Hope Helverson

Maxwell Elijah Bowen

Julian Roberts
Steven Zheng

Chapter 11
- if the 4.6 billion-year story of Earth is reduced to a single COSMOLOGICAL
DAY, humans occupy just the last minute and a half and civilization covers less
than the final second

- Fossils tell us about organisms of the past
- What organisms looked like
- Trace Fossils preserve impressions such as footprints
- When organisms occurred
- Relative Aging - Position within sedimentary rock
- Index fossils help identify rock layers of the same age spread around
the earth
- Absolute Aging - Radioactive Isotopes! Half-lives
- radioactive decay is an exponential process! allows us to know how
long something has decayed
- Fossil record and DNA Comparison support common ancestor theory
- molecular clocks measure DNA or protein changes to indicate degrees of
relationship among species
- Eons!Eras!Periods!Epochs!Stages
- Supereon combines the oldest three eons, the time before the Cambrian
explosion
- Mass extinctions and episodic speciation interrupted the overall pattern of
increasing biodiversity
- death and differential reproduction result in adaptation to a changing
environment
- gradualism: change occurs slowly and continuously
- punctuated equilibrium: change occurs quickly in short bursts between periods
of long stagnancy
- adaptive radiation: relatively speedy evolution in which a species evolves into
several species to fill a diverse set of ecological niches
- divergent evolution
- convergent evolution! distantly related species evolving similar traits
- coevolution! two species or groups of species influence each others evolution
and therefore evolve in tandem
- coextinction! if one member of a pair of interdependent species becomes
extinct, the other is likely to follow



- Big Bang began the universe
- Formation of stars and planets
- fusion of hydrogen and helium in the formation of stars
- organic molecules are the materials of life
- primordial soup!life developed through gradual chemical evolution
- protocells! simple membrane-enclosed spaces which may have led to the
Hope Helverson
Maxwell Elijah Bowen
Julian Roberts
Steven Zheng

later evolution of true cells
- RNA World Hypothesis! short chain of RNA was able to replicate itself in
the presence of RNA polymerase
- Genes-First model! idea that a successful replicator molecule preceded
the evolution of biochemical pathways
- Metabolism-First! the fact that archaebacteria and eubacteria have
completely different membrane lipids but similar metabolism supports the
concept of early biochemical pathway evolution

- exogenesis! hypotheses which propose that life could have originated
elsewhere
- first cells were prokaryotes
- prokaryote probably had a cell membrane and ribosomes
- used DNA for information storage
- used RNA for information transfer
- used protein for catalyzing chemical reactions
- LUCA prokaryote arose! not long after, life split into two groups
(Bacteria and Archaebacteria)
- photosynthesis emerged! changed Earths atmosphere
- ozone formed, protecting life from damaging UV radiation
- then came Eukaryotes! merging of several kinds of prokaryotic cells




- 4 billion years of simple, prokaryotic cells
- 3 billion years of photosynthesis
- 2 billion years of complex, eukaryotic (but still single!) cells
- 1 billion years of multicellular life

- energized elements from stardust formed simple organic molecules
- building blocks chained together to form catalysts and self-replicating
macromolecules
- biochemical pathways evolved
- protective yet permeable membranes enclosed the catalysts, replicators and
their metabolic retinue
- early prokaryotic cells learned to make ATP by splitting glucose
- others began to harvest sunlight energy through photosynthesis
- photosynthetic cyanobacteria produced vast amounts of waste oxygen,
dramatically altering the Earths atmosphere
- the oceans rusted 9iron ore deposits)
- an ozone layer formed, shielding life from UV radiation
- the O2 catastrophe killed many anaerobic prokaryotes
- still other prokaryotes learned to use the new O2 to release the energy
remaining in carbohydrates products of glycosis
Hope Helverson
Maxwell Elijah Bowen
Julian Roberts
Steven Zheng

- endosymbiosis created eukaryotes, firmly establishing the three major
evolutionary lineages, which yet today comprise the living world

- At times, glaciations covered much of the Earth with ice so extensively that is is
known as the snowball Earth
- eventually CO2 escaped from volcanoes to begin a period of global
warming! this is how Earth got out of the snowball

