CSULA, School of Social Work

SW571 - Administration of Social Service Agencies

Fall, 21 !ale Weaver
[These are reproductions of the instructors lecture notes. They are intended as a study aid only.
There is no guarantee that everything covered in class is included here, or that everything here
was covered in class. References are to readings listed in the course syllabus.]
Lect"re 1# $ntrod"ction
This course is about administrative practice, with a theoretical grounding. So the course is a
combination of theory and practice, linking the two. The course begins with theory in the first
half and moves to practice in the second half.
hat does a good administrator look like!
"ractitioner, therefore uses theory # can apply it. $nderstands and uses practice e%perience.
&asters the technical aspects # hiring, budgeting, without letting these aspects dominate.
's practical # hard(nosed and tough.
)ble to fire staff, able to understand and use power, understand the force of money. $nderstands
the difference between rhetoric and reality.
*ard and soft power.
+ut understands and articulates social work ethics and values. )lways works within this
framework.
"roblem(solver # means logical thinker.
Takes into consideration the particulars of individual agencies, communities, staff and clients #
therefore is fle%ible and responsive.
Reflective # this means constantly applies theory, practice e%perience, and ethics, administrative
practice.
hat does a bad administrator look like!
&any social workers become managers without having the formal training and education in
administrative practice. Typically, this happens when front(line social workers are promoted into
supervisory, and then managerial positions. Social workers leave school more or less fully
prepared for clinical positions. Their focus is understandably on these entry level positions, and
they are not thinking about where they might be in their careers in ten or twenty years. ,et few of
us are content to remain in direct practice with clients for our entire careers, not so much because
this work loses its appeal, but more because we have internali-ed our society.s values regarding
the need for forward progress ( promotion ( over the course of our careers. )nd promotion in
social work means moving forward and upward, first to supervisory then to administrative
positions. 't might be best to train social workers to be administrators at the point that they make
this transition, but this is generally not the case. )s social work practitioners, you are likely to
encounter the following types of bad administrators. 'f you come to school with some
e%perience, you are likely to already have. ithout training, the social work administrator knows
/
only some of the range of administrative practices available, lacks the theoretical framework
with which to organi-e and choose from these practice skills, and may have not thoughtfully
transferred ethical concepts from direct to indirect practice. 0ach of the below types of bad
administrator have learned only one or two of the important administrative practice skills and
therefore relies too much on these sw skills.
The bean counter. This bad administrator only seems to care about numbers. She evaluates your
work based on periodic numerical reports that measure units of service, billable hours, number of
clients, etc. This administrator finds comfort in the apparent certainty and clarity provided by
1uantitative measures. *owever, she neglects professional and human aspects of the 2ob for both
the worker and for the client.
The therapist. )ll too common in the helping professions, this bad administrator was a therapist,
and feels most comfortable transferring these practices to administration. She believes that your
work effectiveness is linked to your personal intrapsychic issues, so supervision focuses on the
link between work and personality. She evaluates your work based on her perception of your
insight and personal growth.
The mystifier keeps workers in the dark about factors affecting their work, e.g., budget, political
influences, upper management decisions. +ecause of her insecurity, she is condescending and
treats workers like children.
The friend is likely to have been a friend and colleague who got promoted and is now in a
management position. This bad administrator believes that everything can get worked out if we
2ust hang together and treat everyone like peers. She has not learned to function in the role of
administrator, and therefore neglects issues of authority and responsibility. She is likely to
evaluate you based on your social and interpersonal skills on the 2ob, on how well you are a team
player.
)bsent. This administrator is never around. "ossibly she never leaves her office, the door of
which is always closed, but most likely she is supposedly working in the community. )t the
agency, she responds only to crises. This is initially e%perienced by the worker as not necessarily
a bad thing. *owever, you are likely to be blamed when things go wrong. This administrator will
value independent workers who leave her alone, though over time she will have a group of
independent workers pursuing independent courses and not working together as a team.
The one(way communicator asks for staff input, then ignores it. This bad administrator has
mastered only half of the process of agency communication, and fears that truly considering staff
input would be an implied threat to his authority.
$ndercutter. "erhaps the most destructive and subtly pervasive, this type of bad administrator
unconsciously sets things up so his constant presence is necessary to work things out. This bad
administrator does not know how to delegate or trust staff and does not respect the formal
authority structure. 3ut of insecurity about his own value to the organi-ation, and uncertainty
about how to spend e%tra time to move the agency forward, this administrator neglects to put in
place and then respect an effective working structure.
4
)dministration matters
56istinction between administration and management # none, for the instructor. 7one for "attie,
4889. )lso, no distinction with leadership. :ood administration is good leadership.;
Some commentators stress the difference between <administration = <management, with
administration referring more to leadership, big picture, kinds of issues, and management
referring to technical nuts and bolts issues. The instructor uses the terms interchangeably.
)dministration is the organi-ing of work. ithout this organi-ation, little or no work would get
done. The simple importance of administration is that without it, nothing would be
accomplished. 'magine treating your clients without an office, a coordinated schedule, time
limits, goals, or procedures. ' picture social workers and clients sort of wandering around the
streets and the 'nternet in search of one another. hen the two come together, they negotiate
from scratch what kind of work will get done, how, where, when, and how it will be paid for.
Social work gets done in organi-ations, and administrators organi-e work within organi-ations.
3rgani-ations are pervasive in our personal and professional life. They are the stage upon which
we work. 3rgani-ations set the rules, the meaning, the achievements or failures of our work.
<'nstitutions is another word for organi-ations that encompasses a broader set of entities. >ormal
organi-ations are one type of institution. 3ur relationship with institutions is generally taken for
granted ( it usually appears to us when theres a problem. e park our car in a parking lot when
we arrive for work. e do not notice this activity, unless something goes wrong. There are no
parking places, there is no one to take your money, safety is compromised, or, like me, you back
over those spikes that ruin your tires. 'f nothing goes wrong, you dont give the parking lot or the
act of parking a thought. *owever, that parking lot was carefully designed and built according to
set standards, it is systematically maintained and inspected, staff are hired, fired and trained?
safety is accounted for? fees are set, collected and accounted for. That parking lot is an
institution. That if fulfills its function 5or fails to; is due to the work of administrators.
,ou see your client at your agency? you are concerned about the clients progress, about doing
your best work. ,ou dont think about the scheduling that was done, the sign(in process at the
front desk, the child care, the coffee available in the neat and clean interview room 5and, yes, the
availability of parking;. ,ou notice these things only in their absence or if not done properly. ,ou
fill out the re1uired forms and charts, resenting the demand on your time, and wishing you had
that time to spend with clients or on professional development. +ut you dont think about the
billing necessary to ensure your client can get treatment and you can get paid, or about hiring and
supervising the maintenance crew,
3rgani-ations are especially important to social work because we usually re1uire a host agency.
There are no free(standing Social ork buildings like there are medical offices, law offices, or
architectural offices. e work in hospitals, clinics, welfare offices, etc., each with its own kind of
organi-ational structure and administrative imperatives. 'n addition, our clients interact
continually with social service and other agencies, and it is an important part of our social work
2obs to help them negotiate these organi-ations. Therefore, having knowledge of organi-ations
@
and administration is important from a number of points of view ( administrator, worker in an
agency, client dealing with agencies, therapist in private practice, even policy person who needs
to understand how to implement policy.
'n addition to organi-ing work, administrators motivate others to 2oin in that work. This is
leadership. )s leaders, social work administrators are models and representatives of the social
work profession. ithin an agency, the behavior and appearance of the administrator conveys to
the staff 5and to the clients; what kind of organi-ation this is. hat professional and ethical
standards are to be e%pected of staff and clients. 3utside of the agency, the administrator is the
representative of the organi-ation, and of the profession of social work. hat kind of
professional standards and values are communicated to professional and community groups, and
to the media!

*ow much does it matter!
+ut does administration matter! e tend to promote front(line staff to administrative positions
without any particular training or preparation. ' worked once for a psychiatrist who was not
impressed by my decision to pursue administration. *e flat out statedA B)dministration doesnt
matter. )nyone can do it. There is nothing to study.C
)lso, we have all had e%posure to agencies that are manifestly incompetently managed, yet the
clients e%press great satisfaction and the agency seems to be achieving its goals.
"rofessionals in particular dont feel the need for administrative oversight. )dministration is too
often felt as a constraint. )nd a lack of administration as liberation to follow ones own
professional and values in social work practice.
hy be a manager!
)re some people naturally macro! Some social workers are always looking beyond the
immediate needs of clients? they find this more interesting.
3thers move into administration gradually in the conte%t of wanting to get something specific
done.
)lso there is fre1uently a felt desire to get promoted and progress professionally.
>or the instructor two things stand out from his own administration e%perienceA
(The dilemma of power? have to delegate and trust. +ecause of the wider view of administration,
there is the frustration of not doing it yourself.
(6elayed gratification. Dompared to direct workers, gratification comes less fre1uently, but in
bigger doses
hat do managers do!
There are different ways of conceptuali-ing management and its tasks. Te%t takes several
approaches. There are others.
E
>ayol, Fettner, p. @
(planning
(organi-ing
(commanding
(coordinating
(controlling
"atti, 4889, p. /8
(develop mission, goals, ob2ectives
(develop an administrative structure
(ac1uire and allocate resources
(represent and advocate for the agency
(collaborate with other agencies
(recruit, train and supervise staff
(manage agency environment
(develop information technology
&enefee, 4889, begin p. /8@
This is based on empirical evidence # what managers actually do.
(communicator
(boundary(spanner ( important, and left out of above.
(futurist=innovator ( broad picture, look ahead, articulate vision.
(organi-er ( internal structure, work, etc.
(resource administrator
(evaluator
(policy practitioner
(advocate
(supervisor
(facilitator
(team builder=leader
Gewis, 488H, p. I
:ood typology of management activities
(planning
(designing
(staffing
(supervising
(budgeting
(monitoring J evaluating
K
' use this basic typology for this courseA
Gewis, 488H, p. @, managementL
(making a plan toward an end
(organi-ing people and resources to carry out plan.
(encouraging people carrying out the plan
(evaluating how well the end is achieved.
Skills used # another typology for the course
(conceptual skills ( vision, overview, goal(setting
(human skills ( motivation, supervising, hiring
(technical ( budgeting, &'S 5for Gewis, agency technology ( counseling, etc.;
(add current importance of computer and information systems.
The degree of use of these skills varies per circumstances, esp. per place of the administrator in
the hierarchy, e.g., top administrators use less technical skills. )t times you see administrators
who are not functioning at the proper level. The dilemma of middle managers. )lso varies by
needs of organi-ation at any point in time.
Scope
) good way to differentiate the role of administrator from direct service staff is the scope of the
work. )dministrators have a much larger view of the work setting than do front(line staff.
(ithin the organi-ation. )dministrator sees all elements of the agency and balances among
priorities. 0stablishes the right way to structure the work. +oundary(spanner within the
organi-ation.
(>unding. $nderstands the past and future implications of the money. heres the money!
(+oundary(spanner between organi-ation and environment. $nderstands the larger system. *as
to balance priorities of time and resources between domestic or foreign policy ( working within
or outside of the agency.
