Muhammad Atir Hashmi (2007-Chem-22)

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Objective of the Lab
Environmental engineering lab helps in the pollution prevention as air, water
and noise testing is done in the lab. As a result of these tests, various remedies can
be suggested to reduce the environmental pollution. The purpose of this lab is to
make the students aware of the dangerous effects of environmental pollution. With
these tests environmental protection agency can keep a check on the hazardous
emissions by any industry and can protect health of common man, water toxicity,
land spoiling and air pollution. Environmental engineering lab in the chemical
engineering department has the following equipments related to the air, water and
noise pollution.


List of Equipment
Chemical Oxygen Demand Apparatus
Biochemical Oxygen Demand Equipment
Reverse Osmosis Apparatus
Standard Test Jar Apparatus
Dissolved Oxygen Meter
COx Meter
NOx Meter
SOx Meter
Sound Level Meter

Muhammad Atir Hashmi (2007-Chem-22)
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Lab Layout














Chemical
Oxygen
Demand
Apparatus
Biochemical
Oxygen
Demand
Equipment
Reverse
Osmosis
Apparatus
Standard
Test Jar
Apparatus
Dissolved
Oxygen
Meter
SOx Meter
NOx Meter
COx Meter
E
n
t
r
a
n
c
e

Sound Level
Meter
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Brief Description of Equipments
Chemical Oxygen Demand Equipment
Chemical oxygen demand (COD) equipment is used to find the COD of the
different samples. COD is the water quality parameter. COD value indicates the
amount of oxygen that is required for the chemical oxidation of organic matter
present in the sample and indirectly the amount of organic matter. Apparatus
consist of a distillation flask, a reflux condenser for entrapping the volatile
materials, cylinders for measuring volumes and chemicals.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand Apparatus
Biochemical oxygen demand apparatus is used to determine the amount of
oxygen required for the biological oxidation of organic matter present in the sample.
Biochemical oxygen demand (B.O.D) is the water quality parameter. B.O.D value
indicates the amount of oxygen required for oxidation and indirectly the amount of
organic matter present.
Reverse Osmosis Apparatus
Reverse osmosis equipment is used for the treatment of water. It can reduce
the organics, in-organics, bacteria and particles found in contaminated drinking
water to tolerable levels at lower energy costs. Reverse (R.O) offers significant
advantages. It can accomplish the removal of contaminates to the desired degree of
purity. R.O process is the reverse of osmosis that involves the selective movement of
water from one side of the membrane to the other. A specific amount of pressure is
necessary to separate the contaminants and this depends on the nature of
impurities present. R.O equipment is provided with the sediment filter, activated
carbon, water softener, R.O membrane, and mercury vapor lamp and conductivity
meter.
Standard Test Jar Apparatus
It is used to remove the turbidity in the given sample. Turbidity appears due
to the presence of suspended material in the sample. Light falling on the sample is
scattered due to this matter and because of this scattering, cloudiness appears. This
cloudiness is referred to as turbidity. The equipment is provided with the turbidity
meter that measures the initial and final turbidity of the samples before and after
Muhammad Atir Hashmi (2007-Chem-22)
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adding the required dosage of flocculent and coagulant. There is control console
with the provision of setting the desired RPM and time.
Dissolved Oxygen Meter
Dissolved oxygen (D.O) meter is used to find the amount of dissolved oxygen
in the given sample of water. D.O is the molecular or the gaseous oxygen present in
water. It is required for the survival of living beings. D.O concentration is very
important to check whether the given water sample is perfect for the given use or
not. e.g for living species under water, the water becomes dangerous for their lives,
if D.O super-saturation is above 140%. The meter can be calibrated to give the
desired readings for the pressure in mmHg, absolute pressure in hPa, %oxygen
saturation and oxygen concentration in mg/l.
COx Meter
It measures the concentration of COx in the air. Non-dispersive photometers
are used to determine the CO gas. In this the characteristic frequenci es absorbed by
CO are made use of in the determination. There are thermal detectors that sense the
temperature difference due to the difference in the concentration of CO in sample
and the reference gas.
NOx Meter
It measures the concentration of NOx present in the given air sample. It works
on the principle of chemilluminescence. There is a screen that displays the
continuous readings for the concentration of NO, NO2 and NOx.
SOx Meter
It measures the concentration of SOx in the air. It works on the principle of
fluorescence. There is a screen that displays the continuous readings for the
concentration of SO2 and H2S.