- primitive specialization among cells made certain tasks more efficient
- sexual reproduction was a major evolution innovation, producing more variety
among offspring and thus more rapid adaptation to changing environments

- Paleozoic Era! trilobites
- Mesozoic Era! dinosaurs
- Cenozoic Era! modern life


Chapter 12

Theory of Evolution
- present life has arisen gradually from past life forms! present life forms are
related by descent from common ancestors
- Natural Selection explains how the diversity of life has arisen through time
- Darwin! Galapagos
- Marine Iguanas
- Giant Tortoises
- Darwin Finches (Divergent evolution)
- Inheritance of acquired characteristics - Lamarck
- idea that giraffes stretch their necks to reach tall trees and pass down long
neck trait
- this is wrong
- artificial selection
- breeding pigeons, dogs, and cattle proved heritable variation
- led to the development of natural selection concept
- Darwins theory (natural selection sees the preservation of useful variation)
1. By chance, heritable variation exist within a species
2. Species produce more offspring than can survive
3. Offspring with favorable variations are more likely to survive to reproduce
4. Gradually, individuals with favorable variations make up more of the
population (species change)


- Theory is an explanation which ties together or unifies a large group of
observations
- Evolution is more a theory than a hypothesis
Hope Helverson
Maxwell Elijah Bowen
Julian Roberts
Steven Zheng

- Fossils (Fossil record)
- Relative Dating - Rock layer position
- Absolute dating - half lives
- reveals past life (ancestors)
- Comparative anatomy (Anatomical record)
- evolution evidence in the similarities and differences in organisms structures
- Homologous structures
- similar structures because species descend from a common ancestor
that had the trait
- Analogous structures
- similar structures in different species because structures serve similar
functions
- e.g. bat wings, dinosaur wings, bird wings
- embryology - studying the development of vertebrate animals before birth or
hatching
similar structures during development support common ancestry
- vestigial structures ! human tail and appendix
- structures which are reduced and or nonfunctional
- Molecular Biology (Molecular record)
- comparing DNA sequences between species to find similarities and
differences
- Biogeography
- study of the distribution of plants and animals and the processes that
influence their distribution including evolution and natural selection
- geologic change and evolution explain species distribution! biogeography
is evidence for the theory of evolution
- continental drift, plate tectonics explain patterns of evolutionary descent
- island biogeography
- studies biogeography in isolated sites for evolution
-Darwins Finches
- adaptive radiation
- Finches evolved different bills for certain ecological niches


- artificial selection! selective breeding
- hybridization - mixing of separate species
- genetic pollution! when hybrids interbreed with natural varieties
- genetic engineering
- the transfer of a gene from one organism to another
- has resulted in vaccines for diseases such as Hepatitis B and cheap
vaccines in fruits
- Evolution of Resistance
- Resistant mutation
- dont take antibiotics carelessly
- leads to more resistant virus
Hope Helverson
Maxwell Elijah Bowen
Julian Roberts
Steven Zheng

- Peppered moths turned darker with pollution and smog
- when environment was cleaned up, moths started becoming lighter again


1. What is divergent evolution? Give an example.
2. What is convergent evolution? Give an example.
3. What is the idea of inheritance of acquired characteristics? Give an example
4. What are the four conclusions that lead to evolution through natural selection?
5. Explain the process of relative dating. Explain absolute dating
6. Birds and bats both have wings. This is an example of a (homologous /
analogous) structure.
7. What types of records support the theory of evolution?
8. What is artificial selection and give an example
9. Why was the advent of photosynthesis so important in the history of early life?
10. Give an example of a vestigial structure.

