WHAT HAPPENS WHEN PUPILS WORK ON

MATHEMATICAL INVESTIGATIONS?
A collaborative project using narratives
1
Joo Pedro da Ponte
Universidade de Lisboa
Maria Irene Segurado
Escola Bsica 2,3 Dr. Rui Grcio
Hlia Oliveira
Universidade de Lisboa
Mathematical investigations involve searching for patterns,
formulating, testing, and justifing conjectures, reflecting, and generali!ing"
#oing investigations in the classroom is a po$erful activit for students%
learning &ut poses man challenges to the teacher" 'o stud the professional
(no$ledge involved in this (ind of $or( $as the aim of a colla&orative action)
research project that involved one classroom teacher and t$o universit
teacher educators" *e used narratives to depict relevant elements of teachers%
activit and to sho$ (e aspects of their dilemmas and uncertainties" 'his
paper discusses the role of the colla&orative $or( undertoo( & the
participants in the project as the reflected a&out classroom practices and
curriculum issues, &ased in a narrative of a class $here si+th grade students
$or(ed on a mathematical investigation"
MATHEMATICAL INVESTIGATIONS
Mathematics has several faces" It is a &od of (no$ledge, &ut it is
also a human activit, a language, and a tool to deal $ith man (inds of
pro&lems" Much more than (no$ing ho$ to do algorithms and procedures,
pupils must sho$ intellectual fle+i&ilit, capacit to deal $ith different
representations, formulating pro&lems, modeling situations, and evaluating the
results ,MS-., 1/0/1" Mathematics learning, thus, needs to include
opportunities for pupils to get involved in genuine mathematical activit"
Instead of presenting mathematics as a finished product, &eginning $ith
definitions and statements to go to e+amples and e+ercises, teachers ma
2 1 2
emphasi!e its development processes, starting $ith 3uestions and issues, and
sho$ing ho$ it is at the same time 4an e+perimental and deductive science5
,P6la, 1/78, p" vii1" 'he social processes of negotiation of mathematical
meaning that occur in the classroom ,.ishop 9 :offree, 1/0;1 parallel the
processes that dictate the acceptance or rejection of a mathematical concept in
the research communit" Mathematics is a social construction and, therefore,
it is impregnated of values li(e an another product of human thought" 'o
provide pupils $ith this sort of e+perience, $e need to &ring their activit
close to the activit of the mathematician, transforming the classroom in a
small mathematical communit ,Schoenfeld, 1//<1"
'he classroom activit depends largel on the nature of the
mathematical tas(s and on the classroom organi!ation set up & the teacher"
=lasses $here pupils $or( on e+tended investigations and projects, $or(
together in small groups, and get involved in collective discussions and
classes $here the just do simple e+ercises on their o$n and listen to the
teacher cannot run in a similar $a" 'he classroom activit is related to the
nature of the learning environment and the classroom culture and is heavil
influenced & ho$ the teacher introduces the different tas(s and supports
pupils $or(ing on them" Of course, man other factors contri&ute to the
classroom activit, including some related to pupils, nota&l their conceptions
and attitudes regarding mathematics, their previous (no$ledge and e+perience
on mathematical $or( and, more generall, their relation $ith the school"
Other factors include school organi!ation and ethos and parents% culture,
resources, and e+pectations" 'his paper focuses on the nature of the tas(s and
the aspects of the learning environment that are directl amena&le to teacher
intervention"
Mathematical tas(s in $hich pupils get involved2pro&lems,
investigations, e+ercises, projects, constructions, productions, $ritten reports,
essas, etc"2provide the starting point for the development of their
mathematical activit" 'he must a$a(e curiosit and enthusiasm, appeal to
pupils% (no$ledge, and promote the development of ne$ concepts and ideas"
'as(s can &e defined & the pupils themselves, &ut are, most of the time,
proposed & the teacher> in an case, tas(s are interpreted & pupils and can
originate ver different activities ,or no activit at all1, depending on their
disposition and the classroom learning environment ,=hristiansen 9 *alther,
1/0;1"
'his action)research project focused on pupils% investigations" 'hese
are tas(s intended to promote mathematical processes such as to loo( for
regularities, to formulate, test, justif and prove conjectures, and to reflect
and generali!e" Investigations are 4open situations5 ,sometimes also called
4open)ended pro&lems51, that ma &e set up in a variet of mathematical and
real life conte+ts" 'heir point of departure ma &e a 3uestion proposed & the
teacher or & a pupil"
?or a pupil, an investigation ma constitute a motivating and
challenging activit" @s, in an genuine mathematical pro&lem, pupils do not
2 < 2
have immediatel accessi&le a $a of solving it" In fact, the often need to
reframe the 3uestion in their o$n terms to start doing some productive $or("
@ mathematical investigation re3uires that pupils justif and prove their
statements mathematicall and present their arguments to their colleagues and
