INTRODUCTION:

Pneumonia is an inflammatory condition of the lungaffecting primarily the microscopic air sacs
known as alveoli.

It is usually caused by infection with viruses or bacteria and less commonly
other microorganisms, certain drugs and other conditions such as autoimmune diseases. Typical
symptoms include a cough, chest pain, fever, and difficulty breathing. Diagnostic tools include
x-rays and culture of the sputum. Vaccines to prevent certain types of pneumonia are available.
Treatment depends on the underlying cause. neumonia presumed to be bacterial is treated
with antibiotics. If the pneumonia is severe, the affected person is, in general, admitted to
hospital.
eople with infectious pneumonia often have a productive cough, fever accompanied byshaking
chills, shortness of breath, sharp or stabbing chest pain during deep breaths, and an
increased respiratory rate. In the elderly, confusion may be the most prominent sign. The typical
signs and symptoms in children under five are fever, cough, and fast or difficult breathing.
!"#$
%ever is not very specific, as it occurs in many other common illnesses, and may be absent in
those with severe disease or malnutrition. In addition, a cough is fre&uently absent in children
less than ' months old. (ore severe signs and symptoms may include) blue-tinged skin,
decreased thirst, convulsions, persistent vomiting, extremes of temperature, or a decreased level
of consciousness.
*acterial and viral cases of pneumonia usually present with similar symptoms. +ome causes are
associated with classic, but non-specific, clinical characteristics. neumonia caused by Legion
Ella may occur with abdominal pain, diarrhea, or confusion, while pneumonia caused
by Streptococcus pneumoniae is associated with rusty colored sputum,and pneumonia caused
by Klebsiella may have bloody sputum often described as ,currant -elly.. *loody sputum /known
as hemoptysis0 may also occur with tuberculosis, 1ram-negative pneumonia, and lung abscesses
as well as more commonly with acute bronchitis. Mycoplasma pneumonia may occur in
association with swelling of the lymph nodes in the neck, -oint pain, or a middle ear infection. Viral
pneumonia presents more commonly with whee2ing than does bacterial pneumonia.
+eptic shock is a serious condition that occurs when an overwhelming infection leads to life-
threatening low blood pressure. +eptic shock occurs most often in the very old and the very
young. It also occurs in people who have other illnesses.
3ny type of bacteria can cause septic shock. %ungi and /rarely0 viruses may also cause the
condition. Toxins released by the bacteria or fungi may cause tissue damage, and may lead to
low blood pressure and poor organ function. +ome researchers think that blood clots in small
arteries cause the lack of blood flow and poor organ function.
The body also produces a strong inflammatory response to the toxins. This inflammation may
contribute to organ damage.
4ame) atient 5.6.
3ge) 7" years of age
+ex) %emale
8ivil +tatus) +ingle
3ddress) (angyan, +ibonga, 8ebu
5eligion) 5oman 8atholic
4ationality) %ilipino
*irthdate) 4ovember "", "9:"
3dmitting ;iagnosis)
+eptic +hock secondary to T* with pneumonia, severe anemia of chronic disease t<c lymphatic
obstruction left leg
=-53> 5?@5T
rocedure) Aeg/ left0 3A
%indings)
The bones are normal in density, texture and modeling. There is no evidence of fracture, bone
erosion no bone destruction.
Impression)
4ormal bones of the left leg
rocedure) 8hest a
%indings)
There are in homogenous and nodular densities on both lungs. There is a homogenous density at
the left paracardiac area. There is a ha2iness in the right lung. 6eart is normal in si2e and shape.
The thoracic aorta is tortous. The trachea is at the midline. *oth hemidiaphragms are sharp and
distinct. The osseous t-oracic cage showed no significant bony abnormality
Impression)
neumonia, both lungs, suggest after "#-"7 days for comparative study
3rtherosclerosis of the thoracic aorta.

