Biology Module 1 A Local Ecosystem

1.The distribution, diversity and numbers of plants and animals found in

ecosystems are determined by biotic and abiotic factors
Identify the factors determining the distribution and abundance of a
species in each environment

Distribution refers to the region where an organism is found.
Abundance refers to the number of individuals in the area and is usually described as
a density.

Aquatic - There are several abiotic factors that affect abundance and distribution of
organisms in aquatic environments including:

o Pressure Variations ranging from low pressures in surface waters to extreme
pressure in deep ocean trenches.

o Light penetration plants need adequate light for photosynthesis. This is true
in both environments (aquatic and terrestrial). In water the light is only able to
penetrate to a certain depth. Water doesnt absorb all light. About 30% is
reflected off the surface. At certain depths water absorbs different wavelengths
(what we see as colours). Water absorbs the wavelengths that a majority of
plants use for photosynthesis extremely quickly. This means that as the depth
increases not only does the light penetration decrease, the quality of the light
decreases as well.

o The salt concentration of the water Marine organisms are suited to a
specific type of water (ranging from the extremely salty Dead Sea to freshwater
which has almost no salt) and if they were to be placed outside this they would
die (due to osmosis)

o Temperature The range of temperature is important as well because
organisms prefer to live in certain temperatures ranging from hot springs through
warm tropical seas to freezing Antarctic oceans.

o Gas Availability This ranges from small amounts of gas available in warmer
waters to plentiful amounts of gas in turbulent waters of oceans and cold streams

Terrestrial There are several abiotic factors that affect abundance and distribution
of organisms in aquatic environments including:

o Temperature Most organisms prefer to live between 0 45 degrees

o Soil composition Many species only prefer specific soil types.

o Rainfall patterns Many organisms will only live in areas where the rainfall is
specific to their needs. If the organisms prefers high rainfall and humidity it will
live in areas where these conditions are prominent.

o Altitude increasing altitude results in colder temperatures, reduced rainfall and
decreased pressure which are specific factors that affect the abundance and
distribution of the organism.

o Availability of salts in the soil there must be specific salts for the plants.
Plants will only thrive if there are those specific salts available.

There are also other factors that affect distribution and abundance of both aquatic and
terrestrial organisms including:

o Availability of resources and Limiting factors A limiting factor is a single
resource that determines the maximum population of a specific species in that
area. In aquatic environments this could be factors such as food resources. The
amount of food available will determine the abundance of the organism in that
environment.
o Competition Competition for resources from both the same species and other
species for specific resources can alter the abundance and distribution of that
aquatic organism in that particular environment.
o Predation This is when one organism consumes another. If a species has
numerous predators in its environment, its abundance and distribution will
fluctuate.
o Ability to mate This refers to the organisms ability to reproduce efficiently. If
the organism reproduces extremely quickly its distribution and abundance are
likely to rise dramatically whereas if it was the opposite the distribution and
abundance will remain steady.

o Chemical Factors such as pH of the soil

o Dynamic Factors such as wind speed and patterns, wave action. These are
natural factors that will affect the organism and its environment.

describe the roles of photosynthesis and respiration in ecosystems

Photosynthesis is the process by which plants take carbon dioxide and water and with
the use of sunlight convert it into glucose and oxygen.

6H
2
O + 6CO
2
Light C
6
H
12
O
6
+ 6O
2


Photosynthesis is significant in any ecosystem because it produces the chemical energy
needed for all ecosystems to survive. The ultimate source of all energy on Earth is the
sun. Plants use chlorophyll to capture some of the suns energy in photosynthesis. This is
vital because this energy is then able to flow through the ecosystem for survival. Thus
the ecosystem depends on plants conducting photosynthesis.

The overall role of photosynthesis is to provide energy for all other organisms in the
ecosystem. The plants conduct photosynthesis to store energy. The plant gets eaten by
an animal and part of the stored energy (about 10%) is passed on to the animal and so
on. In ecosystems there is no re-use of energy. It is either used by the living thing or
lost as heat. Because of this, a continual input of energy is required to keep living
systems functioning and that is the ultimate role of photosynthesis.

Respiration takes place in the mitochondria of all living cells and results in the release
of energy for organisms to use. Glucose if broken down in the presence of oxygen to
produce carbon dioxide and water and in doing so energy is released. Energy in the form
of ATP (adenosine tri-phosphate) is released as heat from this process and is used for
cell functions such as growth, repair and maintenance.

