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SOCIAL MEDIA NEOLOGISMS: A MORPHO-

SEMANTIC ANALYSIS



BY

ONYEDUM, AKUNNA
MATRIC. NO: 119013031


A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF
ENGLISH, UNIVERSITY OF LAGOS, AKOKA, IN PARTIAL
FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR HE AWARD
OF A MASTER OF ARTS (M.A.) DEGREE IN ENGLISH


NOVEMBER, 2012




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CERTIFICATION

I certify that this study was carried out by


ONYEDUM, AKUNNA
Matric. No: 119013031

Of the Department of English, University of Lagos, Akoka, under my supervision, as part of
the requirements for the award of the Master of Arts degree in English



------------------------------------------
Supervisor
DR. SOLA OSOBA
Department of English
University of Lagos





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DEDICATION
This work is dedicated to my parents, Benson and Mary for their unflinching support from
my birth up to this stage of my academic life.

























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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to thank my supervisor, Dr. Sola Osoba, for his invaluable comments, helpful
suggestions and the time he devoted to supervising my thesis; and my loving friends for
lending me the materials I needed for its successful completion.






















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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter One
1.0. Introduction----------------------------------------------------------7
1.1. Statement of Problem--------------------------------------8
1.2. Objectives of the Study------------------------------------8
1.3. Scope of the Study------------------------------------------8
1.4. Definition of Key Terms-----------------------------------9
1.5. Theoretical Framework and Methodology--------------11
1.6. Research Limitations---------------------------------------11
Chapter Two
2.0. Literature Review----------------------------------------------------12
2.1. The English Vocabulary-----------------------------------12
2.2. Lexeme-------------------------------------------------------14
2.3. Vocabulary Change in English---------------------------15
2.4. English for Specific Purpose (ESP)/ Registers---------20
2.5. Neologisms--------------------------------------------------22
2.6. Neologisms and the Dictionary---------------------------27
2.7. Social Networking/ Media--------------------------------30
2.8. Morphology and Word-formation------------------------32
2.9. Lexical Semantics------------------------------------------43
Chapter Three
3.0. Theoretical Framework and Methodology-----------------------46
3.1. Computer-Mediated Communication (CMC) Theory-47
3.2. Onomasiological Theory of Word-Formation----------52
3.3. The Theory of Lexical Semantics------------------------57
3.4. Methodology------------------------------------------------60

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Chapter Four
4.0. Data Presentation and Analysis-----------------------------------64
4.1. Data Presentation------------------------------------------64
4.2. Data Analysis-----------------------------------------------68
4.2.1. Qualitative Data Analysis------------------------87
4.2.2. Quantitative Data Analysis-----------------------87
4.3. Discussion---------------------------------------------------103
Chapter Five
5.0. Conclusion------------------------------------------------------------105
5.1. Findings------------------------------------------------------106
5.2. Significance of the Study----------------------------------108
5.3. Contributions to Scholarship------------------------------108















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CHAPTER ONE
Introduction
This study is set against the background of recent technological advancements in internet-
based communication and its corresponding effect on the English vocabulary. Linguist David
Crystal once expressed his belief that the internet would be the trend to have the greatest
impact on the English Language in the 21st century. (Crystal, 2005) The use of internet and
telecommunication technologies have truly shaped the way we communicate, contributing to
the development of a whole new variety that defines internet culture. This study focuses on
social media, revealing the new words that have been created as a result of social networking
online.
Social networking sites (SNSs) such as Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn and YouTube have
attracted millions of English-speaking users who connect and communicate via the internet,
using both computers and mobile devices. This has largely expanded the English vocabulary.
Apple and Blackberry are no longer just fruits anymore and medical term tablets now
belongs to the social media register too. The lower-case is in ascendance, the symbol @ has
flourished, the full-stop has been re-interpreted as the dot and entire trends have been
refreshed by prefixes like e-, techno, tele and cyber. Meanings of well-known words
have shifted dramatically (e.g. surf, add, friend, like, follow, spam, post, share, web), while
the English vocabulary has expanded to accommodate totally new ones.
Thus, the primary purpose of this study is to investigate these neologisms in the lexical
system of Modern English and reveal the major trends taking place within the processes of
their formation and meaning.


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1.1. Statement of Problem
The lexical system of modern English as it is represented in the social media has been
neglected as a field of study. Many English speakers are unaware of what social media
neologisms mean. Against this background, this study is guided by the following questions:
i. What word-classes and word-formation processes are inherent in the creation of these
neologisms?
ii. What do the neologisms mean?
iii. Which word-formation process is most common in the creation of social media
neologisms?
iv. Which word-class is the most common among the neologisms?
1.2. Objectives of the Study
The objectives of this study are as follows:
i. To delineate the social media neologisms to reveal their meanings, word-classes and
formation
ii. To foreground the word-formation process and word-class of each of the social media
neologisms
iii. To distinguish the most common word-class and word-formation process among
social media neologisms

1.3. Scope of the Study
There are a plethora of words in use among speakers of English, but this study will focus on
neologisms only. Among neologisms, it will maintain within its scope only the new words
that stem from social media, concentrating its analysis on their formation, word-classes and
meanings.


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1.4. Definition of Key Terms
1.4.1 Social Media
Social media refer to Internet- and telecommunications-based tools for sharing and discussing
information among human beings. It is a typical blend of technology and social interaction
for the co-creation of social value. It is a term used to refer to a category of networks that is
based on user participation and user-generated content and includes social networking sites
like LinkedIn, Facebook, or My Space, social bookmarking sites like Del.icio.us, social news
sites like Digg or Simpy, and other sites that are centred on social networking. It also includes
mobile technology-based communications such as SMS and Instant Messaging (commonly
referred to as chats) like Blackberry Messenger, Yahoo Messenger, etc. The primary aim of
social media is social networking. Social networking is thus known as the act of interacting
with other people in a social online environment through the use of a website or
telecommunications network. Social networking sites describe those websites that enable
users to create public profiles within that website and form relationships with other users of
the same website who access their profiles. Friendships are revived, relationships are fostered
and even businesses are showcased to a very large audience through social media.
1.4.2. Neologisms
New words in the early phase of their life cycle are called neologisms. The Oxford English
Dictionary defines a neologism as a new word or expression; innovation in language. A
more specific and by all means more linguistic definition would be that a neologism is any
word or set expression formed according to the productive word formation rules in English.
(Kubova, 2010) Social media neologisms are coined in this manner. Sometimes, it is not just
the new form that has been created, but this innovation may also emerge in a new use of an
already existing word (e.g. surf, meaning to browse the internet; mac meaning a kind of

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computer). Such neologisms created through general mechanisms of semantic extension are
called metaphors.
1.4.3. Morphology
In linguistics, morphology is the study of the internal structure of words. It also involves the
study of word-formation, which allows us to deduce the properties of one lexeme from those
of one or more other lexemes. In this way, morphology is the branch of linguistics that
studies such patterns of word-formation across and within languages, and attempts to
explicate formal rules reflective of the knowledge of the speakers of those languages.
(Adams, 1973)
1.4.4. Lexical Semantics
The study of words (lexicology) and the study of meaning (semantics) make it very natural
for students of linguistics to interpret the term lexical semantics to mean a more technical
term for word meaning. Lexical semantics is thus simply the study of word meaning, but in
practice, it is often more specifically concerned with the study of lexical (i.e. content) word
meaning, as opposed to the meanings of grammatical (or function words). This means that
lexical semanticists are most interested in the open classes of nouns, verbs and adjective than
with the closed class of prepositions, adverbs and conjunctions. Neologisms typically fall
within this class.





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1.5. Theoretical Framework and Methodology
This study will be situated within the framework of the Computer-Mediated Communication
(CMC) theory because the neologisms under study evolved in large part due to online social
networking (using computers). The aspect of word-formation will investigate morphological
processes and adopt for methodological reasons Pavol Stekauers onomasiological theory of
word-formation, using the Word-formation Component and Lexical Component within the
theory. The Word-Formation Component will account for the creation of entirely new words
while the Lexical Component will account for the creation of neologisms through semantic
extension of existing words. The aspect of semantic analysis of the neologisms collected will
be done within the framework of lexical semantics.

1.6. Research Limitations
The study focused on social media neologisms only; therefore the findings cannot be
generalised. The words examined are only those coined through the use of social networking
tools. If the scope of study had included all computer-mediated neologisms, it may have led
to different data and findings.
Being a multi-disciplinary study encompassing the internet, social networking and language
development, it could not be carried out within the framework of one linguistic theory. The
theory of Computer-Mediated Communications was adopted for the aspect of internet and
social media use; an onomasiological theory accounted for the aspect of word-formation of
the neologisms, while the theory of lexical semantics was adopted to account for the
meanings of the neologisms.


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CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELEVANT LITERATURE
Introduction
This chapter will examine what some scholars have said about the main concepts in this
study. The subject of this study is the prevalent neologism in the lexical system of Modern
English as a result of social networking online. Thus, literature on concepts ranging from the
English vocabulary, lexical changes and neologisms to social networking and the internet will
be reviewed. In a bid to situate this study within a theoretical framework to account for the
form and meaning analysis of the neologisms, literature of concepts such as morphology and
lexical semantics will also be reviewed.
2.1. THE ENGLISH VOCABULARY
In his much-celebrated publication, Modern English Usage, (1983: 16) Henry Fowler,
popularly referred to as The Warden of English states thus: The gift of speech and a well-
ordered vocabulary are characteristic of every known language group.
In accordance with Fowlers assertion, the English vocabulary has a systematic but dynamic
landscape. Words are the basic elements of every language; thus, they are the medium by
which changes occur in a language. The vocabulary is thus said to be the first point of contact
in the process of language change. The vocabulary of a language, the totality of its words, is
also called its lexicon. While many of the details of the English lexicon will be discussed in
detail below, some general discussion of what the lexicon is and what it contains must come
first. These will be examined according to the ideas of various scholars, but first we must
acknowledge the polysemy (the state of having multiple meanings) of the word lexicon.