to the teacher, $hich are important competencies in mathematics education
,A='M, <BBB1" @s pupils discuss their different conjectures and
justifications, the $or( in class as a small mathematical communit engaged
in the production of mathematical (no$ledge"
?or a teacher, this (ind of $or( also poses deep challenges" @n
e+tensive planning is re3uired" 'he selection or creation of tas(s, aiming at
different educational o&jectives, needs to ta(e into account the specificit of
the class and its histor" #oing it, the teacher acts as a 4curriculum ma(er5,
delineating o&jectives, methodologies and strategies, and reformulating them
according to his or her reflection on practice" .oth the creation and the
reformulation of the tas(s consume time and demand an investigative attitude"
@fter having selected the situation to consider, the teacher has to so some
further planning, including ta(ing decisions regarding the organi!ation and
management of the class" @re pupils going to $or( individuall or in groupsC
Ho$ to constitute the groupsC Should time &e provided for some all class
$or(C Such decisions are critical regarding the nature of the learning
environment" 'he depend on the tas( &ut also on the educational o&jectives
esta&lished & the teacher" @nother issue is to foresee the time needed for the
activit" It $ill &e possi&le to carr through an investigation in onl one
lessonC ?or ho$ much time the pupils $ill li(el &e interested in the activitC
:ood tas(s are an essential ingredient in a mathematics classroom &ut
it is also necessar to consider $hat teachers do, the 3uestions the ma(e and
the interactions the promote" If classrooms are to &ecome mathematical
communities, interactions among pupils &ecome essential" Small group $or(
ma encourage pupils to share ideas and e+plain their approaches"
#iscussions involving the $hole class ma favor the development of the
a&ilit to argue and to communicate mathematicall"
'he $or( in an investigation develops usuall in three main phases
that ma e+tend & one or more class periodsD
E tart. 'he tas( is introduced & the teacher and the pupils
&egin $or(ing on it, interpreting the situation and considering
strategies to follo$>
E Develop!ent. 'he tas( is carried out & pupils, $ho $or(
individuall or in small groups, and the teacher interacts $ith
them>
E u!!ing up. 'he results are presented & the pupils and
discussed & the $hole class"
'he $a the teacher presents the tas( is ver important" @ 3uestion,
just & itself, cannot generate an investigation" @s Mason ,1//11 puts itD 4@
2 F 2
3uestion is just $ords $ith a 3uestion mar(5 ,p" 1;1" It is impossi&le to
anticipate all the reactions of pupils" Once the activit &egins, the support to
give pupils, helping them to overcome certain difficulties is another rather
comple+ aspect of the role of the teacher" Some support has to &e granted,
&ut not too much nor too little" 'he final discussion regarding the $or( done
& pupils is another critical stage" *ithout such discussion the value of the
activit can easil &e lost ,=oc(croft, 1/0<1" 'his is the moment to consider
the strategies, hpotheses and justifications provided & different pupils or
groups of pupils, $ith the teacher acting as a moderator" 'he teacher tries to
&ring to the attention of the group the most important aspects of the $or( the
did and stimulates pupils to 3uestion the assertions of their classmates" 'hus,
the development of pupils% competence to communicate and argue
mathematicall are t$o important o&jectives in this phase of the activit"
'o investigate the challenges to teachers% professional (no$ledge
posed & this (ind of classroom activit $as the main goal of the project" It
$as developed as an action)research project &ased in the cooperation of t$o
teacher educators and a si+th grade teacher $hich $e descri&e in the ne+t
section"
COLLABORATION AND NARRATIVES
@s participants in this project, $e $ere interested in e+ploring2in a
colla&orative $a2the possi&ilities of pupil%s mathematical investigations
and of narratives in educational research and in teacher education" *e ta(e
colla&oration as representing an activit carried out & a group of people $ith
common o&jectives $ho jointl negotiate their $or(ing processes" It ma
involve partners $ith similar or different &ac(grounds and professional roles
&ut necessaril re3uires the joint construction of a common ground2shared
o&jectives and $or(ing processes"
=olla&orative research ma &e ver useful to stud some (inds of
pro&lems2speciall those pro&lems that hardl can &e studied & isolated
researchers or & research groups $hose mem&ers do not hold all the
necessar competencies" Man classroom phenomena enter into this categor"
'he stud of 3uestions a&out classroom dnamics and teachers% professional
(no$ledge re3uires the active involvement of teachers committed to a deep
analsis a&out their o$n practices as $ell as of researchers interested in
teaching" 'he point of vie$ of practitioners in the stud of professional
practice is essential to (no$ $hat enhances students% learning ,.ednar!,
#esgagn, =outure, Ge&uis, 9 Poirier, 1///1" It also re3uires deep