Sound Level Meter
This meter is used to determine the sound intensity at different places. There
is a condenser type microphone that is kept at a distance of 1m. A transducer is used
to convert the sound energy into the electrical signals and is displayed on the meter
in the form of sound or noise intensity.
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Experiment # 1
Determination of COD for a given sample of water
Apparatus
Reflux apparatus (500 ml Erlenmeyer flask or a 300 ml round bottom flask
connected to a 305 mm allihn condenser by means of a ground glass joint), water
bath, burette and conical flasks.
Reagents
0.25 N K2Cr2O7, H2SO4 Reagent, HgSO4, 0.25 N Ferrous Ammonium Sulphate,
Feroin Indicator (Phenolphthalein Ferrous Sulphate).
Procedure
Take 500 ml of sample and add few drops of HgSO4, if colour of the sample
turns to green (green colour comes if COD> 900 mg/l) the x ml of sample is
diluted to 50 ml otherwise take 50 ml of sample in refluxing flask without
dilution.
For dilution x ml of sample is diluted to 50 ml by adding diluted H2SO4 and at
the end, dilution factor is multiplied with end result, where,
Dilution Factor = 50/x
Prepare H2SO4 reagent by dissolving 10.2 g of Ag2SO4 in one liter of H2SO4 and
placing it for one night, it will be of milky colour.
Take another sample of 50 ml of distilled water in a refluxing flask.
Add 1 g of HgSO4 and several glass beads to both.
Add very slowly 5 ml H2SO4 reagent while mixing to dissolve HgSO4.
Cool while mixing to avoid loss of volatile materials.
Add 25 ml of 0.25 N K2Cr2O7 solution and mix.
Set at reflux both of these flasks and continue swirling and mixing for 2 hours
alongwith the addition of the remaining H2SO4 reagent (70 ml).
Cool to room temperature.
Disconnect reflux condenser and dilute mixture to about twice its volume
with distilled water.
Cool again to room temperature.
Titrate excess K2Cr2O7 with Ferrous Sulphate using 2-3 drops of Feroin
Indicator. End point will be from bluish green to reddish brown.
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Theory
Chemical oxygen demand (COD) is used as a measure of oxygen requirement
of a sample that is susceptible to oxidation by strong chemical oxidant.
Chemical oxygen demand is a vital test for assessing the quality of effluents
and waste waters prior to discharge. The Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) test
predicts the oxygen requirement of the effluent and is used for monitoring and
control of discharges, and for assessing treatment plant performance.
The impact of an effluent or waste water discharge on the receiving water is
predicted by its oxygen demand. This is because the removal of oxygen from the
natural water reduces its ability to sustain aquatic life. The COD test is therefore
performed as routine in laboratories of water utilities and industrial companies.
Most types of organic matter are oxidized by a boiling mixture of chromic and
sulfuric acids. A sample is refluxed in strongly acid solution with a known excess of
potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7). After digestion, the remaining unreduced K2Cr2O7
is titrated with ferrous ammonium sulfate to determine the amount of K2Cr2O7
consumed and the oxidizable matter is calculated in terms of oxygen equivalent.
Keep ratios of reagent weights, volumes, and strengths constant when sample
volumes other than 50 ml are used. The standard 2-h reflux time may be reduced if
it has been shown that a shorter period yields the same results. Some samples with
very low COD or with highly heterogeneous solids content may need to be analyzed
in replicate to yield the most reliable data. Results are further enhanced by reacti on
of a maximum quantity of dichromate, provided that some residual dichromate
remains.
Caution
Mix reflux mixture thoroughly before applying heat to prevent local heating
flask bottom and possible blow out flask contents.
If sample volume other than 50 ml are used keep ratios of reagents, volumes
and strength constants (see table a)
Use 1 g of HgSO4 with 50 ml sample to complex up a maximum of 100 mg
chloride for smaller sample use less.
Use care in titration. The endpoint is very sharp and may be reached rapidly.
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Note
Nearly all solutions of reducing agents are gradually oxidized by oxygen
dissolved from air unless special care is taken to protect them from oxygen. Ferrous
ion is excellent reducing agent for dichromate. Solution of it can be prepared from
Ferrous Ammonium Sulphate, which is obtainable in pure and stable form. In
solution it is slowly oxidized by oxygen and standardization is required each time
the reagent is to be used. Hence Ferrous Sulphate should always be prepared fresh
and standardized.
Observations and Calculations
Ferrous ammonium sulphate used for tap water = a = 2.7ml
Ferrous ammonium sulphate used for distilled water = b = 2.4ml
The formula for COD determination is:
Size Sample
N b a
l mg COD
.
8000
) / (
50
8000 25 . 0 4 . 2 7 . 2
) / ( l mg COD
COD (mg/l) = 12 mg/l
Results
Hence the COD value for given sample is 12 mg/l.