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According to Murphy (2002: 12), the lexicon can refer to:
- a dictionary, especially a dictionary of a classical language; or
- the vocabulary of a language (also known as lexis); or
- a particular language users knowledge of her/his own vocabulary (mental lexicon)
This study does not include Murphys first meaning above in its scope, we can leave the
study of such dictionaries to students of classical languages. The last two definitions are both
relevant to the study of neologisms. In speaking of the lexicon, different scholars and theories
assume one or the other or the interrelation of both.
Some traditional approaches to the lexicon generally make claims as to whether the lexicon
exists in the mind of people or in the speech community. Taking this perspective on
vocabulary, Anderson (1992) says:
The lexicon is out there in the language community it is the collection of anything and
everything that is used as a word or a set expression by the language community not in
here in the mind of a language user. (1992)
The term mental lexicon is used in order to distinguish this more psychological and
individualistic meaning of lexicon. Clearly though, we have to take into account the fact that
the out there and in here lexicons are interrelated.
Most current approaches to the lexicon attempt to find a balance between out there and the
in here. The continued use of the ambiguous term lexicon is an acknowledgment of the
dual nature of the object of our study, but the terms mental lexicon and lexis are used
wherever disambiguation is needed. This study however is concerned solely with the lexicon
out there in the speech community.

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Having discussed the where of the lexicon, we move on to the what. Stump (2005: 44)
asserts thus:
The things that one knows when one knows a language can be divided into
two categories: the lexical and the grammatical. A grammar is a system of
rules or regularities in a language, and a lexicon is (at the very least) a
collection of linguistic knowledge that cannot be captured by rules. The
lexicon is organized into lexical entries; each of these lexical entries collects
the appropriate information about a particular linguistic expression called a
lexeme.
For the reason that this study is a kind of Lexeme-Based approach to morphology, we will
look at why it is more precise to use the term lexeme rather than word in the study of
lexical meaning. Lets start with this description of lexeme:
2.2. LEXEME
Gregory Stump (2005: 50) in his study of word-formation defines the lexeme thus: A
lexeme is realized by one or more words (whether in the phonological or the grammatical
sense); the full system of words realizing a lexeme is its paradigm.
Lexical words refer to reality in our physical and mental worlds and consist chiefly of nouns,
verbs and adjectives; while grammatical words express relationships within the language
itself and include conjunctions, pronouns, prepositions and articles. The term used for lexical
words is lexeme, which is the designation for the kind of item which is listed and clearly
defined in a dictionary.
As will be shown in the data collected for this study, some of the terms are made up of more
than one word, but each term is referred to as a lexeme. This is in accordance with
McArthurs (1981: 116) assertion below:
Lexemes need not be single word forms. For example, both perambulator
and baby carriage are single lexemes. Where a lexeme has more than one

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distinct meaning, we can talk about each combination of the lexeme and a
particular meaning as a lexical unit.
Blevins (2009: 109): A linguistic form (i.e. a bit of speech and/or writing) represents a
lexeme if that form is conventionally associated with a non-compositional meaning.
In order to make more sense of the above, we will look more closely at the concepts of
conventionality and (non-) compositionality in turn.
About conventionality, Blevins states:
Lexemes, and the information about them in the lexicon, are conventional
that is, these formmeaning pairings are common knowledge among the
speakers of the language, and we have had to learn these particular
associations of form and meaning from other members of the language
community. (ibid)
Supporting the above statement, neologisms are coined to represent existing concepts in a
speech community. As such, they have a meaning agreed upon by members of that speech
community. This is the feature of conventionality.
About (non-) compositionality, Falkner et al (1999: 104) say:
Lexemes are non-compositional that is, the meanings of these linguistic
forms are not built out of (or predictable from) the meanings of their parts.
This study does not support the above statement by Falkner et al because some of the
neologisms are compounds made up of words with predictable meanings. Therefore, while
some lexemes such as blog are non-compositional, compound lexemes such as civic
media are compositional; thus denying the above assertion.
2.3. VOCABULARY CHANGE IN ENGLISH
Cannon (1987: 16) once wrote:
The belief that a language ought to be fixed; made stable and forbidden to
modify itself in any way was held by a host of scholars in the 17
th
and 18
th


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centuries. They were more familiar with the dead languages, in which the
vocabulary and usage was closed, than they were with the living languages, in
which there is always incessant differentiation and unending extension.

Truly, the development of a language was firstly grounded on the lexical changes, when the
first linguists saw that the older the text is, the less its languages has similarities with that of
their own time. Any new epoch was accompanied by the introduction of new words denoting
new objects and phenomena. Brander Matthews, in his essay, The Idle Dream of Fixing a
Language, wrote:
Despite the exacerbated protests of the upholders of authority and tradition, a
living language makes new words as they are needed; it bestows novel
meanings upon old words; it borrows words from foreign tongues; it modifies
its usages to gain directness and to achieve better expression. (1992)
There will always be people who see language change as language decline, but this study, in
line with Trask (1994) takes the standpoint that it is futile to resist language change.
If we take a passage of Middle English, for example, and set it beside a modern translation,
many changes catch our eyes at once. Stevick (1968: 11) adopts this from the Peterborough
chronicler:
a e king Stephne to Englaland com, a macod he his gadering t
Oxeneford; and ar he nam e biscop Roger of Serebyri and Alexander biscop
of Lincol and te canceler Roger, hise neues, and dide lle in prison til hi iafen
up here castles.
A modern translation goes thus:
When King Stephen came to England, he held his council at Oxford; and there seized Roger,
the bishop of Salisbury, and Alexander, the Bishop of Lincoln and the Chancellor of Roger
his nephews and put them all in prison until they had given up their castles.

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The merest glance will tell us that since the days of the Peterborough chronicler, some words
have disappeared from the language (nam is the obsolete form of seized or took), that
others still current are used in different oral or written forms (com but came, macod
but made, gadering but gathering, but at), and that not just words have changed but
the ways of putting them together in sentences (for example, the different positions of the
verbs came and com). Language change cannot be resisted.
The ancient Continental period, the migration to the British Isles, the raids of the Vikings, the
Norman Conquest, the end of the Hundred Years War, the Great geographical discoveries
and the following revolutions in science and society brought about new features and
characteristics to the English language and its vocabulary in particular.
According to Levchenko (2002: 174), there were accepted new standards of pronunciation,
new syntactic properties; but the main changes lied in the introduction of new words and the
semantic transformation of the old ones.
Levchenkos assertion above buttresses the major preoccupation of this research.
Matthews (1992) continues:
This irrepressible conflict between stability and change can be observed at all
epochs in the evolution of all languages, in Greek and in Latin, as well as in
English and French. The man in the street is likely to have a relish for verbal
novelty and even for verbal eccentricity; and the man in the library is likely to
be a staunch upholder of the good old ways, especially hostile to what he
contemptuously stigmatizes as neologisms; an abhorrent and horrific term of
reproach.
Thus, the central point in the development of the English language is the enrichment and
enlargement of its vocabulary. The newly created words after a certain period of being
perceived as unusual and new enter the stock of the English lexicon as its integral part. As a
result, the lexicological layer appears to be the first reliable indicator of the constant and

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gradual linguistic transformation and development. And it is words that make the changes in
the language noticeable and evident.

Dent (2003: 30) affirms that:
The inherent flexibility of human language, along with its complexity and the
creativity with which it is used, causes it to be extremely variable and to
change over time. Frequently, entirely new lexical signposts are added as
newly minted word forms enter the language. Some of these new forms are cut
from whole cloth and have their origins in creative writing, movies or games.
But many are patchwork creations whose origins can be traced to a blend of
existing word forms.
.Metcalf says of language change thus:
A study of lexical change needs to consider the new coinage and has to
describe its possible distribution against the background of relevant actual
events. There is certainly a need for linguistic action when newly developed
objects have to be named. (2002:103)
Metcalfs standpoint is in line with the onomasiological theoretical framework of this study
which sees word-formation as a linguistic action taken by members of a speech community
when new objects and concepts in the environment have to be named.
Wyld is of the view that: Most vocabulary changes will not be shared. As a result, such
subgroups will drift apart linguistically, and eventually will not be able to understand each
other. (1932: 112)
In Modern English, vocabulary change is truly often socially problematic. As people observe
language change, they usually react negatively, feeling that the language has gone downhill,
that language change is functionally disadvantageous, in that it hinders communication. In
modern society, those who use the social media are more conversant with the neologisms that
have arisen as a result. Such neologisms are sometimes also negatively evaluated by socially

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dominant groups. You never seem to hear older people commenting that the language of the
younger generation has improved compared to the language of their own youth.
According to Thorne, These are people who yearn for the English language of the past. They
believe that English now exists in a more corrupted form than its sophisticated antecedent.
(1997: 121)
Their argument suggests that change is a new phenomenon running parallel to the breakdown
of society. The present researcher considers such linguistic pessimism to be the major
problem faced in the course of institutionalization of social media neologisms. The linguistic
pessimists who view the English language in this way are concerned about several factors:
supposedly decreasing standards of literacy marked by poor spelling and grammatically
incomplete or incorrect sentences; the use of informal spoken language in written contexts;
allegedly inaccurate pronunciation; and the way in which international forms of English may
affect British English in the future.
Thorne continues:
The debate is two-sided. While the critics bemoan the lost glory of English,
others see a flexibility and vitality. The people who believe in language as a
democratic process see new words as reflecting new experiences, more liberal
attitudes and a greater understanding of the world. (1997: 121)
The major preoccupation of this research is this flexibility and vitality of English as described
by Thorne above. In accordance, Matthews (1992: 16) concludes that:
To fix a living language finally is an idle dream and if could be brought about,
would be a dire calamity. Luckily language is never in the exclusive control of
scholars; it does not belong to them alone, as they are often inclined to
believe; it belongs to all who have it as a tongue.