involvement of researchers $ith e+perience in defining research 3uestions,
instruments, and procedures for data collection and analsis"
=olla&orative research, &esides &eing ver useful to stud comple+
phenomena, ma also &e of essential value to promote the personal and
professional development of all those involved in it" #ifferent people,
2 7 2
interacting $ith each other for an e+tent period of time in a common endeavor,
&esides accomplishing a specific tas(, ma learn a lot a&out different
vie$points, different concerns, and different $or(ing methods, and even a&out
themselves" =olla&orative activities allo$ for the mutual influencing of
different perspectivesHeach one informing and transforming the other ,Olson,
1//I1"
'his $or( ma dra$ on the specific competencies of all partners
involved, &ut also needs to pa attention to the creation of common o&jectives
and appropriate $or(ing procedures that help everone to ma(e a strong
contri&ution to the development of the tas(" In a colla&orative activit,
different participants need to share a common aim, &ut ma have rather
different immediate goals" *hen teachers and universit researchers are
involved, it is natural that the teachers $ill &e primaril interested in
developing (no$ledge to improve their practice and researchers in developing
(no$ledge of interest for the scientific communit ,Japuscins(i, 1//I1"
=olla&oration does not mean necessaril that everone has the same
po$er and the same role" @&solute mutualit is rarel achieved" *hat is
critical is that all participants feel comforta&le in their roles and are attentive
to the needs of the others and open to negotiate the understandings that emerge
from the colla&orative effort ,=astle, 1//I1" 'his is not an eas process"
Ho$ever, tensions that arise in colla&orative relationships ma help to (eep
these relationships alive and dnamic" In colla&orative processes, there are no
eas and safe ans$ers" .ut $hat is pro&lematic ma provide the momentum
for further learning as each partner tries to understand him or herself and the
others ,Olson, 1//I1"
In this project, our team $or(ed together for a long period ,a&out
four ears1" 'here $as a joint theoretical $or( discussing te+ts a&out
mathematical investigations, classroom dnamics and narratives
<
" *e also set
up a collection of tas(s and discussed the structure of a class $ith students
$or(ing on investigations" *e paid special attention to$ards the nature of
teacher)student interactions and the role of classroom discussions"
'he general frame$or( for the investigation classes and the specific
tas(s to propose to students $ere developed colla&orativel" 'hings to do
$ere decided in joint meetings and products of the project $ere thoroughl
discussed so that the $ould reasona&l satisf all project mem&ers" 'he
specific preparation for the class, involving the choice of da to carr it out,
the organi!ation of students, and the form of presenting and conducting the
tas( $ere mainl the decision of the teacher"
'he process of (no$ledge construction in this project $as &ased in
the ela&oration and analsis of narratives a&out situations occurred in classes
$here pupils $ere $or(ing in mathematical investigations" It $as sought that
these narratives $ould testif aspects of dilemmas and uncertainties of the
teachers and evidenced elements of their professional (no$ledge in this tpe
of educational activit"
2 8 2
Aarrative analsis, as a method of educational investigation, is
attracting increasing attention" *e &riefl refer the main ideas that made us
to consider them in this project" *e vie$ a narrative or stor as a $a of
telling a se3uence of events $ith three &asic elementsD ,i1 a situation involving
some conflict or difficult, ,ii1 one or more characters $ho get involved in the
situation $ith given intentions, and ,iii1 an ordered se3uence of events
deciding the conflict in some $a" In other $ords, a stor contains reference
to people, places, and events fitted in an ordered se3uence that implicitl
suggests some causalit" -ver human &eing is a storteller, seeing the
present evolving from the past and directing to$ards the future" @n episode
of someone%s e+perience is a narrative unit if it &rings sense and unit to that
e+perience ,=arter, 1//F> =landinin and =onnell, 1//1> =onnell and
=landinin, 1/0;1"
Stories constitute an integral part of our dail e+perience" @ &asic
idea is that $e use them to organi!e our e+periences of social interaction"
@ccording to .runer ,1//11, $e organi!e our e+perience and our memor of
human events in the form of stories, that is, the are phenomena of our
natural thought" *e live through stories, that is, $e thin(, perceive, imagine,
and ma(e moral choices according to narrative structures" 'he creation of
stories allo$s us to impose order and coherence in our e+perience of the real
$orld events ,=arter, 1//F1"
@nother &asic idea is that narratives constitute a $a of (no$ing
particularl related to action" Stories are $as of (no$ledge emerging of
action" 'he are 4concerned $ith the e+plication of human intentions in the
conte+t of action5 ,.runer 1/08, in =arter, 1//F, p" ;1" Stories, $ith their
multiplicit of meanings, are a form particularl adjusted to e+press