Muhammad Atir Hashmi (2007-Chem-22)
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Experiment # 2
To study the RO Operation for Water Treatment and Backwashing and Regeneration
of Beds
Water Treatment (Unit-wise)
First unit which is present is Feed Drum which contains the water to be
treated.
A Pump is present for the movement of water in the whole assembly.
After this water enters the Sedimentation Filter Bed which removes the
suspended solids from water.
Then water enters the Activated Carbon Bed, where the suspended solids and
colors etc. are adsorbed on the activated carbon surface.
After it water passes through the Water Softener Bed. Here the hardness
causing calcium and magnesium ions are replaced with sodium ions.
Then water again passes through the Filter to remove any entrained bed
particle.
Then a Pump pumps it through the RO Membrane. The RO Membrane
removes the particles of the sizes comparable with mineral ions (10-9 m). It
generates the demineralized water. The retentate is sent to the Drain.
Permeate is sent to the UV Radiations Chamber where the bacteria or viruses
are killed with the help of UV Radiations.
The flow rates of both Permeate and Retentate are measured with the help of
Rotameters.
Finally the treated water is collected in Treated Water Drum.
Backwashing / Regeneration of Beds
In backwashing / Regeneration, the flow of Water is reversed in the Beds.
For the Back washing of Sedimentation filter bed, water is used.
For the Backwashing of Activated carbon bed, Water is used.
For the Regeneration of Water softener bed, Solution of NaOH is used to again
replace the Ca or Mg ions by Na ions in order to make the bed active again.