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Ultimately, as the review of literature on vocabulary change shows, it is arguable whether or
not any language can be artificially controlled. This research chooses the viewpoint that
language growth is organic, evolving to meet the demands users place upon it. Therefore,
whatever linguists feel about the effects social, cultural and worldwide changes have on
language, if the changes are useful, they will probably survive. Those changes which have no
real function, on the other hand, will perhaps be fashionable for a period before disappearing
without trace. (Freeborn, 1992)
This study takes a stand to show that the rapid change of English does not automatically
imply a downward spiral towards an impure and ineffective form of English. Change is at the
heart of a living language and by embracing it rather than fearing it, language users can
benefit from the diversity that linguistic flexibility offers.
2.4. ENGLISH FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES (ESP) / REGISTERS
This study on social media neologisms has brought to the foreground the contribution of the
language of social media to ESP; there now exists what can be referred to as a social media
register. According to Oxford English Dictionary editor Angus Stevenson, Social
networking sites have created a real language of the net. (The Telegraph, Sept. 25, 2010)
Having studied the language of online social networking, Lynn Cherny (1999: 27) concludes
that the linguistic interaction using social media is most amenable to description in terms of
register, and Davis and Brewer (1997: 28-29), in their study of chat groups, conclude that it
has come to be seen as a register; language for a specific purpose.
Dudley-Evans (1997:13) gives three characteristics of ESP as a linguistic concept:
ESP is destined to meet specific needs of the learners. ESP makes use of
underlying methodology and activities of the discipline it serves. ESP is

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centred on the language appropriate to these activities in terms of grammar,
lexis, study skills, discourse, genre and register.
From the definition, the researcher surmises that ESP can but is not necessarily concerned
with a specific discipline, nor does it have to be aimed at a certain age group or linguistic
ability range.
Quirk and Greenbaum (1976: 67) state that:
Language varieties according to the subject matter are sometimes referred to
as registers. A speaker has a repertoire of varieties and habitually switches to
the appropriate register as the occasion arises.
Drawing on the above, it is clear that the switch is simply a turn to the particular set of
lexical items habitually used for discussing the subject in question; for example, law,
cookery, football and social media.
Ferguson (1977: 212) is of the view that:
A register in a given language or speech-community is defined by the uses for
which it is appropriate and by a set of structural features which differentiate it
from the other registers in the total repertory of the community.
Supporting this, the present study gathered social media neologisms and analysed them in a
way that their meanings collectively differentiate them from other registers.
In The Linguistic Sciences and Language Teaching by Halliday, MacIntosh and Strevens, the
language of newspaper headlines, church services, sports commentaries, pop songs and
advertising were all referred to as registers. Crystal and Davy (1996: 61) counter this:
It is inconsistent, unrealistic and confusing to obscure these differences by
grouping everything under the same headings as registers.
In the General Explanations at the beginning of the first (1933) edition of The Oxford
English Dictionary (OED), the editors give an account of the vocabulary of English,
recognizing a fundamental distinction between words that belong to the common core of the

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language (general vocabulary), and those that belong to particular specialist subsets
(registers).
In fact, this distinction may apply not only between words, but also between the senses of a
single word. While some senses may belong to the common core, one or more senses may be
part of a specialist vocabulary. For example, the word, handle has a technical sense in the
social media register, but is just an object in the common core.
Jackson and Amvela (2001) suggest however that:
It would be more useful, perhaps, to think in terms of dimensions of variation:
the way in which language varies according to context and how this leads to
the development of specialist vocabularies.
The present research agrees with this as the development of new words in social networking
has led to the development of the specialist vocabulary known as the social media register.
2.5. NEOLOGISMS
Dealing with such a lexicological phenomenon as neologism requires first of all clearing
out what it exactly is and what the criteria to differentiate it among the multitude of lexemes
are. Most frequently, a neologism is explained and defined as a new word, which seems quite
clear and simple. But the present researcher identifies a problem as to which words can be
regarded as new ones and which not. Niskas assertion (1998) aims to solve this:
The problem lies in the relativity of the concept of novelty or newness as it
depends on what period is taken into consideration; for how long the word has
the status of being new, etc.
Ukranian philologist, M. I. Mostovy opines that there are no clear criteria of defining
neologisms as a linguistic phenomenon. (1994:174) As a result, we face a kind of ambiguity
at the very beginning of neologism investigation. There are however a number of definitions

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offered by various linguists, which bring us some clarity in identifying neologisms within the
vocabulary of English.
Mostovy writes that a neologism is a linguistic unit that is created for the definition of a new
notion. (1994:74) Apart from the simple definition of a neologism as a new word,
Mostovys definition seems shallow but is suitable for the depth of this research. He does not
go deep into the features of the new words, but rather displays the main idea of a neologism
that lies in expressing new objects and phenomena. In line with this, Plag (2002: 64) states
that part of the strength and vitality of English is its readiness to welcome new words and
expressions, and to accept new meanings for old words.
Peprnik Jaroslav (2006: 76) thus defines a neologism as a new word or a new sense of a
word. It can come from any of the categories of word formation, but this study shows that
social media neologisms are mostly blends and compounds.
The Dictionary of Linguistic Terms (2006) by O. S. Akhmanova provides a more detailed
definition, where two kinds of neologisms are distinguished. The first definition runs as
follows, A neologism is a word or phrase created for defining a new (unknown before)
object or for expressing a new notion The second one says that it is:
A new word or expression that has not received the right for citizenship in the
national language and thus is perceived as belonging to a specific and often
substandard style of speech
This research is concerned with the first definition, notwithstanding its shallowness like
Mostovys definition. The second definition refers to some kind of barbarism or xenism and
is more suited for broader studies involving the lexicalization and institutionalization of
neologisms.

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The Linguistic Encyclopaedia by V. N. Yartseva (1999: 279) offers a broader definition
stating that:
Neologisms are words, word meanings or collocations that appeared in a
certain period in a language or that are once used (occasional words) in a text
or speech act.
Here, the notion of neologism expands beyond the framework of a lexeme, and includes also
new meanings and collocations, which might be conveyed by old and known words. The
current researcher considers this approach to be more profound as it takes into consideration
not only the fact of the appearance of a new word form, but also the changes of its internal
and external organisation. Examples are social media neologisms such as friend, like, web,
net and unlike which have assumed new meanings.
Dutch linguist Maarten Janssen (1996: 2-8) offers five criteria for defining a neologism:
i. Psychological A neologism is a word that is perceived as new by the language
community.
ii. Lexicographic Any word that is in use among speakers of a language but does not
appear in the dictionary is considered a neologism.
iii. Exclusive definition A word not appearing in a pre-determined exclusion lexicon is
a neologism. The exclusion lexicon defines the stable language fragment, against
the background of which the neologisms count as new.
iv. Diachronic definition Any word-form that appears in a recent general language text,
and was not previously part of that language is a neologism.
v. Reference corpora definition Any word-form which appears in a recent general
language text, and does not appear in an established reference corpus of that
language is a neologism.

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Finally, he offers his own definition that he named as an extended lexicographic diachronic
one and which is stated as follows, Any word that does not occur in the morphological
database derived from the dictionary because of its recentness is a neologism.
In all the definitions, there is mention of the quality of novelty for some lexical units as a new
word, phrase or expression. Some definitions, just like this study did in its methodology add
the facts of semantic novelty, e.g. new meaning; or even the syntactic novelty, e.g. new
collocations. The difference is chiefly in the extent of newness; either it concerns only the
shift in meaning or in a structure too.
If we further note that the term neologism on one hand, is absent from the index of such
reference books on general linguistics as Bloomfield (1933), Harris (1951), Gleason (1961),
John Lyons (1977), Eric Hamps (1957) Glossary of American Technical Linguistic Usage
and the Dictionary of Special Language (1972) by Ducrot and Todorov (1972), but that, on
the other hand, many lexicologists classify thousands of linguistic forms as neologisms, there
is strong reason for concern.
Silvia (2001: 22) differentiates between morphological neologisms created through
derivation, compounding, blending, acronymy, and borrowing and semantic neologisms
resulting from:
- Expansion: extension of the meaning of a term by giving it a new meaning (i.e. a shift
from the concrete to the abstract or from the abstract to the concrete)
- Metaphor: the process whereby a word or expression is used to refer to something
other than what it was originally applied to, or what it literally means, in order to
suggest some resemblance between the two things (Coulthard et. al. 2000: 100); e.g.
computers master (and slave) hard disk)

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Thus, in treating the concept of neologism, Levchenko discerns a threefold nature of the new
words and it would be quite reasonable to graphically depict it with the help of the following
scheme (2010: 122):

The types of neologisms
1. A completely new word
2. A totally new meaning of an old word
3. A new seme in an existing word

According to Levchenko, the first class includes only those lexemes which have not existed
up to a certain period of time, i.e. cannot be found in the texts written before a given moment.
Thus, it includes the smallest number of lexical units. For example, such words as googling,
facebooking vlogging had not existed even in the first half of the 1900s.
The second class represents the words that have changed their meaning but retained their old
form, with their old meaning lost or moved towards secondary importance, e.g. slum, bread,
salt, etc. These units are the results of secondary nomination.
The third class contains those lexemes which have only added one or more new meanings
without losing the significance of the old ones; they present the paradigmatic relations of
polysemy, for instance, surf, file, mouse, report, etc.
Taking into account the above classification by Levchenko, this study is only concerned with
the first and third class of neologisms. This is evident from the data collected for this study as
it contains mostly new words that were not in existence in the past and existing words whose