Gene: segment of DNA that contains information for a single protein
Alleles: different forms of the same gene, changes in the nucleotide sequence
Genotype: allele pairing inherited from parents
Phenotype: physical characteristic designated by a genotype
Heterozygous: two different alleles
Homozygous: two of the same alleles
Expression: the way in which a gene is represented in an individual, can be affected by
environment
Mutations: changes in the nucleotide sequence
Fitness: ability to survive and reproduce
Sexual Reproduction: increases mutation rate and diversity
Population: a group of individuals of the same species in a certain area
Population genetics: the study of populations at the level of alleles and genes
Gene pool: the totality of the genes and alleles in a population
Allele frequency: the proportion of a certain allele existing in a population

Microevolution: evolution below the level of the species, for example within a
population
Macroevolution: evolution at the level of the species or higher
Hardy-Weinberg Model: genetic equilibrium given:
! no mutations
! no migration
! large population
! random mating
! no natural selection
Gene flow: flow of alleles in and out of a population due to migration
Genetic drift: random fluctuations in allele frequency in a population
Bottleneck effect: loss of diversity and subsequent genetic drift experienced due to
extreme reduction in population size
Hope Helverson
Maxwell Elijah Bowen
Julian Roberts
Steven Zheng

Founder effect: when a small population, breaking off from a larger one, has a limited
genetic diversity and establish a new population with a significantly different
genotype
Adaptive radiation: when segments of a population evolve rapidly to fill certain niches
Directional selection: shift from one extreme to another
Stabilizing selection: shift towards the middle
Disruptive selection: shift towards both extremes, leads to two different species
Kin selection: the promotion of a close relative's fitness at the cost of the individual's
own reproductive success

Speciation: the process or group of processes that leads to a new species being created
Biological Species Concept: organisms that are related enough to interbreed and
produce fertile offspring under natural conditions
Reproductive Isolation: separation of a population that causes it to become a new
species
Reproductive Barriers: things that prevent different species from interbreeding, can be
physical, seasonal, behavioral, molecular, or genetic
Morphological Species Concept: groups based on physical characteristics
Ecological Species Concept: groups based on ecological niches
Evolutionary Species Concept: groups based on evolutionary history
Allopatric Speciation: geographical barriers
Sympatric Speciation: other influences
Polyploidy: cells with too many genes
Hybrids: formed through polyploidy with different species, can form an actual new
species
Gradualism: evolution is gradual
Punctuated Equilibrium: evolution goes fast then slow

Taxonomy: classification of species
Linnaean System: Kingdom " Phylum " Class " Order " Family " Genus "
Species
Binomial Nomenclature: two word names in latin for animals
Added taxonomy: subphylum, superfamily, and domain

Phylogeny: genetic history of a species, usually represented by a phylogenetic tree
Common Ancestor: most recent ancestor that two species share
Cladistics: making phylogenetic trees
Clade: ancestor species and all descendants
Cladogram: phylogenetic tree showing one or more clades
3 Domains: Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya
6 Kingdoms: Eubacteria, Archaebacteria, Plants, Animals, Fungi, Protists



Explain the difference between a genotype and a phenotype.
Hope Helverson
Maxwell Elijah Bowen
Julian Roberts
Steven Zheng



Explain the difference between a homozygous and a heterozygous individual.


Define a gene pool.


What are the 5 conditions that lead to a Hardy-Weinberg model.


Explain the difference between gene flow and genetic drift.

Explain the founder effect and the bottleneck effect

What are the stages of the Linnaean System of taxonomy.

1. This is another term for a phylogenetic tree.

1. What are the three domains?

What are the six kingdoms?



Ch 43
!"#$%&'($) "+')',- is ueuicateu to the piinciple that !"#$%"& ()&)*#+,!
(-".)( /)-"0+,% 1$(# "( +# 2,)( #-) "!"#,34 "!2 .-4(+,&,54 ,6 "! "!+3"&
!"#$%&'(: "!4 "*#+,! #-"# *"! /) ,/()%0)2 "!2 2)(*%+/)2
The ".$/0(" %"(101 .0(/0("" question asks to what extent oui genes
(natuie) anu oui enviionment (nuituie) influence behavioi
o An example of genetics influencing behavioi: Fischei lovebiius builu
nests with laige stiips of leaves, which they caiiy in theii beaks.
Peach-faceu lovebiius cut shoitei stiips anu caiiy them in theii
featheis. Bybiius show inteimeuiate behavioi.
2&3"4 $+/&'. 5$//"(. 62789: an unchanging behavioial iesponse
:&,. 1/&;0)01: a paiticulai tiiggei in the enviionment that elicits a fixeu
action pattein
<"$(.&.,: a uuiable change in behavioi biought about by expeiience
=;5(&./&.,: a foim of leaining thiough which an infant establishes a
behavioi pattein of iecognition anu attiaction to (usually) its paients,
although they may impiint on the fiist moving entity they finu
:".1&/&%" 5"(&'4: the peiiou of time in which a paiticulai behavioi uevelops
Hope Helverson
Maxwell Elijah Bowen
Julian Roberts
Steven Zheng