Muhammad Atir Hashmi (2007-Chem-22)
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RO and RO Membrane
In the normal osmosis process the solvent naturally moves from an area of
low solute concentration, through a membrane, to an area of high solute
concentration. The movement of a pure solvent to equalize solute concentrations on
each side of a membrane generates a pressure and this is the "osmotic pressure."
Applying an external pressure to reverse the natural flow of pure solvent, thus, is
reverse osmosis.
Reverse osmosis (RO) is a filtration method that removes many types of large
molecules and ions from solutions by applying pressure to the solution when it is on
one side of a selective membrane. The result is that the solute is retained on the
pressurized side of the membrane and the pure solvent is allowed to pass to the
other side. To be "selective," this membrane should not allow large molecules or
ions through the pores (holes), but should allow smaller components of the solution
(such as the solvent) to pass freely.
The membranes used for reverse osmosis have a dense barrier layer in the
polymer matrix where most separation occurs. In most cases, the membrane is
designed to allow only water to pass through this dense layer, while preventing the
passage of solutes (such as salt ions). This process requires that a high pressure be
exerted on the high concentration side of the membrane, usually 217 bar (30250
psi) for fresh and brackish water, and 4070 bar (6001000 psi) for seawater,
which has around 27 bar (390 psi) natural osmotic pressure that must be overcome.
This process is best known for its use in desalination (removing the salt and other
minerals from sea water to get fresh water), but since the early 1970s it has also
been used to purify fresh water for medical, industrial, and domestic applications.
Muhammad Atir Hashmi (2007-Chem-22)
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Experiment # 3
To find the optimum dosage of the flocculent for the removal of turbidity in canal
water
Apparatus
Standard test jar apparatus, pH meter, turbidity meter
Chemicals
Alum Potash as coagulant and magna 616 as flocculent
Procedure
Dissolve 1 g alum in 100 ml of distilled water (take 5 mins)
Dissolve 1 g flocculent in 1000 ml distilled water (it takes 1 hr to 1.5 hr)
Measure the turbidity of sample.
Take 500 ml of canal water in each beaker and put 1 ml of alum solution n
each beaker (the concentration of alum in each beaker would be 2 ppm)
Place the beaker in j ar test apparatus and run apparatus at 100 rpm for 5
mins
Add 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6 ml flocculent solution in the beakers respectively,
this would give you concentration of flocculent 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 1.0, 1.2 ppm of
flocculent.
Stirrer the solution in the apparatus at 100 rpm for mins and then at 20 rpm
for 15 mins.
Remove beakers from apparatus and place them at the balanced place for 15
mins to give them suitable settling time to lumps of particulate.
Measure the final turbidity of canal water and plot a graph of final turbidity
vs. amount of flocculent used.
Theory
Turbidity is a measure of the degree to which the water loses its transparency
due to the presence of suspended particulates. It is caused by wide variety of
suspended matter which differs in size i.e., Clay, Silt, Organic matter & metals,
Microscopic organisms etc.
Turbidity is measured photo metrically by determining %age of light of a
given intensity absorbed or scattered.
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It is measured generally in two units which are:
NTU (Nephlometric Unit) based on light scattering
JTU (Jackson Unit) based on light absorption
Coagulation and flocculation occur in successive steps intended to overcome
the forces stabilizing the suspended particles, allowing particle collision and growth
of floc. If step one is incomplete, the following step will be unsuccessful.
The first step destabilizes the particles charges. Coagulants with charges
opposite those of the suspended solids are added to the water to neutralize the
negative charges on dispersed non-settlable solids such as clay and color-producing
organic substances.
Once the charge is neutralized, the small suspended particles are capable of
sticking together. The slightly larger particles formed through this process and
called microflocs, are not visible to the naked eye. The water surrounding the newly
formed microflocs should be clear. If it is not, all the particles charges have not been
neutralized, and coagulation has not been carried to completion. More coagulant
may need to be added.
A high-energy, rapid-mix to properly disperse the coagulant and promote
particle collisions is needed to achieve good coagulation. Over-mixing does not
affect coagulation, but insufficient mixing will leave this step incomplete. Coagulants
should be added where sufficient mixing will occur. Proper contact time in the
rapid-mix chamber is typically 1 to 3 minutes.
Following the first step of coagulation, a second process called flocculation
occurs. Flocculation, a gentle mixing stage, increases the particle size from
submicroscopic microfloc to visible suspended particles.
The microflocs are brought into contact with each other through the process
of slow mixing. Collisions of the microfloc particles cause them to bond to produce
larger, visible flocs called pinflocs. The floc size continues to build through
additional collisions and interaction with inorganic polymers formed by the
coagulant or with organic polymers added. Macroflocs are formed. High molecular
weight polymers, called coagulant aids, may be added during this step to help
bridge, bind, and strengthen the floc, add weight, and increase settling rate. Once the
floc has reached it optimum size and strength, the water is ready for the
sedimentation process. Design contact times for flocculation range from 15 or 20
minutes to an hour or more.
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Precautions
Dont touch or try to stop the agitator while rotating
After adding flocculent the agitator speed should be controlled carefully
otherwise all the gathered material is dispersed again in the sample.
Observation and Calculations
Flocculent Amount (ml) Turbidity (NTU)
0 1034
0.2 1005
0.3 1006
0.4 1007
0.5 1005
0.6 1007

Results
From the above Graph it can be concluded that the certain amount of
flocculent is necessary to obtain the best results in the removal of turbidity. Due to
some error in doing experiment the accurate value cant be calculated but from
trend line the optimum value comes out to be 0.4 ml.