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meanings have not been totally changed, but have been extended to accommodate similar
phenomena.
Dent (2007: 68) identifies five primary contributors to the survival of a new word:
Usefulness, user-friendliness, exposure, durability of the concept it describes
and its potential associations or extensions; if a new word fulfils these robust
criteria, it stands a very good chance of inclusion in the modern lexicon.
The present researcher agrees with Dents criteria, but this study will not elaborate on them
because they fall outside its scope. It is more suited to studies of lexicalization and
institutionalization of neologisms.
The complaint of Professor V. I. Zabotkina who writes that one of the unsolved problems of
neology is the problem of the concept of neologism (1996: 16) is fair up to a certain extent,
for the number of definitions virtually coincides with the number of scholars and these
scholars regard the phenomenon of new words from different standpoints, so that the general
view on the issue varies from author to author. But it is also vitally important not to overlook
the similarities in those definitions and approaches which are based on the common concept
of novelty.
2.6. NEOLOGISMS AND THE DICTIONARY
Apart from the dictionaries, empirical studies of language change in the lexicon (the
vocabulary of the members of a language speech community) are largely missing. Some
lexicographers suggest that there are three broad source types of neologisms in dictionaries
as well as in corpora:
- First, neologisms formed by the addition or combination of elements, especially
compounding, affixation, blending and acronymization

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- Second, neologisms formed by reduction of elements, namely, abbreviations,
backformation and shortenings
- Third, neologisms that are neutral with respect to addition or reduction: semantic
change, coinages, conversion or loans.
In his theories of word-formation in the English language, Laurie Bauer (1983) states that, in
lexicography, words and lexicalised word combinations are considered new, if they have not
been included in general dictionaries of Standard English.
Ayto (1995:187) notes that affixation accounts for about two-fifths of neologisms in Merriam
Webster and around three-fifths involve compounding; the rest include borrowing,
conversion and backformation. This contradicts the findings of this study which reveal that
the most common word-formation process is blending. Ayto above does not take this process
into account.
According to Sara Tulloch, the editor of The Oxford Dictionary of New Words,
The lexicographical procedure is a useful one, and the date of first occurrence
is important for the identification of a new word. However, it is not
necessarily indicative of its spread and institutionalization. If it were only the
date of first quotation that is considered, the lexicographers would need to
include in dictionaries those words which a large number of speakers are not
yet familiar with.
Therefore, a neologism can be said to be a word which has lost the status of a nonce-
formation but is still one which is considered new by the majority of the members of a speech
community. This description already presupposes a certain distribution and frequency of the
item in question. However, this study reveals that it is not only the frequency of a word at a
certain time that is important, but also its permanent frequency over a certain period of time,
and above all, its distribution in various communicative contexts and domains. It was
according to these and other factors that the publisher of Merriam-Webster selected the

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neologisms to appear in the supplements of Websters Third New International Dictionary
(1976: 17).
In 1974, Jack C. Richards published an article which deals with the vocabulary English
learners are most likely to need (Richards 1974: 69-84). While discussing Ogden and Wests
word lists, he states that:
Apart from frequency (including range, i.e. the number of texts the words
occur in) and coverage (the contexts of particular topics of discourse), one has
to consider availability and familiarity for the learners core vocabulary.
Availability refers to the retrieval of words. Available words are known in the sense that
they come to mind rapidly when the situation calls for them. (1974: 76) For instance, when
you think of a word to describe rules of behaviour while chatting online, the word
chatiquette comes to mind.
Familiarity describes the subjective impression of words.
In psychological measurement, the familiarity of a stimulus or response is defined as being a
function of its frequency of occurrence in the history of an organism. (1974: 78)
Drawing on the data collected for this study, it is only those words formed through the
process of semantic extension that have this quality. They are already familiar to language
users, unlike other neologisms which are completely new.
In addition, William F. Mackey (1965: 187) considers learnability as another principle which
may serve as a guide to the construction of a word list. Learnability refers to the ease or
difficulty of learning a new word. For instance, all social media neologisms have been shown
to be learnable, as they are most words which clearly describe the phenomenon they
represent. It is thus assumed that availability, familiarity and learnability are also important
for the learning of neologisms by the native speaker. The lexicographer however cannot in

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general, grasp and measure these principles. Instead, it is mainly frequency and coverage over
a certain period of time that is relevant for the inclusion of neologisms in the dictionary.
2.7. SOCIAL NETWORKING/ MEDIA
Cummings (1995: 7) wrote:
Whenever I am asked to give a brief history of social networking or social
media, I start by letting the audience know that these activities and tools are
not new phenomena that developed with the launching of sites like MySpace,
Facebook and Twitter. In fact the history of social media goes back to humans
gathering around campfires and sharing stories or painting history on cave
walls.
There has been a general misconception that social networking began with the advent of
Facebook and other social networking sites. Cummings assertion above shows that this is not
so. Social networking began when humans began to communicate. In accordance, Crystal
(2005: 71) later stated that:
Any activities in the past where humans shared stories and influenced others
can pretty much be considered social networking and the tools they used
(words, paint, etc.) were their social media. Smoke signals, tribal drums,
backyard barbecues, etc. were all social networking that used different types
of social media.
Being connected to the world around us has never been easier and more accessible than it is
today; but it did not start out that way. Harris (2000: 21) reveals: After the internet made it
possible to reach people around the globe with merely a click of a button, social networking
exploded into one of the biggest industries of our time. The World Wide Web, (www)
created by Tim Berners-Lee in the early 1990s, is a collection of software and protocols
designed to make it easier for computers to communicate across the Internet. Yates (1996:
106) states:
With the coming of the Web, a number of communication functions known as
social media, such as the online platforms and internet locations that provide a

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way for people to participate in conversations were developed for individuals
as a way to connect and share content with friends and like-minded people.
Social media typically include web- and mobile-based technologies which are
used to turn communication into interactive dialogue among organizations,
communities and individuals.
Kaplan and Haenlein (2011: 17) describe social media as having many different forms: e-
magazines, internet forums, web logs, social blogs, micro-blogging, wikis, social network
sites (Facebook, Twitter, etc.), podcasts, etc. This study thus draws neologisms from all
these forms of social media. Crystal (2005: 78) takes these neologisms into account in the
following statement:
What is truly remarkable is that so many people have learned so quickly to
adopt their language to meet the demands of this new technology, and to
exploit the potential of the medium to creatively form new areas of linguistic
expression.
Wilkins (1991: 78) traces the development of social networking since the advent of the email
in 1971:
1971 The first email was sent. The two computers were sitting right next to each other.
1978 The Bulletin Board System (BBS) exchanged data over phone lines with other users
and the first copies of web browsers were distributed through the USENET, an online bulletin
board.
1994 One of the webs first social networking site, Geocities, was founded. The concept
was for users to create their own websites, categorised by one of the six cities.
1995 Another site, theglobe.com was founded and gave users the freedom to personalise
their online experiences by publishing their own content and interacting with others with
similar interests.
1997 AOL Instant Messenger was launched, popularising Instant Messaging.
2002 Friendster was launched, pioneering the online connection of real-world friends.
2003 MySpace was launched.

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In the following years, many other social networking sites were launched: Tribe.net,
LinkedIn, Classmates.com, Joiku, Netlog, etc.
2004 Facebook was launched, first at Harvard, originally as a way of connecting U.S.
college students. More than 19,500 students signed up within the first month.
2006 Twitter was launched.
Regardless of how social media and how it is used as a medium for social networking has
been defined, one thing is certain: it will continue to evolve and its use will expand; and in
the process, it will become more integrated into the lives of language users, pulling the
English vocabulary along with it as it evolves and expands.

2.8. MORPHOLOGY AND WORD FORMATION
In linguistics, morphology is the study of the internal structure of words. Fromkin et al (2011:
61) state that, words have internal structure which is rule-governed. Morphology is part of
our grammatical knowledge of a language.
Social media neologisms, like other lexemes, are made up of minimal units of meaning
known as morphemes. According to Plag (2002: 13),
Words that are obviously composed by putting together smaller elements to
form larger words with more complex meanings can be referred to as
morphologically complex words. If we know how complex lexical items are
made by the association of different constituent morphemes, then we can also
analyse any complex word into its various constituents. In contrast, the words
which cannot be decomposed into smaller meaningful units because they
consist of only one morpheme are referred to as mono-morphemic.
For example, if we know how the plural morpheme [-s] is added to singular nouns to make
them plural, then we can analyse any complex noun which is already inflected for plurality

33 | P a g e

into its constituent parts. Similarly, if we know how the comparative suffix [-er] and the
superlative [-est] are added to adjectives, then given any inflected adjective, we can also
analyse it into its constituent morphemes. We can thus, analyse keys into key + s for
instance, and analyse brighter into bright + er. The word morphology itself consists of
two morphemes, morph + ology meaning form and study. Fromkin et al (2011: 61) further
pointed out that:
Internet bloggers love to point out inconsistencies in the English language.
They observe that while singers sing and flingers fling, it is not the case that
fingers fing. However, morphology shows that finger is a single
morpheme, or a mono-morphemic word. The final -er syllable in finger is
not a separate morpheme because a finger is not one who fings.
A further way in which the vocabulary of English has expanded to accommodate the social
world in which it is used has been to employ means internal to the language itself for
devising new words. This is the area of word-formation (or lexical morphology), and it
includes what is known as composition/compounding and derivation. As summarised in
Gramley and Patzold (1992:23):
Among the more recent additions to English, derivations and compounds
account for 54.9 per cent; conversions for 19.6 per cent and shortenings for 18
per cent, while new meanings (14.4 per cent) and borrowing (7.5 per cent) are
less prominent (cf. Cannon 1987: 279).
In contrast to the above statement, the findings of this study revealed blending to be the most
common word-formation process. This study however agrees with the description of word-
formation by Jackson and Amvela (2001) and Gramley (2001) below that word formation is
the vocabulary development process of using existing language material words and
morphemes to create new lexical items.