(3ver time. )dministrator has vision into the future, based on an understanding of the past.
(3ver change in clients. )dministrator can evaluate outcomes. $nderstand and assess the whole
course of clients through the agency.
(3ver politics. )dministrator understands and changes policies that effect agency and clients.
'ts important to add advocacy to the tasks of administration. This is contrary to the usual image
of administrators as divorced from the best interests of clients.
()dvocate at level of individual client, as complaints and problems from within the agency come
to administrators attention. Gast resort for these things.
M
()dvocate at the level of agencys clients as a group. )gain, only the administrator has the
overview necessary to make sure that needs of clients are being met. +alancing resources
appropriately, hiring effective staff, determining the organi-ational technology to meet the needs
of clients.
()dvocate at the level of clients as a class ( through policy and community work.
'n fact, administrators need to set priorities among these levels, i.e., re2ecting an individual client
if in best interests of the client group.
'ssues in administration
) number of issues in understanding the practice of administration. These issues are pervasive
and unresolved. e will visit them again through the course.
('ssue of speciali-ed administration knowledge. 's it even necessary! Dan administrators function
effectively if they know their field, but nothing about administration. This is fre1uently an issue
for people moving up through the ranks. here do social work administrators come from! /;
advanced through the ranks, with no professional training, 4; administrative training # &+), "),
etc. @; professional training, e.g., sw, psych, etc., with some in school administrative training.
"atti, 4889, p. H
('ssue of speciali-ed field knowledge. 6oes only administrative knowledge suffice! 3r does an
administrator have to be and e%pert in the business of the agency! Dan an &+) run a social
service agency without knowledge of social services!
('ssue of differences among non(profit = profit = government organi-ations. 6o different kinds of
organi-ations re1uire different skills and knowledge!
('ssue of evidence. To what e%tent can administrative practice be evidence(based! Nery little.
There is very little empirical evidence regarding what works. Gittle agreement even on what
BworksC means. This is because of uncertainty and contingency involved in applying services. Re
clients, environment, outcomes, beliefs, etc. *asenfeld, 48/8, p. /H(/I
(To what e%tent do administrative skills overlap with other, specifically micro practice, social
work skills! *ow does administrative practice fit into a generalist social work practice! See
above re different points of view that incorporate knowledge of administrative practice.
(Some skills overlap ( human interaction skills. The ability to work with people and
groups to achieve ends is crucial in administration and draws on generalist social work skills.
(Some do not ( budgeting. Some technical skills are specific to administration.
(Some appear similar, but maybe arent ( supervising staff vs. working with clients. 0%A
the supervisor as therapist.
H
"roblem(solving
The key attribute of any generalist social worker, including administrator, is decision(making
skills=problem(solving skills ( the ability to assess the situation, determine and assess the possible
courses of action, and choose. This is a combination of analytic and leadership skills.
0%cellence
hat is e%cellence in administration!
'n social work!
*ow do you know when you are doing a good 2ob!
Fettner chapter answers 1uestion ( what do you do to achieve e%cellence, but never defines it.
Refers to BperformanceC
(achieve outcomes. Success. This is essential to understanding e%cellence. +eing notice more
now. 6ifference between outcome and process. hat is achieved rather than how. &ost stuff on
e%cellence focuses on process
+ut what is the relationship between activity and outcome!
"roblem with specifying all outcomes,
"roblem with measuring outcomes. Bperformance accountabilityC Fettner et al., p. 9
Bachievement of client outcomesC.
"atti, 4889, p. /@(
here do outcomes come from! 3ften mandated from outside. Gimitations of this.
hose outcomes # vary per constituency. *so have varied and multiple constituencies.
Dan you be a good administrator and not achieve established outcomes!
Dan you be a poor administrator and achieve established outcomes!
So the primary task of administrators is to define and manage outcomes.
(practice competently=professional. +est possible practice. *ave to know the material and
implement it.
(practice ethically.
(according to the ethical standards of the profession and management.
(pay attention to distributive 2ustice. ho is represented=not represented.
I
Lect"re 2# %thics of &anagement
Gook at 7)S Dode of 0thics section on administration.
Nalues underlie social work theories and practice behavior. 0thics in a broader values sense is
about the discussion of choices in issues of importance to be covered. Dhoices ( of values, of
competing interests, of people
'mportance of ethics in organi-ations # interactions are based on trust. ork cannot get done
without trust, which is based on assumptions of ethical behavior. Reamer, 4888, p. H8
Gook at how businesses rely on trust of costumers.
0ven more important in social service orgs because of the reflection of uncertainty and moral
ambiguity.
)nd much more difficult for this reason as well. )s weve seen, even articulating outcomes is a
moral dilemma and an ethical issue.
)nd sw focus on social 2ustice also figures in. 6oes this make decisions easier or harder!
)s the administrator has a wider scope of practice than front(line staff, also there is a wider
scope to ethical issues. Reamer, 4888, p. H4(@
(0thics in clinical issues. Supervisor and arbiter of professional=clinical ethics and laws. 0nforce
boundary issues. +e the ethical resources for staff. )re they doing the ethical thing in particular
circumstances.
(0thics in administrative compliance ( contracts, financing, malpractice, insurance, etc.
)ccording to rules.
Risk management ( know the rules. *eres another task of administrators.
(0thics in administrative choices. 6istributive 2ustice. )llocation of resources. )llocation of staff
rewards and punishment.
9
Lect"re '# (rgani)ation *heor+
Dritical )nalysis for Social orkers
The importance # the use ( of critical analysis. :ives us a deeper understanding of events, which
enables us to intervene to prevent undesirable events.
Dritical analysis is a process of evaluating the facts # concrete level, then <getting behind the
facts # abstract level. hat is <really going on here!
This is done all the time in real life. hat are people really up to!
Dongruent with the normal process of social work practice. Dollect facts, then use those facts to
e%plain what is going on, to predict future, and to intervene. )ssessment=diagnosis.
The analysis # abstract level # is interpretative. Therefore is a <creative act. Re1uires thinking.
Trial and error. Donsideration of alternatives. *ard work. +ut cannot neglect the facts. *ave to
repeatedly go back to the facts for verification.
The critical part implies using the interpretation, which is derived from the facts, to make
2udgments about the 1uality or usefulness of what is being analy-ed. 7eed to defend your
2udgment against alternatives. Dritical means not accepting the intentions of the actors at face
value. Gook for alternative motives and ways of understanding.
There is no one right answer. 'f so, it is not an e%ercise in analysis. ,et you have to 2ustify the
analysis with recourse to both logic and the facts. 6ont have to arrive at one conclusion. Dan
point to one or more possible outcomes. Therefore, the success is not 2udged by the outcome 5no
right answer;, but by the process # rigorously considering alternatives, and using the facts.
/.; "urpose. hat is the goal, the end product of the analytic pro2ect! hy are we doing
this! hat are we trying to accomplish! hat is the use of the product! Specific
1uestion.
4.; The facts. hat are they! hat is the source of the facts! *ow certain are we of the
accuracy of the facts! hat is the range of certainty! *ow much agreement=disagreement
is there about the facts! hat is not known! hat is the importance of what is not
known! hat can we speculate about the facts that are not known! Gook for patterns, not
isolated incidents or pieces of information. +e skeptical.
@.; hat are your own biases that are likely to influence your analysis! +oth in accepting
facts and in establishing e%planations.
E.; hat is the e%planation for the facts! The theory! The interpretation! hat are the
concepts of the theory! hat are the assumptions underlying the theory!
/8
K.; Dheck the theory against the facts. *ow well does the theory e%plain the facts! *ow
thoroughly does the theory e%plain the facts! hat <covert information is necessary to
apply the theory! *ow well does the theory predict future events! *ow well does the
theory therefore lead to an intervention!
M.; Donsider alternative theories. hich best answers the above 1uestions! Simple
e%planations are generally better than comple% theories.
H.; hat are the implications of the e%planation5s;!
I.; *ow can these implications # predictions # lead to interventions! +ack to the use of the
process.
Theories are tools # they are ways of e%plaining the facts. Theories vary in scope? vary in
<formality.
Some 6efinitions, 6istinctions and Themes
6istinction betweenA
(organi-ation theory ( ways of understanding organi-ations. hy are organi-ations the way they
are! hat e%plains organi-ational behavior! 6escriptive. 0%planatory. :reater theoretical
development and empirical support.
(management theory ( why we should manage in certain ways. "rescriptive. ,ou should do this
because..... &ore practical, but less empirical support.
3rgani-ation theory can and should affect management theory.
3rgani-ation theory is an interesting field in terms of <academic 2urisdiction. 6raws on theories
from many disciplines ( sociology, business, anthropology, psychology, political science, social
work. )nd incorporates theories and tendencies from larger social science theory. 's fre1uently
regarded as a <special case of larger theories. Oust as we wonder about the boundaries of
organi-ations ( how is organi-ation theory different from other theories about society!
/. hat is the boundary of an org! >re1uently not clear. +oundaries are permeable ( people,
resources, ideas, etc. freely move in and out of organi-ations. *ow can we put boundaries around
organi-ational cultures!
4. Theories at different levels. $nits of analysis.
(populations of organi-ations ( population ecology.
(organi-ations and environments.
(within organi-ations, with organi-ation as unit of analysis
(smaller work groups within organi-ations ( psychology looks at small and work group
behavior.
//
@. Relations between organi-ations and environments 3r look only within organi-ation!
(Systems theory underlies much of this. 0lements of an organi-ation are interdependent
with elements in the environment, and with other elements within the organi-ation.
(Dontingency theory ( organi-ations strive to become congruent with the environment.
:arrow J *asenfeld, 48/8, p. @H. So no one internal theory. 't dependsP. 3n the env.
E. )re organi-ations rational systems! +ureaucracy. &+3. 7on(rational ( informal, institutional
theory, culture.
5Rational L a system where all alternatives to a problem are known, and the information is
available to rank(order those alternatives to arrive at the best solution. 'n other words, a system
that is rule(driven and <complete.;
K. *uman agency To what e%tent does the behavior and choices of individual administrators
matter! 3rg theories tend to be mechanistic and minimi-e the activities of individuals. 3rgs are
the actors, yet how do orgs act without individual decisions!
M. 6ifference between profit and non(profit, especially re the environment. 7on(profitsA
) great deal of uncertainty in all realms compared to businesses.
(goals not clear. $ncertain outcomes # discussed above.
(environment unstable and uncertain, esp. re goals ( multiple goals. &ultiple and conflicting
constituencies. "atti, 4889, p. /9? 'nstitutional environment # not 2ust resources, but also
legitimacy. *asenfeld, 48/8, p. /E
(need to advocate "atti, 4889, p. 48
(need for collaboration. "atti, 4889, p. 4/
(reliance on @
rd
party financing. &ore confusing. "atti, 4889, p. E
(scarcity of resources
(permeated by professions ( control problem
(womens work. hat difference does this make! *asenfeld, 48/8, p. 4M
(uncertain role of consumers # Dompare to manufacturing company. not customers, not raw
material. ho is the customer! Sometimes other agencies, family members, etc. Sometimes
partners, clients. *asenfeld, 48/8, p. //? "atti, 4889, p. /K.