(no$ledge associated $ith the comple+it of action" Since teaching is an
intentional action in a situation, much of the essential (no$ledge that the
teachers have a&out teaching comes from practice, that is, from acting as
teachers in classrooms" 'hus, to understand the thought of the teacher, $e
can start loo(ing for those stories that structure the $a this teacher thin(s
a&out the events of the classroom ,his or her practical theories1" Ho$ever, $e
must note that, in their narratives, teachers do not just remem&er and tell their
e+periences, &ut the also recreate their o$n stories, reconstructing meanings,
and redefining their personal and professional self ,=orta!!i, 1//F1"
@ (e idea in this project is that the production of narratives is a form
of promoting the colla&oration &et$een teachers and teacher educators" 'he
narratives $ere dra$n from episodes occurring in classes conducted & the
teacher in the project" 'he relationship esta&lished among participants as the
jointl construct narratives, foments the reflection on practice and allo$s a
deeper understanding of eventual changes occurring in that practice"
'he general method of narrative research consists of understanding
and reconstructing, in e+tended reflections involving the participants, the
narrative units of their stories" Aarrative research tends to start $ithout a
pre)specified pro&lem, &ut $ith an interest in a phenomenon that can &e
2 ; 2
understood in a narrative $a ,=onnell and =landinin, 1/0;1" 'he $riting
of a narrative is the first step of the interpretation" 'he o&servation and the
joint reflection on lived situations pla, in this step, a &asic role" 'he analsis
is a second step" ?or Ga&ov ,3uoted in Kiessman, 1//F1, a narrative can &e
decomposed in ; &asic elementsD ,i1 a&stract ,summar of the su&stance of the
narrative1> ,ii1 orientation ,time, place, situation, participants1> ,iii1
complication ,$hat happened1> ,iv1 evaluation ,the meaning of the action, the
attitude of the narrator1> ,v1 resolution ,$hat finall happened1> and ,vi1 coda
,returns to the present perspective1" In its final form, the narrative continues
open to ne$ readings and constructions" @ narrative carries a strong cultural
and historical load" 'he truths that $e construct are significant for specific
interpretative communities in $ell)defined historical circumstances" -ach
level of the model involves a reduction, &ut also an e+pansionD the accountants
select to tell the aspects of their glo&al e+perience &ut the join other
interpretative elements" 'he analsis of a narrative implies to select, to point
out, to relate and to compare" @s in all research processes, it is a (e creative
moment" One intends that the analsis $ill not corrupt the voice and meaning
of the practitioners, &ut enrich and clarif it using the multiplicit of
e+periences and perspectives of the mem&ers of the project team"
Ae+t, $e present a narrative $ritten originall & the middle school
teacher in the project, Maria Irene Segurado" 'his is not the original te+t, &ut
a refined form after several stages of discussion among the three of us"
AND WHEN PUPILS FOLLOW UNEXPECTED WAYS?...
It $as just another *ednesda" Ho$ever, I felt an+ious $ith the
lesson that I $as a&out to &egin $ith m si+th graders" I had great
e+pectations" 'he tas( that I had prepared seemed to &e 3uite challenging
and, giving m (no$ledge of the pupils, I foresa$ that the $ould feel the
same pleasure I had, in the eve, e+ploring it"
'he tas(, named E"plorations #it$ nu!bers, as(ed the pupils to
discover relations &et$een the num&ers in the figure and to record their
conclusionsD
B 1 < F
7 8 ; I
0 / 1B 11
1< 1F 17 18
1; 1I 10 1/
""" """ """ """
In the &eginning, I gave the pupils small Ltips% a&out $hat the could
o&serve ,regularities, the &ehavior of multiples, divisors, prime num&ers,
perfect s3uares"""1 and all the groups started to $or( ver activel" It $as not
2 I 2
the first time that the $ere $or(ing in an investigation and the had no
pro&lem in understanding $hat I intended" I $as constantl re3uested & the
groups, not to ans$er 3uestions &ut rather to see their discoveries ,secretl, so
that the other groups $ould not hear, ruining their Lsho$% in the final
discussion1"
Some discoveries readil appearedD
% &$e nu!bers in t$e diagonals, 'ro! rig$t 'or t$e le't, gro# 3 to 3
units, 'ro! le't to rig$t, ( to ( units.
% &$e 2s table is in t$e 'irst and t$e t$ird colu!ns.
% &$e )s table is in t$e 'irst and t$e t$ird colu!ns ju!ping t#o
nu!bers.
% *ri!e nu!bers are in t$e odd colu!ns, but strangel+ 2 is in an
even colu!n.
Suddenl, the group that included .runo, Kicardo, =Mndido and
Pedro called me, sho$ing great enthusiasm" 'he conjectured ,their o$n
$ord1 that, if the num&ers $ere arranged in 7 columns, the first column
$ould have the 7s ta&le> arranged in 8 columns, the first column $ould have
the 8s ta&le> arranged in ;, it $ould have the ;s ta&le" 'he verified it
alread, loo(ing at the ta&les" 'his group also discovered thatD
% ,n t$e diagonals, 'ro! le't to rig$t, t$e nu!bers gro# a unit
regarding t$e nu!ber o' colu!ns and in t$e diagonals 'ro! rig$t
to le't, t$e+ decrease a unit.