711'+&$/&%" )"$(.&.,: a change in behavioi that involves an association
between two events
>)$11&+$) +'.4&/&'.&.,: the paiieu piesentation of two uiffeient types of
stimuli causes an animal to foim an association between them (ex. Pavlov's
uogs)
?5"($./ +'.4&/&'.&.,: a stimulus-iesponse connection is stiengtheneu
(iewaiuing an animal with foou foi peifoiming a task)
@&,($/&'.: long-uistance tiavel fiom one location to anothei
?(&"./$/&'.: the ability to tiavel in a paiticulai uiiection
A$%&,$/": the ability to change uiiection in iesponse to enviionmental clues
=.1&,#/ )"$(.&.,: occuis when an animal suuuenly solves a pioblem without
any piioi expeiience with the situation
:'+&"/&"1: collectives of animals in which membeis of a species aie oiganizeu
in a coopeiative mannei, extenuing beyonu sexual anu paiental behavioi
>';;0.&+$/&'.: an action by a senuei that may influence the behavioi of a
ieceivei. It may oi may not be puiposeful
8#"(';'.": a chemical signal in low concentiations that is passeu between
membeis of the same species. These can be peiceiveu both uay anu night.
704&/'(- +';;0.&+$/&'.: a signal oi message sent as sounu. It is fastei
than chemical communication anu effective both uay anu night.
B&10$) +';;0.&+$/&'.: signals tiansmitteu thiough sight. These aie most
often useu by animals that aie active uuiing the uay.
C$+/&)" +';;0.&+$/&'.: occuis when one animal touches anothei
C"((&/'(-: the poition of the iange that is uefenueu foi an animal's exclusive
use, in which competing membeis of its species aie not welcome
C"((&/'(&$)&/-: the behavioi of uefenuing one's teiiitoiy
?5/&;$) D'($,&., ;'4"): states that it is auaptive foi foiaging behavioi to
be as eneigetically efficient as possible
8')-,$;'01: a single male mates with multiple females
8')-$.4('01: a female mates with multiple males
@'.',$;'01: the animals paii bonu, anu both male anu female help with
the ieaiing of the young
:"30$) 1")"+/&'.: a foim of natuial selection that favois featuies that
inciease an animal's chances of mating (inciease theii fitness). This is most
often uue to 6)3"&) *-,+*), which leaus to 3"&) *,3.)#+#+,!
Living in a society has a gieatei benefit than iepiouuctive cost. Benefits
incluue assistance avoiuing pieuation, ieaiing young, anu finuing foou.
Bisauvantages incluue uisputes ovei the best iesouices, uominance
hieiaichies, exposuie to illness anu paiasites.
7)/(0&1;: a behavioi that has the potential to ueciease the lifetime
iepiouuctive success of the altiuist, while benefitting the iepiouuctive
success of anothei membei of the society
Hope Helverson
Maxwell Elijah Bowen
Julian Roberts
Steven Zheng