1000
1005
1010
1015
1020
1025
1030
1035
1040
0 0.2 0.4 0.6
T
u
r
b
i
d
i
t
y

(
N
T
U
)
Amount of Flocculent (ml)
Flocculent Amount Vs Turbidity
Muhammad Atir Hashmi (2007-Chem-22)
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Experiment # 4
To determine the Biological Oxygen Demand of waste or tap water.
Apparatus
BOD measuring apparatus, Stirrer, Graduated jars, pH meter
Procedure
Estimate the measurement range for the sample under test and select the
volume of the sample.
Carry out any pre-treatment of the sample.
Measure the volume of the sample precisely, using the overflow measuring
flask and transfer it to the BOD bottle, with the aid of the funnel. If necessary
add nitrification inhibitor.
Insert the magnetic stirring rod in the BOD bottle.
Place 3-4 drops of KOH solution into the seal gasket. Then insert the gasket in
the rack of the bottle.
Screw the BOD sensors to the sample bottles.
Place the sample bottles in the bottle rack.
Start the measurement process.
Incubate the sample in accordance with the instructions (for the required
number of days).
Theory
Microorganisms such as bacteria are responsible for decomposing organic
waste. When organic matter such as dead plants, leaves, grass clippings, manure,
sewage, or even food waste is present in a water supply, the bacteria will begin the
process of breaking down this waste. When this happens, much of the available
dissolved oxygen is consumed by aerobic bacteria, robbing other aquatic organisms
of the oxygen they need to live.
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) is a measure of the oxygen used by
microorganisms to decompose this waste. If there is a large quantity of organic
waste in the water supply, there will also be a lot of bacteria present working to
decompose this waste. In this case, the demand for oxygen will be high (due to all
the bacteria) so the BOD level will be high. As the waste is consumed or dispersed
through the water, BOD levels will begin to decline.
Muhammad Atir Hashmi (2007-Chem-22)
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Nitrates and phosphates in a body of water can contribute to high BOD levels.
Nitrates and phosphates are plant nutrients and can cause plant life and algae to
grow quickly. When plants grow quickly, they also die quickly. This contributes to
the organic waste in the water, which is then decomposed by bacteria. This results
in a high BOD level. The temperature of the water can also contribute to high BOD
levels. For example, warmer water usually will have a higher BOD level than colder
water. As water temperature increases, the rate of photosynthesis by algae and
other plant life in the water also increases. When this happens, plants grow faster
and also die faster. When the plants die, they fall to the bottom where they are
decomposed by bacteria. The bacteria require oxygen for this process so the BOD is
high at this location. Therefore, increased water temperatures will speed up
bacterial decomposition and result in higher BOD levels.
When BOD levels are high, dissolved oxygen (DO) levels decrease because the
oxygen that is available in the water is being consumed by the bacteria. Since less
dissolved oxygen is available in the water, fish and other aquatic organisms may not
survive.
Generally, when BOD levels are high, there is a decline in DO levels. This is
because the demand for oxygen by the bacteria is high and they are taking that
oxygen from the oxygen dissolved in the water. If there is no organic waste present
in the water, there won't be as many bacteria present to decompose it and thus the
BOD will tend to be lower and the DO level will tend to be higher.
The sample volume is related to the expected BOD. To operate over the
measurement ranges and sample volumes as shown in the table below:
Range BOD mg/l Sample Volume in ml Drops of ATH
0-40 428 10
0-80 360 10
0-200 244 5
0-400 157 5
0-800 94 3
0-2000 56 3
0-4000 21.7 1