(uncertain <technologies ( what works! Services as reflections of institutional norms. 0%A
recovery movement. *asenfeld, 48/8, p. /M.
(emotional work # for both workers and clients. *asenfeld, 48/8, p. 4E.
/4
(<moral work # because raw material is people, every action taken has moral implications. S
as battleground of values. Gabeling? allocation of scarce resources? status of clients effects
services. This is all hard to see # masked by professionalism. *asenfeld, 48/8, p. /4
There are many ways of organi-ing organi-ation theories. *istorical ( intellectual development.
&y approach ( hy do we have organi-ations! hat purpose do they have!
"urposes of 3rgani-ations
/.; *o get ,ork done#
3rgani-ations e%ist to get necessary work done effectively and efficiently.
0ffectiveness.
(Theory of bureaucracy. >rom &a% eber. >ayol ( rules of bureaucracy.
(3rgani-ations are ways of organi-ing knowledge and e%pertise, with the goal of producing
effective results.
(Fnowledge=e%pertise e%ists independently of organi-ation members. "rofessionals can work in
different settings.
(3ffice e%ists independently of organi-ation members. 3ffice remains the same as people
change.
(Separates knowledge of substance from knowledge of org.
(6ivision of labor is key.
(This seems banal because it is so ingrained in our e%periences. 's worth e%amining, though.
(+ureaucracy as a bad word.
Gimitations #
()uthority is the problem ( whose in charge, what is source of authority, if knowledge is the key!
Tends to concentrate power.
(:oal displacement
(Relations with environment ( import e%pertise. 6emands of env derail interior logic.
+ureaucratic theory tends not to account for the env.
(6oes not account for moral nature of the work
0fficiency.
(*istorically, from >rederick Taylor ( scientific management.
(6istinction between efficiency and effectiveness.
(Dontemporary ( Transaction analysis. >rom economics. 3liver illiamson.
(3rgani-ations e%ist to reduce the cost of doing business. 7eed to systemati-e and
institutionali-e rules of transaction, so dont revisit the issue repeatedly. Stability and
predictability.
/@
4.; *o make decisions
3rgani-ations provide the structure necessary for decision(making. The issue is the e%tent to
which this is a rational process.
6ecision(making
(&arch and 3lson, from *erbert Simon
(Rationality. 3n the same model, organi-ations e%tend the ability of the individual to make
decisions. The structure can take over for individual brain. )chieves efficiency and effectiveness
in decision(making.
(Gimited rationality. :arbage can model. <solution looking for a problem
3rgani-ational learning
(Schon, )rgyris
(7on(rational, organic, cultural approach to the handling of knowledge and decisions.
(3rgani-ations are knowledge generating and holding bodies. )lternative generating, sorting, and
holding bodies.
(<eve always done it this way.
("rocess is less likely to be visible. Task for an administrator is to make it visible and ma%imi-e
its effectiveness.
'#- *o esta.lish and maintain good ,orking /eo/le relationshi/s
*uman relations theory.
(*awthorne e%periments. B*awthorneC effect. *uman interactions matter more than technical
aspects.
(Reaction to both bureaucracy and scientific management.
7on(rational approach
()ttitude of workers is important.
(7on(economic. )ttitudes are formed in groups. 'f you treat people right, productivity goes up.
(Gimit of the theory ( productivity is the goal? theory is not based on the value of the happiness
of employees as a goal in itself.
("roblem of authority.
(Donnect to administrative task ( motivate people to get work done.
(hat motivates people!
(0mpirical base # problem. Theory has not been substantiated ade1uately by research.
:arrow J *asenfeld, 48/8,, p. @H. They look at burnout lit and other intermediary empirical
2ustification.
"articularly apt for hso because of emotional work.
Gimitation # to what e%tent can addressing the emotional needs of workers really affect
outcomes, especially when so much of the work situation is determined by other factors that are
not necessarily amenable to change. 'n fact, does making workers happy lead to less change in
the system!
/E
E.; *o maintain, change or negotiate /o,er relations.
&oney L resources of all kinds.
"ower L ability to control money.
"olitical=economy theory.
(Resource dependence. >rom sociology ( 0merson. 'n organi-ation theory ( "feffer. 'n social
services ( *asenfeld. :arrow J *asenfeld, 48/8, p. @9
() has the power to control + to the e%tent that ) has resources that + needs.
(3rgani-ations are understood as ways of mediating potential conflicts, and conflicts involve
power and money.
('nside the org and between org and env
(To understand organi-ations, Bfollow the moneyC.
(Gook at strategies used to accomplish this.
(ith environment. ( organi-ations strive to become congruent with money and power in
environment.
(Dompared to below, this approach is non(ideological.
Gimitation # does not recogni-e value and moral elements. 6oes not recogni-e individual actor
agency.
&ar%ist theory
(3rgani-ations e%ist to reinforce class power differences.
(&ar% ( class distinctions. "urpose of organi-ations is to see that the rich get richer and the poor
get poorer.
Dritical theory =feminist theory
(0thnic and gender based differences. 3rgani-ations will work to reinforce e%isting <culturally(
defined power differences. :arrow J *asenfeld, 48/8, p. EM
(Gead to alternative org structures
E. *o esta.lish legitimac+ and meaning
'nstitutional theory.
(6efinition of an <institution ( larger than an organi-ation. 6efined by cultural rules rather than
by bureaucratic rules.
('nside the org ( process of institutionali-ation. Rules, written documents, buildings.
(3rgani-ations e%ist as a way of guaranteeing legitimacy. Dredibility. Symbolic power, rather
than economic power.
(ith env ( organi-ations will do what is necessary to obtain and maintain legitimacy.
(ith environment. ( organi-ations strive to become congruent with the norms of society.
(:eneral movement toward <rationali-ing of society.
Gimitation # neglects power and money. 7eglects role of individual actors.
:arrow J *asenfeld, 48/8, p. E8
/K
(Trust is a ma2or concept. hat holds society together! hy and how are we able to work with
each other!
(Social service organi-ations more Binstitutionali-edC.
()spects of the organi-ation are taken(for(granted. The less visible, the less institutionali-ed.
(0%plains how and why organi-ations engage in behavior that makes little sense from a rational
point of view. 0verything from logos to maintaining reputation.
3rg culture
(3rgani-ations have their own <culture. >rom anthropology.
(There are more or less hidden rules and norms that govern behavior.
('nforms institutionali-ation and other theories.
(>ocus on 1ualitative approaches.
(>or management, focuses attention on <cultural behavior. 6ress, behavior. Rituals ( birthdays.
("roblem is the boundaries of organi-ations. To what e%tent can they be said to have their own
culture separate from the surrounding cultures.
Structuration
(:iddens. >rom :offman
(Gooks at the process of creating meaning. Reverses the above processes
(Gooks at the relation between the being of an institution and its becoming.
(Relation between individuals and the organi-ation ( connects units of analysis.
(Shows the role of individual actors within organi-ations and orgs within env.
(&oral entrepeneurs
&iscellaneous theories
(population ecology ( &etaphor from pop genetics. :arrow J *asenfeld, 48/8, p. EE.
>ounding, disbanding, change. # rates within pop.
Gimitation # very abstract and mechanistic
(life(cycle theory. &etaphor from biology.
't depends
hile proponents of each theory argue that their theory is the best, or most basic, in reality one
can mi% and match, depending on circumstances. 3ne can choose different theories in different
circumstances.
eaver approach # look primarily at the relationship between the org and the env, using political
economy and institutional theories.
Gook at bureaucratic structures within orgs. 's work being done effectively and efficiently.
'nclude power and money relations within org and between org and env.
)lways remain within the value structure of sw
/M
+ut what can go wrong!
3rgani-ation theory tends to look at how and why organi-ations work. 7ot how they should
work.
("ower ( who has it and how do they use it!
("roblem of bad faith of symbolism.
("roblem of relation between individuals and organi-ations. )lienation or overconformity.
3rgani-ations take on a life of their own. &erton ( trained incompetence. 6isplaced goals.
("roblem of legal= moral status of organi-ations. Transcend individuals, so what rules apply!
"eople are sanctioned for some behavior, but not organi-ation. Rules are different. Should they
be!
/H
Lect"re 0# (rgani)ations and %nvironments
Systems theory ( change in one element affects change in others.
'nside organi-ation and between organi-ation and environment
"opulation ecology theory # pops of orgns
hat does the environment consist of!
Task environment ( those entities outside of the organi-ation that directly affect the ability of the
organi-ation to complete its basic tasks.
(funding
(other revenue ( donations
(clients
(staff
(suppliers of staff, esp. professionals
(accreditation
(suppliers of clients ( referrals in
(referrals out ( neglected in reading. 0%A keeping people on wards until placement opens up.
(competitors
(political entities ( community organi-ations, politicians, etc. from community analysis.
:eneral environment
(community demographics
(regulations
(political climate
(economic condition
'nterorgani-ational entities. Dollaboration.
(referrals in ( services in se1uence
(referrals out ( services in se1uence
(competitors ( services overlap
(consulting services in
(consulting services out
(interorg ( clout because work together on same population
(interorg ( overall political affect for population and kind of organi-ations.
(interorg ( overall political for community.
6omain ( self(defined place in the env. $ni1ue identity and distinctive competence. +oundaries
between agency and others. ( e do this. e do this better than anyone else. e dont do this.
's negotiated. )chievement is domain consensus.
/I
hat characteri-es the environment
(6egree of turbulence.
( fre1uent small waves
(infre1uent large waves
(degree of certainty
(degree of heterogeneity
(degree of richness ( general resources ( availability of things in task env.
(organi-ed
(multiple and conflicting views and values of task env. +ecause of the uncertainty of outcomes
and means in a conte%t of value(based services.
( public schools
( 6D>S
( homeless
( welfare
The general theoretical approach is that agencies adapt to the environment.
Dontingency theory ( type of organi-ation structure from demands of environment.
Resource dependence ( relations among elements of task environment. Dontrol of resources is
power.
'nstitutional ( organi-ational elements reflect values=norms in the environment. $se of
professionals. $se of certain types of structure. 7ot resources, but symbols that matter.
Garge generali-ed orgs do better in env with large predictable fluctuations.
Small speciali-ed orgs do better in stable env with small regular fluctuations.
Giability of newness # hard to compete
Giability of smallness # hard to get resources
*andling problems from the environment
*ow much do you change! 6ont want to be passively shaped by the environment.
*ow much compromise!
*ow much affect the environment in turn! ( these approaches tend to neglect the actions of
administrators in changing and mediating the env.
(predicting changes ( scanning the environment. +eing informed re policy and funding
contingencies.
$sing all staff to interact with the community? also clients
(creating=anticipating e%ternal events. )ffecting them directly through participation in the larger
decision(making process. +e involved in local, and professional decision(making process.
&anaging the environment is as important as managing the agency.
&arketing, public relations ( can shift the public perception of your product.
Garge, powerful organi-ations can have more effect on the environment. Reason for monopolies.
/9
(manage relations with environment
( competition
( bargaining
( co(optation
( coalition
( disruption
(have the internal structure appropriate to the environment
6egree of integration, differentiation.
>ormal, hierarchical, high division of labor ( stable, certain environments. with access to info.