E&("+/ 1")"+/&'.: auaptation to the enviionment uue to the iepiouuctive
success of an inuiviuual
F&. 1")"+/&'.: also known as +!2+%)*# ()&)*#+,!, is auaptation to the
enviionment uue to the iepiouuctive success of an inuiviuual's ielatives.
=.+)01&%" D&/."11: (of an inuiviuual) incluues peisonal iepiouuctive success
as well as the iepiouuctive success of ielatives
G"+&5('+$) $)/(0&1;: a behavioi that, in the shoit-teim, is a iepiouuctive
saciifice, but will inciease futuie iepiouuctive potential
Ch. 44
H+')',-: the stuuy of the inteiactions among all oiganisms anu with theii
physical enviionment
I$J&/$/: the place wheie the oiganism lives
8'50)$/&'.: all the oiganisms belonging to the same species within an aiea
at the same time. At this level, we focus on factois that affect the giowth anu
iegulation of population size
>';;0.&/-: consists of all the populations of multiple species inteiacting at
a locale. At this level, we focus of how vaiious populations inteiact with each
othei
H+'1-1/";: composeu of the community of populations along with the
abiotic enviionment. Ecosystems iaiely have iigiu bounuaiies.
H+'/'.": a tiansition zone which exists between ecosystems anu has a
mixtuie of oiganisms fiom aujacent ecosystems
!&'15#"(": the zones of the Eaith's soil, watei, anu aii wheie living
oiganisms aie founu
E";',($5#-: the statistical stuuy of a population, such as its uensity, its
uistiibution, anu its iate of giowth, which is uepenuent on such pateins as its
moitality pattein anu age uistiibution
8'50)$/&'. 4".1&/-: numbei of inuiviuuals pei unit aiea
8'50)$/&'. 4&1/(&J0/&'.: pattein of uispeisal of inuiviuuals acioss an aiea
of inteiest
G"1'0(+"1: nonliving anu living components of an enviionment that suppoit
)&%&., '(,$.&1;1 (e.g. light, watei, space, mates, foou)
<&;&/&., D$+/'(1: those enviionmental aspects that ueteimine wheie an
oiganism lives
8$//"(.1 'D 4&1/(&J0/&'.: clumpeu, ianuom, anu unifoim
G$/" 'D .$/0($) &.+("$1" 6(9K giowth iate of a population, is uepenuent on
the numbei of inuiviuuals boin each yeai anu the numbei of inuiviuuals that
uie each yeai. Immigiation anu emigiation aie assumeu to be equal
!&'/&+ 5'/"./&$): the highest possible iate of natuial inciease foi a
population (uepenuent on limiting factois, such as the numbei of offspiing
pei iepiouuctive event that suivive until the age of iepiouuction, amount of
competition within the population, age anu numbei of iepiouuctive
oppoitunities, anu piesence of uisease anu pieuatois.)
Hope Helverson
Maxwell Elijah Bowen
Julian Roberts
Steven Zheng

>'#'(/: all the membeis of a population boin at the same time
:0(%&%'(1#&5: the piobability of newboin inuiviuuals of a cohoit suiviving
to paiticulai ages
Thiee types of iuealizeu suivivoiship cuives: Type I is chaiacteiistic of a
population in which most inuiviuuals suivive well past the miupoint of the
life span (incluues laige mammals such as humans). Type III is the opposite:
most inuiviuuals uie veiy young. In type II, suivivoiship uecieases at a
constant iate thioughout the life span
7," 1/(0+/0(" 4&$,($;1: illustiate the geneiations that aie alive at a time
:";")5$(&/-: a pattein of population giowth in which the membeis of a
population have only a single iepiouuctive event in theii lifetime. It is an
auaptation to an unstable enviionment
=/"('5$(&/-: a pattein of population giowth in which the membeis
expeiience many iepiouuctive events thioughout theii lifetime. They
continue to invest eneigy into theii futuie suivival
H35'."./&$) ,('L/#: the numbei of inuiviuuals auueu each geneiation
incieases as the total numbei of females incieases. The cuive has two phases
(lag phase: giowth is slow because the population is small, exponential
giowth phase: giowth is acceleiating)
<',&1/&+ ,('L/#: exponential giowth that becomes affecteu by limiting
factois (lack of foou, excess of waste.) The cuive is sigmoiual (S-shapeu)
anu has these phases: lag phase, exponential giowth phase, ueceleiation
phase (giowth slows uown), stable equilibiium phase (theie is little giowth
if any because biith anu ueath aie about equal)
>$((-&., +$5$+&/- 6F): the maximum numbei of inuiviuuals of a given
species that the community can suppoit
E".1&/-M&.4"5".4"./ D$+/'(: the intensity of the effect uoes not inciease
with incieaseu population uensity. Abiotic factois aie usually uensity-
inuepenuent.
E".1&/-M4"5".4"./ D$+/'(1: biotic factois that cause the peicentage of the
population affecteu to inciease as the uensity of the population incieases.
>';5"/&/&'.: occuis when membeis of a species attempt to use the same
iesouices that aie in limiteu supply
8("4$/&'.: occuis when one living oiganism, the .%)2"#,%, feeus on anothei,
the .%)4.
Bensity-inuepenuent anu uensity-uepenuent factois aie extiinsic to the
oiganism. Intiinsic factois aie baseu on the anatomy, physiology, oi
behavioi of the oiganism, anu also affect population size anu giowth iates.
E"/"(;&.&1/&+ +#$'1 6+#$'19: complex, nonianuom geneiation which
causes wilu fluctuations in an obseiveu measuie of a population without any
iecuiiing pattein.
Hope Helverson
Maxwell Elijah Bowen
Julian Roberts
Steven Zheng