The role of respiration is to remove oxygen from the air, return carbon dioxide to the air
and provide energy for the organism. Thus, organisms respire in order to carry out daily
activities. The role of respiration is to used the stored energy within an organism to carry
out its daily functions. Without respiration, an ecosystem wouldnt function as none of
the organisms would be able to use the energy they had stored which means they would
die.

Identify the general equation for aerobic cellular respiration and outline
this as a summary of chain of biochemical reactions

Aerobic cellular respiration is respiration that occurs under the presence of oxygen.
Respiration involves a series of chemical reactions. It is a controlled process, occurring
as a sequence of about 50 different chemical reactions, each one catalyzed by a different
enzyme. Energy is released slowly in small amounts. The chemical energy is stored in
the bonds of complex organic molecules and is released when these bonds are broken.
The energy is transferred to the energy carrier molecule ATP.

ATP is the energy store of the cell. When the energy is available , ADP (adenosine) di-
phosphate) collects it. When the energy is needed, ATP supplies it. In fact, respiration
can be thought of as the process by which ATP molecules are made in a cell.

ADP + P + glucose + oxygen many reactions carbon dioxide + water + ATP

38ADP + 38P + C
6
H
12
O
6
+ 6O
2
Many reactions 6H
2
O + 6CO
2
+ 38ATP

2. Each local aquatic or terrestrial ecosystem is unique

Examine trends in population estimates for some plant and animal species
within an ecosystem

Transects can be used to determine the distribution of an organism.

Transects - A transect is a narrow strip that crosses the entire area being studied, from
one side to the other. Transects provide an accurate and easy method of representing an
area. Plants are usually the subjects of transects, but the distribution of extremely slow
or non-moving animals can still be calculated. There are two types of transects - plan
sketch and profile sketch. A plan sketch is an aerial or surface view of a representative
area within an ecosystem. A profile sketch is a side-on view of an area showing to scale
the distribution of organisms along a line.

There are numerous ways of estimating populations through the use of sampling
techniques. These techniques are used if it is too difficult to count the exact number of
species or if only a round estimate is sufficient.

Quadrats - It is much easier to calculate the abundance or population of plant species
because they the stay in the one place. Quadrats are squares (the size of which depends
on the organism - the larger the organism the larger the quadrat) which are randomly
placed in the area that is being studied. The number of organisms within the quadrat is
counted and this can be used to determine the percentage cover of the organism within
that area. For example, if the abundance of grass was calculated to 54% of the total
area. And it was known that approximately 1000 blades of grass covered 1 square metre
and the total area was 10 meters squared, the population of the grass could be
estimated to be approximately 5400.

Capture-Mark-Recapture This is a method which involves catching a certain number
of individuals of a particular species, marking or tagging them in some way. They are
then released into the wild and then at a later time a group of the same species is
caught and the number that were already tagged is recorded. This is then repeated
numerous times. This method is appropriate for mobile organism where it is virtually
impossible to count all individuals at one time.



The formula used to estimate the population goes as follows:

Number Captured X Number Recaptured

Number Marked in the recapture

Sampling
Technique
Advantages Disadvantages
Transects - Provides a quick, easy and inexpensive
method for measuring species occurrence.
- Minimal Disturbance to the environment
- Only suitable for plants or slow moving animals
- Species occurring in low numbers may be
missed.
Quadrat - Easy and inexpensive
- Minimal disturbance to the environment
- Can also be used to determine distribution
- Only suitable for plants or slow moving animals.
Capture-
Mark-
Recapture
- Simple method that provides an estimate
of abundance for animals in large
populations that are difficult to count.
- Only suitable for mobile animals
- Time consuming
- Can be disturbing to the environment

identify examples of allelopathy, parasitism, mutualism and commensalism in
an ecosystem and the role of organisms in each type of relationship

Allelopathy This is the process by which plants are able to produce allelochemicals
(also called biomolecules) which they release into the environment. These
allelochemicals inhibit the growth of other plants in the area surrounding the plant, thus
reducing competition for the plant, which increases the chances for the plants survival.
Not all plants have allelopathic tendencies. Since space is crucial to the survival of
plants, those that are able to produce effective allelochemicals are extremely
advantaged. Since the fewer the plants around, the more water the plant can absorb
from the soil, and more soil for stability and more sunlight to absorb.

Examples of allelopathy:

1) Eucalyptus leaf litter Eucalyptus trees foliage are able to produce
effective allelochemicals. When the leaves of the eucalyptus tree fall onto the ground,
they decompose. During the decomposition of the leaves, the allelochemicals (in the
form of acid) are released into the soil and these inhibit the growth of other plants in
that area.
2) Sorghum species (cereal grass) release a chemical in the root exudates
that disrupts mitochondrial functions and inhibits photosynthesis.

