Chemistry study notes

n(HOC
6
H
10
O
4
OH) H(OC
6
H
10
O
4
)
n
OH + (n 1)H
2
O
Mass of barium sulfate is calculated using stoichiometry
Causes of inaccurate result in lawn fertiliser analysis:
-The Precipitate is very fine and can pass through filter paper
-Not all the sulfate precipitated because not enough barium ions were added
Ppm = mg/L
1 g = 1000 mg
Microscopic membranes have uniform size pores and the thin polymer sheets are semi
permeable.
To assess the reliability of information compare the information from various sources
eg.internet, textbook, journals.
For rusting to occur, oxygen and water must be present
Iron oxidises to form iron hydroxide which then oxidise to form hydrated iron oxide.
Sacrificial anodes have to be replaced as it is eaten away.
Inert electrodes are carbon, stainless steel and platinum.
In sacrificial anode, zinc is oxidised and water is reduced.
In Applied voltage, water is being reduced an oxidised
Conservation is the saving or preserving of an artefact to prevent it from further
deterioration. It involves cleaning, preserving and stabilising artefact.
Restoration involves restoring an artefact as close as possible to its original condition
The main human activities that release sulfur dioxide to the atmosphere are:
processing or burning fossil fuels
extracting metals from sulfide ores.
Halons are compounds of carbon,fluorine,bromine and other halogens.They are non-
flammable and dense,good for fire extinguishers.
Beta particles enters the thin window in tube of Geiger meter and ionises argon gas
releasing electrons.
PVC is used as insulation for electrical cables because it is a good electrical insulator.it is
also hard,brittle,flexible and high thermal stability.
PHB is melted and treated to produce usable polymer
Properties of PHB:
- It is BIODEGRADABLE and BIOCOMPATIBLE
It is non-toxic, insoluble in water, permeable to oxygen, resistant to UV light, acids and bases, high
melting point, high tensile strength.
Assess/Evaluate means to talk about advantage and disadvantages and draw a conclusion.
One benefit of Technetium 99M is that it is non-intrusive and has half-life of 6 hours.
Glucose in concentrated in brain, heart and lungs.
Acidic oxides react with water to form acid and react with base to form salt and water.
There are some oxides, such as ZnO, PbO and Al2O3, that react with acids to
form salts, but which also react with alkalis. These are called amphoteric oxides.
There is another group of oxides that do not react with either acids or bases.
These are called neutral oxides. Common neutral oxides are carbon monoxide,
CO, nitrous oxide, N2O, and nitric oxide, NO.
For buffer questions, show the buffer acting as a base and an acid, also include another 2 equation of the
formation and dissociation of carbonic acid.
When blood is too acidic, hydrogen carbonate will act as a base to minimise the effect of hydrogen ion,
reduces decrease in ph.
Ideal condition for haber process is temperature of 400 degrees and 250 atm
Salt water contains NaCl and other ions such as K,Mg,and SO4
Water seeps through the fissures of the rock,water is heated by the hot magma in the earths mantle,hot
water is forced back into the ocean in hydrothermal vents in mid-ocean ridges in the of of hot springs.
These hot water dissolve many ionic substances such as iron,copper and zinc.
Voltaic pile was made of zinc and silver.
Corrosion is the chemical degradation of metal so that it loses its strength usefulness.
Condition for rusting
-Oxygen
-water
-Elctrolyte,allows migration of ions and reacti with each other.
When there is impurities in iron,it is more difficult for the atoms to slide past each other when force is
applied, therefore they are stronger
In electrolysis,the more element with the more positive value is favoured,remember to switch signs if it
is anode reaction before comparing EMF.
Factors affecting rate of electrolysis:
-concentration of electrolyte
-Distance between electrodes
-Surface area of electrodes
-Voltage applied

Hydroxide can replace chloride in iron compounds,preventing further corrosion.
Chlorides can accelerate corrosion in metal artefact by reacting with water to form HCL
-Cu(OH)Cl(s) + H2O(l ) Cu(OH)2(s) + HCl(aq)
-Fe(OH)Cl(s) + H2O(l ) Fe(OH)2(s) + HCl(aq)
Fe(OH)Cl is iron hydroxyl chloride
Carbon dioxide in marine environments are produced by normal metabolism of marine organisms
Remember to include EMF in half equations !!!
Limiting reactant is the substance with less number if moles.
Reasons for lower heat of combustion value:
-heat loss to environment from calorimeter
-Spirit burner not close enough to the base of the beaker.
Soot is dangerous because when in is breathed in ,it displaces oxygen in the blood, causes a person to
suffocate and lose consciousness.
Add compounds together if it is overall equation 2 of the same thing in both half equations.
Coordinate covalent of ozone molecule is on the right side.
Fluorine prevents tooth decay by hardening the enamel.
By the 1980s thousands of tonnes of CFCs were being used each year and they were released to the
atmosphere.
Steps to alleviate CFC problem:
-The most significant step towards alleviating CFC problem is the ratification of the montreal protocol in
1987 with the support of 200 nations,the Montreal protocol was an act which restricted the production and
use of various halokanes to protrect ozone layer
-Also Different nations have signed trade agreements to restrict the trade of haloalkenes and also the
research and development of alternative to replace chemcals used to manufacture fire etinguishers and
propellants etc
In high pressure,oxygen are forced out of the solution
Anaerobic bacteria reduces sulfates to sulfides

Metal Composition properties Typical use
Iron Pure Iron Soft and
malleable,corrodes very
slowly
No common use
Cast Iron High carbon content,
Iron
Hard,but brittle,corrodes
rapidly
Decorative iron
Structural steel Medium carbon
content, Iron
Strong,hard,corrodes
rapidly
Railways and
girders,bridges
Mil steel Low carbon
content,Iron
Fairly strong, but
malleable and
ductile,coroodes rapidly
Car bodies,ship hull and
nuts and bolts.
Stainless Steel Chromium and nickel
and Iron
Hard and shiny,resistant
to corrosion.
Cutlery,surgical
equipment ,taps etc

Galvanic cell Electrolytic cell
Electricity is generated spontaneously
Are exothermic
Cell potential is positive
Each electrode is put in separate
beakers
Voltage is applied,reaction does not
occur spontaneously
Are Endothermic
Cell potential is negative
Bother electrodes are immersed in
the same beaker

HMS Pandora cannons Batavia hull
Restoration
The guns from the Pandora are restored by
removing chloride ions using electrolysis.
The cannons are connected to an electrical circuit
and immersed in a solution of sodium hydroxide.
Once sufficient chlorides are removed ,the cannon
is washed with sodium hydroxide residue.
The cannons are dried and preserved by
immersing in molten crystalline wax at room
temperature,this waxy coating acts as a barrier
preventing exposure to oxygen thus preventing
further damage
Cathode reaction:
Conservation
The timbers of the hull were washed
and desalinated

The hull is then sprayed with
PEG(polyethylene glycol)to prevent
deterioration by micro-organisms
and strengthen the timber structure


The hull is sprayed with PEG until it
is completely saturated with the PEG
molecule,this replaces the salt in the



Fe(OH)Cl (S) + 2e- - (aq) + Cl
(aq)

Anode Reaction:
4OH
-
(aq)
2
O (l) + 4e-
cracks of timber and prevents
distortion by the crystallization of
salts