(M1/($/",&1/1: small inuiviuuals, shoit life span, fast to matuie, many
offspiing, little oi no caie of offspiing, many uie befoie iepiouucing, eaily
iepiouuctive age
FM1/($/",&1/1: laige inuiviuuals, long life span, slow to matuie, few anu laige
offspiing, much caie of offspiing, most young suivive to iepiouuctive age,
auapteu to stable enviionment.
E'0J)&., /&;": the length of time it takes foi a population to uouble. This
uepicts the potential foi futuie population giowth
@'("M4"%")'5"4 +'0./(&"1: population giowth is low anu people enjoy a
high stanuaiu of living
<"11M4"%")'5"4 +'0./(&"1: population giowth expanus iapiuly anu the
majoiity of people live in poveity.
E";',($5#&+ /($.1&/&'.: a sequence of events such as a uecieaseu ueath
iate followeu by a uecieaseu biith iate that causes a significant change in
population uemogiaphics
N"(' 5'50)$/&'. ,('L/#: no inciease in population size
G"5)$+";"./ ("5('40+/&'.: a gieatei numbei of young women entei theii
iepiouuctive yeais than oluei women leave, iesulting in population giowth
Enviionmental Impact (EI) = population size x iesouice consumption pei
capita = pollution pei unit of iesouice useu
Ch. 43 and 44 Quiz
1. Place in the piopei oiuei, fiom smallest to laigest:
Community, Babitat, Biospheie, Ecosystem, Population





2. What is the uiffeience between semelpaiity anu iteiopaiity.



S. What is altiuism.



4. uive an example of classical conuitioning




Hope Helverson
Maxwell Elijah Bowen
Julian Roberts
Steven Zheng

S. What is the tiansition zone between two ecosystems calleu.


6. What is a fixeu action pattein.


7. C(0" oi D$)1": a cohoit is all the membeis of a population boin at the same
time
8. What's the uiffeience between i-stiategists anu K-stiategists.
9. uive an example of teiiitoiiality.
1u. What type of uistiibution pattein uo staifish uisplay.



JULIANS STUDY GUIDE TO CHAPTERS 45, 46, 47 (Friday)

45COMMUNITY AND ECOSYSTEM ECOLOGY

The Big Ideas: Evolution, Energy and Homeostasis, and Interactions and Systems

45.1EECOLOGY OF COMMUNITIES
--Communityan assemblage of populations of different species interacting
with one another in the same environment. (a fallen log can be a community)
COMMUNITY STRUCTURE
Species composition and diversity allow us to compare communities
--Species richnessa listing of the various species found in a given
community
--Species diversityis species richness and species evenness (relative
abundance of different species
--Island biogeography modelpostulates that species diversity on an
island depends on the distance from the mainland and total area of
island (closer and larger islands are more diverse)
COMMUNITY INTERACTIONS
--Habitatis a particular place where a species lives and reproduces
--Ecological Nichethe role a species plays in its community
(Finches)
Fundamental nicheall abiotic conditions where a species
could survive
Realized niche (includes competition and predation)the
conditions under which a species does survive
--Competitive exclusion principleno two species can occupy the
same niche at the same time forever
Hope Helverson
Maxwell Elijah Bowen
Julian Roberts
Steven Zheng