Symbiosis: Term used for interactions in which two organisms live together in a close
relationship that is beneficial to at least one of them.

There are three types of symbiotic relationships:

1) Parasitism This is where one species benefits where as the other is harmed. A
parasite obtains food and shelter from the host organism. They feed on the tissues or
fluid of the host but do not usually kill it, as this would destroy the parasites food supply.
Ectoparasites are those that live outside the body of the host, whereas endoparasites
live internally.

Examples of Parasitism:

Tapeworms live attached to the lining of the digestive system of their host
animal and absorb digested food without causing any serious harm,
however, the animal does become weaker and slightly sick.

Ticks and fleas feed off the blood of dogs. They are benefiting whereas the
dog is being harmed and it tries to scratch them to get rid of them.
Fleas/ticks may result in the dog becoming extremely ill and even death.

2) Mutualism this is where both the organisms in the relationship benefit.

Examples of Mutualism

The relationship between the anemone and the clown fish (also known as
the anemone fish). The clown fish attracts prey to the anemone and as the
prey approaches they are stung by the tentacles of the anemone. This thus
provided food for the anemone. The clown fish feeds on the remains of the
prey and it receives protection from predators and also food. The anemone
is able to obtain its feed this way as well as be cleaned by the clown fish.
Thus it is mutualistic. Note: the clown fish becomes immune to anemones
sting by brushing itself on the tentacles.

The ant plant has a mutualistic relationship with a species of ant. The plant
has a swollen bas in which the ants are able to build their colony. The ants
carry corpses and excreta to parts of the chambers within the plant. This
allows the plant to absorb the waste nutrients.

3) Commensalism This is where one species benefits and the other is unaffected.

Examples of Commensalism

The relationship between the remora fish and the shark. The remora fish
attaches itself to the shark and thus is able to get a free ride and feed from
scraps from the sharks food but appears not to benefit the shark.

Barnacles and whales. Barnacles attach themselves to the surface of the
whale. They are able to be transported to diverse areas rich in food. The
whale however is unaffected.

describe the role of decomposers in ecosystems

Decomposers, or SAPROPHYTES, are organisms that obtain energy by breaking down the
dead bodies of other organisms or their wastes (eg. faeces). Decomposers return
nutrients into the soil so that they can be re-used.
define the term adaptation and discuss the problems associated with
inferring characteristics of organisms as adaptations for living in a
particular habitat

Adaptation are inherited characteristics of organisms that increase the chance of
survival of the species. Adaptations are also often described as characteristics of
organisms that are suited to the organisms habitats.

Adaptations can either be structural, behavioral or physiological. Structural
adaptations are the physical characteristics (anatomy) of the organism to help it survive
(eg. For a spider, its eight legs is an adaptation because it allows for agile, nimble
movement). Behavioral adaptation is the way an organism will act that increases its
chance of survival. (e.g. When you wear a jumper because it is cold outside). A
physiological adaptation is one that is related to the internal functioning of the organism
(eg. A kangaroo will be able to produce two types of milk for its joeys which are of
different ages).

It is sometimes difficult to infer that the characteristic of an organism is an adaptation to
its particular habitat because:

- The organism may be observed outside the habitat in which it evolved, for
example, in a suburban garden.
- The characteristic may provide no particular advantage in a particular
habitat but has been inherited from ancestral organisms that inhabited
different habitats.
- It may simply be difficult to be certain how a particular characteristic helps
a species to survive.

describe and explain the short-term and long-term consequences on the
ecosystem of species competing for resources

When in competition two organisms use one or more resources in common, such as
food, shelter and mates. The competition is so the organism can acquire a limited factor
in the environment. Organisms may compete with members of their own species or
members of other species. Competition between members of the same species is known
as intraspecific competition. Competition between members of different species is
called interspecific competition. Usually interspecific competition is less intense than
intraspecific.

There are two types of competition:

Resource competition where the organisms utilize a resource that is in
short supply
- Interference competition where the organisms harm each other while
obtaining a resource, even if that is not in limited supply.