Gess hierarchy, fast informal communication ( unstable, uncertain environments.
(have the internal skills and ability in place to respond, but a fle%ible infrastructure. +e able to
respond 1uickly but predictably.
Gearning orgs. Teaching administrators.
(be diversified, so e%ternal shocks can only affect part of the agency. "roblem of single purpose
vs. multiple service agency. Si-e matters, as does structure. Type of environment.
(be loosely coupled. 6ecentrali-ed. Role of professionalism. &ultiple e%pectations from
environment.
48
Lect"re 5# (rgani)ational Str"ct"re
The task of administration is to organi-e people and tasks to achieve certain goals. *ow do we
organi-e the agency in order to achieve these goals!
hat is being structured!
(work ( organi-ational chart determines the focus, structure and flow of work, especially how to
organi-e disparate tasks ( administration, clinical, support
(responsibility ( whos accountable for the completion of tasks! )ssignment of tasks.
(communication flow ( down, up, and sideways
(control=authority ( how does an agency ensure that the decisions made are the intended ones!
This is the key to org structure, and the type of structure follows mostly from the need for
control.
Structure is separate from people.
+oard ( )n important part of the structure of non(profits, not addressed much in this course.
+ureaucratic structure ( compartmentali-e and define the above.
(by program ( mental health, substance abuse, outreach. hat about clerical, maintenance, etc! (
by program!
(by client ( can be similar to by program.
(by process ( for se1uential services. 6D>S ( intake, >&JR, "", adoptions.
(by market ( attached to elements in the task environment ( mental health organi-es its
employees by service to 2ail, police, 6D>S, schools, etc.
(by geographic area ( catchment areas.
(by function ( services, clerical, marketing, etc. Then subdivide by services. This is how 6D>S is
set up.
Garge organi-ations mi% and match these ways of structuring the agency. 0%A 6D>S ( by
function, by geographic area, by process, by program.
"roblem is how to clarify authority within these structure
Span of control ( how many bo%es under one! *ow many levels! >latter organi-ations ( fewer
levels, more autonomy.
)s organi-ations grow, need to add layers.
*ow to handle cutbacks within these structures.
4/
Ginking pin structure
) method of communication and control within a bureaucratic structure. Shifts decision(making
to a team, but within a traditional structure.
0ach manager participates in meeting at her level, with boss, and leads meeting with below level.
>acilitates team decision(making at each level? eases communication between levels.
)dvantage and disadvantage ( larger point of view of linkers? more pressure? divided loyalties.
&atri%
)cross program=ward=pro2ect by function.
)ssign staff within function by per cent.
6ual authority structure.
(formal authority by function ( supervisor, does evaluations, etc.
(authority by program ( limited to the pro2ect, coordination, etc.
Dommunication problems ( when take vacation! how get info to evaluate!
Goyalty problems.
+est for settings that have pro2ects=wards, etc. Things that re1uire multi(disciplinary teams.
+est for settings that rely on professionals ( have own standards, etc.
"ro2ect team
Same as matri%, organi-ed by pro2ects, not by wards or programs. &ore fle%ibility and change
over time.
Dollegial
7o real authority structure. Share necessary resources, but operate individually.
)lternative=collectivist=feminist
)nti(bureaucracy ( no division of labor, so no division by knowledge=e%pertise.
0veryone shares 2obs ( usually rotate. 06 one week, 2anitor the ne%t.
6ecision by consensus.
6ifficulties
(natural tendency of people to be une1ual in interests and abilities.
(dealing with the outside world.
>rom bureaucratic to collectivist ( continuum of decreasing authority.
Structures usually inherited, and not talked about a lot. orth while to step back and think about
it. Though very hard to change.
*ow choose structure! 6epends on need for structure=control, which depends on task and on
style.
44
3ften structure chosen and changed for wrong reason ( to increase or decrease authority of
individuals. To protect program.
$sually dont change ( 2ust add to during growth. 6uring contraction ( across the board or by
program.
*ow low in the organi-ation are decisions made! The lower, the better, generally. The lower the
more fle%ibility to respond to changes in environment.
*ow will clients e%perience the structure! Donsistency of staff over time, over function.
0%A company with divisions. &anufacture, )dministration=finance, sales, RJ6.
Structure communicates something to the outside world. 'dea of congruence with environment.
Gegitimacy.
(professional
(business(like ( accountability
(authoritative
(collectivist
'nformal structure
Dharisma, cli1ues, support staff. )uthority inheres in individual and group attributes, not in
<office. )nti(bureaucratic. System of favors. )lternative sources of communication ( not
accountable. Rumors
0%A >resno ( )) group
)dministrator ( respect the formal system, but uses the informal. )lternative sources of
information for administrators.
0%A walking(around, collect info, but respect decision(making system.
3rgani-ational control
(shared premises of decision(making
(standardi-ation, formali-ation, bureaucrati-ation
(authority
6ecreasing efficiency and effectiveness.
Goose coupling
+ack to issue of the advantages of ambiguity and lack of communication. Donnect with the issue
of relations between organi-ation and environment.
4@
Lect"re 1# &anagement *heor+
&anagement theory is prescriptive. 7ot e%plaining why organi-ations behave as they do, like
organi-ation theory.
*ow to manage ( what to do!
*ow much depends on theory! &anagement theory can and should be connected to organi-ation
theory.
6oes it matter what managers do! 3rgani-ation theory describes larger forces as e%planations for
organi-ational behavior.
Scientific management.
(Technocrat.
("ay attention to rules and standards. "ay attention to flow of money and product. B+ean
countersC.
(This is not respected, but in fact, is an essential aspect of the 2ob? cannot be neglected or
delegated. +ut must be understood in the larger conte%t of goals, values and professionalism.
&anagement by 3b2ectives ( &+3
(*ave goals and measure them.
Total Quality &anagement ( TQ&
( *ave a goal of 1uality.
(Feep the focus on the purpose of the organi-ation.
(Since 1uality is so hard to define, and changes, listen to customers and workers. &onitor 1uality
constantly.
*uman resources theory.
($pdate human relations theory.
(3vercomes the contradiction in human relations theory by in reality increasing the participation
of employees.
Theory R and ,
(Restatement of human relations theory.
>eminist management.
(+ased on the real(life e%periences and strengths of women.
(7urturing, empowering, collaborative. &ore fle%ible, multi(task. Satisfaction from process, not
results. Donte%tual moral choices. +etter listeners, more responsive. Strong group skills.
(Geadership ( not autocratic and controlling, but supportive and relationship(oriented.
('nteractive, not competitive. 0mpowering.
(3rgani-ation structure ( less hierarchical, more collaborative work groups. Gess bureaucratic, in
that less stress on knowledge and skills, more on interpersonal strengths.
3rgani-ational culture
("ay attention to the unspoken culture.
(Symbolism. hat you wear. *ow you resolve disputes. 0%A :)'7 in Riverside.
4E
&anaging diversity.
('ssue of value of diversity. *omogeneity can lead to easier organi-ation to administer, and may
be preferable under certain circumstances.
>our levels of integration of diverse staff.
(>airness ( not to e%clude people for inherent traits.
(Dompensation ( redress for historically e%cluded groups.
(*eterogeneity as organi-ation advantage. )ble to relate to outside constituents. Dultural and
language match. )lso symbolic.
(6iversity as a real and useful factor. 'ndividuals bring perspectives to the group that change the
way the group operates.
&anagement style
*ow do you decide among all these things! 't depends onA
(,ou. &ost successful if <style is as close as possible to your own personality and beliefs. 'ssue
below of pressures on women and minorities. <)lienation.
(The organi-ation. hat is called for in a specific agency at a specific time! Durrent culture.
Durrent homogeneity=diversity.
(The environment. Naries by a number of factors. Dontingency theory.
The best managers are able to choose approaches that are called for in the particular agency in
the particular community at this time.
6ifferences by gender and ethnicity
Nery little on ethnicity.
>air amount on gender and management.
<6ifference split in feminism. Related to material on leadership ( trait or skills!
6ifference school leads to prescribed changes in style and structure of organi-ations.
7on(difference school leads to focus on issue of e1uity in pay and status.
'ssue of setting. Should women have separate organi-ations! 'ssue of S of women, and in what
roles, in organi-ations. Same for ethnicity.
Social work settings compared to business settings ( more women.
'ssue of <alienation. *ow at home do you feel at the office! 'ssue of bi(cultural.
Theory ( what should you do. >eminist theory. 's it feminine necessarily!
0mpirical differences ( are women different as managers! *ow! $nder what circumstances!
'n fact, few or no actual differences in behavior. 'n business, more participative and less
autocratic.
"erceived negatively when demonstrate masculine traits.
"erceived as better in middle management ( relies more on team(building.
4K
's this good or bad! 'n other words, do women have to act like men in order to be managers.
)re women more effective!
7o differences in subordinate satisfaction.
(hy are women still underrepresented in management, even in social work!
+arriersA
(*ave to act like a man! )re women more BsuitedC to direct service roles! 7umbers! +udgets!
('mportance of advancement.
(6emands of home. Dhildren, career choices ( who makes the most money. Gack of support from
home!
(6iscrimination, stereotyping
(Gack of mentors and informal networks.
StrategiesA
(Support networks, but outside the organi-ation. )lso a mentor.
(Reduce stress ( e%ercise, etc.
(+ecome <male. +e tough. 6ont show emotions.
(0stablish and maintain multiple paths of communication.
(Restrict behavior around men. 'ssue of alienation
6ifferences by ethnicity
Same as gender issue ( what is <natural, what is learned.
'ssue of being bicultural ( different behavior at work than at home.
4M
Lect"re 7# Leadershi/
6o leaders matter!
(Donte%t determines what happens
(Donte%t determines what type of leaders are effective
Shin J &cDlomb reading suggests that leadership does matter. +eing visionary led to more
innovative behavior, independent of personal and organi-ational characteristics.
>ocus on the leader ( waiting for a savior ( can distract attention from larger, more important
issues.
Research is difficult, and there is little empirical basis connecting leader characteristics to
success.
Think of an effective leader ( list the 1ualities which made effective.
( personal characteristics
( skills=knowledge
( accomplishments
"ersonal characteristics
( physical energy
( intelligence
( alertness
( responsibility
( ambition
( self(confidence
( fle%ibility
( charisma
( persistent
( sociability
( originality
( tolerance of stress
( tolerance of frustration
Gearned skills
( consideration ( concern for workers
( problem(solving
( social 2udgement ( social perspectiveness, fle%ibility, social performance
( knowledge ( of specific field and of administration
( initiating structure ( defines and motivates performance
( 2ob e%perience
( create a vision
( own clear values and able to articulate them
4H
So, are leaders born or made! 3r depends on accomplishments.
Trait vs. process ( main controversy in leadership literature. +orn or made!
(Traits ( problems of entitlement and e%clusion. Dan select and e%clude people from leadership
positions by the use of tests. <:reat man theory. Strong empirical basis, but what comes first!
To what e%tent are the above factors gender or ethnic based, and therefore discriminatory! 's
there a feminine leadership style! 'f so, does that change the above desired characteristics!
(Skills ( how! hat skills! Technical = human = conceptual skills ( as in first lecture.
