- Seven Golden Rules for University and College Lecturers
by Henry Ellington Abstract This article highlights the changing role of university and college lecturers from teachers to facilitators of learning, together with the requirement that they wor to increasingly high standards! "t #resents seven golden rules for becoming an e$cellent tertiary-level teacher, and offers detailed #ractical guidance on how to #ut these into #ractice! The seven golden rules are% &! 'ind out how your students learn( )! Set a##ro#riate learning targets( *! Use a##ro#riate teaching/learning methods( +! Use a##ro#riate assessment methods( ,! Monitor and evaluate your teaching -! .lways try to imrove your erformance( /! 0ee# yourself u-to-date! The Author !rofessor Henry Ellington is 1ead of the Centre for Learning and .ssessment 2CL.SS3 at The Robert Gordon University, .berdeen, where he has wored since &4--! 1e is a highly e$#erienced educational and staff develo#er who has #ublished e$tensively in the field! 1is latest boo - 5'acilitating Student Learning6 2written with Shirley 7arl - see 5References6 section in main article3 deals in de#th with all the to#ics covered in this article! & & & & How to Become an Excellent Tertiary-Level Teacher - Seven Golden Rules for University and College Lecturers by Henry Ellington "ntroduction The role of university and college lecturers is changing! Traditionally, their main role was to teach, ie, to im#art nowledge to their students via lectures and similar face-to- face activities! 8ow, it is becoming increasingly widely recognised that their main role is to hel their students to learn, something that requires a fairly radical change in how they wor! They are also having to co#e with all the various technological develoments that are currently having such an im#act on tertiary education, and may eventually change it beyond recognition! "n addition, tertiary-level teachers are now e$#ected to wor# to much higher standards than was the case in the #ast - standards that seem certain to be increasingly strongly 5#oliced6 by the $uality Assurance Agency 29..3 and the "nstitute for Learning and Teaching 2"LT3 in the case of 1igher 7ducation! "ndeed, with the latter now becoming fully o#erational, it seems liely that holding an "LT-recognised teaching qualification will ra#idly become the norm for university and college lecturers - and may eventually become mandatory! Since &4:4, the author and his colleagues have been running a highly-successful ;ostgraduate Certificate Course in Tertiary-Level Teaching for the academic staff of their own institution - .berdeen6s Robert Gordon University 27llington &44<, &44-, &444a3! This covers all the main as#ects of tertiary-level teaching in some detail, but the essence of the course can be enca#sulated in a com#aratively few basic #rinci#les - the seven golden rules that are #resented in this article! Let us now see what these involve! %olden &ule ' ( )ind out how your students learn =es#ite the vast amount of research that has been carried out by educational #sychologists, we still now com#aratively little about the nature of the learning #rocess! >e have, however, learned a great deal about how students aroach learning, and it has also become clear that different students learn in different ways 2Cotton, &44,a, b( 7ntwistle, &44-( 'ry et.al., &444a3! Some, for e$am#le, #refer to tacle a given learning tas by starting at the beginning and woring systematically through the material one section at a time( others #refer to wor in a more holistic way, treating the material as a com#lete, integrated system rather than a collection of se#arate #arts 2;as, &4/-3! Clearly, both a##roaches have their ) a##lications, and students should be encouraged to cultivate both styles, choosing the a##roach that is most suitable for any given situation! >hen e$amining a s#ecific area in great de#th, for e$am#le, a serialist a##roach is #robably best( when studying a to#ic in its overall conte$t, on the other hand, a holistic a##roach would #robably be more effective 2Cotton, &44,a3! .nother im#ortant distinction is that between surface learners 2who sim#ly 5scra#e the surface6 of the material being studied without carrying out any dee# #rocessing3 and dee learners 2who mae a serious attem#t to turn other #eo#le6s ideas into their own #ersonalised structure of nowledge3 2?iggs, &4:/3! Clearly, all good teachers should try to give their students the o##ortunity to become dee# rather than surface learners, one of the most effective strategies