Biology Preliminary Evolution of Australian Biota

1. Evidence for the rearrangement of crustal plates and continental drift indicates that Australia was once part
of an ancient super continent

identify and describe evidence that supports the assertion that Australia was once part of a landmass
called Gondwana, including:
matching continental margins
position of mid-ocean ridges
spreading zones between continental plates
fossils in common on Gondwanan continents, including Glossopteris and Gangamopteris
flora, and marsupials
similarities between present-day organisms on Gondwanan continents

Matching Continental Margins

The continental margin is the zone between the ocean basin and the mass of the continent. The continental shelf is
the area underwater from the shore to the continental margin. If the continental margins of the continents in the
southern hemisphere are aligned like a jigsaw, you can reconstruct the great southern landmass Gondwana, which
formed when Pangaea split around 150 mya. Gondwana consisted of the present day continents South America,
Australia, Africa, India and Antarctica. When the continental margins are aligned, it is important that rock types and
rock structures also align.



Position of Mid-ocean ridges + Spreading zones between continental plates

Mid-ocean ridges are the sites where two crustal plates meet or move apart. The theory of continental drift suggests
that as the continents drift apart magma wells up through the spreading floor and new crust is formed.

Common Fossils of Flora and Fauna

A fossil is any trace or remains of past life. A study of the fossil evidence from the different continents that once made
up Gondwana shows great similarities that are hard to explain unless the continents were once connected.

2. The changes in Australian flora and fauna over millions of years have happened through evolution.

Discuss examples of variations between members of a species

A species is a group of organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring. Within a species there is
variations i.e. differences between individuals.

Variations occur due to genetic mutations or environmental adaptations.

Examples of Variations:
- In humans eye colour, skin colour, height, build, etc are all variations that make each individual
different from another

- In dogs (Canis familaris), the are great differences in size, colour, hair length etc.

- The Epacris Impressa is the common heath. It has flowers that are tubular or bell-shaped. It is only
found in Australiasia and belongs the family Epacridaceae. It is found in the dry sclerophyll forest and
coastal heaths of Tasmania, and the East coast. It is a very polymorphic species. Those that are found in
Victoria are most distinguishable with large flowers and grayish leaves covered in hairs. The soils in this
region are more fertile compared to normal land in Australia. The Bega from of the heath as bright red
flowers and some can have white flowers and may be located in the same population.

Darwin Wallace Theory of Natural Selection:

In 1858, based on their independent studies and observation of flora and fauna over many years, both
Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace proposed the same mechanism for evolution the mechanism of natural
selection. Their theory of evolution by natural selection is based on four main points:

1. Variationindividuals within a population that reproduce sexually, show variations that can be passed
from one generation to the next

2. natural selectionselective pressure (e.g. change in the environment) puts constraints on organisms
(e.g. resources become limited). These constraints are called selective pressures and determine which
individuals are best suited to the prevailing conditions
THE EVOLUTION OF AUSTRALIAN FLORA AND FAUNA
3. survival of the fittestmore individuals are produced within a population than can survive; those
individuals with favourable variations have a greater chance of survival because they out-compete those
with less favourable variations. Organisms that do survive to reproduce will pass their genetic variations on
to their offspring

4. isolationif a population is isolated from the original population, interbreeding will be prevented over a
period of time. This is necessary for evolution of a new species to occur.




Sec 3: Continuation of species has resulted in part, from the reproductive adaptations that have evolved in
Australian plants and animals.

Distinguish between the processes if meiosis and mitosis in terms of the daughter cells
produced.
Spindle forms on the equator the cell which is
able to pull the chromosomes away

Chromosomes are attached via a centromere.
Spindle retracts after the
chromosomes are in their desired
location.


Meiosis is a type of cell division that produces gametes. Gametes are sex cells and have half the normal number of
chromosomes. Mitosis is the process in which the cell nucleus divides into two.

There are some similarities between meisos and mitosis. However meisois involeces two cell divisions and produces
4 haploid daughter cells (called tetrads) while mitosis involves one cell divison and produces two identical daughter
cells. Mitosis occurs in all living things while meisosis occurs only in organisms that sexually reproduce.


Compare and contrast internal and external fertilisation
Discuss the relative success of these forms of fertilisation in relation to the colonisation of terrestrial
and aquatic organisms

Organisms in aquatic environments are successful in their reproduction and survival as they have adaptations suited to
reproducing in this type of environment; however, this also means that they are completely dependent and reliant upon
their environment providing the water required for successful external fertilisation. Water protects the gametes from
desiccation and possible heat stress. However, in order to survive on land, organisms needed to overcome the
dependence on aquatic environments for fertilisation by providing their own enclosed moist environment within the
female reproductive tract, protected from the dry terrestrial environment. Flowering plants have colonized the land by
fertilising internally and avoiding gamete desiccation. Reptiles have also colonised the land successfully by
producing adaptations to the dry environment by carrying out internal fertilisation and allowing their young
to develop inside a waterproof egg to protect from desiccation. Even further, mammals allow internal
development of their young after internal fertilisation has occurred. This ensures successful reproduction and survival of
the respective species in colonising the land.