--Resource partitioningdecreases competition between two species
which leads to increased niche specialization and less niche overlap
(e.g. both hawks and owls eat the same prey but owls are nocturnal and
hawks are diurnal hunters)
--Character displacementThe tendency for characteristics to be
more divergent when populations belong to the same community
(finches) (different species of warbles nesting in different parts of
canopy)
PREDATOR-PREY INTERACTIONS
--Predationpredator feeds on the prey(parasitism is predation)
--parasitoids are organisms that lay eggs inside a hostthe
developing larvae feed and sometimes kill the host
Predator-prey relationship is a two way street
--Camouflage, warning coloration, association with other prey
--Mimicrywhen one species resembles another that possesses an
overt antipredator defense
--Batesianwhen a mimic lacks the defense or the organism it
resembles
--Mullerianwhen mimics share the same protective devices
--Parasitism is a type of symbiosis
--parasites harm the host in some way
--Mutualismwhen both species benefit (e.g. clownfish, cleaning
symbiosis)
--Commensalismis a symbiotic relationship between two species in
which one species is benefited and the other is neither benefited nor
harmed (barnacles on whales)
--Coevolution (e.g. relationships between flowers and pollinators)

45.2COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
--Ecological successionis a change within a community involving a
series of species replacements. (primary succession vs secondary
successionno soil vs soil)
--Pioneer speciesfirst species to begin secondary succession
--Climax Communitywhat succession in a particular area will
always lead to

--Autotrophsrequire only inorganic nutrients and an outside energy
source to produce organic nutrients (producers)
--Heterotrophsneed a preformed source of organic nutrients as they
acquire food from a different source (consumers)
--Decomposers
ENERGY FLOW
Energy flows through an ecosystem via photosynthesis
Hope Helverson
Maxwell Elijah Bowen
Julian Roberts
Steven Zheng

In the cycle of energy much is lost in cell respiration for the production of
ATP
--food webs
--trophic levelis a level of nutrients within a food web or chain
--biomassnumber of organisms multiplied by dry weight of
individual
--biogeochemical cycles
--water
--carbon
--greenhouse gases, climate change
--phosphorus
--nitrogen
--N2 fixationwhen nitrogen gas is converted to
ammonium (a form plants can use)
--denitrificationconversion of nitrate to nitrogen gas
--acid depositionwhen nitrogen oxides and sulfur
dioxide enter the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels
and combine with water vapor to for acids
--transfer ratethe amount of a substance that moves from one
component of the environment to another within a specified period of
time





46MAJOR ECOSYSTEMS OF THE BIOSPHERE

--Rain Shadow (leeward side)is the opposite of the windward side or a mountain
(gets very little rain)
--monsoona climate in which wet ocean winds blow onshore for almost half the
year
--Biomehas a particular mix of plants and animals that are adapted to living
under certain environmental conditions
--Tropical rain forests, temperate deciduous forest coniferous forest, tundra.
--Montane coniferous forest (coniferous forest on mountain side)
--alpine tundra
--Arctic tundra
--20% of earths surface
--permafrost
--cold and dark for most of the year (20cm rain)

--Coniferous forests
-- found in the TAIGA, mountaintops, and along pacific coast of NA
--taiga is 11% or earth
Hope Helverson
Maxwell Elijah Bowen
Julian Roberts
Steven Zheng

