[1]

HEAT TRANSFER


Whenever a temperature gradient exists, thermal energy ( heat ) is transferred. The free flow of heat or thermal energy is
always along a temperature gradient from a higher temperature to a lower temperature, in accordance with the Second
Law of Thermodynamics.

HEAT, Q is the energy crossing a system's boundary because of a temperature difference between the system and the
surroundings.

FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

It states that whenever energy transfer occurs, energy must be conserved.

SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

It states that whenever energy is transferred, the level of energy cannot be conserved and some energy must be
permanently reduced to a lower level.

COMBINATION OF FIRST AND SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

It states that whenever energy is transferred, energy must be conserved, but the level of energy cannot be
conserved and some energy must be permanently reduced to a lower level.

MODES ( TYPES ) OF HEAT TRANSFER

1. Conduction the heat transferred through a substance ( or combination of substances ) from a region of high
temperature to a region of low temperature by the progressive exchange of energy between the
molecules of the substance. A common example of heat transfer by conduction is when one picks up a
hot plate to the colder fingers, where there is physical contact between the two. This includes the flow of
heat through furnace walls and pipe insulation where the surface temperatures are maintained almost
constant.

Biot and Fourier's Equation shows the fundamental relationship for heat transfer by conduction:

dt
q
COND
= - k A , Watts ( W )
dx

where:
q
COND
is the heat conducted across a surface, through a wall thickness and with a temperature
drop, W
A area of the material perpendicular to the path of heat flow, m
2

k thermal conductivity, W/m - K
k is a measure of how well a material conducts heat or the amount of heat transmitted in
unit time across unit area through unit thickness for unit temperature change.
( - ) indicates that the temperature decreases as the distance from a reference point in the
direction of the heat flow increases or it indicates that the heat flow is from hot to cold
temperature.
dt
temperature gradient along the path, K/m
dx


2. Convection refers to the heat exchange between a surface and a fluid moving over the surface. An example of heat
transferred by convection is the chilling effect of a cold wind on a warm body. Without the flow of cold
air past a warm body, the primary mode of energy transfer would be conduction, which would be
much less. This also includes the heat transfer which occurs on walls of rooms, on the outside of warm
and cold pipes, and between the surfaces and fluids of all types of heat exchanger.

[2]

Two classes of convection:

a) Natural or free convection transmission of heat such that the fluid motion is accomplished by gravity
forces due to the different densities of fluid.

b) Forced convection transmission of heat such that the fluid motion is accomplished by artificial means
like pumps, fans and blowers.

Empirical formula for heat transfer by convection: Newtons Law of Cooling

q
CONV
= h A T , Watts ( W )
where:
q
CONV
is the convective heat that occurs between a solid surface and fluid moving over the surface, W
h surface or film coefficient ( and other names such as film conductance, surface conductance ), W/m
2
- K
h is the rate of heat flow through a unit area for unit temperature change.
A surface area of the solid surface, m
2

T absolute change in temperature between the fluid and solid surface, K

3. Radiation the transfer of heat from one body to another at lower temperature by electromagnetic waves passing
through a separating medium. Sunshine is a common example of radiant heat transfer. The radiant
energy of the sun is transmitted through space and the earth's atmosphere. Heat transfer by radiation is
also important in boiler furnaces, billet-reheating furnaces and other types of heat exchanger.

Law of Radiative heat transfer

by J. Stefan ( experimentally ) and L. Boltzmann ( derived it theoretically from statistical mechanics )

q
RAD
= A ( T
4
) = A ( T
1
4
T
2
4
) , Watts ( W )

where:
q
RAD
the total radiant energy emitted by the body, W

Stefan - Boltzmann constant ( SI Units )

= 5.6704 x10
- 8
W/m
2
- K
4

Stefan - Boltzmann constant ( CGS Units )

= 5.6704 x 10
- 5
erg/cm
2
- s - K
4

Stefan - Boltzmann constant ( English or Engg Units )

= 0.1714 x 10
- 8
Btu/hr - ft
2
- R
4

A area of the radiating surface, m
2


actual surface radiation at T
= the surface emissivity =
black surface radiation at T

usual range : 0.0 1.0

T
4
= ( T
1
4
T
2
4
) = change in Absolute surface temperature, K
4






[3]

When radiant energy falls on a body:

A. Reflectivity ( ) is the fraction of the total incident radiant energy reflected from the surface of a body.

B. Transmissivity ( ) is the fraction of the total incident radiant energy transmitted through the body.

C. Absorptivity ( ) is the fraction of the total incident radiant energy absorbed by the body.

therefore: + + = 1

Blackbody radiates the maximum energy possible at the temperature of the body or absorbs all the
incident radiant energy regardless of the wavelength.

Graybody this is an actual body which is not a perfect absorber and radiator of radiant energy.


Sample Problems

1. Determine the thermal conductivity of a wood used in a 1.5 m x 1.5 m test panel, 260 mm thick, if during 4-hour test period
there are 520 kJ conducted through the panel with a temperature differential of 10
0
C between the surfaces.
A. 0.6246 W/m - K B. 0.4173 W/m - K C. 0.8482 W/m - K D. 0.2159 W/m - K

2. What is the thermal conductance of the heat transfer path along the length of a square metal bar 20 mm x 20 mm x 1 m long?
The thermal conductivity of the metal is 370 W/m - K.
A. 0.348 W/K B. 0.548 W/K C. 0.148 W/K D. 0.748 W/K

3. A 250 mm thick furnace wall is made of firebrick ( k = 0.72 W/m - K ). Find the heat flow per square meter when the inside
and outside wall temperatures are 900
0
C and 30
0
C, respectively.
A. 2 005.3 W/m
2
B. 3 005.2 W/m
2
C. 2 505.6 W/m
2
D. 3 505.6 W/m
2


4. A 4 m x 3 m x 250 mm furnace wall is made of firebrick ( k = 0.72 W/m - K ). Find the heat loss in MJ per hour of operation.
The terminal difference between surfaces is 870
0
C.
A. 108.242 B. 98.161 C. 118.381 D. 128.428

5. A concrete pipe ( k = 1.1 W/m - K ) of inside diameter 250 mm and wall thickness 30 mm has an inside surface temperature of
30
0
C and an outside surface temperature of 20
0
C. Calculate the heat flow rate per 5 meter length of pipe.
A. 1.607 kW B. 3.214 kW C. 5.421 kW D. 7.842 kW

6. A gray body with a constant surface temperature of 700
0
C and a surface area of 500 cm
2
radiates in a large room, whose
surfaces are black and maintained at 100
0
C. If the gray emittance is 0.6, determine the radiative heat transfer between the
surface and the room.
A. 1 691.55 W B. 1 891.33 W C. 1 299.9 W D. 1 491.77 W

7. The hot combustion gases of a furnace are separated from the ambient air and its surroundings, which are at 25
0
C, by a brick
wall 0.15 m thick. The brick has a thermal conductivity of 1.2 W/m - K and a surface emissivity of 0.8. Under steady state
conditions and outer surface temperature of 100
0
C is measured. Free convection heat transfer to the air adjoining this surface
is characterized by a convection coefficient of 20 W/m
2
- K. What is the brick inner surface temperature in
0
C?
A. 623.7 B. 352.5 C. 461.4 D. 256.3