(Style approach ( neither traits or skills, but actual behaviors.
Task=relationship behaviors.
:ood empirical basis. $seful and avoids some of the problems of above.
(Situational approach. Geaders assess the situation, particularly where there followers are at, and
change styles appropriately.
"uts above approach into situations, but also develops a different kind of grid.
(3ther theories.
()ccomplishments ( retroactive. *ow to predict!
Dan you be an effective leader w=o achieving success! hat is successA orker satisfaction!
Gow burnout! 0fficiency!
hat about followers! )re there traits and skills for followers! 6oes good leadership re1uire
good followers!
)ssigned vs. emergent leadership. To what e%tent does leadership depend on the position! 3r on
the individual!
Geadership and power. "rimary characteristic of leadership ( how is power used!
"osition vs. personal power # similar to assigned vs. emergent.
"ersuasion = incentive = coercion. Naries by effectiveness and efficiency.
6oes leadership consist of something beyond administrative ability!
6efinition ( hat and *ow
hat. <effectiveness ( getting things done. 3utcomes. Success.
To get things done ( need to motivate=persuade=coerce others to get the work done.
*ow ( start by understanding and defining mutual values? then work as necessary to change=
develop those values. +ring people to where they want to be. 57ot coercive, inducement;
"roblem ( definition of success=outcomes ( the hat ( is value(based. Should that change! Dan
that change! ( defined by outsiders. *ow much do you accept e%isting values=beliefs vs. how
much change!
The definition of the hat can be gender(biased and ethnocentric.
4I
"roblem ( balance between task and process. *ave to be very fle%ible and alert.
"roblem ( congruence among values. hose values! 'nside org! 3utside org! "olitical values!
Dlients values! >unders values!
'ssue is breadth and inclusiveness of organi-ation. >eminists ( start own org.
)s in first session ( leaders have a larger scope.
(clarify and articulate values. 7eed to look deeper than other staff, articulate what is there, and
articulate the direction of change. S is value(based profession? leader needs to keep in view
and articulate why we are here.
(develop vision ( apply the articulation of values into future. 7eeds to look ahead into the future.
(be ethical. 'n clarifying both the hat and the *ow.
(shape org culture. $nderstands the ways in which style, appearance, modes of communication
come together as a whole to represent the values of the org.
(be a teacher ( way of bringing people together.
(politician ( inside and outside of the agency.
(integration? balance. +eing aware of everything that is important and is happening in and
outside of the org, being able to evaluate the relative importance, and achieving balance among
them. Realistically.
(+alance between allocation of power.
(management of time ( priorities of time. 3nes own, and time resources of the agency. hat
does the leader pay attention to!
So ( are leaders born or trained! 6epends on importance of personal traits.
49
Lect"re 2
"utting 't )ll Together.
,ouve +een *ired )s )n )dministrator of )n )gency.
hat 6o ,ou 6o 7ow!
3verall conte%t # pervading through all decisionsA *ow much can an individual affect change,
and how much is dependent on circumstances beyond the control of the administrator! *ow do
we tell the difference!
>ramework for all activitiesA
(making a plan toward an end
(organi-ing people and resources to carry out plan.
(encouraging people carrying out the plan
(evaluating how well the end is achieved.
/.; Fnow yourself.
:eneral values and beliefs re distributive 2ustice, etc.
+eliefs re the problem and intervention assumptions of the agency.
+eliefs re understanding of organi-ations # theoretical frameworks.
Strength of these beliefs, and range of fle%ibility. +road or narrow! *ow much
compromise can you accept!
&anagement=personal style.
Range # broad or narrow!
+eliefs about supervision # how people learn and respond to guidance.
Geadership traits at your disposal. Strengths and weaknesses.
Skills at your disposal.
Range. *ow much are you willing to learn new skills, or want to rely on e%isting skills!
4.; Fnow the agency. >or each of the below, the strength or weaknesses of each category,
and the range and fle%ibility within each category.
The understanding of the target population, the presenting problem and the best way to deal with
it.
ays in which this understanding serves to e%acerbate or ameliorate e%isting patterns of
social 2ustice and distribution of rights and resources.
6egree to which this understanding is e%plicit or is hidden.
6egree to which this is accepted by agency members, or is contested.
@8
*ow does the agency evaluate itself! *ow does it know if it is achieving goals!
*istory of the agency, especially applicable recent history.
*ow diverse # homogeneous=heterogeneous # is the agency among its staff, clients, boards, and
community contacts. 0thnicity, gender, class, profession!
Structure of the agency. Type of structure. )ppropriateness given the tasks and resources.
>low of communication.
>low of accountability.
0specially, flow of authority and control. hat decisions can be made at what level in the
agency!
'nformal structures.
'nformal sources of influence and e%pertise.
Dommunication patterns.
To what degree do these informal patterns weaken or reinforce the formal structure.
Role and influence of professionals. hich professions and what do they re1uire!
3rgani-ational culture. Rituals, celebrations, appearance, etc.
@.; Fnow the environment.
'dentify and assess all elements of the task environment.
Gearn about general elements of the environment.
'dentify and assess inter(organi-ational relationships.
'dentify characteristics of the environment # turbulence, heterogeneity, richness, etc.
hat is the domain of the agency! 's this the right domain! 's it strongly held! Threatened!
*ow is the agency getting information from the environment!
E.; +egin assessment and planning for change.
hat stage of development is agency at! Too unorgani-ed and chaotic and needs structure and
focus! Too set in ways and needs to be shaken up!
hat are presenting problems! Turnover=morale? not enough or diverse funding? not responding
to changing clientele or other environmental changes!
Relationships between the agency and the environment.
@/
$rgency! *ow 1uickly make changes, or wait! Dombination! ait and learn, e.g., re strengths
and weaknesses of staff. Takes time.
6egree of openness! )dvantages of ambiguity and hidden agendas.
6omestic or foreign policy and activities first!
Speciali-ation or generali-ation!
@4
Lect"re 3# 4ro.lem and 5oals
"roblem ( intervention hypothesis ( mission ( goals=ob2ectives
(3verall, this is planning. )rticulating where agency is, where it wants to go, and how it will get
there.
(ere looking for coherence in the way in which an agency understands its target social
problem, seeks to address that problem.
(The understanding of the social problem embodies certain value beliefs and approaches.
(&ission, goals, ob2ectives are the articulated part of the understanding.
( tip of the iceberg
( probably mostly ignored
(>re1uently the understanding of the problem is mostly unspoken ( hidden, taken(for(granted.
( how do you find out about it! 3bserve ( work backwards.
()dvantage of remaining unspoken, ambiguous, fle%ible
("roblem definition, intervention hypotheses as imported from the env to achieve congruence
This lecture looks at both
(Specific for proposal assignment. *ow to do it. orking forwards. Simple ( but need to be
careful re comprehensiveness and details. Technical.
('n general, analy-ing your agency. hat is really going on! orking backwards. $ncovering.
6efining Social "roblem
Typification
-We are making ideological value statements when we defne a problem. We
are contributing to a social process of assigning meaning, usually negative
meaning, to a community, a group of people, to a group of organizations,
etc.
-Its a labelling process, and unfortunately we all 'typify' the world around us
-hen these typifcations get built into to our interventions and our
organizations - become institutionalized.
!rofessions - tend to begin with the how, then apply to various whats.
"olutions looking for problems.
his is what you want to avoid in your proposal, but can be useful for
analyzing your agency.
-Issue of problems getting on the public agenda. #i$erence between a
condition and a problem.
%ondition - state of a$airs which ob&ectively and demonstrably e'ists, even if
no one is paying attention or cares.
!roblem - a condition which something needs to be done about. has become
a political issue because resources are necessary.
@@
%ommunity, (eography
)ne of the choices which needs to be made is that of geographical boundary.
-(eographical distinctions. %ommunity. (eographical *neighborhood+ vs.
functional communities.
-(eographical boundaries are fre,uently not clear, but often all too clear -
river, railroad tracks,
#emarcations of status changes. -ow boundaries defne and enforce status
di$erences.
-%urrent trend toward forcing geographical defnitions - gated communities,
street barriers, parking districts, etc.
-Institutional boundaries. here's an e'isting arrangement which splits the
problem into geographical divisions. %atchment areas, city borders, etc. ied
to funding sources.
-.ut how real are these/ !roblems don0t follow catchment areas.
-o what e'tent are these inherited by you, and is that good or bad/ -ow will
they be enforced.
1elationship between geography and target population. 2 certain population
within a certain area.
arget population
--ow do we defne who has the problem/
- diagnosis and defnition problems.
- what are the criteria for inclusion/
--ow do we determine who has the problem/
-(iven these criteria, who decides, e.g., need professional or self-select.
What skills, power needed to make the decision/
--ow many have the problem/ 2bsolute numbers or rate/ .oth/ 1ate of
what/ !revalence and incidence. !opulation at risk - include them/
#istinction between need and demand - perceptions of the target population.
-Is the magnitude of the problem increasing or decreasing/ Why/ 3orecast
for the future/
-What are the characteristics of the people who have this problem/ 2ge,
gender, ethnicity, class status. #o what e'tent are these characteristics the
result of discrimination/
-What other problems accompany this problem/ 4' - homelessness, 2I#".
-What are the subgroups among the target population/ -ow are they
defned/
-%ausal e'planations can vary by population or subpopulation. 5I homeless
@E
because 5I, runaways homeless because of abuse.
-What is the relationship between target population and geographical
boundaries/ 2bove
%ost
What is the cost to society of this problem/ o the local community/ Issue of
prevention.
-istory of the problem - 6ever think you are the frst to think of a solution to
a problem.
-6eed to understand the history of the problem on all of these dimensions.
-ow has the understanding changed over time/
-he interventions - what has failed and succeeded in the past/ -ow has the
power structure shifted.
!ower and resource structure underlying the problem
#i$erence between condition and problem. If problem7
-Who is this a problem for/ Who says/
- who has the power to defne the problem/
- who has alternative e'planations, but without power/
- role of professionals/
-Who has the power to win the problem defnition/ What are their interests/
8alues/
-Who controls the resources to create interventions/
-Who openly has the power/ %overtly/
2gency-based practice, 2nd !rofessions
-#efne - this means you work for someone.
-2uspices determine problem defnition and political details. In the real world,
you don't start from scratch in an abstract manner.
-9nder what conditions will agencies do this work/ Why is this agency doing
this intervention/
-problem defnition is nested within the possibilities of your particular
agency. 4' - substance abuse with the homeless.
-needs assessment for funding, politics, contract.
-intervention strategy will call upon e'isting strengths.
-interorganization e$orts to enhance specifc aspects of your agency.
"roposal ( how did you come to know this! )gency e%perience? community, personal
e%perience? formal needs assessment techni1ues ( research te%t.
:ood to present some systemati-ed way of knowing.
3r can propose to begin with needs assessment ( not a good idea practically.
"resentation ( no need for detailed tables. Dlear, cogent fact for each important point.
Intervention -ypothesis
@K
-hen to the cause of the problem. What brought about this state of a$airs,
and what are you going to do about it/ )bviously, your answer to this
,uestion is based on your problem defnition and target population defnition.