External fertilisation

In an aquatic environment

Organisms attempting to carry out external fertilisation in an aquatic environment are usually highly
successful. In this environment gametes do not dry out, or dehydrate; however, organisms must produce very large
numbers of gametes to compensate for the losses from predation, disease and dispersal to unsuitable environments.

In a terrestrial environment

Organisms attempting to carry out external fertilisation on land are not successful at all due to their complete reliance
upon a water environment for fertilisation and the transfer of gametes.




External Internal
Differences
Large numbers of Gametes produced Large number of male gametes but limted female
Occurs in open water environments Occurs inside female (terrestrial organisms)
Simulateanous spawning (release) Male must copulate
Low chance of fertilisation High chance of ferilisation
Young is vunerable to external conditions Protected and Safe within female body
More frequent reproduction Less frequent reproduction
Similarites
Both male and female gametes required for fertilisation
Gametes are provided with a watery environment where fertilisation will occur.
All possible fertilisations will grow to form zygotes
If male and female gametes are in close proximity, fertilisation will occur.
Internal fertilisation

In an aquatic environment

Internal fertilisation is not a necessary adaptation for most aquatic species; however, it is a successful method of
fertilisation in this environment. Fewer gametes are required because of the higher chance of the gametes uniting.

In a terrestrial environment

Internal fertilisation has only been possible on land because of overcoming the need for water for fertilisation. This
method of fertilisation is very successful as the mechanism for direct transfer of gametes avoids dehydration and loss by
dispersal, so fewer female gametes are required. The success of this form of fertilisation is very high as the environment
is enclosed in a confined space protecting from predation and disease. Even the driest environments can be colonised
successfully by using this method.

describe some mechanisms found in Australian flora for:
pollination
seed dispersal
asexual reproduction
with reference to local examples

Pollination

Pollintion is the transfer of pollen from an anther to a stigma in flowering plants (angiosperms) and from make to
female cones in conifers (gymnosperms).

Parts of a Flower:













There are two types of pollination:
- Self pollination
- Cross pollination

Self Pollination:

In some Australian plants the pollen matures and the anthers split open releasing the pollen which is usually depositited
on its own stigma. This is self-pollination. In many species the stigma and anthers of a flower mature at different stages
to prevent self pollination as it is underisable for evolution.

Example: Daisy and Sun orchids self pollinate

Cross Pollination:

When pollen from a flowers anther pollinates a flowers sitgma from a different plant, the process is called cross-
pollination.

Gymnosperms have only one method of cross pollination and that is wind. Wind pollination occurs in these plants when
the anther which is usually long released the very light pollen. They usually lack nectar and scent and the large stigmas
are well exposed inorder to catch the airborne pollen. Example: Native pines and grasses use wind pollination.

Some angosperms use wind pollination but many have evolved to use differing methods of
cross-pollination

1) Insect Pollination

Most flowering plants are pollinated by insects especially bees. In many cases, the insect and the plant are dependant
on each other the plant needs a pollinator and the insect needs food. To attract the insects the flowers have a scent,
colour and specific arrangement of petals. The petals often have marks called honey guides to guide the insect to
the stigma where they depost pollen from the last flower they visited and then to the stamen to collect new pollen and
then to the nectar for the reward. The filaments holding the anther are short and stiff so that pollen can be transferred
when the insect brushes past.

Example of an insect pollination plant is the bottle brush or the eucalyptus.

2) Bird Pollination

Birds usually pollinate red flowers. Many flowers are long and thin and only the beaks of honeyeaters can reach the
nectar. The pollen can be sticky or powdery and large amounts of nectar are produced.

Examlpe of a bird pollination plant is the Waratah. Waratah flowers are red, long, tubular and slightly curved; their rate
of nectar production is relatively high and they are commonly visited by nectar-feeding honeyeaters.

3) Mammal Pollination

Mammals such as bats and tiny honey possums pollinate flowers. The possums move over the flowers.

For example: Banksias allow for the honey possum use their long thin snout to reach the nectar. The pollen sticks to
their fur, which is then transferred to another plant.


4) Pollination by deceit

There are some orchids whose flower mimic the shape and colouring of female insects. The mimics are so realistic that
the male insects will attempt to mate with the flowers, thereby pollinating them.