It $as clear that the found more interesting to investigate $hat
happened $hen the arrangement of the num&ers $as modified, than to
discover the relations that e+isted &et$een the num&ers presented in the
original figure"
I $as someho$ concerned a&out $hat to do" @ possi&ilit $as to
leave them to continue even if in the final discussion the $ere not attuned
$ith their colleagues" @fter all, doing investigations is not to go &eond $hat
is predicta&leC @nother possi&ilit $as to redirect them again to$ards the
original tas(" In that case, the ris( of (illing their pleasure $ould not &e too
&igC ?or a $hile, I left them follo$ their o$n $a, ta(ing some time to
anal!e their discoveries & mself ,$hen preparing the class, I had not
thought a&out this tpe of e+ploration1" 'his distur&ed m attention to$ards
the remaining groups of pupils"
'he time for discussion $as coming" I (ne$ that the richness of the
$or( of this group $ould not &e understood & the others if the $ere to
present their $or( immediatel, since most pupils $ould &e too much
involved in the structure of the tas( that the had &een $or(ing" I thought,
then, that the &est $a to value the $or( of these pupils $as to give them
2 0 2
some time to present it to the class in the ne+t lesson" *ith some concern, I
as(ed the group not to forget to also thin( a little a&out the initial figure"
In the ne+t da, the made the presentation" 'he group chose .runo
to tal(" 'heir classmates $ere ver attentive" Some rivalr ,&arel disguised1
hindered them to sho$ great surprise $ith the discover" Ho$ever, the $a
the held the ne$ tas( that .runo proposed2#$at $appens #$en #e !odi'+
t$e nu!ber o' colu!ns-.made me thin( that the had understood that to
investigate is to go &eond $hat is as(ed for> it is to feel free to e+plore things
in our o$n $a"
I finished the lesson $ith a mi+ed feeling of accomplishment and
concern> accomplishment, &ecause the pupils advanced in their understanding
of investigations> concern, given the ne$ challenge that I no$ faceD ho$ to
handle a $hole class $here different groups of pupils move for$ard, in
different directions, in their investigationsC
LEARNING ABOUT INVESTIGATIONS
?rom the initial $riting of this narrative $e undertoo( its refining and
analsis" In a first level of analsis, $e tried to identif the main components
of a narrativeD summar, orientation, complication, evaluation, resolution, and
coda. 'his narrative concerns a teacher that $as e+cited a&out conducting an
investigation class" She prepared carefull the lesson and started $ith a
smooth presentation, to get pupils readil involved" 'hings get complicated
$hen a group of pupils decided to as( ne$ 3uestions on their o$n, 3uestions
that the teacher had not though &efore" 'he pupils $ere ver e+cited $ith
their $or( &ut that meant a considera&le departure from $hat the teacher had
envisaged and felt comforta&le doing"
'he teacher evaluated the different possi&ilities" 'o leave pupils
$or(ing on their 3uestions $ould do a &etter justice to the idea of
investigation" Ho$ever, it $ould create pro&lems in the class discussion that
she regarded as a necessar stage of this activit" 'o redirect the pupils to the
given tas( could hamper all their interest and $ould &e a disservice to the idea
of investigation"
'he teacher had to decide 3uic(l" She opted & some compromise,
al&eit closer to the first option" She left the pupils% $or( follo$ing their
chosen path, &ut she also suggested them to not forget the original 3uestion"
In this $a, she hoped the could pursue their creative 3uestions and
strategies and, at the same time, follo$ the presentation made & their
colleagues of their discoveries and, ma&e, participate in the discussion"
'he final reflection made & the teacher sho$s her sense of
accomplishment $ith the activit" 'here $as no reason for less, since the
pupils $or(ed hard, made man discoveries, sho$ed understanding of $hat to
do in investigations" 'he sho$ed facilit in using the investigative
voca&ular using terms such as 4conjecture5" Some pupils even $ent &eond
2 / 2
$hat the teacher had planed and e+pected from them" 'his reflection sho$s
also her concern $ith this (ind of class, $here management pro&lems increase
in an e+ponential $a" Of course, this is a class much more comple+ to
handle than a regular class $here pupils $or( individuall on e+ercises, often
re3uiring the teacher to ma(e difficult decisions regarding the direction of the
activit"
In a second level of analsis $e loo( for other issues that appear as
significant ones in the stor and relate it to other narratives" ?or e+ample,
this episode sho$s ho$ investigations provide moments of intense
involvement in mathematical thin(ing of pupils of different age levels and
a&ilities" Other narratives produced in this project have man e+amples of
such enthusiasm and of the richness of pupils% e+periences2coming ver
close to the idea of a learning communit" Investigations can &ring life to the
mathematics lesson, so often a&sent in other (ind of activities"
=lasses $here pupils $or( on investigations sho$ great learning
potential" Pupils are clearl stimulated to thin( mathematicall"
Investigations also allo$ the esta&lishment of connections among man
topics, giving a coherent and integrated perspective of mathematics,
completel different of the compartmentali!ed perspective that pupils tend to
hold" 'he help to create a different2and truer2image of this science"
In this project, $e strengthened our vie$s regarding the importance
of this tpe of mathematical $or( in the curriculum, at least in middle school
mathematics" Ho$ever, $e are a$are that the term 4investigation5 has