for achieving this being to get them actively involved in the learning rocess! Some of the methods by which this can be done will be discussed later in this article! "n recent years, it has become recognised that some students deliberately ado#t a third, radically different a##roach to study in order to achieve the highest #ossible mars or grades with the minimum of effort 2?iggs, &4:/( 7ntwistle, &44-3! Such students vary their a##roach according to the circumstances, ado#ting a surface a##roach if they feel that this is all that is needed to meet their goals, and only em#loying a dee# a##roach if they feel that the resultant e$tra wor will be worth the effort! Those res#onsible for the design and o#eration of tertiary-level courses should be aware that more and more students are now 5#laying the system6 in this way! "f taen to e$tremes, this can result in such strategic learners finishing u# with awards that they do not really merit on the basis of their intrinsic ability or effort! @ne way round the #roblem is to ensure that assessment methods are #ro#erly matched to learning outcomes, and that all ey learning outcomes are #ro#erly assessed in some way! ;rovided that this is done, the strategic a##roach can be turned into a very real aid to effective learning! "t is also now generally recognised that adults tend to learn in totally different ways from children, being much more inde#endent and autonomous in their a##roach to study, #referring to learn from their own e$#erience rather than being taught, #referring tas- or #roblem-centred a##roaches to learning, and being strongly influenced by internal rather than e$ternal motivators 20nowles, &44<3! .s students #rogress through a tertiary-level course, they should be treated more and more lie adults in terms of the learning o##ortunities #rovided! ;roblems tend to arise when there is a clear mismatch between the #revailing learning model and the model that learners e$#ect - as, for e$am#le, when mature learners feel that they are being treated lie children! Good teachers should try to ensure that such mismatches do not ha##en! @ther im#ortant distinctions are those between activists and theorists, and between ragmatists and reflectors! 1oney and Aumford 2&44)3 have devised a highly so#histicated self-#erce#tion inventory to hel# #eo#le to find out their #referred learning style 2or styles3 under this classification, and this has #roved e$tremely useful both to students and to their teachers! . good teacher should again recognise the e$istence of the four 1oney and Aumford learning styles, try to cater for all styles when #lanning their teachingBlearning #rogrammes, and try to hel# their students to ado#t different learning * styles in different ty#es of situation! The obCect should be to #roduce mature learners with balanced and fle$ible learning #rofiles by the time they finish their courses! "f you want to become an e$cellent teacher, find out about these different a##roaches to learning - and try to find out how your students #refer to learn! Dou will then have a much better chance of meeting their needs! The &44- boolet on 51ow Students Learn6 by 7llington and 7arl 2see 5References63 #rovides a basic introduction to the to#ic, with the boos by ?iggs 2&4:/3, Gibbs 2&44+3 and Cotton 2&44,a, b3 #roviding more detailed treatment 2again, see 5References63! %olden &ule * ( +et aroriate learning targets "t is now generally agreed that the ey starting #oint of any successful teachingBlearning #rogramme is to set aroriate learning targets for the students! >hen formulating student learning targets, it is #ossible to ado#t two significantly different a##roaches! The first is to ado#t the a##roach that has traditionally been used to s#ecify the outcomes of student learning, namely, in terms of general aims and more detailed associated ob,ectives - often couched in behavioural terms, when they are sometimes described as learning outcomes- This is the method that is still used in most degree-level courses in ?ritain 2;ercival et.al., &44*3! The second is to ado#t the cometence-based aroach that has come into vogue since the late &4:<6s! This is the a##roach that is now used in virtually all sub-degree-level and vocational courses in ?ritain 27llington, &44,( 8oble, &4443! "n order to be effective, student learning targets should clearly be relevant to the overall aims of the course or #rogramme to which they relate, and should also cover all the essential nowledge and sills that students are e$#ected to acquire! "n #articular, they should cover all the various rocess s#ills that are so im#ortant for success in later life - decision-maing sills, #roblem-solving sills, communication sills, inter#ersonal sills, "T sills and the lie 28oble, &444( Race, &4443! "f you agree with ?!'