SPUTUM MICROSCOPY RESULTS
1 2 3
Visal Appa!anc M"coi# M"coi#
Ra#ing $ %1
La& Diagnosis: POSITIVE
' Spci(n 2 ) 3* not applica&l i+ sp"t"( +ollo,'"p
' M"co' p"!"lnt- &loo# stain#- sali.a- tc/
0EMATOLO1Y
Rs"lt Unit R+!nc
Rtic"loc2t Co"nt 33 1$435L 6'2$
P!ip7!al S(a! '
s(a!s s7o, a slig7tl2 72poc7!o(ic no!(oc2tic !2t7!oc2ts/ l"8oc2ts a!
inc!as# in n"(&!- #(onst!ating n"t!op7ilia/ No i((at"! o! &last clls a! sn/
Platlts a! a#9"at in 9"antit2 ,it7 no!(al (o!p7olog2/
CLINICAL MICROSCOPY
URINALYSIS RESULT UNIT
Colo! Yllo,
T!anspa!anc2 Clo"#2
Spci+ic 1!a.it2 1/$3$
p0 :/$
1l"cos ng;'<
P!otin %1
R=C $'2 57p+
>=C 3'6 57p+
Cast
02alin Cast 2'? 5lp+
@in 1!an"la! Cast 1'3 5lp+
MISCELLANEOUS STRUCTURES
S9"a(o"s E/ Clls @,
=act!ia Mo#
M"c"s T7!a#s @,
DRUG STUDY
1n!ic Na(: iperacillin +odium and Ta2obactam +odium
=!an# Na(: Aos2n
Classi+ication: Anti&iotic
Mc7anis( o+ Action: In7i&its cll',all s2nt7sis #"!ing &act!ial ("ltiplication
Cont!ain#ication: Cont!ain#icat# in patints 72p!snsiti. to #!"g o!
ot7! pnicillins/
Us ca"tio"sl2 in patints ,it7 &l#ing tn#ncis-
"!(ia- 72po8al(ia- an# all!gis to ot7! #!"gs-
spciall2 cp7alospo!ins- &ca"s o+ possi&l c!oss'
snsiti.it2/
Int!action: D!"g: 0o!(onal Cont!acpti.s: (a2 #c!as cont!acpti.
++cti.nss/ A#.is "s o+ anot7! ++o!( o+ cont!acption
#"!ing t7!ap2/
O!al Anticoag"lants: Ma2 p!olong ++cti.nss/ Monito! PT
an# INR closl2/
Vc"!oni"(: Ma2 p!olong n"!o("sc"la! &loc8a#/ Monito!
patint closl2/
A#.!s an# Si#
++cts:
CNS: 7a#ac7- inso(nia- +.!- siB"!s- agitation- anCit2-
#iBBinss- pain
EENT: !7initis
1I: #ia!!7a- constipation- na"sa- ps"#o((&!ano"s-
a&#o(inal pain- #2sppsia- stool c7angs- .o(iting
1U: can#i#iasis- int!stitial np7!itis
0EMA: l"8opnia- n"t!opnia- t7!o(&oc2topnia- an(ia-
osinop7ilia
SDIN: p!"!itis- !as7
OT0ERS: anap72laCis- 72p!snsiti.it2 !actions- p7l&itis at
N"!sing Int!.ntion
;(ini("( o+ 6<
I/V sit
D!"g (a2 alt! no!(al colon +lo!a/ Monito! patint +o!
#ia!!7a an# initiat t7!ap"tic (as"!s as n##/
D!"g (a2 n# to & stopp#/
=ca"s p!itonal #ial2sis !(o.s :E o+ t7
pip!acillin #os an# 21E o+ t7 taBo&acta( #os- an#
7(o#ial2sis !(o.s 3$E to ?$E o+ a #os in ?