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Jackson and Amvela (2001:16) by word formation processes mean the different devices
which are used in English to build new words from existing ones. Each word-formation
process will result in the production of a specific type of word.
Gramley (2001: 67) defines word formation as the processes by means of which new words
are formed in a language using the resources of the language itself, rather than borrowing.
Though it is possible to cut a new word form from entirely whole cloth, most neologisms
employ a combination of existing elements, and many of these new forms are clear variations
of well-known words and phrases. Variation or extension of an established word or phrase is
a common strategy in linguistic creativity, and indeed, the lexicographer Patrick Hanks
(2004) argues that it is our dominant means of doing meaningfully novel things with
language.
This section on word formation would not be complete without mention of the lexical
creation processes in English. Most of these processes were applied in the creation of the
neologisms that will be examined in this study. Despite the disagreement among scholars in
this area, there do seem to be some regular processes involved.
Derivation
Derivation is by far the most common type of word-formation in English. New words are
derived by affixes from already existing words. There are three types of affixes prefixes,
infixes and suffixes. Affixes are "small 'bits' of the English language which are not usually
given separate listings in dictionaries." (Yule, 2001: 68) Prefixes are added to the beginning
of a word. Suffixes are added to the end of the word. Infixes; affixes incorporated inside a
word, are not normally found in English. Although, according to Yule, "it is possible to see
the general principle at work in certain expressions, occasionally used in fortuitous or

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aggravating circumstances by emotionally aroused English speakers: Hallebloodylujah!"
(Yule, 2001: 69) This process of putting an infix in the middle of a word is also called
"expletive infixation" (tekauer, 2003: 103)
As Fromkin et al state, "even new bound morphemes may enter the language." (2011: 48)
They also gives an example, the prefix e-. It is barely two decades old and we can find it in
many words such as e-mail. Examples of prefixes: un-, mis-, pre-. Examples of suffixes: -
less, -ish, -ness. Some suffixes can imply a specific meaning. This fact can then be used in
creating new words.
Bauer gives some examples of that: "the suffix ee... is the one which is used to form patient
nouns like appointee..." (Bauer, 2003: 16), "the ese suffix ... is the one denoting a
'characteristic jargon'... [and is used] for deriving nationality adjectives from noun bases."
The suffix i is used for forming a word describing nationality as in Israeli'. The suffix
nik "appears to mean simply 'person'." The meaning of the suffix esque is "in the manner or
style of the person in the base [or] having the (artistic, bizarre, picturesque) style of the
person in the base." The suffix ie produces hypocoristics." (Peprnk, 2006: 106) and
"some English ...suffixes are inherently depreciative or negative: -ard, -eer ..."
Compounding or Composition
This is the joining of two separate words to produce a single form. In other words, it is the
"combination of two free forms, or words that have an otherwise independent existence"
(Adams 1973: 30). The result is called a compound word. The items of a compound word
"may not be separated by other words and their order is fixed." Compounds are variously
spelled with dashes, spaces, or nothing between the individual words." (Fromkin, 2011: 38)
They are called open, hyphenated or solid compounds. Compound words are usually
"constructed out of a relatively small number of morphemes, whose meanings are well

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known." (Francis, 1965: 92) Francis gives us examples: tele means far, distant; meter
means measure, bio means life and so on.
However, "the meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts; ..."
(Fromkin, 2011: 38) For instance a blackboard can be also white.
Compounding is a very common way of creating new words in English and "the kinds of
combinations that occur in English are nearly limitless" (Fromkin, ibid.) "The vast majority
of compounds in English are nouns." (Bauer, 2003: 13)
Bauer in his English Word-Formation (2003: 10) states that "the sub-classification of
compounds is done in many different ways: by the form classes of the items that make up the
compound ... by semantic classes ... by presumed underlying operators linking the two
elements ... by presumed underlying syntactic function ... and so on."
He also adds that "many scholars use a mixture of two or more of these methods of
classification."
However, he generally distinguishes these types of compounds:
Noun + noun compounds:
- Common noun + common noun, i.e. skinhead, jazz-rock.
- Gerund + noun, i.e. holding pattern, parking orbit.
- Proper noun + noun, i.e. Wellington airport, Mao flu.
Verb + noun compounds (the determined item + the determining item:
- Gerund + noun, i.e. holding pattern, parking orbit.
- Stem + noun, i.e. killjoy, pickpocket.
Noun + verb compounds, i.e. nosebleed, sunshine
Verb + verb compounds, i.e. make-believe, pass-fail. This pattern is rare.
Adjective + noun, i.e. fast-food, software

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Noun + adjective, i.e. lead-free
Adjective/adverb + verb, i.e. double-book, fine-tune
Verb + adjective, i.e. fail safe. This pattern is rare.
Adjective + adjective i.e. bittersweet, ready-made
Particle + noun i.e. overkill, in-depth
Particle + verb, i.e. overeducate.
Verb + particle, i.e. see-through (blouse), wrap-around (skirt).
Adverb + noun, i.e. now generation, This pattern is also rare.
Verb + particle, i.e. drawback, throughput
Phrase compounds, i.e. son-in-law, forget-me-not.
Quotational compounds i.e. a boys-will-be-boys attitude, a bring-your-own party.
Reduplication (often combined with rhyme) or rhyme-motivated compounds (Bauer 2003).
I.e. heebie-jeebies, razzle-dazzle, culture-vulture
Ablaut-motivated compounds (similar to rhyme-motivated compounds, but involving vowel
change or alternation between the two elements.), i.e. flip-flop.
Intensifying noun modifier, i.e. brand-new, stone deaf
Adams points out that there is one more category of compounds called 'semi-compounds'
(Adams 1991). Those are phrases consisting of verb + complement + preposition, such as
give rise to; preposition-noun-preposition sequences like in view of and so on. She lists
also another one category of compounds - neo-classical compounds.
Conversion
Conversion is known also as a category change, functional shift or total conversion. It is a
change in the word class of a word. Nouns can start to be used as a verb (or vice versa)
without any change in the word itself. Sometimes the converted forms shift in meaning. "The
conversion process is particularly productive in modern English, with new uses occurring
frequently." (Yule 2001) Examples: paper => to paper, Google => to google

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Coinage
Coinage is one of the least common processes of word-formation in English. "A coinage is a
neologism--a new word or word combination--that is created deliberately." (Plotnik 2008: 1)
It is the invention of totally new terms. Sometimes people create new words outright to fit
some purpose. "Societies often require new words to describe changes in technology, sports,
entertainment, and so on." (Fromkin, 2011: 48) Coinage of new words often occurs in
advertising and it adds many words to English. "The most typical sources are invented trade
names for one company's product which become general terms (without initial capital letters)
for any version of that product." (Yule, 2001: 69)
"Most coinages are no more than 'nonce' terms, meant only for a single occasion and a couple
of laughs. At best, they end up in funny collections." (Plotnik, 2008) In other words, some
coinages never become anything more than nonce-formations. However, those new words
which survive, "...after their first coinage, tend to become everyday words in the language."
(Yule, ibid)
Borrowing or Loan Words
Borrowing occurs when one language adds a word or morpheme from another language to
its own lexicon." (Fromkin, 2011: 54) Borrowing is one of the most common sources of new
words in English. Borrowed words are pronounced according to the phonological rules of the
borrowing language. "Throughout its history, the English language has adopted a vast
number of loanwords from other languages". (Yule, 2001) "So extensive has it been that by
far the greater part of the present-day English vocabulary is made up of borrowed rather than
native words." "Of the 20, 000 or so words in common use, about three-fifths are borrowed."
(Fromkin, 2011) English borrowed frequently from:

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- Latin (wine, cheese), French (chase, guardian).
- Scandinavian languages (egg, ugly), Celtic (shamrock, loch)
- Languages of Middle East and Far East (lemon, algebra, alcohol), languages of the
New World (potato,woodchuck, tomato) and European languages as Russian (vodka),
Czech (robot), Polish (polka), Hungarian (goulash) or Finnish (sauna) enriched
English vocabulary.
These examples were taken from The English Language: An Introduction: Background for
Writing (Francis, 1965: 72).
"A special type of borrowing is described as loan-translation, or calque. In this process, there
is a direct translation of the elements of a word into the borrowing language" (Yule, 2006:
70)
Blending
Blending is a very frequent process of combining of two separate forms to produce a single
new term. The result is called a blend. The process of blending is similar to the process of
compounding, but "blending is typically accomplished by taking only the beginning of one
word and joining it to the end of the other word." (Yule, 2006: 71)
As Lehrer states in his essay which was published in 2005: "In the last two or three decades,
blends have become even more common, and nowadays, one encounters new blends almost
every day. Most of the data used in this study are blends" (Lehrer, 2007: 115) Examples:
smog, brunch and Spanglish. Like other neologisms, such as rhymes and allusions, blends are
often cute and amusing. They work as a form of word-play, which Kelly describes as lexical
teases. (Kelly, 1998: 586)

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Clipping or Shortening
"Clipping refers to the process whereby a lexeme ... is shortened, while still retaining the
same meaning and still being a member of the same form class." (Bauer 2003: 60) It is a type
of reduction (a short word is made from a longer one). Clipping "occurs when a word of more
than one syllable is reduced to a shorter form." (Yule 2006: 71) That often happens in casual
speech. "Frequently clipping results in a change of stylistic level." (Bauer 2003: 61)
Sometimes, as Fromkin et al says, "abbreviations of longer words or phrases also may
become lexicalized, that is, words in their own right." (Fromkin et al, 2011: 17) "Clipped
forms are also used in compounds, as in op art (<optical art) ..." and "it is also frequently
the case that both halves of a compound are clipped as in edbiz." (Bauer 2007: 43) Clippings
are frequent in informal, especially spoken English. "Most of them preserve a colloquial
flavour and are limited to the special vocabularies of occupational groups." (Francis, 1965:
116) "English speakers also like to clip each other's names, as in Al, Ed, Liz, Mike" (Yule,
2006) Examples: fan (from fanatic), flu (from influenza), sci-fi (from science fiction)
Backformation
Backformation is a very specialized and productive type of reduction process. The process is
the opposite of derivation. "Typically, a word of one type (usually a noun) is reduced to form
another word of a different type (usually a verb)." (Yule, 2006) "The great majority of back-
formations in English are verbs." (Bauer 2007) "One very regular source of back-formed
verbs in English is based on the pattern: worker work." (Yule, 2006: 67)
Abbreviating and Acronyming
Some neologisms are formed from the initial letters of a set of other words. Now they can
remain 'alphabetisms', which are read as a sequence of letters (CD) those are abbreviations.