! Sinner that true education is what remains after the facts are forgotten, the develo#ment of such sills becomes doubly im#ortant! Certainly, many em#loyers now regard their develo#ment as the most im#ortant as#ect of the educational system 27llington, &44,3! The targets that you set your students should also become #rogressively more demanding as they #rogress through their course, while, at the same time, remaining realistic and achievable! Useful guidelines on how to do this have recently been develo#ed by the 9.. 2179C, &44-3, and some colleges and universities are #roducing their own systems for hel#ing staff to write their learning outcomes at the a##ro#riate level! The author recently #roduced such a system for use in his own university, in connection with its Common Course .rchitectureBCourse Aodularisation #rogramme 27llington, &444b3! This consists of a suite of generic level learning outcome temlates that show staff how to write a##ro#riate learning outcomes at all four stages of the Scottish honours degree and also at #ostgraduate 2masters3 level! They cover the four sill + areas s#ecified in the recent =earing Re#ort 28C"17, &44/3 - #nowledge and understanding. #ey /transferable rocess0 s#ills. /higher0 cognitive s#ills and sub,ect-secific s#ills! .s a result of using the tem#lates, staff have been able to match the learning outcomes of s#ecific course units to the stages of the course at which the units are taught much more effectively than in the #ast! .ll good lecturers should try to do liewise! "t is also im#ortant that lecturers should let their students #now what is exected of them, #referably before they embar on the course, course unit or activity to which the targets relate 2Race, &4443! Students have a right to now their learning targets, and, by #roviding them with this information in as much detail as #ossible, you can mae a very significant contribution to ensuring that the learning targets are in fact achieved! This is #articularly im#ortant in the case of com#etence-based courses, where students have to demonstrate their com#etence by meeting the requirements of s#ecified #erformance indicators 2;ercival, et.al., &44*3! Setting clearly-defined student learning targets is also of considerable hel# to the staff who have to teach a course or course unit! 'irst, they hel# to define the general direction of the course or curriculum and indicate the sort of material that should be covered! Then, they give some guidance as to what teaching/learning methods should be em#loyed 2see %olden &ule 13! 'inally, they are of considerable assistance in #lanning assessment rocedures 2see %olden &ule 23! "f you want to become an e$cellent teacher, mae yourself thoroughly familiar with the basic #rinci#les of #roducing clear, effective student learning targets - in whatever form they are required to be written in the courses you have to teach! The boolet on 5S#ecifying the @utcomes of Student Learning6 by 7llington and 7arl 2&44-b3 #rovides a fairly com#rehensive introduction to the associated theory, as well as detailed guidelines on how to #ut the theory into #ractice! Aore detailed treatment can be found in Aager, &4-) 2still well worth reading3 and >aler, &44+! %olden &ule 1 ( 3se aroriate teaching/learning methods @nce you have established your student learning targets, thought should be given as to what #articular mi$ of teaching/learning methods would be most suitable for hel#ing your students to achieve these various outcomes! 8ote that a good teacher will always choose their teachingBlearning methods to match their learning targets - not, as is so often the case, the other way roundE 2;ercival, et.al., &44*3! >hen doing so, remember that different teachingBlearning methods are best suited to achieving different ty#es of learning outcomes! The lecture, for e$am#le, is most suitable for #resenting basic facts and #rinci#les - and not really suitable for hel#ing students to develo# high-order cognitive sills such as analysis, evaluation or #roblem-solving, or communication and inter#ersonal sills 2Race and ?rown, &44:( 1organ, &4443! To , develo# such sills effectively, you will need to use more active teachingBlearning methods such as #roCects, case-studies and role-#lays! .s can be seen in any basic te$t on the subCect, many different ty#es of teachingBlearning methods are available to the modern university or college lecturer! "t is, however, #ossible to divide these into three broad grou#s, based on the e$tremely useful classification first suggested by Lewis 7lton 27lton, &4/:3! The first of these grou#s contains mass-instruction methods such as conventional lectures and other forms of taught lesson, film and video #resentations, and educational broadcasts! 