed by the researchers though the participants can withdraw anytime they
wanted to in the study. 7urthermore, the participants of the study will also be
briefed about the study and what will be the Euestions that will be asked to them.
'oreover, the benefits of the study will also be mentioned them and how the
confidentiality of the data and their identity will be kept.
The researchers decided to use semi - structured type of interview for respondent
to be able to e!press his%her Euestions more freely and for the researcher to be
able to ask Euestions in a simple and easy manner. ccording to ;ayes, *+,,,., a
semi structured interview schedule involves a set of Euestions, which are
phrased in such a way as to allow a respondent to answer relatively openly. The
estimated time of the interview could last up to A5 minutes to 3 hour.
Being <free= in e!pressing themselves doesn)t really mean that they can say what
they want to say. The information, which will be gathered, should still be valid and
usable for the study. ccording to ;ayes, *+,,,., a semi structured interview
schedule will include a number of Kclosed) Euestions, to which the respondent)s
answers can be coded or categori$ed easily; but will also include a number of
Euestions where the respondent answers in their own words and the interviewer
notes down the respondent answers in their own words and the interviewer notes
down these responses as e!actly as possible.
1esearch Farticipants

',

ANGELES UNIVERSITY FOUNDATION
The participants in this study will be interviewed using semi structured type of
interview. This type of interview was also used for the relevance of the participants
in this study. The number of participants will be determined depending on their
availability and willingness to participate in the study. They were given the freedom
to either withdraw or pursue the participation in the present study.
The researchers have described the criteria for the Eualification of the participants
in the study"
a. &ndividuals having multiple body modifications *such as tattoos, piercings,
branding, scarification etc..
b. Freferably body modified individuals with careers, which is not in line with body
modification.
1esearch (ampling
The researchers used a purposive sampling type, which is snowball techniEue.
This techniEue was used for the researchers to be able to gain access to their
connections and acEuaintances in the present study. This could help the
researchers in obtaining the essential data needed for the study.
1esearch Tool
The researchers will be using semi structured interview as their tool in obtaining
the information that they need. The researchers will be preparing a Euestionnaire
but they would focus more on the schedule of the interview and use them as their
guide for the interview instead of dictating on the participants.
Building rapport will be the initial ob#ective of the researchers.

'-

ANGELES UNIVERSITY FOUNDATION
The Euestions will be followed but it can be altered depending on the
respondent)s answer.
The interviewer can freely probe and tackle interesting topics, which arise
during the interview.
There could be a free flow of seEuence in the interview depending on the
interviewee)s interest and concern.
1apport will be prioriti$ed by the researchers to enhance and for them to be able
to gain the trust and build a relationship with the interviewee. When rapport is
built, then the researchers can have a wider and clearer understanding about the
respondent)s interests and concerns. (emi structured interview was used in this
study for the researchers to have a more comfortable type of interview and for the
respondents to be able to talk more freely. The type of interview which will be
used will be in depth type of interview. dded by Breakwell, *344,. researchers
will be able to follow up on their interview in e!tracting the meaningful ones also to
constructively use their own knowledge and e!perience to dig out relevant
content. They were useful to e!plore the way in which individuals construct the
meaning behind their actions, and to access more specific and comple!
information. They also allow voices that may be silenced in group situations to
emerge *Hichols 2 7oster, +,,5..
(cope and @imitations of the (tudy
The scope of this study is about people who have undergone multiple body
modifications. The researchers focused on their motivations on getting their

'.

ANGELES UNIVERSITY FOUNDATION
bodies modified, the significant e!periences they have encountered after
undergoing body modification, and their self concept prior to the alteration of
their bodies. Cn the other hand, the limitation of this study is that the researchers
did not include what is their self concept before undergoing body modification
and the degree of their inclination to such practice.
Bibliography
Berelson 2 (teiner. *34:A.. ;uman Behavior" n &nventory of (cientific 7indings.
D(.
7ran$oi, (. @. *+,,:.. (ocial Fsychology. Hew Iork" 'c9raw-;ill.
0risp, 1. 8., 2 Turner, 1. H. *+,,-.. @ondon" (9J Fublications @td.
lbin, B. B. *+,,:.. 'aking the body *w.hole" (emiotic J!ploration of Body
'odifications. Psychodynamic Practice, 34-/5.
i$enman, '., 2 8ensen, '. . 0. *+,,-.. (peaking Through the Body" The
&ncidence of (elf-&n#ury, Fiercing, and Tattooing mong 0ollege (tudents.
+ournal o! $ollege $ounseling, +--A/.
tkinson, '. *+,,A.. Tattooing and 0ivili$ing Frocess" Body 'odification as (elf-
0ontrol. $anadian )eview o! Sociology and Anthropology, ,-.#,/0.
0arroll, @., 2 nderson, 1. *+,,+.. Body Fiercing, Tattooing, (elf-Jsteem, and
Body &nvestment in dolescent 9irls. Adolescence 1ol. 23 No. ,/3, :+--
:/-.
0arroll, (. T., 1iffenburgh, 1. ;., 1oberts, T. ., 2 'yhre, J. B. *+,,+.. Tattoos and
Body Fiercings as &ndicators of doloscent 1isk-Taking Behaviors.
Pediatrics 1ol. ,45 No. 0, 3,+3-3,+-.