-%ause : theory
Who is it a problem for/
-welfare dependence
-teen pregnancy
-crime.
-se' crimes - protect the community.
(+asic format ( rational cause and effect approach. distinguish between effect 5the problem; and
cause.
('f=then structure
(Dause=effect link
(&ultiple cause=effect links ( may be alternatives, may be cumulative, may be se1uential
(hat are the values and beliefs underlying each cause=effect link!
"roblem statementA problem in pop, in area, with these conse1uences, occurs because.....,
+e careful not to overstateA <some, <in part, <reduce
Intervention addresses the relationship between cause and e$ect. What,
why, and how.
Therefore, we will.... resulting in....
)s with a research hypothesis, results need to be ob2ective and measurable.
&ission, goals, ob2ectives, activities, outcomes
Tree structure ( like an outline.
&ission
(+ased on problem definition.
(Specific enough = vague enough.
(Target population. :oals. Services.
("olitical ( build support and consensus.
(Nalue stance of the agency
(Sets parameters ( are things within the mission!
:oals ( one idea, potentially measurable. 3utcomes, not process.
3b2ectives ( outcome ( includes time frame, target, result and measure. &easurable.
"rocess ob2ectives ( activities. hat is done to achieve the ob2ectives. 7eed two levels! "robably
not.
ill be done to the level of units of service in your proposal.
) structure of detail ( be very careful.
0ach level comprehensive and mutually e%clusive.
@M
&+3 ( management by ob2ectives.
Some organi-ations have a fully developed, very organi-ed and specific goals=ob2ective
structure. 6own to the level of individuals, who are then evaluated on meeting the goals.
"resentation of goals=ob2ectives structure.
(Tree
(3utline
(3thers ( :anntt chart, if time is important.
'n real world ( use of missions! )re goals=ob2ectives used!
Real world problems
(0thics article ( whose goals! Dan an agency goals=ob2ective structure reflect the goals of all
participants!
(7eed to have a public document ( purpose becomes symbolic rather than realistically guiding
agency behavior.
(7eed to be vague, so can be responsive
(7eed for secrecy ( competitiveness. hidden goals.
Lect"re 1# 4rogram !esign and 6o. 7e-!esign
Oob or work re(design
Oob # individual worker
ork # flow of work among workers
Still looking at structure of the organi-ation, but at a smaller unit of analysis. $nit of analysis is
the individual 2ob rather than the organi-ation.
Gook at the 2ob ( the task that needs to be done. )ctual vs. ideal.
'ndications of work design problem ( morale or poor productivity.
>irst look at other possible causes ( leadership, resources, personnel, overall org structure,
mismatch between mission, intervention hypotheses and activities.
) matter of matching a number of elements to the actual work of a particular 2ob to ensure
mutual appropriateness.
)dvantages of this process.
(focuses on the core purpose of the organi-ation ( the interface between people and task.
(can change worker behavior when other approaches fail ( because is driven by the task.
(can empower staff in other arenas.
To what e%tent involve staff in 2ob re(design! Donsistent with overall management style. +ut
knowledge of the actual 2ob depends on the input of workers. 's a good opportunity to facilitate
worker decision(making.
@H
7eed to look at effects overall ( throughout organi-ation, need for training, effect on clients, etc.
System perspective
7eed to assess a good time for 2ob redesign ( stable period. "art of a larger strategic planning
process.
Gook at 2ob ( match actual work, what one is actually doing, withA
(ob2ectives ( what is supposed to be accomplished.
(knowledge and skills of workers.
(level of independence in decision(making.
(availability of appropriate technologies.
(proper definition for staff of 2ob and responsibilities.
(demands of accountability ( &'S, contracts, etc.
(resources ( not 2ust amount, but type. 0%A need for Spanish(speaking staff.
SolutionsA
Dhange the 2ob (
(2ob enlargement ( less speciali-ed, less compartmentali-ed.
(2ob enrichment ( more decision(making independence.
(work conditions ( fle%time, telecommuting, etc.
(use computers ( better info(sharing.
Dhange the people (
(2ob rotation ( less boredom? trade(off is less speciali-ed e%pertise.
(teams
(training!
(re(assignment
(firing
6etails depend on e%isting org structure. 0%amples from Fettner.
Real world practical problem of making changes within constraints of organi-ation ( 2ob
descriptions, etc. These are fre1uently determined by legislation, regulation, contracts, etc.
+ack to my e%ample of a firm with multiple depts.
Gook at 6D>S caseworker 2ob. hen, what, where. ho ( 1ualifications. speciali-ation= generic.
(authority ( role of courts.
(separate law enforcement functions.
(level of professionali-ation.
(give caseworkers more authority.
(e1uipment ( cell phones, laptops, gps.
The issue of professionals keeps coming up. hat do you change! The 2ob or the staff! 'ssue of
professionali-ing public child welfare.
@I
"rogram design
"rogram design is a continuation of material on goals=ob2ectives ( translates into program design.
'n conte%t of organi-ational structure.
'nputs
Dlients, staff, resources, facilities, e1uipment. 'mportant for budget.
(clients ( from problem definition. ho gets in!
(definition of problem ( measure to compare with outputs. >or evaluation.
(staff ( skills necessary per problem.
Throughputs
The services provided. *ow to define!
(material ( food, blanket, brochure
(episode ( not time(related, e.g., referral, hotline call, arrest.
(time ( M month transitional program.
(time(defined episode, e.g., therapy session.
here and how will services be provided!
(intensity of service ( units of service per time.
(length of service ( time in program. time in program components.
(total service L intensity % length.
(need intakes controlled at a pace for staff to handle.
(need outputs controlled at a pace for staff, and for referral outs.
(number of intakes=hours per intake=staff necessary.
(units of service 5te%t counts as outputs;.
>or presentation, need flow chart! ( if se1uential. ". //I. 3therwise maybe duplicates activities
from goals=ob2ectives.
3utputs
hen is a service complete! )t a level of problem(solving. )t a period of time! )t clients
choice!
(output ( client level at discharge per measurement of problem
(outcome ( client difference from input in measurement of problem
@9
Lect"re 11# &anaging !ata
This is a transitional time in the recording and dissemination of service info. +ecause of
computers.
(Garger systems under development ( very e%pensive.
(>iles contain many duplicative forms because of multiple services=departments.
(6evelopment of ad hoc systems ( local, by whom! >or whom!
(7o client(based system.
Reality is way behind the possibilities. *ow will it develop! ho will be in charge!
3pportunity for leadership in this area. 3pportunity for money.
>rom computers, more information possibly available than could ever be used. ho decides
what gets collected! *ow! hy!
)dministrative practice ( devote the time and e%pertise that this issue should have. 0asy to gloss
over these issues. 0specially as a necessary evil.
hy collect data!
0%ternal data ( from task environment ( political, demographic, innovative. >rom Fettner.
Seems pretty idealistic to track systematically
'nternal ( non(program. Gewis ( housekeeping.
(planning
(human resources ( staff and volunteers
(finances
(track e1uipment, etc.
'nternal ( decision(making. >rom Gewis
Domputeri-ed models to drive case and administrative decision(making.
'nternal ( program. )ccountability. "erformance.
>orms have 4 purposes
(record useful information
(ensure that a particular service is given or 1uestion asked ( structure staff work. 'n conte%t of
organi-ation control. To ensure that the decisions made at the front(lines are the desired
decisions. 57ot ade1uately discussed in the te%t.;
>orm as a rule of conduct.
( supervision to ensure that service tasks are implemented
( funding sources ensure that services are given
( legal rights of clients
( legal obligations of staff
E8
/. hat is mandated to know!
( funders, contracts
( +oard
( legal overseers
4. hat gives a good picture to outsiders of the agency ( "R. Simple, clear, impressive. "er
mission of program.
)lso, give a picture to outsiders of the problems of the population. Dontacted by political
advocates for both data and anecdotes.
@. hat would we like to know, given our intervention hypotheses ( program evaluation, what is
working, how much work are we doing. >eedback to agency and to staff.
"roblem is to streamline among these @ imperatives. So you want <common denominator among
funding sources, etc.
)lso ask what basic information is needed that may not be asked by funding sources.
Dase file as a metaphor of relations between organi-ation and environment ( new form for every
e%ternal constituent.
+uilds over time ( cumulative. 'n conte%t of rationali-ed and politici-ed services.
Dollecting information is very time(consuming, therefore e%pensive. Nery resented by staff and
clients.
'ssue of relations with staff. +ottom(up design of systems? feedback trouble(shooting. 7eeds to
be useful to staff in terms of how they are doing, and how the agency is doing.
Gike any other administrative problem ( staff buy(in. )sk input where useful. 0%plain where
there is no choice.
6anger is that data collection is tangential ( 2ust a chore, unrelated to the <real work.
Technology, in particular, is threatening to clinicians. +elief is cant get at <real work. 's a
management tool for control. 's alienating and destructive. +eyond paper paperwork.
)dministrator has to demonstrate the usefulness of information to staff. Regular feedback. *ow
are we doing!
*ow are data used! 'f for performance and accountability, someone has to look at it, and use it
for improvement ( feedback. Dontractors. Staff. Dlients. +oard. "ublic.
hat data collect!
'n conte%t of program design ( e%tension of what we have been covering.
's the agency providing the services! 's the agency accomplishing its outputs and outcomes!
+asically, you count thingsA
'nputsA
(client demographics, economics, etc. hat do we want to know about clients! )bout the
community! >or acceptance to program. >or assessment=treatment. >or evaluation ( for what
type of clients is the program most successful!
E/
ThroughputsA
(staff is busy. units of service ( all types ( however defined.
(seeing a lot of clients ( number intakes, served=month, number placed somewhere, etc.
(stuff given out ( meals, bus tickets, etc.
3utcomesA
(effectiveness ( number of outcomes, rate of outcomes, types of outcomes
(cost per each of the above ( can spread cost over all of these units.
(client=community satisfaction surveys.
(staff satisfaction surveys
"roblem is validity of the information. 'f you are measuring the wrong things, the agency will
look bad. Dlose to goals and ob2ectives.
*ow collect data! >orms
(purpose of form. hat data needed!
(who collects data! >ills out the form!
(when! *ow often!
"roblem is fle%ibility ( changes over time. 0asiest to 2ust add form.
"roblem is duplication, especially over time. +ut otherwise change entire system for every new
program=contract.
"roblem of unduplicated clients. T of intakes, T of services, but how many unduplicated clients!
+iggest problem is creating a client(based system. )ggregate data, with no possibility to make
comparisons. Dompare services=demographics with outcomes for basic evaluation info.
Re(visit the issue at regular intervals, including all staff. 's time(consuming and e%pensive, but is
worth it. Gewis describes the process of re(design.
Domputeri-ation
0lectronic data bases ( replace paper files.
(can force input patterns ( re1uired info. Dan irritate staff.
(can force data. 's the computer collecting what is easy to collect, or what is really useful!
(how much itemi-e ( like research. Dheck(off for ethnicity! >or symptoms leading to d%, or
narrative for d%! "roblem check(list!
(can aggregate, so case(based info can be made available at each level ( supervisor, agency,
policy, etc. Solve problem above of moving group info to individual files. *ow!