--taiga typifies the coniferous forest with its cone-bearing trees
(needles designed for bearing the weight of snow)
--temperate rain forestforests along the west coast of US/Canada
--plentiful rainfall, evergreen, old-growth forest
--Temperate Deciduous Forests
--found south of taiga in eastern NA
--57-150 cm rain
--well-defined seasons
--deciduous because the trees lose their leaves
--Tropical Forests
--190cm+ rainfall
--20-30C
--50% of all species
--forest floor, understory, and canopy
--Epiphytesplants that grow on other plants but usually have their own
roots
--nutrient poor soil
--Shrublands
--tend to occur along coasts
--chaparral (e.g. California)dense shrubland that is highly flammable and
lacks an understory.
--Grasslands
--when annual rainfall is between 25-75cm but too dry for forests and too wet
for deserts
--grasses are well adapted to changing environments
--Temperate GrasslandsRussian steppes, south American pampas, and
north American prairies.
--Savannasoccur in regions where a relatively cool dry season I followed by
hot and rainy
--African savannas support the greatest variety and number of large
herbivores of all biomes
--Deserts
--Latitude 30 degrees due to descending winds.
--less than 25 cm rain
--cold nights sunny days
--Wetlands
--areas that are wet for at least part of the year
--marshes(rushes, reeds, grasses), swamps(woody plants or shrubs),
bogs(acidic water, moss, nutrient poor)
--Lakes
--Oligotrophicnutrient poor
--Eutrophicnutrient rich
--winds rotate water
--fall overturn vs spring
--Lake layers (top-bottom)epilimnion, thermocline, hypolimnion
Hope Helverson
Maxwell Elijah Bowen
Julian Roberts
Steven Zheng

--Lake zones(top-bottom/shore-center)Littoral, limnetic, profundal,
benthic
--Coastal Ecosystems
--estuarypartially enclosed area where fresh and salt water mix
(river/ocean)
--intertidal zone likes between low and high tide marks
--top of the ocean = euphotic zone and bottom = pelagic zones
--continental shelf/slope/abyssal plain
--Oceans
--hydrothermal vents
--biomagnificationwhen pollutants become concentrated as they move up
the food web
--wind creates the currents (clockwise in north and counter in south)
--Gulf stream
--upwellingwhen offshore winds cause cold nutrient-rich waters to rise and
take the place of warm nutrient-poor waters.
--El Nio-Southern Oscillation (ENSO)when there is no upwelling in the
Humboldt Current global climate changes occur


47CONSERVATION BIOLOGY AND BIODIVERSITY
--Conservation biology studies all aspects of biodiversity with a goal of
conserving natural resources for the current and future generations
--bioinformatics: the collecting of, analyzing, and making readily available
info using modern tech.
--endangered speciesone that is in peril of immediate extinction
--threatened speciesone that is likely to become endangered.

--Genetic diversitygenetic variations among the members of a population
--Ecosystem diversity is dependent on the interactions between species in a
given community
--landscape diversity involves a group of interacting ecosystems within one
landscape
--biodiversity hotspotslarge concentration of species
--Reasons for conservation: Medicine, agriculture, consumption
--How to help: Biogeochemical cycles, waste recycling, provision of fresh
water, prevention of soil erosion, regulation of climate, ecotourism
--island natives cant compete very well against exotics because they are well
adapted to just what they know on the island
--pollution and climate change
--ozone depletion
--Eutrophication in lakes from nitrogen run-offs
--overexploitation
--Keystone speciesspecies that influence the viability of a community.
Hope Helverson
Maxwell Elijah Bowen
Julian Roberts
Steven Zheng

--Flagship speciesspecies that are treasured for their beauty, cuteness,
strength, or regal nature.

--metapopulationa population subdivided into several small isolated
populations due to habitat fragmentation
--Source populationlives in a favorable area and its birthrate is higher
than death
--Sink populationsnot favorable habitat and birthrate equals death at best
(originally from source populations)
--edge effectthe edge reduces the amount of habitat typical of an ecosystem
because the edge habitat is slightly different from that of the interior


QUESTIONS

1. What is the uiffeience between species iichness anu species uiveisity.
2. What is the uiffeience between the iealizeu niche anu funuamental
niche of a given species anu how uo these niches suppoit the Competitive
Exclusion Piinciple.
S. What is the uiffeience between Batesian anu Nulleiian mimiciy.
4. Compaie anu contiast paiasitism, mutualism, anu commensalism.
S. Explain the uiffeience between piimaiy succession anu seconuaiy
succession. Wheie uo pioneei species come into play.
6. What aie autotiophs. What aie Beteiotiophs. uive examples.
7. What aie tiophic levels anu why uo they change thioughout the foou
chain.
8. What aie the biogeochemical cycles. Bow uo humans impact the cycles
anu what iole uo they play.
9. What aie the sepaiate Biomes. Bow aie they uiffeient.
1u. What aie keystone species anu flagship species.