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Or they can be pronounced as a single word (NATO, UNESCO) and we call them acronyms.
Acronyms are frequently found in computer jargon. "Some new acronyms come into general
use so quickly that many speakers do not think of their component meanings." (Yule, 2001)
Yule uses ATM (automatic teller machine) and PIN (personal identification number) as
examples.
There is freedom in deciding which initial letters of a phrase are going to be included in the
abbreviation or acronym. This concerns particularly prepositions for example of, can, but
need not be included in the neologism. Moreover, often more than one letter from one word is
used to form a neologism. Both these cases happen most often when somebody deliberately
wants to form acronym. For example, "names for organizations are often designed to have
their acronym represent an appropriate term ..." (Yule, 2006). As time passes by, "many
acronyms lose their capitals to become everyday terms such as laser (light amplification by
stimulated emission of radiation), radar (radio detecting and ranging)" (Yule, 2006)
Eponyms - Words from Names
This category is stated as a single category in Fromkin's list of types of word formation
processes. "Eponyms are words derived from proper names" (Fromkin et al, 2011); for
example cashmere from Kashmir. Francis also has this category in his book The English
Language: An Introduction: Background for Writing (Francis 1965: 159)
Imitation
Francis (1965: 161) lists one more special category of word formation imitation. "A
relatively small number of words in English apparently owe their origin to attempts to imitate
natural sounds. Frequently, the words describe noises made by animals. The result is an
onomatopoeic word. Examples: moo, meow.

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Word Manufacture
Bauer mentions one more category of word formation word manufacture, which occurs
"when a word is created ex nihilo, with no morphological, phonological or orthographic
motivation whatsoever." (Bauer, 2007:103) This process is rare, except for brand names
(Kodak). As an example, Bauer chose picloram, which was created from
aminotrichloropicolinic acid, "where the groups of letters borrowed from the base have
been reversed in the final word."
Multiple Processes or Mixed Formations
Yule (2006) and Bauer (2007) mention this category. Words created in this way are a mixture
of two or more processes which were already described. Bauer adds an example: poromeric =
porosity + polymer + the suffix ic (Bauer, 2007: 102)
Semantic Changes
Vocabulary can grow also by "giving a new, additional meaning to the existing lexical
forms." (Peprnk, 2006: 113) "The older meaning can be replaced completely or partly ..., or,
most frequently, the old and the new meanings co-exist side by side, so that the word
becomes polysemic." Peprnk distinguishes these varieties of changes of meaning:
- From the aspect of logics: widening, narrowing, branching (a word becomes
polysemous) and transfer (metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche). Transfer occurs when
there is a degree of similarity between the two denotations.
- From the aspect of motivation: change in the denotation, change in the language
system and change in the interpretation of the meaning and the need for more or for
less expressivity.
Fromkin (2005: 33) lists only three types of semantic change: broadening, narrowing and
meaning shifts. In her point of view, "the meaning or semantic representation of words may
change, by becoming broader or narrower, or by shifting." This study adopts the term

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semantic extension to describe this word-formation because the neologisms collected
contain words which have been in existence but have now been extended to accommodate
more recent phenomena.
2.9. LEXICAL SEMANTICS
Semantics is generally defined as the study of meaning. In line with the aims of this study,
the first thing anyone would want to know about a word is its meaning. Most linguists agree
that meaning pervades the whole of language. To highlight the pervasive nature of meaning,
Jackson (1988: 244-7) states that:
If we are to talk about semantics at all, then we should identify several kinds
of semantics: pragmatic semantics, which studies the meaning of utterances in
context; sentence semantics, which handles the meaning of sentences as well
as meaning relations between sentences; and lexical semantics, which deals
with the meaning of words and the meaning relations that are internal to the
vocabulary of a language.
Thus, the study of linguistic units and their principles of combination would not be complete
without an account of what these units mean, what they are used to talk about and what they
are used to communicate. All these constitute a major portion of what is known as lexical
semantics, which based on Jackson above, will be the branch of semantics that is most
characteristic and relevant to this study.
The nature of lexical semantics has changed markedly in the decades since classic texts like
Lyons (1977) and Cruse (1986) were published. According to Cruse (1996: 65), the study of
words (lexicology) and the study of meaning (semantics) make it very natural for students of
linguistics to interpret the term lexical semantics to mean a more technical term for word
meaning. Therefore, while lexical semantics is loosely defined as the study of word
meaning, the use of word in the definition is misleading. Lexical semantics is more
accurately described as the study of lexeme meaning.

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Kempson (1977: 122) states that lexical semantics is the branch of semantics that studies the
individual meanings of the words and lexemes in a construction as lexical items.
According to Lyons (1981: 156), The meaning of a structure is the product of both lexical
and grammatical meanings: i.e. of the meaning of the constituent lexemes and of the
grammatical constructions that relate one lexeme, syntagmatically, to another.
Lexical semantics studies the meaning of the constituent lexemes; whether they are word-
lexemes like social or phrasal lexemes like social media. Communication can be
accomplished in a language system only because words have certain meanings.
Akmajian et al (2010: 228) are of the view that: If a grammar describes a language, part of
it must describe meaning, and thus the grammar must contain semantics. Considering this, it
seems reasonable to conclude that semantic information is an integral part of grammar.
They go further to distinguish between linguistic meaning and speaker meaning.
In general, the linguistic meaning of an expression is simply the meaning or
meanings of that expression in the language. In contrast, the speaker meaning
can differ from the linguistic meaning, depending on whether the speaker is
speaking literally or figuratively. (2010: 229)
This study however will describe the literal meaning, not the figurative meaning of
neologisms. This is because the novelty of a word does not permit its use in figurative or
connotative terms. At the point of coinage, a word possesses only its literal or denotative
meaning.
CONCLUSION
This chapter has examined relevant literatures in respect of social media neologisms in the
lexical system of modern English. It has been observed that the extent of vocabulary change
as a result of technological advancement is far-reaching as these neologisms are increasingly

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being used among English speakers worldwide, with English being the most widely-used
language on the internet. The various works so far examined, in fact reveal that there are
various dimensions to the perception of social media, neologisms and the realms within
which they will be studied in this research. A significant consideration in the discussion of
these neologisms would be to examine them in light of some theories which will identify the
ideas or information they should rightly convey. This underlies the effective usage of these
linguistic elements and by implication, their appropriateness to the specific linguistic
environment in which they occur.














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CHAPTER THREE
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND METHODOLOGY
Introduction
This chapter presents the philosophical concepts underpinning this research and introduces
the research strategy and empirical techniques applied. It links the theoretical aspects of the
study to its practical components. The theoretical framework has implications for every
decision made in the research process while the methodologies relate to the strategy and
processes underlying the choice and use of particular methods. The methods applied then
convey the techniques or procedures used to gather and analyse the data to answer to the
demands of the research questions.
To achieve these aims, this study will adopt basically the theory of Computer-Mediated
Communication (CMC) because the neologisms under study evolved in large part due to
online social networking (using computers). The aspect of word-formation will investigate
morphological processes and adopt for methodological reasons Pavol Stekauers
onomasiological theory of word-formation, using the Word-formation Component and
Lexical Component within the theory. The Word-Formation Component accounts for the
creation of entirely new words while the Lexical Component accounts for the creation of
neologisms through semantic extension of existing words. The aspect of semantic analysis of
the neologisms collected will be done within the framework of lexical semantics.
For methodological purposes, this research uses both primary and secondary sources of data.
It is also a blend of quantitative and qualitative approaches. The qualitative analysis involves
the words being classified according to their formation processes and analysed to reveal their
meanings; while the quantitative analysis involves the tabulation of the neologisms collected
to reveal the frequency of each word class and word-formation type.

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3.1. COMPUTER-MEDIATED COMMUNICATION (CMC) THEORY
When you think about important inventions in the 20
th
century which have had a profound
effect on our social life, the computer quickly comes to mind. Computers and the use of the
internet gave rise to the emergence of the Computer-Mediated Communication Theory
(CMC) which encompasses any field of study dealing with the effects of computer and
internet use on society. Computer-Mediated Communication (CMC) has been an increasingly
well-investigated research area. Scholars from a variety of fields study phenomena that can
be described under the umbrella term of CMC or Internet Studies. These have led to a good
deal of interesting sociolinguistic findings. Some take a social and psychological approach to
CMC by examining how humans use computers (or digital media) to manage interpersonal
interaction, form impressions and maintain relationships. Many recent studies involve
internet-based social networking supported by social software.
CMC as applied to this study, focuses on the use of English in connection with computers
and the internet and on its influences on everyday English by analysing the dispersal of
neologisms, new meanings of words, features of CMC and new metaphors. It aims to show
the computer- and internet- related impact on the English language from the perspective of
neology, semantic change and metaphors through the use of social media networks.
According to Herring (2003), compilers of neologisms (Ayto 1999 and Green 1991 for
example) have celebrated the influence of computers and communications technologies by
including a number of terms from these subjects in their works. For Ayto, between 1940 and
1990, a small trickle of computer terminology electronic brain, hardware was to become a
flood in the second half of the century (1999: iv-v).
This study is thus situated within the framework of Computer-Mediated Communication
because social media is clearly computer-mediated. Social media has become a

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communication outlet for people all over the world. The Pews Research Centre in America,
during their Internet Life Project conducted a survey which revealed that two-thirds of
internet users now belong to social networking sites: 93 per cent of social network users have
joined Facebook, up from 73 per cent in 2010; Twitter, LinkedIn, MySpace and other social
media continue to attract more users. Communication is one important area of life that has
changed due to the large number of computer and internet users. It is one of the most
controversial too. Most people agree that for example, online shopping, online banking and e-
government have positive effects, in that they save time and make things easier; but when it
comes to the more and more widely used forms of communication like email, instant
messaging, chat-rooms and text messages, you find a kaleidoscope of more or less well-
founded opinions.
Some see a negative influence on the use of language, fear a deterioration of English due to
the language features which developed in connection with the increasing use of computers
and the internet. Some worry that especially young people might no longer know correct
vocabulary, spelling and grammar. Others praise the creativity which is applied in the
creation of these new language features and the fact that people communicate more
frequently. As Graddol (1997: 80) puts it:
The linguistic effect of the arrival of this new medium of communication is
two-fold: it initiates change in the formal character of the languages which use
it; and it offers new opportunities for languages to use it. The apparent lack of
regard for the traditional rules of the written language has horrified some
observers, who see in this development an ominous sign of deterioration in
standards.
Social media expands further into the blogging world, making the population a lot more
substantial. For instance, Twitter has become the most common centre of political activity.
Facebook and LinkedIn have become places to promote personal initiatives, reconnect with
former acquaintances and interact with like-minded people. In the on-going United States