7o"!s- a##itional #oss (a2 & n## a+t! ac7
#ial2sis p!io#/
I+ la!g #oss a! gi.n o! i+ t7!ap2 is p!olong#-
&act!ial o! +"ngal s"p!in+ction (a2 occ"!-
spciall2 in l#!l2- #&ilitat#- o! i(("ns"pp!ss#
patints/
Monito! 7(atologic an# coag"lation pa!a(t!s
D!"g contains 2/36 (E9 so#i"(5 g o+ pip!acillin/
Monito! patintFs so#i"( inta8 an# lct!ol2t l.ls/
Patint Tac7ing Tll patint to !po!t an2 a#.!s !action
Tll patint to al!t , 7alt7 ca! p!o+ssionals a&o"t
#isco(+o!t at t7 I/V sit
1n!ic Na(: Act2lc2stin
=!an# Na(: Acta#ot
Classi+ication: M"col2tic
Mc7anis( o+ Action: R#"c t7 .iscosit2 o+ p"l(ona!2 sc!tions &2 splitting
#is"l+i# lin8ags &t,n ("cop!otin (olc"la! co(plCs/
Also- !sto!s li.! sto!s o+ gl"tat7ion to t!at
acta(inop7n toCicit2/
Cont!ain#ication: Cont!ain#icat# in patints 72p!snsiti. to #!"g/
Us ca"tio"sl2 in l#!l2 o! #&ilitat# patints ,it7
s.! !spi!ato!2 ins"++icinc2/ Us I/V +o!(
ca"tio"sl2 in patints ,it7 ast7(a o! a 7isto!2 o+
&!onc7ospas(/
Int!action: D!"g: Acti.at# c7a!coal: Ma2 li(it act2lc2stinFs
++cti.nss/ A.oi# "sing acti.at# c7a!coal &+o! o! ,it7
act2lc2stin/
Acti.it2:
A#.!s an# Si#
++cts:
CNS: a&no!(al t7in8ing- +.!- #!o,sins- gait #ist"!&anc
EENT: !7ino!!7a- a! pain 2 pain- p7a!2ngitis- t7!oat
tig7tnss
1I: na"sa- sto(atitis- .o(iting
SDIN: cla((inss- #iap7o!sis- p!"!itis- !as7- "!tica!ia
N"!sing Int!.ntion
;(ini("( o+ 6<
OT0ERS: anap72lactoi# !action- angio#(a- c7ills
Monito! co"g7 t2p an# +!9"nc2
I+ 2o" s"spct acta(inop7n o.!#os- o&tain
&aslin- AST- ALT- &ili!"&in- PT- =UN- c!atinin-
gl"cos- an# lct!ol2t l.ls
@acial !2t7(a (a2 occ"! ,it7in 3$ to :$ (in"ts o+
sta!t o+ I/V in+"sion an# "s"all2 !.ol.s ,it7o"t
stopping in+"sion
>7n acta(inop7n l.l is &lo, toCic l.l
acco!#ing to no(og!a(- stop t7!ap2
T7 .ial stopp! #osnFt contain nat"!al !"&&! latC-
#!2 nat"!al !"&&!- o! &ln#s o+ nat"!al !"&&!
Patint Tac7ing >a!n patint t7at #!"g (a2 7a. a +o"l tast o! s(ll
t7at (a2 & #ist!ssing
@o! (aCi("( ++ct- inst!"ct patint to co"g7 to cla!
7is ai!,a2 &+o! a!osol a#(inist!ation
1n!ic Na(: Acta(inop7n
=!an# Na(: Acp7n
Classi+ication: Analgsic
Mc7anis( o+ Action: T7o"g7t to p!o#"c analgsia &2 in7i&iting p!ostaglan#in an#
ot7! s"&stancs t7at snsitiB pain !cpto!s/ D!"g (a2
!li. +.! t7!o"g7 cnt!al action in t7 72pot7ala(ic 7at'
!g"lating cnt!
Cont!ain#ication: Cont!ain#icat# in patints 72p!snsiti. to #!"g
Us ca"tio"sl2 in patints ,it7 an2 t2p o+ li.!
#isas an# in patints ,it7 long't!( alco7ol "s
&ca"s t7!ap"tic #oss ca"s 7patoCicit2 in t7s
patints/ C7!onic alco7olics s7o"l#nFt ta8 (o! t7an
2g o+ acta(inop7n .!2 2? 7o"!s
Int!action: D!"g: A(p7ta(ins- antic7olin!gics- (ca(2la(in-
p!ocaina(i#- 9"ini#in: Ma2 #c!as !nal cla!anc o+
t7s #!"gs- inc!asing toCicit2/ Monito! patint +o! toCicit2
C2clospo!in: Ma2 inc!as c2clospo!in l.l- ca"sing
np7!otoCicit2 an# n"!otoCicit2/ Monito! patint +o! toCicit2
Di+l"nisal: Ma2 inc!as actaBola(i# a#.!s ++ctsG (a2
signi+icantl2 #c!as IOP/ Us togt7! ca"tio"sl2
Lit7i"(: Ma2 inc!as lit7i"( Cc!tion- #c!asing its ++ct/
Monito! lit7i"( l.l
Mt7na(in: Ma2 !#"c (t7na(in ++ct/ A.oi# "sing
togt7!