1ere, the teacher o#erates in the traditional e$#ository role, deciding what material will be covered, in what way, at what #ace, in what de#th, and so on! The students, on the other hand, are largely #assive, being virtually totally de#endent on what they get from the teacher! 'or this reason, 7lton describes mass instruction as the deendent mode of teachingBlearning! .s we have seen, mass-instruction methods are best suited to achieving student targets that fall in the lower #art of ?loom6s cognitive domain, ie, covering the basic facts and #rinci#les of a subCect! >hen used by a silled teacher, they can be e$tremely effective in achieving such outcomes! The second of 7lton6s three grou#s contains individualised-learning methods such as directed study of te$tboos and similar #rinted materials, o#en-learning methods of all ty#es, all the different forms of com#uter-based learning, multimedia and >eb-based learning, and student e$ercises and activities such as assignments and #roCects! >hen using such methods with their students, the teacher has to ste# bac from the traditional e$#ository role, acting instead as a #roducerBmanager of learning resources and as a tutor and guide to the students, #roviding su##ort and hel# as and when required! The students themselves are largely res#onsible for their own learning, controlling their own #ace of learning, de#th of study, etc! 'or this reason, 7lton describes individualised learning as the indeendent mode of teachingBlearning! "ndividualised-learning methods can be used to achieve a much wider range of student learning outcomes than mass-instruction methods, covering the whole of the cognitive domain as well as many useful #rocess sills! The third of 7lton6s three grou#s contains grou-learning methods such as buFF sessions and similar small-grou# activities, class discussions, seminars and grou# tutorials, interactive e$ercises of the gameBsimulationBcase-study ty#e, and grou# #roCects! >hen using such methods, the teacher has again to ste# bac from the traditional e$#ository role, acting sim#ly as an organiser of the grou# activity and a facilitator of the student learning e$#erience! The students themselves are largely res#onsible for their own learning, but are also strongly de#endent on one another for the quality and de#th of the resulting learning e$#erience! 'or this reason, 7lton describes grou# learning as the inter-deendent mode of teachingBlearning! Aodern grou#-learning methods have their foundations in the humanistic sychology that was develo#ed by #eo#le such as Carl Rogers during the &4-<6s - a totally different ty#e of #sychology from the highly mechanistic behavioural sychology which formed the basis of the earlier #rogrammed learning movement 2;ercival et al, &44*3! They are ca#able of achieving student learning - outcomes of all ty#es, being #articularly well suited to develo#ing higher-cognitive, affective, inter#ersonal and communication sills! "f you want to become an e$cellent teacher, you should mae yourself thoroughly familiar with the full range of teachingBlearning methods that are currently available, and try to choose the most a##ro#riate method 2or mi$ of methods3 for achieving any given set of student learning outcomes! The &44- boolet on 5Selecting .##ro#riate TeachingBLearning Aethods6 by 7llington and 7arl 2see 5References63 is a good starting #oint! =etailed guidance on how to mae effective use of the various methods can be found in any of the standard te$ts on the subCect( 5The Lecturer6s Toolit6 2Race and ?rown, &44:3, 5'acilitating Student Learning6 27llington and 7arl, &4443 and 5. 