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election campaigns, it is the medium through which the candidates communicate directly
with US citizens. In the last decade, social media has clearly created an environment in which
new words could develop daily. It has also been expanded into the now traditional world of
the SMS as well. These new words owe their existence to the internet and mobile technology
and mark the beginning of the acceptance of Generation Ys contribution to the language.
The idea of a global village was popularised by Marshall McLuhan, who influenced how
people now think about social media, technology and communications. McLuhan (1969: 26)
believed that media are extensions of some human faculty psychic and physical, and that
the extension of any one sense alters the way we think and act the way we perceive the
world. (McLuhan, 1969: 41) The invention of the computer is very important in his opinion:
The computer is by all odds the most extraordinary of all technological clothing ever
devised by man, since it is the extension of our central nervous system
(McLuhan/Fiore, 1968:35). Regarding the influence of new technology on language,
he wrote that the new electric technology that extends our senses and nerves in a
global embrace has large implications for the future of language. (McLuhan, 1964:
86)
Marshall McLuhan also wrote about metaphors in relation to new technologies:
Technologically-created environments are as symbolic as any metaphor could ever be
(McLuhan/Fiore, 1968: 59). One just has to think of the way computer software is designed
to make it easier to use it, e.g. working with a desktop and several windows.
McLuhans theory of the global village and its consequences for language and technology-
related neologisms metaphors dates back to the time before the rise of computer-mediated
communication but some of his statements can be applied to CMC today.



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3.1.1. PREVIOUS LINGUISTIC STUDIES ABOUT CMC
There have been previous studies about CMC by linguists. It shows that the study of CMC
can have different starting points and that different linguists put their emphasis on different
aspects. They characterise and define CMC differently, too. Some try to classify it in relation
with spoken and written language; others see it as something completely new. Some describe
the emergence of features of CMC from the perspective of the medium shaping the language,
others from the perspective of the language users trying to adapt to the new medium. Some
take social factors into consideration and the way they can have an impact on CMC.
Another branch of CMC research examines the use of paralinguistic features such as
emoticons, pragmatic rules such as turn-taking and the sequential analysis and organization
of talk, and the various sociolects, styles, registers or sets of terminology specific to these
environments. The study of language in these contexts is typically based on text-based forms
of CMC, and is sometimes referred to as Computer-Mediated Discourse Analysis.
These studies about CMC show that it is still a rather new phenomenon it provides the
opportunity for different kinds of analyses and that opinions about its definition and
evaluation differ. It becomes obvious that there is probably not just one kind of CMC but
several. Thus, linguists often concentrate on certain forms of CMC for their studies, e.g.
email or instant messaging, or on certain elements of CMC which most modes of CMC have
in common, e.g. abbreviations.
Naomi Baron conducted several studies about CMC. Already in 1984 she saw that CMC has
had an impact on language and communication because people communicate more and more
with the help of computers instead of speaking face-to-face or writing letters (Baron, 1984:
119)

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Some topics turn up repeatedly in most of her studies. One is the comparison of CMC with
spoken and written language and the question if CMC should be classified as spoken or
written language. In her definition of CMC, she calls it written language although she often
sees a strong influence of speech on CMC:
Computer-mediated communication (CMC) is loosely defined as any natural language
messaging that is transmitted and/or received via a computer connection. Generally speaking,
the term CMC refers to a written natural language message sent via the internet. However the
term can also be applied to other written venues that employ computer-based technology to
send messages across a distance, including both email and computer-conferencing done
through in-house intranet systems and contemporary short text messaging (SMS), which is
normally transmitted through mobile phone connections (Baron 2003a: 10)











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3.2. ONOMASIOLOGICAL THEORY OF WORD-FORMATION
Many research traditions have made a dominant contribution to the progressive development
of onomasiology. However, a look at the theories of word-formation which have dominated
the field of linguistics since 1960 (the year when two highly important works appeared:
Marchand and Lees) shows that, surprisingly, there is hardly any theory which takes the
naming demands of a speech community as its point of departure. Pavol Stekauer (2002)
accounts for such naming needs. This section of this study contains an account of the
fundamental principles of Stekauers onomasiological theory of word formation and how the
current research is situated within its framework.
The word-formation aspect of the neologisms falls within the principles of onomasiology
because the neologisms were coined to name existing concepts within the speech community.
Such naming needs form the point of departure of Stekauers onomasiological theory.
Onomasiology is the reverse side of semasiology, which is applied to concepts assigned to
existing names in the speech community. Onomasiology was derived from Greek onoma
meaning name; while semasiology was derived from Greek sema, meaning sign. It
investigates the denominations of an existing concept. In de Saussurean terms, semasiology
takes account of the signifiant, while the signifie is within the scope of onomasiology.
Both are sub-disciplines within the scope of semantics.
Onomasiology thus examines the way in which speakers of a language lexicalise a concept
existing in their community. It is also regarded as a branch of lexicology, which starts from a
concept (an idea, object, quality, etc.) and asks for its name. Thus, an onomasiological
question is for instance, What is the name for social behaviour in the use of the internet?
The term, netiquette is thus coined to name the phenomenon.

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When a speaker has to name something, he first tries to categorize it. Then he either falls
back on an already existing word or decides to coin a new designation. Such is the manner
through which neologisms are coined. The coinage of a new designation can be incited by
various forces; (cf. Grzega 2004) most common of which are difficulties in classifying the
concept to be named or attributing the right word from existing vocabulary to the concept.
Before proceeding to an outline of the theory, some terminological remarks are necessary.
The fundamental method applied in Stekauers approach is called onomasiological. This term
should be distinguished from the term onomatology. Vilm Mathesius (1975: 16), the founder
of the Prague School of Linguistics distinguishes between functional onomatology as the
study of naming units, i.e. complex words, on the one hand, and functional syntax defined as
the study of the means by which naming units are brought into mutual relation. As already
hinted above, the term onomasiology is usually used as an antonym to semasiology. While
the latter concentrates on the analysis of an existing lexis in order to identify any regularity in
the lexicon, the former concentrates on the dynamic aspect of word-formation: it accounts for
the generation of new complex naming units. By implication, like onomatology, it also refers
to the process of naming. Nevertheless, as demonstrated below, it is useful to distinguish
between the level of onomasiology (naming in a more abstract sense) and the level of
onomatology (naming process in a more specific sense).






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3.2.1. A CONCEPTUAL MAP OF STEKAUERS ONOMASIOLOGICAL THEORY
In Stekauers onomasiological theory, the naming process passes through several stages in
the mind of the speaker which are relevant to the current research:
1. The conceptual level: This involves the analysis of specific features of the nameless
concept; e.g. the speaker first acknowledges that there is a kind of social behaviour to
be adhered to when using the internet
2. The semantic level: This involves the selection of the semantic components for the
naming units; e.g. the speaker selects etiquette to describe social behaviour, and
internet to describe the internet.
3. The onomatological level: This involves the selection of concrete morphemes of the
naming units; e.g. the speaker selects net and etiquette as the two morphemes that
collectively describe social behaviour on the internet.
- The phonological level: This is where the forms are actually combined to form one
word; e.g. the two concrete morphemes are blended to form the single word,
netiquette, respecting morphological and supra-segmental phonological rules.
Pavol Stekauers theory of onomasiology was inspired by the work of Milo Dokulil (1962,
1966 and 1968), a prominent representative of the Prague School of Linguistics. Having been
a student of Josef Vachek, the most prominent personality of the Prague School of
Linguistics in the second half of the 20th century, Stekauer considers the form-meaning unity
of the Prague School to be a fundamental premise of his onomasiological theory.
Consequently, the conception proposed here differs in many respects from the mainstream
generative theories of word-formation, introduces a new approach to word-formation, and
demonstrates its advantages in treating some of the essential problems of word-formation.

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It should be noted, however, that the onomasiological approach is not the only one to
emphasize the necessity to examine both meaning and form of word-formation units and
structures. A most valuable exception to the prevailing tendency in the generative word-
formation is represented by Robert Beards Lexeme-Morpheme Base Morphology (LMBM)
elaborated in a series of works, with a comprehensive account being given in Beard (1995).
Onomasiological theory in its fundamental focus is not concerned with pragmatic aspects,
and concentrates on langue, on the system level of language. Stekauer describes his theory
as having three components: the Word-Formation Component, the Lexical Component
and the Syntactic Component. In the current research however, only the Word-Formation
and the Lexical Components are relevant. According to him, coinage of neologisms happens
within the Word-Formation Component while the creation of neologisms through semantic
changes happens within in the Lexical Component. It seems clear that the cognitive processes
of recurring to an already existing element (in the Lexical Component) and the coining of
new elements (in the Word-Formation Component) are different. However, Grzega (2004)
doubts that the coinage of a new designation by resorting to an already existing word for
another concept, traditionally called semantic change, should have more to do with the
Lexical Component than with the Word-Formation Component. He tried to show in my
habilitation dissertation on Stekauers theory that both these name-giving processes (word-
formation and semantic change) pass the same levels of the name-giving process (perceptual
level, onomasiological level, onomatological level, morphonological level). Each naming
process responds to a specific demand of a speech community for assigning a name to an
extra-linguistic object (in the broadest sense of the word). For obvious reasons, the two
components are mutually interconnected.
Each naming process is preceded by scanning the Lexical Component by a particular member
of a speech community who is going to assign a name to the object to be named. The

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scanning operation determines further procedure. Either a completely new naming unit is
coined by taking the path of the Word-Formation Component; or, if a naming unit is found in
the Lexical Component which can serve as a basis for semantic formation, it is the path of the
Lexical Component which is preferred. The use of computers, despite having lost its novelty
long ago in the English language speech community, has left a chain of innovations in its
wake. These innovations, such as social networking/ social media, being previously non-
existent as extra-linguistic concepts in the speech community, need to be addressed with
words. This kind of need is what Stekauers onomasiological theory calls the naming needs
or demands of the speech community and is therefore what prompts the coinage of new terms
and the semantic extension of existing terms such as the social media neologisms in this
study.