P!i(i#on: Ma2 #c!as s!"( an# "!in p!i(i#on l.ls/
Monito! patint closl2
Acti.it2:
A#.!s an# Si#
++cts:
CNS: siB"!s- #!o,sinss- pa!st7sia- con+"sion- #p!ssion-
,a8nss- ataCia
EENT: t!ansint (2opia- 7a!ing #2s+"nction- tinnit"s
1I: na"sa- .o(iting- ano!Cia- (tallic tast- #ia!!7a- &lac8
ta!!2 stools- constipation
1U: pol2"!ia- 7(at"!ia- c!2stall"!ia- gl2cos"!ia-
p7osp7at"!ia- !nal calc"l"s
0EMA: aplastic an(ia- l"8opnia- t7!o(&oc2topnia-
7(ol2tic an(ia
SDIN: pain at inHction sit- st.nsHo7nson s2n#!o(- !as7-
"!tica!ia
OT0ERS: st!il a&scsss
N"!sing Int!.ntion
;(ini("( o+ 6<
C!oss'snsiti.it2 &t,n &act!ial s"l+ona(i#s an#
s"l+ona(i#' #!i.ati. #i"!tics s"c7 as
actaBola(i# 7as &n !po!t#
Monito! +l"i# inta8 an# o"tp"t- gl"cos- an#
lct!ol2ts- spciall2 potassi"(- &ica!&onat- an#
c7lo!i#/
Monito! l#!l2 patints closl2 &ca"s t72 a!
spciall2 s"scpti&l to Ccssi. #i"!sis
>ig7 patint #ail2/ Rapi# o! Ccssi. +l"i# loss (a2
ca"s ,ig7t loss an# 72potnsion
Monito! patint +o! signs o+ 7(ol2tic an(ia
Patint Tac7ing Tll patint to ta8 o!al +o!( ,it7 +oo# to (ini(iB 1I
"pst
Tll patint not to c!"s7- c7,- o! opn caps"ls
Ca"tion patint no to p!+o!( 7aBa!#o"s acti.itis i+
a#.!s CNS !action occ"!
Inst!"ct patint to a.oi# p!olong# Cpos"! to
s"nlig7t &ca"s #!"g (a2 ca"s p7ototoCicit2
Inst!"ct patint to noti+2 p!sc!i&! o+ an2 "n"s"al
&l#ing- &!"ising- tingling- o! t!(o!s
1n!ic Na(: Dto!olac t!o(t7a(in
=!an# Na(: To!a#ol
Classi+ication: NSAID
Mc7anis( o+ Action: Ma2 in7i&it p!ostaglan#in s2nt7sis- to p!o#"c anti'
in+la((ato!2- analgsic- an# antip2!tic ++cts
Cont!ain#ication: Cont!ain#icat# in patints 72p!snsiti. to #!"g an#
in t7os ,it7 acti. pptic "lc! #isas- !cnt 1I
&l#ing o! p!+o!ation- a#.anc# !nal i(pai!(nt-
c!&!o.asc"la! &l#ing- 7(o!!7agic #iat7sis- o!
inco(plt 7(ostasis
Int!action: D!"g: ACE in7i&ito!- angiotnsin II !cpto! antagonists: Ma2
ca"s !nal i(pai!(nt- pa!tic"la!l2 in .ol"('#plt#
patints/ A.oi# "sing togt7! in .ol"('#plt# patints
Anticoag"lants: (a2 inc!as anticoag"lant l.ls in t7
&loo#/ Us togt7! ,it7 Ct!( ca"tion an# (onito! patint
closl2
Anticon."lsants: (a2 inc!as siB"! acti.it2/ Us togt7!
ca"tio"sl2
Anti72p!tnsi.s- #i"!tics: (a2 #c!as ++cti.nss/
Monito! patint closl2
Lit7i"(: (a2 inc!as lit7i"( l.l/ Monito! patint closl2
Mt7ot!Cat: (a2 #c!as (t7ot!Cat cla!anc an#
inc!as# toCicit2/ A.oi# "sing togt7!