(solve problem of warehouse of charts. +ut how store old data! *ow access it! hat about
software and hardware changes!
(problem ( history. 3verwrite earlier info. T of children, etc.
(fle%ibility ( how change system! *ow retain earlier data!
E4
Time problems ( history of case, and fle%ibility to program changes are neglected in the reading.
6ifficult to describe e%actly how to do an &'S system outside of the conte%t of a particular
software system.
System of linkages up and down = backwards and forwards.
>ace sheet links to individual services = finances = demographics = etc. within the case
:roup services aggregate for the group ( also link to individual clients.
'ndividual client files need to link on many fields to aggregate data. 3n different levels.
'ssue of organi-ation culture ( moving to computeri-ation. Relates to other agency uses of
computers.
(internal communication. Top(down, bottom(up, parallel, informal
(access to resource databases ( placements, etc. Donnection with other large orgs, 6&*, etc.
(access to 'nternet ( an issue.
(administrative monitoring.
'ssue of confidentiality of client data. Ginked government data bases. ho has access!
'ssue of professionalism
(positive association ( technologically advanced
(negative association ( restricts professional choice
"resentation of data ( for different constituents. +oard, contract monitors, financial auditors,
internal agency use ( compare staff, programs, over time.
E@
Lect"re 12# Financial management
) budget is a plan ( guides=predicts behavior. )s such is integral to the program development
plan.
+udgets are particularly difficult for non(profits because have to balance out L 8, no profit.
*urrying to spend U at the end of the year, cant roll over funds.
3ften an administrative issue because of lack of transparency. Salaries, contracts, etc. secret!
'dea of having money hidden=withheld=padded. *ow to be transparent without losing fle%ibility.
's the incentive to ma%imi-e budget, therefore be inefficient, compared to business!
:etting money
7eed a plan here, need to predict revenues.
:overnment(funding. 3n(going stream of funding ( 6D>S, 6&*. +ut sub2ect to annual review
and change. ) political process.
0ntitlement ( not capped.
Dlient fee ( $se of individual entitlements for agency reimbursement. &ediDal. :R=SS' for
housing
Dontracts ( contracting out services that otherwise government would do. U from government
)ccountability ( closely monitored. Time(limited. >unds ear(marked for specific purposes.
ays of payment ( by cost, by unit of service, by outcome. *ow do you figure these costs within
the agency ( include overhead! *ow much!
Dan then subcontract.
'ssue is are you reimbursed enough. &andated to provide services, but not paid enough.
3verhead=indirect!!
'ssue is when you get the money. $sually need ongoing operating, start(up funds, because get
paid after the fact.
:rants ( additional services
"ublic or private ( foundations. >re1uently pro2ect(based, i.e., not good for ongoing. Dan be less
monitoring=accountability
Dlient fees
participation fees ( symbolic, get buy(in.
third party fees ( above ( use of individual entitlements and other insurance.
EE
6onations
'ndividual ( board members, etc.
&ail, etc.
0vents
Re1uire up(front e%penditures, but result in funds that are not ear(marked, and do not have time
limits for spending.
6evelop an endowment.
'n(kind ( not money. Gabor, services, or goods.
Dapital campaigns
for buildings. separate revenues=separate budget. 6ifferent time frame.
Spending money
)pplying revenues to your set of goals=ob2ectives=activities=units of service, etc.
$sing info collected through your &'S system.
Dan get cost per program, staff, function, units of service, outcomes.
'ssue of multiple >,s. +udgeting is a plan? plan needs time frame. *ow to set up timeframe for
budgets! :ets to above problem of having funds on(hand. &ultiple and overlapping budget years
( inherently, and because of differing start and stop times of contracts=grants. 'ssue of
<borrowing money from one grant to move to another.
+udgets
revenue or e%pense ( predict money coming in or money going out. 0%penditures L revenues.
Gine(item budget 7umerous e%amples in both te%ts.
) line for every type of e%penditure. Staff ( salary, benefits. Rent. Supplies.
Dan break(down to varying degree of detail.
7eed reasonable, consistent categories. >ace validity ( this is where you hide money.
Donsistent over time to make comparisons.
7eed to be e%haustive and mutually e%clusive.
:et S of budget for categories, so targets for cuts or increases.
>unctional=program budget
+egin with line item ( need to know totals for categories.
<Spread these categories over programs ( start with program structure.
)dd program=columns to line(item.
6irect costs.
'ndirect costs ( spread over programs. *ow! 0%A rent ( s1 feet! +y S of direct cost
Dan get at cost per units of service ( anyway you measure it. 0%A per client L intensity=length.
Dan look at cost=outcome.
Gooks like a matri% org chart. 'ssue of indirect costs parallels the issue of how to supervise
different depts, etc.
EK
'ncorporate in(kind into the budget.
Show dollar amount ( how determine!
'ncreases efficiency and effectiveness.
+udget 2ustification=narrative.
)dministrative issues
+udget is a plan ( use it that way. Donsistent with rest of org planning documents. Gook ahead.
+udget is an evaluation ( reach goals! $se it that way. Gook back
+e transparent=accountable. )dministrators use it inappropriately as a control function. <Theres
no money for that. &ysterious.
*ow much decentrali-e fund(raising! )llow units of org to do own fund(raising! +ake sale.
)llow programs to be developed=implemented with relative independence if self(funding
>inancial reports, audits. Re(budget. 6anger in incrementalism ( like data collection, you
gradually move away from agency goals. Vero(based budgeting ( start over, by making the case
for importance over again.
+udget presentations ( depends on your audience. Routine transparency to staff, +oard and
public for comparisons over time.
*ow much detail! hich detail! hat format!
Fnowledge of administrator ( depends on si-e of org ( as gets bigger, more speciali-ation.
(Role of +oard, other planning processes in establishment of funding priorities ( mission=goals.
(6egree of fle%ibility to respond to new funding opportunities. Donsistent with mission! *ow
much independence do you have!
()ccounting knowledge ( retain oversight, dont get snowed by details. 'f lose track, will lose
ability to manager org. "lus you are responsible. )ccountant needs detailed info you dont have (
accounting principles, rules=laws, preparing reports.
(*ire fund(raiser. :rant(writer. 6onor solicitor. 0vent coordinator. hich functions! *ow many
functions! &aintain oversight=control. These all occur in a political conte%t. +e the point person
for all political=community interactions.
()bove is e%pensive. 7eed money to raise money. here does this money come from!
("roblem of managing multiple revenue streams with overlapping timeframes.
(6iversification of funding sources ( issue of org survival re diversification.
(+udget ad2ustments. &onitor during the year so can hit 8 ( dont spend too much or too little.
Fnow which pools of money need to be spent. *ave long(view so can look ahead. Spend e%tra
money on supplies for ne%t year.
(Gook ahead ( long view, Donnects to role of admin as scanning the environment. ( demographic
and service changes, also political trends.
(+ut be careful that funds dont drive the agency. Role of administrator as vision.
EM
Lect"re 1'# 4ersonnel &anagement
*R issues are a great window into a culture. hat is the value of work! The value of an
individual!
hat role does an organi-ation play in the lives of people and society apart from 2ust getting the
2ob done!
*iring, supervising, terminating may be up to 98S of a 2ob. Dertainly the most important and
most related to success.
0specially hiring ( who you hire determines most of the success of a program.
>or $S, were increasingly moving toward a rationali-ed system ( reliance on regulations and
legalisms.
'ssue of fairness permeates *R issues ( what are the rights = obligations of individuals in the
conte%t of work settings.
This is mediated by rules, laws, negotiations.
*R is a legal morass. hy we need *R departments ( really legal overseers. 7eed to listen to
them, respect the fairness of the law ( e1uity.
6ocument, document, document ( 2ob announcement=description, selection criteria, interview
1uestions, reasons for hiring=not hiring. ork performance. Terminating.
+e consistent ( same everything applies to everybody.
*iring
*ow do you get good employees!
(Fnow what traits you are looking for. 6epends on you as a manager? on the 2ob. &anagement
style, org structure, type of work ( professional, etc. )mount of collegiality, teamwork re1uired.
3rgani-ation culture and philosophy ( will this person fit in! Dontradictory to diversity!
(6ont wait and see what shows up to decide what you want.
(Oob description ( level of detail
(problem of working with e%isting categories of the agency
(problem of leaving room for development.
Recruitment.
(formal ( document and be consistent. here advertise, for how long, etc!
(informal ( constant for a manager. 'dentify people in task environment who are potential
employees. ) good manager is always in hire mode.
( problem ( this limits the pool ( affirmative action ( need to cast a very wide net.
( 's a 2ob <wired!
EH
"roblem ( not how to include an individual ( should not make that commitment, only include
individuals in the pool.
+ut how to e%clude someone you dont want, but meets all re1uirements.
Gike any system ( need to both respect the process and use it effectively.
"romote before hire from outside. +e clear ahead of time. *ave priority, or have to apply! ( Dan
be a problem.
*aving an ongoing pool. )nticipatory ( formal or informal. "eople interviewed previously.
Feep pool as large as possible, including lists for interviews.
'nvolve other staff ( peers, etc. *ave a committee? be clear re authority, input, etc.
'f one person makes the decision, should be the last decision ( from a small group acceptable to
the committee.
)s manager, dont second(guess hiring decisions of those below you. )sk for choices, but dont
veto.
*ave clear criteria for acceptance=re2ection at each stage of process.
+alance ( e%clude, while including enough to ensure a good candidate. 7ot 2ust numbers but
1ualities.
here recruit! hat do you want! Students! 0%perienced! >ocus on academic=professional
sources.
)pplications ( get enough information to make initial selections ( basic criteria, education and
e%perience
3ffice visits ( be open to input from secretaries, etc.
'nterviews.
Questions ahead of time. Same 1uestions, time frame, interviewers ( cant rotate people.
)pplicants are interviewing you as well. :ive them an opportunity to ask 1uestions, and note the
1uestions ( an indication of priorities.
Re protected categories ( dont ask. Re age, etc. $nless part of 2ob, e.g., Spanish(speaking.
*ow to tell ( age from college graduation=e%perience, ethnicity=gender from associations.
:ood info for applicants.
)ffirmative action. 'n recruitment process. 'nformal=unstated.
'ssue of value of diversity.
(homogeneity can lead to easier org to administer, and may be preferable under certain
circumstances.
(fairness ( not to e%clude people for inherent traits.
(compensation ( redress for historically e%cluded groups. 5me ( if all else e1ual.;
EI
(heterogeneity as org advantage. )ble to relate to outside constituents. Dultural and language
match. )lso symbolic.
(difference as a real and useful factor. 'ndividuals bring perspectives to the group that change the
way the group operates.
Dhecking references.
(Gaw has made it almost a useless practice. B6ont ask or answer sub2ective 1uestions.C hat
value ( 2ust to check facts!
(*as potential to be the most valuable part.
(*ave a list of 1uestions and be consistent. )sk ( how does this person resolve conflict! ork
best alone=or in teams!
(Real issue is informal. Talk to supervisors not listed by the applicant! Talk to others who knew
him=her or worked with him! 3f course, but where are the boundaries. "otential for lawsuit.
("roblem is to have the written record reflect the decision.