'/

ANGELES UNIVERSITY FOUNDATION
0hen, (., Jnglish, J., 2 Feng, 6. *+,,5.. (elf->erification and 0onte!tuali$ed (elf-
>iews. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 4/,-4A3.
Bavis, B. *+,,5.. Tattoos and Body Fiercing The @ongevity of n ncient Trend.
6onors $ollege Theses, 3- 3?.
7irmin, '. W., Tse, @. '., 7oster, 8., 2 ngelini, T. *+,,?.. 0hristian (tudent
Ferceptions of Body Tattoos" Lualitative nalysis. +ournal o! Psychology
and $hristianity, 345-+,A.
7oster, 9. (., 2 ;ummel, 1. @. *+,,,.. The 0ommodification of Body 'odification"
Tattoos and Fiercings from 0ounterculture to 0ampus. 7astern llinois
8niversity, 3-/3.
9ueguen, H. *+,3+.. Tattoos, Fiercings, and (e!ual ctivity. Society !or Personal
)esearch, 35A/-35A-.
'anuel, @., 2 (heehan, J. F. *+,,-.. 9etting &nked" Tattoos and 0ollege (tudents.
$ollege Student +ournal, 7)$.
Hathanson, 0., Faulhus, B. @., 2 Williams, 6. *+,,:.. Fersonality and 'isconduct
0orrelates of Body 'odification and Cther 0ultural Beviance 'arkers.
+ournal o! )esearch in Personality /4, ---4-?,+.
1esenhoeft, ., >illa, 8., 2 Wiseman, B. *+,,?.. Tattoos 0an ;arm Ferceptions"
(tudy and (uggestions. +ournal o! American $ollege 6ealth 1ol. .0 No. .,
54/-54:.
1iley, (. 0. J., 2 0ahill, (. *+,,5.. 'anaging 'eaning and Belonging" Ioung
Women)s Hegotiation of uthenticity in Body rt. +ournal o! 9outh Studies,
+:3-+-4.
1oberti, 8. W., 2 (corch, J. . *+,,5.. Fsychosocial d#ustment of 0ollege
(tudents With Tattoos and Fiercings. +ournal o! $ollege $ounseling, 3A-34.
(chul$, 8., 6arshin, 0., 2 Woodiel, 6. B. *+,,:.. Body rt" The Becision 'aking
Frocess mong 0ollege (tudents. American +ournal o! 6ealth Studies, 3+/-
3+-.
(mith, 8., 9entry, 8., 2 0hailland, 0. *+,,:.. 0osmetic J!pressions and (e!uality"
The 1elationship between Body 'odifications and Fromiscuity. Psy --4:
)esearch ;esign and Statistics, 3-3+.
(ullivan, H. *+,,4.. The (omatechnics of Bodily &nscription" Tattooing. Studies in
<ender and Se&uality, 3+4-3A3.
Wohlrab, (., (tahl, 8., 1ammsayer, T., 2 6appeler, F. *+,,-.. Bifferences in
personality 0haracteristics Between Body-'odified and Hon-'odified
&ndividuals" ssociations With &ndividual Fersonality Traits and Their
Fossible Jvolutionary &mplications. 7uropean +ournal o! Personality, 4/3-
4/5.
6ahl, 0. '. *+,,+.. Ferceptions of Body 'odifications. 1etrieved on (eptember 4,
+,3/, from http"%%clearinghouse.missouriwestern.edu%manuscripts%/?5.php
'artin, B. ., 2 Bula, 0. (. *+,3,.. 'ore than skin deep" Ferceptions of, and
stigma against tattoos. 1etrieved on (eptember 4, +,3/, from
http"%%www.nclive.org%cgibin%nclsmGurlM
N++http"%%search.ebscohost.com%login.asp!G
directMtrue2dbMa4h2HMA?:A:AA32siteMehost-liveN++

(0

ANGELES UNIVERSITY FOUNDATION

('