diverse meanings, according to the authors, the conte+ts, and the traditions"
'he $or( that $e carried out helped to clarif this concept" In the &eginning,
$e $ere much concerned in using investigations to foster learning of specific
concepts" *ith the continuation of the $or( it &ecame evident their value for
the development of pupils% higher)order a&ilities and for a &etter
understanding of their capacities and reasoning processes" 'hus, $e
concluded that there are great advantages in open)ended tas(s that give the
pupils a chance to formulate their o$n 3uestions" Kegarded in this $a, the
are rather different from the routine $or( in 4pattern spotting5 and 4ta&le
ma(ing5 that in some countries is regarded as the $hole meaning of
4investigations5"
@s $e can see in this narrative, this sort of activit poses special
pro&lems to teachers" Preparing is ver important" 'he tas( needs to &e
adjusted to the pupils% level and the teacher needs to have a good idea of the
main directions the ma follo$ in their e+plorations" -ven $hen the teacher
has done a good planning, surprises ma still happen, as in this case, and &e
difficult to handle" If the teacher is not prepared, he or she ma &e completel
lost $hen students start moving in all (inds of directions"
Presenting the tas( to the class is another critical step" 'his teacher
decided to give pupils some suggestions on aspects to pa attention" *ith
other classes, such suggestions might &e unnecessar or even counter)
productive" Saing too much at this point ma ta(e the challenge off the
2 1B 2
pupils" Saing too little ma hinder them of understanding the tas( and of
$hat the $ere supposed to do" In addition, $hen pupils are $or(ing, the
teacher needs to (no$ ho$ much support to give them" Overall, the role of
the teacher must &e rather uno&trusive, again supporting pupils $ithout
solving the pro&lems for them" 'hings go all right $hen the teacher
challenges, poses 3uestions and does not provide hints or direct responses"
'his re3uires a good assessment of students% needs and previous e+perience to
decide $hat to do"
@n investigation ma end $ith a final presentation of conjectures,
their justifications, implications, and connections" 'o do this, teachers need to
(no$ ho$ to pose enlightening or stimulating 3uestions that guide pupils
$ithout presenting clues" 'he need to demand contri&utions from all pupils
and not just from those $ho usuall have good ideas" 'eachers also need to
(no$ ho$ to evaluate pupils and provide them feed&ac( regarding their
accomplishments and shortcomings" ?or teachers, doing investigations in the
classroom constitutes a more demanding and more la&orious practice than
man other (inds of activities"
LEARNING ABOUT COLLABORATION
@s $e referred to a&ove, the success of colla&orative $or( depends
ver much on the set up of common goals and the negotiation of $or(ing
processes that &oth suit these goals and the different needs of all participants"
Get us consider goals first" 'his colla&orative action)research project
intended to produce (no$ledge a&out the role of the teacher $hen pupils $or(
on investigations in the mathematics classroom and to produce and evaluate
educational materials to support this (ind of activit" 'here $ere three people
involved, all acting as researchers, $ho $anted to understand the potential of
students% investigations for mathematics learning and their implications for
mathematics teaching and to communicate that to several audiences of
teachers and mathematics educators"
'he general aim of producing (no$ledge a&out conducting
investigation classes $as operationali!ed through the production of
investigation tas(s and supporting materials and the $riting of papers $ith
interesting e+periences that $ere presented at professional meetings and
pu&lished in educational journals" @t some point, a more am&itious goal
emerged2to produce a &oo( $ith a collection of narratives concerning
classes $ith pupils investigating mathematics and including a comprehensive
discussion of the role of the teacher in that activit
F
'hese operational goals
provided man tas(s for project mem&ers to carr out together in different
moments and $ere a major factor of cohesion $ithin the group"
'he project strived to com&ine a strong am&ition2ma(ing oung
pupils investigate mathematics, $riting narratives a&out it, identifing (e
aspects of teachers% professional (no$ledge, and letting others (no$ a&out it
2 11 2
2$ith a realistic planning and use of resources" #oing this for an e+tended
period led to a strong sense of doing something in common" @ group identit
emerged, that did not stifle the participants% individualit &ut enriched it"
'he different needs of the participants $ere also addressed in this
project" 'he teacher and the t$o teacher educators had rather different
&ac(grounds and personal concerns" 'he teacher $as interested in getting
support to prepare, conduct, and reflect a&out investigation classes" 'he
teacher educators $anted to devise means of facilitating preservice and
inservice teachers% reflection a&out the professional (no$ledge necessar to
conduct this (ind of activit" 'hese interests $ere accomplished in a lot of
common $or(D preparing tas(s, conducting and o&serving classes, sharing
reflections, $riting and refining narratives, and anal!ing them"
'he production and pu&lication of materials related to investigation
activities in the classroom and conducting inservice $or(shops involved all
participants in productive activit, since the ver &eginning of the project"
'he earl discussion of theoretical articles $as also ver useful to provide a
common frame$or( for conducting mathematical investigation classes" 'he