For example: The hammer orchids of Western Australia have a flower that resembles a wingless female wasp with shiny
eyes, hairy thorax and a fat body. The flower is held outwards by a hinged arm. When the male wasp attempts to
copulate with the flower. The hinged arm flings the wasp to the other end of the flower (the stigma), where the pollen is
deposited. Pollen is located on the flower.


Seed Dispersal

After successful pollination and fertilisation of the flower, the seed develops. It is an advantage for a plant to spread or
disperse its seeds over a wide distance. This prevents overcrowding from occurring within the same plant species and
increases the chances of survival in situations of environmental change such as fire.

Seeds are dispersed by wind, Animal, fire, water or explosion.

1) Wind Dispersal

Some seeds are aerdynamically designed to be blown long distances by the wind. Very small seeds can be carried by
the wind. If the seed has food reserves it can be heavier but still dispersed by the wind if it has wings or a parachute or
some other form of buoyancy mechanism.

For example: Dandelions have feathery parachutes to catch the wind and float away and Hakea has a seed with wings.

2) Animal Dispersal

There are several mechanisms that are used in seed dispersal.

- Some seeds are hooks or burrs with bristles and spines to attach to fur and feathers. Eg. Bindii

- Other seeds are in fuits and berries which are eaten by the animal. The seed is protected by an indistestible
layer which passes through the digestive system unharmed to be dropped onto the ground at some other point.

For example: Mistletoe berries are eaten by the mistletoe bird and farily quickly the sticky seed is expelled by the bird
onto a tree branch, where the plant begins to grow. The deposit with feaces adds nutrients for the plant to grow.

3) Fire Dispersal

Several Native plants such as Eucalyptus only release their seeds after the occurance of a fire. After a fire, the
eucalyptus is destroyed, exposing the capsules which release the seeds for dispersal usually by the wind. This provides
a significant advantage as the seeds grow in a uncompetitive environment, allowing for them to flourish.

4) Water Dispersal

Some seeds rely of water dispesal, such as the water gum and mangrove. Seeds may float small or large distances from
the parent plant along rivers and even across sees. The seeds are usually equipped with some sort of flotation device
that allows for their protection.

5) Explosion

Some seeds are voilently propelled from the base of the fruit in an explosive dischanrge. Seeds are ejected from the
pod at high speeds, caused by the drying and contraction of the pod. Some seeds such as the pea plant seeds can be
hurled almost two metres in the air. This allows for greater dispersal of the seeds.

Asexual Reproduction

Asexual Reproduction is the making of a new individual without the use of sex cells or gametes. Only one parent is
required for the mitotic cell divisions to occur.

Some types of asexual reproduction are:

- Binary Fission - Bacteria
- Budding Coral and Yeast
- Spore formation Fungi and moss
- Vegetative propagation roses (plant cuttings regenerate)
- Fragmentation and Regeneration Starfish
- Parthenogenesis Honeybees and Gecko

Vegatative Propagation

In vegetative propagation parts of the parent detach and will grow into new individuals.

The advantage of VP is that less time and energy is needed to produce new individuals the need for pollinators,
pollination, fertilisation and the production of seeds + dispersal is removed.

The disadcabtage is the lack of genetic diversity. This is not a problem when the environment is stable but the lack of
variation reduces survival chances for the evolution if the environment changes.

The new plant is simply regenerated out of one of four parts stolons, tubers, rhizomes, and suckers.

Stolons or runners are stems that grow along the sruface producing new roots and leaves at nodes. Spinefex grass or
strawberry plants are an example of this

Tubers are swollen underground stems that store food and new plants can grow from the tuber. For example, a potato
is a tuber and they eye of a potato are the buds which can each grow a new plant

Rhizomes are underground stems that give rise to new shoots at the nodes. Ginger and grasses employ this technique
in order to reproduce.

Suckers are new shoots that arise from undergrouynd stems, often after fires. Certain types of pea plants or fan
flowers are able to reproduce in this manner.


Parthenogenesis

This is the development of unfertilised effes into adults (esp honey bees). In honey bees every egg laid by the queen
will develop whether or not they are fertilised. Most of the eggs are fertilised effs and develop into sterile worker
females, while the few eggs which are not fertilised develop parthenogenetically into male drones.

In parthenogenesis the offspring are identical to the parent, which is an evolutionary disadvantage in a changing
environment, but it allows the build up of a large population in a short space of time without the need to find a mate.