Pentoxifylline: may increase risk
of bleeding
A#.!s an# Si#
++cts:
CNS: 7a#ac7- #iBBinss- #!o,sinss- s#ation
EENT: ino(+o!t- !7inalgia- !7initis- t7!oat i!!itationc!as#
lac!i(ation;nasal sp!a2 onl2<- nasal #isc
1I: #2sppsia- 1I pain- na"sa- constipation- #ia!!7a-
+lat"lnc- pptic "lc!ation- sto(atitis- .o(iting
1U: !nal +ail"!
0EMA: #c!as# platlt a#7sion- p!olong# &l#ing ti(-
p"!p"!a
SDIN: #iap7o!sis- p!"!it"s- !as7
OT0ERS: pain at inHction sit
N"!sing Int!.ntion
;(ini("( o+ 6<
Co!!ct 72po.ol(ia &+o! gi.ing
DonFt gi. #!"g pi#"!all2 o! int!at7call2 &ca"s o+
alco7ol contnt
Ca!+"ll2 o&s!. patints ,it7 coag"lopat7is an#
t7os ta8ing anticoag"lants
DonFt gi. #!"g conco(itantl2 ,it7 ot7! +o!(s o+
8to!olac o! ot7! NSAIDs
NSAIDs (a2 (as8 signs an# s2(pto(s o+ in+ction
&ca"s o+ t7i! antip2!tic an# anti'in+la((ato!2
actions
1n!ic Na(: Sal&"ta(ol % Ip!at!opi"(
=!an# Na(:
DuoNeb
Classi+ication:
*ronchodilator
Mc7anis( o+ Action:
Is used to treat severe breathing trouble caused by ongoing
lung diseases /chronic obstructive pulmonary disease-8@;,
which include chronic bronchitis and emphysema0. It helps to
relax the muscles around your airways so that they open up to
make breathing easier. It helps to reduce shortness of breath,
whee2ing, and coughing. This medication is a combination of '
drugs, ipratropium and albuterol. 3lbuterol is also called
salbutamol in some countries. Ipratropium is an anticholinergic
bronchodilator and albuterol /salbutamol0 is a beta-agonist
bronchodilator.
Cont!ain#ication: 8ontraindicatedwithhypersensitivityto atropine or
itsderivatives.
Int!action: D!"g: >our healthcare professionals /e.g., doctor or pharmacist0
may already be aware of any possible drug interactions and may
be monitoring you for it. ;o not start, stop or change the dosage
of any medicine before checking with them first.3void taking
(3@ inhibitors /e.g., fura2olidone, isocarboxa2id, line2olid,
moclobemide, phenel2ine, procarba2ine, rasagiline, selegiline,
tranylcypromine0 within ' weeks before, during, and after
treatment with this medication. In some cases a serious,
possibly fatal drug interaction may occur.*efore using this
medication, tell your doctor or pharmacist of all prescription and
nonprescription<herbal products you may use, especially of)
anticholinergic drugs /e.g., atropine,scopolamine0, certain
antihistamines /e.g., diphenhydramine, mecli2ine0,
antispasmodic drugs /e.g., dicyclomine, hyoscyamine0, certain
anti-arkinsonBs drugs /e.g., ben2tropine, trihexyphenidyl0, some
beta-blockers /such as propranolol0, bladder control drugs
/e.g., oxybutynin, tolterodine0,pramlintide, stimulant-like drugs
/e.g., ephedrine, epinephrine0,
tricyclicantidepressants /e.g., amitriptyline, nortriptyline0, certain
,water pills, /diuretics that cause potassium loss from the body
such as furosemide,hydrochlorothia2ide0.8heck the labels on all
your medicines /e.g., cough-and-cold products, diet aids0
because they may contain ingredients that could increase your
heart rate or blood pressure. 3sk your pharmacist about the safe
use of those products.
A#.!s an# Si#
++cts:
CNS: 7a#ac7- #iBBinss- &l"!!# .ision
1I: na"sa- #ia!!7a- constipation- #!2 (o"t7
CV: palpitations- c7st pain
SDIN: !as7
N"!sing Int!.ntion (onitor the patientCs vital signs, noting hypotension
and an irregular or abnormal pulse
.(aintain a &uiet, comfortable environment to
minimi2e anxiety and perhaps decrease
palpitations.