commitment of the group in its goals $as strengthened as $e o&served a ver
favora&le reaction from students to mathematical investigations> it $as also
reinforced as $e sa$ that joint reflection, loo(ing at the issues emerging from
the narratives, helped to grasp interesting things a&out $hat happens in this
(ind of classroom activit"
'he processes used in carring out the project $ere adjusted to the
e+perience of the participants" 'here $as a natural division of la&or, ta(ing
into account the (no$ledge and interests of each mem&er" Irene, as a
classroom teacher, $as in the &est position to lead the e+perimenting of the
tas(s constructed & the project team" Hlia, as a teacher educator interested
in the histor of mathematics, made thorough searches for suita&le starting
points for investigations and studied $hat mathematicians testemonied a&out
it" Joo Pedro, as an e+perienced teacher educator, carried out the planning,
reminded ever&od a&out the ne+t step, and did much of the editing of
papers" Aot$ithstanding this division of la&or, all project mem&ers $ere
responsi&le for reading and commenting the theoretical articles, proposing
tas(s, $or(ing to$ards their improvement, o&serving classes, $riting stories
and contri&uting to their criti3ue and enhancement" @ll participated in e3ual
grounds in sharing the ideas and products of the project $ith the educational
communit, $riting materials, ela&orating papers, doing presentations, and
conducting inservice activities" 'here $as an e3ual status for everone in the
group2all had to $rite te+ts, to critici!e and to &e critici!ed & the others,
and to stand up for the project &efore several audiences" @ll contri&uted to
the framing of the project 3uestions, $or(ing procedures and products"
'he production and analsis of narratives $as a &asic feature of the
project methodolog" Searching for the 4complication5 in each case too( us
to vie$ the lesson under several perspectives $hich $ere important to
understand the classroom activit and the teacher%s role" ?or e+ample, in the
2 1< 2
case reported in this paper the (e issue $as not clear at the ver &eginning"
It too( a long $a of discussions to finall isolate it and relate it to the
remaining events as $ell as to develop the final reflection that closes the
narrative" 'he production of the narratives $as much more la&orious than $e
e+pected2for the main $riter and for those $ho participated in the
refinement process" @ considera&le effort $as necessar" Ho$ever, $e
consider the process of narrative construction as 3uite fruitful since it helped
us to understand ne$ aspects of the professional (no$ledge involved in
investigation classes and in promoting the professional development of
teachers $ho $ant to learn a&out it"
In all the activities carried out in the project there $as a constant
negotiation regarding aspects such as the o&jectives, nature, methodologies,
timing, use of resources, and responsi&ilities" @ll participants had an effective
possi&ilit to intervene in the group decisions" Perhaps the most salient
feature of the activit of this project $as the strong team$or( that
progressivel developed" 'he important decisions $ere al$as discussed &
all mem&ers and everone recogni!es as his or hers the achievements and
shortcomings of the project"
CONCLUSION
.esides their interest as a research methodolog, narratives provide
realistic cases that can &e used in pre and inservice teacher education" In
addition, the ma &e helpful for researchers, administrators, politicians, and
parents2providing (no$ledge a&out $hat is going on in the classroom" 'he
narratives produced in this project sho$ that the teacher ma &e enthusiastic
$ith pupils% creative mathematical $or(" 'he sho$ a teacher involved in
doing some mathematics and ma(ing thoughtful decisions regarding
classroom $or(" 'he also sho$ man e+amples of student involvement in
mathematical activit and the value of teacher%s reflecting a&out classroom
activit"
*or(ing colla&orativel, a team composed & a teacher and t$o
teacher educators $as a&le to $or( for an e+tended period, developing some
am&itious &ut reali!a&le common goals" -ach one &rought to the group $or(
their individual (no$ledge and e+perience, constructing together something
that $as 3uite different from the direct sum of the parts" Keflecting in the
classes, loo(ing at their complications, resolutions and evaluations provided
ne$ insights a&out doing investigations in the classroom" *e conclude that
this $or( involves 3uite demanding professional (no$ledge in selecting tas(s
adjusted to the characteristics of the pupils, in creating and sustaining a good
classroom environment, conducting discussions, and ta(ing the necessar
decisions at critical moments of the $or(" *e also note that this activit
sho$s ne$ aspects of the pupils% a&ilit, that can &e surprising for someone
used to see them $or(ing mostl in routine tas(s"
2 1F 2
*e suggest that investigations have an important role in pupils%
mathematics education" 'o conduct such $or( re3uires a teacher interested in
mathematics, capa&le of reflecting in his or her o$n practice, and $illing to
ta(e ris(s" 'he teacher also needs resources, forums for e+change of
e+periences and sometimes direct support" =olla&orative $or( $ith teacher
educators and $ith other teachers is a natural $a of involving teachers in
such activit" It ma provide an interesting in3uir conte+t ielding ne$
insights a&out the teaching activit"
REFERENCES
.ednar!, A", S" #esgagn, S", =outure, =", Ge&uis, P", Poirier, G" ,1///, Ma1" =olla&orative
case studiesD @ frame$or( for colla&orative research involving teachers and
researchers, paper presented at 'A'-- =onference, Portugal, Aet$or( ?"