1andboo for Teaching and Learning in 1igher 7ducation 2'ry et.al., &444b3 are three recent boos that readers should find useful! %olden &ule 2 ( 3se aroriate assessment methods "t is now becoming increasingly widely acce#ted that assessing their erformance is the most im#ortant thing that teachers do for their students, es#ecially at tertiary level! Students can, after all, miss lectures and other scheduled classes and still #ass their course - but they cannot o#t out of the assessment #rocess 2?rown and 0night, &44+3! Thus, it is im#ortant that tertiary-level teachers should carry out this assessment #rofessionally and effectively, and should also try to mae it as useful to the students as #ossible 2Race and ?rown, &44:3! Good assessment should be a ey #art of the learning #rocess( indeed, assessment methods and teaching methods are now very often the same thing 2essays, assignments and #roCects, for e$am#le3! "deally, all student assessment should have the following five characteristics 2;ercival et.al., &44*3! 'irst, it should be valid, ie, should actually assess what it sets out to assess, not something com#letely different 2lie s#eed of writing in traditional essay-based e$aminations, for e$am#le3! "t should also be reliable, #roducing the same results under different but com#arable conditions, or when the same #iece of wor is assessed by different marers( some assessment methods, such as essays, can have severe reliability #roblems unless suitable measures are taen to standardise maring! .ssessment #rocedures should also be reasonably racticable in terms of their cost, time taen and ease of a##lication( this sometimes necessitates a trade-off against other desirable characteristics such as validity, eg, in the assessment of #ractical wor! 8e$t, assessment should be fair to all students, and should not mae une$#ected or unreasonable demands of them - something that is #articularly im#ortant in these days of student charters and the increasing tendency of students to demand 5value for money6! 'inally, as we have already seen, students should find their assessment useful, both by hel#ing to facilitate the learning #rocess and by #roviding them with feedbac on how they are #rogressing! >hen #lanning student assessment, you should begin by asing yourself a number of basic questions regarding the mode of assessment, eg% / 4hy is the assessment being carried outG "s it formative assessment, designed #rimarily to #rovide feedbac on #rogressG @r is it summative assessment, designed to establish or measure what the learner has achieved, determine mars or grades, or #rovide a gateway to further #rogressionG 4ho is to carry out the assessmentG "s it to be carried out by an external body of some sort, or are the course tutors to be res#onsible for #lanning and administering itG "f the latter, could there be some advantage in involving the students themselves in the #rocess, via eer assessment or self-assessmentG 2?oth modes are becoming increasingly widely used in tertiary education!3 "s the assessment to be norm-referenced 2in which the relative #erformances of students are directly com#ared3, or criterion-referenced 2in which the #erformance of students is assessed against #re-determined criteria, without regard to their #erformance relative to one another3G "ncreasingly, the latter form of assessment is becoming standard in tertiary education - es#ecially in com#etence-based courses! "s the assessment to be continuous 2carried out on an on-going basis as students wor their way through the course or course unit3 or terminal 2carried out once the #rogramme of study has been com#leted3G Aost courses now incor#orate at least an element of the former, since it reduces 5e$amination #ressure6 on students and #rovides useful feedbac on #rogress! Dou should also give some thought to the method 2or methods3 by which the assessment is to be carried out! =ifferent assessment methods are best suited to assessing different ty#es of student learning outcomes, so you should try to match the two as effectively as #ossible! >hen assessing nowledge and understanding of the basic facts and #rinci#les of a subCect, for e$am#le, the best methods are #robably ob,ective tests or short-answer tests of some sort! >hen assessing higher-level cognitive sills such as analysis, evaluation or #roblem-solving, on the other hand, tests based on extended-answer 5uestions or continuous-assessment based on essays. assignments or ro,ects are #robably more suitable! 