Teach the patient pursed-lip breathing, diaphragmatic
breathing, and chest splinting.
Patint Tac7ing Never take more than the prescribed dose. If you suspect
that you have taken, or someone else has taken, an
overdose of this medicine, go to the accident and
emergency department of your local hospital at once. Take
the container with you, even if it is empty.
If you are having an operation or dental treatment tell the
person carrying out the treatment which medicines you are
taking.
This medicine is for you. Never give it to other people
even if their condition appears to be the same as yours.
Never keep out-of-date or unwanted medicines. Take them
to your local pharmacy which will dispose of them for you.
1n!ic Na(: erythromycin
=!an# Na(: E-Mycin
Classi+ication: MACROLIDE ANTI=IOTIC
Mechanism of Action: More active against gram-positive organisms than against
gram-negative organisms due to its superior penetration into
gram-positive organisms
Cont!ain#ication: ?rythromycin is contraindicated in patients with known hypersensitivity to
this antibiotic.
?rythromycin is contraindicated in patients taking terfenadine,
astemi2ole,cisapride, pimo2ide, ergotamine, or dihydroergotamine
Int!action: D!"g:
Acti.it2:
A#.!s an# Si#
++cts:
1I: Nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramping,
#ia!!7a- 7a!t&"!n- ano!Cia
SDIN: ;topical "s< E!2t7(a- #s9"a(ation- &"!ning-
tn#!nss- #!2nss o! oilinss- p!"!it"s
N"!sing Int!.ntion
;(ini("( o+ 6<
Rpo!t onst o+ 1I s2(pto(s a+t! PO a#(inist!ation to
p72sician/ T7s a! #os!lat#G i+ s2(pto(s p!sist a+t!
#osag !#"ction- p72sician (a2 p!sc!i& #!"g to &gi.n
,it7 (als in spit o+ i(pai!# a&so!ption/
DO&s!. +o! S)S o+ s"p!in+ction &2 o.!g!o,t7 o+
nons"scpti&l &act!ia o! +"ngi/E(!gnc o+ !sistant
stap72lococcal st!ains is 7ig7l2 p!#icta&l #"!ing
p!olong#t7!ap2/
DMonito! +o! S)S o+ 7patotoCicit2/ P!(onito!2 S)S
incl"#: A&#o(inal pain- na"sa-.o(iting- +.!-
l"8oc2tosis- an# osinop7iliaG Ha"n#ic (a2 o! (a2 not &
p!snt/S2(pto(s (a2 appa! a +, #a2s a+t! initiation o+
#!"g &"t "s"all2 occ"! a+t! 1I2 ,8 o+ contin"o"s t7!ap2/
S2(pto(s a! !.!si&l ,it7 p!o(pt #iscontin"ation
o+ !2t7!o(2cin/
DMonito! +o! ototoCicit2 t7at appa!s to #.lop (ost
+!9"ntl2 in patints !ci.ing ? g5#o! (o!- ol#! a#"lts-
+(al patints- an# patints ,it7 8i#n2 o! li.! #2s+"nction/
It is !.!si&l ,it7 p!o(pt #iscontin"ation o+ #!"g/
DRpo!t an2 ototoCic ++cts incl"#ing #iBBinss- .!tigo-
na"sa- tinnit"s- !oa!ing noiss- 7a!ing i(pai!(nt
Patint Tac7ing A#.is patint to !po!t an2 a#.!s ++ct
The respiratory system
The respiratory system is composed of various structures and organs that ensure that the
body is able to maintain its internal environment through the exchange of air between the
lungs and the atmosphere. In order to survive the body needs a constant supply of oxygen,
which it obtains from the air.
The body also needs to dispose of carbon dioxide, made as a waste product from the process
of cell metabolism. The ingestion of oxygen and the discarding of carbon dioxide, occurs
through the process of respiration or breathing.
Structure
The respiratory system is comprised of the:
nose
nasopharynx
mouth
sinuses
larynx
trachea
bronchi
lungs
alveoli
The respiratory system contains the upper and the lower respiratory tracts. The upper
respiratory tract contains the respiratory organs located outside the chest cavity: the nose and
the nasal cavities, pharynx, larynx and upper trachea.
The lower respiratory tract consists of organs located in the chest cavity: the lower trachea,
bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli and the lungs.