.ishop, @", 9 :offree, ?" ,1/0;1" =lassroom organi!ation and dnamics" In ." =hristiansen,
@" :" Ho$son, 9 M" Otte ,-ds"1, *erspectives on !at$e!atics education ,pp" FB/)
F;81" #ordrechtD #" Keidel"
.runer, J" ,1//11" 'he narrative construction of realit" /ritical ,n0uir+, 12, 1)<1"
=arter, J" ,1//F1" 'he place of stor in the stud of teaching and teacher education"
Educational Researc$er, 22,11, 8)1<"
=astle, J" ,1//I1" Kethin(ing mutual goals in school)universit colla&oration" In H"
=hristiansen, G" :oulet, =" Jrent! and M" Maeers ,-ds"1, Recreating relations$ips3
/ollaboration and educational re'or! ,pp" 8/);I1" @l&an, AJD State Nniversit of
Ae$ Oor( Press"
=hristiansen, .", 9 *alther, :" ,1/0;1" 'as( and activit" In ." =hristiansen, @" :" Ho$son,
9 M" Otte ,-ds"1, *erspectives on !at$e!atics education ,pp" <7F)FBI1" #ordrechtD
#" Keidel"
=landinin, #" J", 9 =onnell, ?" M" ,1//11" Aarrative and stor in practice and research" In
#" @" SchPn ,-d"1, &$e Re'lective turn3 /ase studies in and on educational practice
,pp" <80)<011" Ae$ Oor(D 'eachers =ollege Press"
=oc(croft, *" H" ,1/0<1" 4at$e!atics /ounts ,report of 'he =ommittee of In3uir into the
'eaching of Mathematics in Schools1" GondonD Her Majest Stationer Office"
=onnell, ?" M", 9 =landinin, #" J" ,1/0;1" On narrative method, personal philosoph, and
narrative unities in the stor of teaching" 5ournal o' Researc$ in cience &eac$ing,
23,71, </F)F1B"
=orta!!i, M" ,1//F1" 6arrative anal+sis" GondonD ?almer Press"
Japuscins(i, P" ,1//I1" 'he colla&orative lensD @ ne$ loo( at an old research stud" In H"
=hristiansen, G" :oulet, =" Jrent! and M" Maeers ,-ds"1, Recreating relations$ips3
/ollaboration and educational re'or! ,pp" F)1<1" @l&an, AJD State Nniversit of
Ae$ Oor( Press"
Olson, M" ,1//I1" =olla&orationD -n epistemological shift" In H" =hristiansen, G" :oulet, ="
Jrent! and M" Maeers ,-ds"1, Recreating relations$ips3 /ollaboration and
educational re'or! ,pp" 1F)<81" @l&an, AJD State Nniversit of Ae$ Oor( Press"
2 17 2
Mason, J" ,1//11" Mathematical pro&lem solvingD Open, closed and e+plorator in the NJ"
7D4, 8 ,11, 17)1/"
MS-. ,1/0/1" Ever+bod+ counts3 A report to t$e nation on t$e 'uture o' !at$e!atics
education" *ashingtonD Aational @cadem Press"
A='M ,<BBB1" *rinciples and standards 'or sc$ool !at$e!atics. Keston, Q@D A='M"
P6la, :" ,1/781" 9o# to solve it3 A 6e# aspect o' t$e !at$e!atical !et$od" PrincetonD
Princeton Nniversit Press"
Ponte, J" P", Oliveira, H", =unha, H", 9 Segurado, I" ,1//01" 9ist:rias de investiga;<es
!ate!ticas" Gis&oaD II-"
Kiessman, =" J" ,1//F1" 6arrative anal+sis" Ae$&ur Par(D Sage"
Schoenfeld, @" H" ,1//<1" Gearning to thin( mathematicallD Pro&lem solving, metacognition,
and sense ma(ing in mathematics" In #" @" :rou$s ,-d"1, 9andboo= o' researc$ on
!at$e!atics teac$ing and learning ,pp" FF7)FIB1" Ae$ Oor(D Macmillan"
2 18 2
1
'his $or( is part of a larger project concerning pupils% mathematical investigations in the classroom called 4ate!tica para &odos3
,nvestiga;<es na ala de Aula, carried &et$een 1//8 and 1/// at =entro de InvestigaRo em -ducaRo da ?aculdade de =iSncias da
Nniversidade de Gis&oa and funded & Junta Aacional de InvestigaRo =ientTfica e 'ecnol6gica and Instituto de InovaRo -ducacional"
2
Part of this $or( $as shared $ith other participants of 4ate!tica *ara &odos Project"
3
'he output can &e seen in Ponte, J" P", Oliveira, H", =unha, H", 9 Segurado, I" ,1//01"