'or other ty#es of sills, ractical tests. situational assessment or ortfolio-based assessment might be the best way to #roceed! "f you wish to become an e$cellent tertiary-level teacher, mae yourself thoroughly familiar with the full range of student assessment methods that are currently available, and try to choose the most a##ro#riate assessment strategy in any given situation! The &44- boolet on 5.ssessing Student ;erformance6 by 7llington and 7arl 2see 5References63 could serve as a useful starting #oint here, with more detailed guidance on the #lanning and im#lementation of student assessment being available in any of the standard te$ts on the subCect - eg, 5.ssessing Learners in 1igher 7ducation 2?rown and 0night, &44+3 or 5;lanning and "m#lementing .ssessment6 2'reeman and Lewis, &44:3! : %olden &ule 6 ( Monitor and evaluate your teaching "f you want to be an e$cellent teacher, you should constantly monitor and evaluate your own #erformance! @nly by doing this can you tell whether you are being really effective! Dou can do so in three basic ways% &! ?y reflecting deely and critically on your own #erformance as a facilitator of student learning, eg by maintaining a reflective log on all the teaching that you carry out! )! Through feedbac# from your students, eg via informal discussions, class questionnaires and the results of student assessment 2the last of these generally gives a very clear indication of whether you are being effective or not3! *! Through feedbac# from your colleagues, eg, by asing someone whose o#inion you value to sit in on one of your classes and #rovide you with constructive critical feedbac on how you did! =uring the early &44<6s, the author6s own university develo#ed a com#rehensive scheme designed to hel# staff carry out such monitoring and evaluation of their #erformance as teachers 27llington and Ross, &44/3! This was built into the university6s staff develo#ment and career review scheme, where it was used to hel# inform the #lanning of lecturers6 #ersonal develo#ment #rogrammes! "t also hel#ed the university to #rovide tangible evidence of the quality of its teaching, something that was of considerable benefit during quality assessment visits! Try all of these various techniques( e$#erience shows that they wor! ?asic guidance on how to do so can be found in the &44/ boolet on 5=evelo#ing a ;ersonal =evelo#ment ;rogramme6 written by the author and Shirley 7arl 2see 5References63, while more detailed guidance can be found in the boo on 5.ssessing Dour @wn Teaching 9uality6 written by Sally ?rown and ;hil Race in &44, 2again, see 5References63! The &444 51andboo for Teaching and Learning in 1igher 7ducation 2'ry et.al., &444b3 also contains a number of e$tremely useful cha#ters dealing with #ersonal monitoring and evaluation! %olden &ule 7 ( Always try to imrove your erformance 7$cellent teachers are never satisfied with their #erformance( they are always striving to do even better! @ne #ractical way of doing this is to ado#t a detailed set of standards to which you wish to as#ire - eg, those #roduced by the Universities6 and Colleges6 Staff =evelo#ment .gency 2UCoS=., &44+a3 or by the Staff and 7ducational =evelo#ment .ssociation 4 2S7=., &44,3! Dou can then measure your #erformance against these standards on an on-going basis - by, for e$am#le, giving yourself a mar out of &< for each, or rating yourself using a suitable scale! .nother thing that all e$cellent teachers do is reflect critically on every teaching session that they conduct with a view to thining of s#ecific ways in which it might have been im#roved - and thus can be im#roved ne$t time round! @ne way of doing this is to maintain a #ersonal reflective log of the ty#e discussed in the #revious section! The teaching evaluation scheme develo#ed in The Robert Gordon University made use of both these techniques 27llington and Ross, &44/3! "t incor#orated a set of standards, s#ecifying detailed criteria for effective #erformance as a tertiary-level teacher! Staff made use of a four-#oint scale to rate their #erformance against each of these, being required to cite su##orting evidence of some sort if they rated themselves on the 5high6 half of the scale! "f they rated themselves on the 5low6 half, no evidence was required, since mere recognition of the fact - and of the im#licit need for im#roved #erformance - was regarded as sufficient! Guidance on how to set about im#roving your #erformance as a tertiary-level teacher in a systematic and effective way can again be found in the boolet on 5=evelo#ing a ;ersonal =evelo#ment ;rogramme6 27llington and 7arl, &44/3 and in 5. 1andboo for Teaching and Learning in 1igher 7ducation6 2'ry et.al., &444b3! %olden &ule 8 ( 9ee yourself u-to-date The author6s seventh and final #iece of advice to as#iring e$cellent teachers is to try to #ee abreast of the latest develoments - and to #ut these into #ractice in your own teaching wherever #ossible! The ey to this #rocess is a commitment to continuing rofessional develoment 2C;=3 - reading boos and articles, attending conferences and seminars, and generally ta#ing an interest in what is ha##ening to your #rofession 2being a regular reader of this Cournal is a good starting #ointE3 8eedless to say, it is absolutely vital to ee# u# to date with the latest develo#ments in C H "T if you want to be an e$cellent teacher! 