6ont tell people not hired until the position is filled. *ave to tell if made each step of the
process!
hen tell people not hired, not tell why, dont tell who, keep options for open for future 2obs.
*iring ( put in the time and effort. 6ont cut corners. 6ont compromise. &ost important thing
you will do as a manager.
Supervising
Domment from 6D>S worker ( a good supervisor is an absent supervisor. B'f you see your
supervisor, you know youve done something wrong.C
hat are the traits of a good supervisor! ) bad supervisor!
hat are the traits of a good employee! ) bad employee!
here the rubber meets the road. 0verything we talk about in this class ( all aspects of
administration ( come down to supervision. 'f you cant work with employees to accomplish
goals, nothing will be accomplished.
*ow do you reward and punish employees!
Nery difficult in social service agencies. Theres little to offer.
3verall sense of e1uity ( everyone deserves the same regardless of performance.
Gongevity counts.
'ssue of unions ( enforce fairness, but not 1uality and individual achievement.
*ow positively reward! 6ifficult in most instances. "ay scales are usually not merit. 3ther perks,
such as conferences, etc. have to be given out e1uitably.
)void playing favorites.
E9
,ou want to motivate people through persuasive techni1ues ( motivation, shared interests,
enthusiasm for the goals, collegiality, rewards of teamwork, rewards of good work, rewards of
org and=or client achievement.
+ut relying on the above can lead one to neglect the formal process. Seems not only useless, but
counter(productive. This is a mistake. 6o both.
"ersonal needs ( e%trinsic rewards. &oney, benefits, fle% time, child care, time off for children,
bring kids to work, etc. social needs.
"rofessional self(actuali-ation ( intrinsic rewards. )chievement of professional goals, sense of
efficacy. *ow reward! Show that these achievements are important to the organi-ation. Simple
attention, e%pressions of appreciation. )ppreciation from those above ( works great. Recognition
at meetings ( public.
"roblem ( individual achievements consistent with organi-ations mission=goals.
eve talked about 2ob design ( not supervising the employee, but structuring the work in such a
way that it is satisfying.
>airness throughout ( perception of lack of fairness is very demorali-ing. 7eed a transparent
process, and level playing field. "roblem is that people perceive themselves as not being treated
fairly.
3rientation and training ( spend a lot of time with new employees. ,ou and peers. Dheck in
often, but have them learn from peers. +e consistent among employees ( anything you do can
and will be used against you when time comes to fire.
Training ( does it matter! *ow can we afford it! ho goes! &andatory!
+est to incorporate into regularly scheduled meetings. Dase reviews, outside e%perts. Nery
grounded in the actual work and needs of employees.
+e inclusive ( staff from all levels. $se choice of topics, etc. to reinforce whatever your
administrative messages are.
3utside training. "ay for! +e fair and consistent. Support getting a degree! Dommitment to
agency!
Staff development ( nurturing and mentoring staff. 0%plicitly work with them to set goals, then
help them to prepare for those goals within the organi-ation.
Gicensing supervision.
hat activities help them meet their own goals! Dontact with &.6s or others. 3utreach. ant to
become administrators. 6esign 2ob and work to meet these goals ( even if work toward person
leaving.
"roblem ( maintaining e1uity. 7eed to understand that is in conte%t of career goals.
"roblem ( bureaucracy, 2ob descriptions, etc. can make all of this difficult. <working out of class.
)ssignments given as rewards become punishments.
K8
Se%ual harassment. 0veryone needs to feel comfortable.
'ssue of overall organi-ation knowing about peer problems.
Quid pro 1uo ( not 2ust se%ual. 3ther kinds of favors=conflicts. )gain, perception of fairness.
Dultural tolerance. Se%ual orientation. 6isability. Same thing ( feel comfortable.
orkmens compensation
Separate out clinical and administrative supervision! 7o. )t least overlap considerably.
Supervisor as mediator between administrative and clinical demands.
&eet with each staff regularly. *ow regularly! Too often! Geave time for some comfort ( not
pressed. $ndocumented meetings
'nformal walking around. ,es, but dont disrespect the formal structure and process. )n addition,
not a substitution. $ndocumented meetings.
6ocumentation.
(>ollow the formal review process. Take it seriously. 'f you ignore it because <its not necessary.
everybodys doing great. you will never be able to fire or promote anyone.
(7o one is perfect. Geave room for documented goals and improvements. 'ncorporate career
development goals identified above.
('t feels good to give everyone glowing reviews in the absence of real rewards, but is eventually
self(defeating.
()t subse1uent meetings, begin with the previous review. Dontinuity=
(>unction ( to improve performance.
(Should be connected to organi-ational goals=ob2ectives=activities. *opefully numeric, but dont
be afraid to (include <soft issues ( get along with others, etc.
(&ust be behavioral ( changeable, not personality.
(7ot too much all at once. Smaller time frames if necessary.
(7egotiable to a certain e%tent ( issue is does employee understand, then accept, the evaluation.
("roblem(solving ( working with employee to make progress ( setting priorities, partiali-ing the
2ob, more resources, info, training, etc. 'dentify barriers ( help to overcome.
('ssue ( persuade or direct order
K/
(Donfidentiality ( employee should be comfortable to divulge personal problems affecting work?
know that information and evaluation will not be shared with others.
("roblem ( where does your info come from!
('ssue ( where does the evaluation go! To personnel ( official file! To your boss! 6ont have
your decisions second(guessed. 6iscuss ahead of time.
('ssue ( how become supervisor over your peers! Relationship changes ( deal with it. 7o longer
your peers. 7o longer your friends ( can be a problem. &ove to another unit or 2ob. *ow deal
with informal culture!
*owever, respect confidences from the past ( dont penali-e your peers for previous relation.
Supervision will only be effective with the willingness of employees to be supervised. +oth sides
need to buy into the process, or the supervision will not be effective.
To get buy(inA
(fair ( compares with others.
(clear ( re org, limits, responsibility, etc.
(confidence of those above you
(empathic=supportive ( need to listen
(knowledgeable ( agency, management, and clinical
"rocess is individuali-edA
(sup ( style, goals, personality, etc.
(situation ( agency structure, goals, and particular time
(employee ( style, personality, etc.
"roblem ( how to s1uare with link(pin, matri% orgs. *ow 2oin individuali-ed supervision with the
need for teamwork and pro2ect coordination.
"roblem of boundaries ( move as much as possible to the group, but be very careful about what
is personal and confidential
>iring
"robationary period! $se it. &ore documentation necessary. +e clear about it ( youre not hired
until probationary period is up.
)ll employees can improve, and all evaluation procedures are taken completely seriously.
7eed for turnover ( break(down of mutual problem(solving of supervisory relationship.
'f approaching problems that can threaten employment ( accelerate time frame of evaluations,
but according to policy. 'dentify problem, how to solve it, provide resources necessary to resolve
it, respond to employees stated needs for resources.
K4
7o surprises ( employee wakes up in the identified morning knowing he will be fired.
+e real ( genuinely needs opportunity to improve. 'f you are determined to get rid of the
employee, no matter what ( you have a problem.
+e sure your back is covered ( your boss knows what is happening and agrees.
+e sure your *R people are trouble(shooting.
+urnout! 0)" on site ( need to formali-e their use.
>iring someone. +e brief, clear. Gisten, but dont get into it. ,our goal is to have the person
leave, not understand or accept the leaving.
Severance period ( U, but dont leave on the 2ob. 'ssue of client termination ( can be a huge
problem. 6o it! 7ot necessarily.
+e consistent with the process for other employees, especially those who are not problems.
Dheck with your supervisor, and the *R legals ( overall system and specific instances.
Some people on contracts that are routinely renewed, but dont have to be.
Temp hires, etc. ay the org can distance itself from all of the above problems. 'f you have no
permanent employees, you have much less problems.
't may seem that firing someone is impossible ( because of burden of time, paperwork and stress.
'ts worth doing, even if it fails. >or morale reasons.
Real life firing
(transferring, promoting.
(counseling out
(lay(offs ( structured to get rid of the people you dont want. *ave policies ahead of time.
(tolerating them
(isolating them ( less work, etc.
Serious morale problems with all of these. 3ther staff complain about overt disciplinary actions,
but it is best.
Turnover ( good or bad!
(0mployees that leave on good terms, e.g., promotion, going to school, often remain in the same
task environment and are allies. The functional community is larger than your organi-ation.
('mportant lesson for applicants as well.
(Turnover brings in new ideas and energy.
(:ood idea to have a balance between new=old. Gong(terms= 2ust passing through. 'nterns.
*ow much is supervising staff like doing clinical work!
hat overlaps!
hat is different!
K@
Lect"re 10# 4rogram eval"ation
'f you have problem statement? mission=goals=ob2ectives? program planning=activities=flow?
&'S=data management? money management=budgeting? then evaluating is mostly done.
3nce youve got to this point, evaluation is not a problem.
6id you implement your activities!
6id you achieve your ob2ectives!
*ow much did it cost!
$se data from your &'S system.
"rocess evaluation
(1uantitative. 0ffort. ere the services provided! +y whom! To whom ( attributes of clients!
Dount things. 'ntensity, length of service, etc? &aterial services. "rocess ob2ectives.
(1ualitative. 6iscussion, interviews, observations. Trouble(shooting, problem(solving. hat were
the reasons for success! >or falling short! ere ob2ectives unrealistic!
3utcome evaluation
(outputs ( T completing the program.
(outcome ( level of change from input. Dan be merged with output. 7umber of sober people?
number of homeless people get housing. &* ( drop(outs, failures!, successes.
Dost ( divide costs into above. +e careful what goes into cost. "arameters of program? issue of
indirect? in(kind.
'mportant for use in comparing to other agencies.
(cost=efficiency ( cost=effort. cost per service ( however measured.
(cost=effectiveness ( cost=successful outcome.
+eyond the agency ( not likely to do.
(impact ( re1uires e%perimental design. 0stablishes that changes are due to program, not to
various threats to internal validity ( maturation, etc.
(ade1uacy of performance. "re=post community needs assessment. 6ont do. Sets the bar too
high. Too many threats to validity.
(cost=benefit ( beyond the scope of program planning.
)ctual use of evaluations by manager.
(hy! Reasons not to evaluate.
(3utside forces ( contracts, your boss, community recognition ( all give you feedback ( not
maybe what you want to know, and forced on you
hy! (Reasons to evaluate.
('mprove services? improve 1uality of work conditions.
(Gearning comes from mismatch between goals and actions, then feedback loop. This becomes
obscured for many reasons ( cover(ups, hide failures.
KE
(3pen communication, problem(solving structure and culture, bottom(up, culture of
reward=punishment ( need to not punish failure
(Time(frame ( continuous, not locked into fiscal years.
(6epends on management style, decision(making, etc. Ginking(pin, pro2ect teams, etc.
1uantitative data is used as raw material.
>inal issues for courseA
(generic skills ( how is management like other practice! *ow different!
(matching things ( appropriateness of what youre doing, given circumstances ( systems thinking.
(diversity. 01uity. +asic tolerance and respect for others. &atch with env. $sing diversity as an
integral part of the agency.
(transparency ( little or no need for secrets. e%ception is personnel confidentiality. planning,
budgeting, evaluating should be open process.
KK