The lower parts of the bronchi, the bronchioles and alveoli, are all located in the lungs. The
alveoli are the point at which gas exchange takes place.
The pleura are a membrane that covers the lungs.
The muscles that form the chest cavity are also part of the lower respiratory tract. The
respiratory centre in the brain, which is located in the medulla oblongata, regulates breathing.
(Herlihy et al. !!!".
Function
The function of the respiratory system is to supply oxygen and to remove carbon dioxide from
cells. #xygen is needed by cells to produce heat and energy. In using oxygen, the cells
produce carbon dioxide as waste.
Inhaled air is moistened and warmed as it passes through the upper respiratory tract $ the
nose, the pharynx and the larynx. The clean air passes on through the lower respiratory tract $
the trachea and lungs where the exchange of gases takes place (%orrentino, &''(".
Respiration
)espiration involves the passage of air in and out of the lungs.
*ir passes from nose to the pharynx to the larynx to the trachea to the left and right bronchus
to the bronchioles to the alveoli (where a gas exchange takes place and oxygen and carbon
dioxide are exchanged in the pulmonary capillaries" (Herlihy et al. !!!".
*ir enters the body via the nasal passages, where it is warmed, moistened and filtered. *ir
then passes down through the pharynx and into the larynx and trachea. The air continues into
the right and left bronchi and then into the lungs. In the lungs the bronchi then branch into
smaller bronchioles, that each have air sacs called alveoli, attached to them. The exchange of
oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place at this level, between the alveoli and the blood
capillaries. Through this process oxygen enters the bloodstream and can be transported
around the body.
The circulatory system is an organ system that permits blood and lymph circulation to transport
nutrients /such as amino acids and electrolytes0, oxygen, carbon dioxide, hormones, blood cells, etc.
to and from cells in the body to nourish it and help to fight diseases, stabili2e body
temperature and p6, and to maintain homeostasis.
This system may be seen strictly as a blood distribution network, but some consider the circulatory
system as composed of the cardiovascular system, which distributes blood, and the lymphatic
system,which returns excess filtered blood plasmafrom the interstitial fluid /between cells0 as lymph.
Ehile humans, as well as other vertebrates, have a closed cardiovascular system /meaning that the
blood never leaves the network of arteries, veins and capillaries0, some invertebrate groups have an
open cardiovascular system. The more primitive, diploblastic animal phyla lack circulatory systems.
The lymphatic system, on the other hand, is an open system providing an accessory route for excess
interstitial fluid to get returned to the blood.
Two types of fluids move through the circulatory system) blood and lymph. Aymph is essentially
recycled blood plasma after it has been filtered from the blood cells and returned to the lymphatic
system. The blood, heart, and blood vessels form the cardiovascular /from Aatin words meaning
BheartB-BvesselB0 system. The lymph, lymph nodes, and lymph vessels form thelymphatic system. The
cardiovascular system and the lymphatic system collectively make up the circulatory system.
Systemic circulation
%ystemic circulation supplies nourishment to all of the tissue located
throughout your body, with the exception of the heart and lungs
because they have their own systems. %ystemic circulation is a ma+or
part of the overall circulatory system.
The blood vessels (arteries, veins, and capillaries" are responsible for
the delivery of oxygen and nutrients to the tissue. #xygen$rich blood
enters the blood vessels through the heart,s main artery called the
aorta. The forceful contraction of the heart,s left ventricle forces the
blood into the aorta which then branches into many smaller arteries
which run throughout the body. The inside layer of an artery is very
smooth, allowing the blood to flow -uickly. The outside layer of an
artery is very strong, allowing the blood to flow forcefully. The oxygen$
rich blood enters the capillaries where the oxygen and nutrients are
released. The waste products are collected and the waste$rich blood
flows into the veins in order to circulate back to the heart
where pulmonary circulation will allow the exchange of gases in the
lungs.
.uring systemic circulation, blood passes through the kidneys. This
phase of systemic circulation is known as renal circulation. .uring this
phase, the kidneys filter much of the waste from the blood. /lood also
passes through the small intestine during systemic circulation. This
phase is known as portal circulation. .uring this phase, the blood from
the small intestine collects in the portal vein which passes through the
liver. The liver filters sugars from the blood, storing them for later.
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