8ew delivery systems such as multimedia and the "nternet are currently revolutionising tertiary education! Use these to your advantage( if you do not, you will soon be left behind by those who doE Guidance on how to #lan and im#lement your own C;= #rogramme can again be found in the boolet on 5=evelo#ing a ;ersonal =evelo#ment ;rogramme6 27llington and 7arl, &44/3! The Green ;a#er on C;= #roduced by the Universities6 and Colleges Staff =evelo#ment .gency 2UCoS=., &44+b3 also #rovides very hel#ful advice, and does the cha#ter on 5Continuing ;rofessional =evelo#ment6 in 5. 1andboo for Teaching and Learning in 1igher 7ducation6 2;artington, &4443! &< Ac#nowledgement This article is a greatly e$tended version of an invited feature article written for the 5Times 1igher 7ducational Su##lement6, #ublished on .#ril *< th , &444 under the title 51ow to teach with e$cellence6! The coo#eration of T17S in #ermitting the #ublication of the #resent article is gratefully acnowledged! &eferences ?iggs, I! 2&4:/3! Student Approaches to Learning and Studying( .ustralian Council for 7ducational Research, Jictoria! ?rown, S! and 0night, ;! 2&44+3! Assessing Learners in Higher Education( 0ogan ;age, London! ?rown, S! and Race, ;! 2&44,3! Assess Your Own Teaching Quality( 0ogan ;age, London! Cotton, I! 2&44,a3! The Theory of Learning( 0ogan ;age, London! Cotton, I! 2&44,b3! The Theory of Learners( 0ogan ;age, London! 7llington, 1!"! 2&44<3! Training in-#ost lecturers by o#en-learning methods! "n 'armer, ?!, 7astcott, =! and LentF ?!, eds! Aspects of Educational and Training Technology XX( 0ogan ;age, London( ## 44-&<). 7llington, 1!"! 2&44,3! 7ducational innovation - where are we nowG . critical review of recent develo#ments( nno!ation " Learning in Education( vol! &( no! &( ## &,-)<! 7llington, 1!"! 2&44-3! Using o#en-learning self-study methods to train college lecturers( Education Today( vol! +-( no! +( ## *-&<! 7llington, 1!"! 2&444a3! Reconciling conflicting demands in the training of 17 teachers - the e$#erience at The Robert Gordon University( Education # Training( vol! +&( no!&( ## )/-*)! 7llington, 1!"! 2&444b3! Generic level learning outcome tem#lates % a tool for benchmaring student achievement levels throughout a university( Quality Assurance in Education( vol! /( no! &( ## +/-,:! 7llington, 1!"! and 7arl, S!7! 2&44-a3! How Students Learn $ A %e!iew of So&e of the 'ain Theories( 7ducational =evelo#ment Unit, The Robert Gordon University, .berdeen! 7llington, 1!"! and 7arl, S!7! 2&44-b3! Specifying the Outco&es of Student Learning( 7ducational =evelo#ment Unit, The Robert Gordon University, .berdeen! 7llington, 1!"! and 7arl, S!7! 2&44-c3! Selecting Appropriate Teaching(Learning 'ethods( 7ducational =evelo#ment Unit, The Robert Gordon University, .berdeen! 7llington, 1!"! and 7arl, S!7! 2&44-d3! Assessing Student )erfor&ance( 7ducational =evelo#ment Unit, The Robert Gordon University, .berdeen! 7llington, 1!"! and 7arl, S!7! 2&44/3! *e!eloping a )ersonal *e!elop&ent )rogra&&e( 7ducational =evelo#ment Unit, The Robert Gordon University, .berdeen! 7llington, 1!"! and 7arl, S!7! 2&4443! +acilitating Student Learning( UTA ;ress, Iohor ?ahru, Aalaysia! && 7llington, 1!"! and Ross, G!T!8! 2&44/3! 1el#ing staff to evaluate the quality of their teaching! "n Iacson, 8! 2ed!3, 'anaging Quality and Standards in ,- Higher Education( 1igher 7ducation 9uality Council, London( ## ,4--+! 7lton, L!R!?! 2&4/:3! 7ducational technology - today and tomorrow! "n 1ill, ;! and Gilbert, I! 2eds!3, Aspects of Educational Technology X( 0ogan ;age, London( ## )*-- )+&! 7ntwistle, 8! 2&44-3! Supporting Effecti!e Learning . A %esearch )erspecti!e( Centre for Research on Learning and "nstruction, University of 7dinburgh! 'reeman, R! and Lewis, R! 2&44:3! )lanning and &ple&enting Assess&ent( 0ogan ;age, London! 'ry, 1!, 0etteridge, S! and Aarshall, S! 2&444a3! Understanding Student Learning! "n 'ry, 1!, 0etteridge, S! and Aarshall, S!, eds! A Hand/oo0 for Teaching and Learning in Higher Education( 0ogan ;age, London( ## )&-+<! 'ry, 1!, 0etteridge, S! and Aarshall, S!, eds! 2&444b3! A Hand/oo0 for Teaching and Learning in Higher Education( 0ogan ;age, London! 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