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3.3. THE THEORY OF LEXICAL SEMANTICS
There is a longstanding philosophical tradition, going back at least to Parmenides and
Socrates, of paying much attention to the meaning of words. In the twentieth century,
Wittgenstein, Quine, and others centred a great deal of their philosophical research around a
number of general questions regarding the nature of meanings, how words might come to
have meanings, the relationship between words and their worldly denotations, etc. Although
it is a subfield of linguistics, lexical semantics can be viewed as a refinement of this
philosophical tradition. Moreover, just as the philosophical study of word-meaning has been
realized in various different ways, so too there are many distinct linguistic projects that fall
under the rubric of lexical semantics.
The study of words (lexicology) and the study of meaning (semantics) make it very natural
for students of linguistics to interpret the term lexical semantics to mean a more technical
term for word meaning. Therefore, while lexical semantics is loosely defined as the study
of word meaning, the use of word in the definition is misleading. Lexical semantics is
more accurately described as the study of lexeme meaning. What is the difference between a
word and a lexeme? Simply put, not all words are lexemes, and not all lexemes are words.
Following Crystal (1995: 118), a lexeme or lexical item is a unit of lexical meaning which
exists regardless of any inflectional endings it may have or the number of words it may
contain. For example, the headwords in a dictionary are lexemes. This definition shows
clearly that a lexeme may consist of one word, but it may also contain more than one word,
e.g. cut back on, red herring, Good Friday. From our thorough examination of the concept
word, it is clear that one of the major differences between a word and a lexeme is that a
lexeme may be made up of more than one word.

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Lexical semantics could be defined as the study of word meaning, but in practice, it is often
more specifically concerned with the study of lexical (i.e. content) word meaning, as opposed
to the meanings of grammatical (or function words). This means that lexical semanticists are
most interested in the open classes of nouns, verbs and adjective; and with more contentful
members of the adverb and preposition clauses. Lexical semantics is thus mostly exempt
from considering issues that arise from the use of grammatical words; but while it focuses on
content words only, such words cannot be studied in an ungrammatical vacuum. The current
research however is assumed to discuss only content words because neologisms are
admissible only into the open class which constitute the content words and excludes function
words.
Most elements of lexical semantics are basic issues in semantics and, in most cases, have a
inter-theoretical perspective. Descriptions of lexical semantics are usually as language-
dependent as possible and easy to encode in a lexicon. The theory of lexical semantics fits
into linguistic curricula in various ways. The most common ways are: as a sub-field of
semantics and as a part of vocabulary or lexicology including morphology, phonology,
etymology and lexicography. It covers theories of the classification and decomposition of
word meaning, the differences and similarities in lexical semantic structure between different
languages and the relationship of word meaning to sentence meaning and syntax. One
question that lexical semantics explores is whether the meaning of a lexical unit is established
by looking at its neighbourhood in the semantic net (by looking at the other words it occurs
with), or if the meaning is already locally contained in the lexical unit.
Another topic the theory of lexical semantics explores is the mapping of words to concepts.
This topic is in line with Pavol Stekauers theory of onomasiology which explains that new
words enter the vocabulary in response to the need of members of a speech community to
name new extra-linguistic concepts in their environment.

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Lexical semantics is indeed a vast area with many ramifications. This research however will
not cover the theory in full due to the framework of the paper, for its volume would be much
exceeding that of a masters dissertation. Attention will thus be given to only the aspects of
lexical semantics relevant to this study.
First is the distinction between denotative meaning and connotative meaning. The denotative
meaning of a word is its actual meaning, also known as its dictionary meaning, conceptual
meaning or literal meaning. The connotative meaning of a word refers to the particular
qualities or characteristics beyond the denotative meaning that people commonly think of in
association to the word. British linguist Geoffrey Leech (1974) introduced the term
associative meaning to refer to the various types of meaning that are distinct from
denotation. Thus, connotative meaning could also be called thematic, social, affective,
reflective and collocative. Consider the example below:
Pig
Denotative meaning: A kind of four-legged mammal that loves to live in dirty environments
Connotative meaning: A person with dirty looks and habits
The semantic analysis of collected neologisms in the current research involves both aspects
of meaning. The newly coined words, being new, will solely be defined denotatively as they
may not have existed long enough in English to assume associative interpretations. The
words created through semantic extension and change of new words may assume connotative
definitions due to the associative links with existing vocabulary.
The theoretical framework of the present study is based on the three fields of study described
above as no single linguistic theory is adequate for the inter-disciplinary description of social
media neologisms. This study thus creates a connection among the three otherwise distinct
phenomena.

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3.4. METHODOLOGY
The path to finding answers to the research questions constitutes the research methodology.
At each operational step in the research process, the researcher is required to choose from a
multiplicity of methods, procedures and models of research methodology which best aims to
achieve the research objectives. Typically, scientific methods consist of systematic
observation, classification and interpretation of data; but a review of the methodology used
includes the nature of the research as this is what determines the methods of observation,
classification and interpretation of the collected data. According to Mackay (1993: 300), it is
important to find a method which is compatible with the kind of thing one is trying to
investigate.
To achieve the general purpose of this research, the following have to be noted: The object of
this research is the lexical system of modern English as it is represented in the social media.
The subject of the investigation is the neologisms that appeared with the advent of the social
media/networking. The purposeof the present work is to investigate the social media
neologisms in the lexical system of Modern English and reveal their processes of formation
and meaning. The most regular word-class and word-formation type will also be identified as
part of the findings of the research.
3.4.1. Nature of research
Against this background, the current research is said to be a kind of descriptive study because
it attempts to describe systematically the influence of social media use on the lexical system
of Modern English and to describe the meanings of the new words and expressions that
resulted from this influence. It is also a kind of correlational and explanatory study because it
establishes a relationship among the use of computers, social networking and lexical
innovation; and clarifies how and why these relationships exist.

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3.4.2. Sources of data
The neologisms will be collected from both primary and secondary sources.
Primary Sources
- Social media/ websites and Instant Messaging (Facebook, Twitter, MySpace,
YouTube, LinkedIn, Blackberry, Yahoo Messenger, SMS and general social
networking platforms such as chatrooms)
Secondary Sources
These include published materials:
- A-Z of Social Media Key Terms by David Wilcox
- The Ultimate Glossary: Social Media Terms Explained by Kipp Bodnar
- Top Trending Words of 2012 by Kate and Debt (2012) (The Global Language
Monitor)
- Neologisms in the 21
st
Century by Kerry Maxwell
- www.urbandictionary.com
- Language and the Internet by David Crystal
- The Rice University Neologisms Database

3.4.3. Technique of Data Collection
The technique of observation is used in this research and is based to a large degree on the
intuition of the researcher and on relevant published materials. In this study, the researcher,
using her experience as an ardent user of social media/ networking, will observe the websites
and published works on English neologisms to identify social media words whose form or
meaning appear new and unknown. This will help to create a potential list of neologisms.
Each word will then be looked up in current editions of English dictionaries; if the search

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comes up negative, the word will be marked as a neologism. Through this method, a list of
neologisms will then be created.
3.4.4. Mode of Inquiry
This study combines both qualitative and quantitative modes in the data analysis to answer to
the demands of the research questions. The qualitative mode will identify the meaning and
word-formation type of each neologism; while the quantitative mode will identify the most
frequent word-formation type and word class among the neologisms collected.
3.4.5. Data Presentation and Analysis
These two stages involve a number of close-knit operations which will be performed with the
purpose of summarizing the collected data and organizing these in a manner that they answer
the research questions (objectives). According to Troot and Bloomer (1998), data analysis
typically involves the editing, classification and interpretation of collected data.
- Data Editing/ Identification: The raw data of neologisms will be further examined to
detect some errors and omissions and these will be corrected.
- Data Classification: Each of the collected neologisms will first be analysed to
determine the word-formation type. The neologisms will then be classified according
to the various word-formation types (blending, compounding, conversion, semantic
change). Next is to define the words; the meaning of each word will be based on the
context in which the word was found before collection. This definition will reveal the
word class of each neologism, and this will form the basis of the next classification.
The above is a descriptive classification. The numerical classification follows to
reveal the most frequent word-class and word-formation type.

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- Data Interpretation: The data will be orderly arranged in tables, charts and graphs to
display them in compact form for further analysis and clearer interpretation. The
tables, charts and graphs in the current analysis will be a complex one because there
will be different attributes according to which the neologisms will be structured and
which determine the findings of this research (word-formation type, meaning, word
class, word-formation type frequency and word-class frequency).















64 | P a g e

CHAPTER FOUR
DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS
Introduction
This chapter contains the analysis of data followed by a discussion of the research findings.
The findings relate to the research questions that guide the study. The data consist of seventy
neologisms. These will be listed in alphabetical order, and then each analysed to reveal its
meaning, word-formation pattern and an example to show its context of usage. This forms the
qualitative aspect of the data analysis. In the quantitative aspect, the neologisms will be
tabulated to make the data compact enough to show the most frequent word-class and word-
formation type.
4.1 Data Presentation
4.1.1 Social Media Neologisms
1. Astroturf
2. Blackberry thumb
3. Blog
4. Blogosphere
5. Blook
6. Blue-jacking
7. Bodybooking
8. Chatiquette
9. Citizen Journalist
10. Civic media
11. Crackberry
12. Cyber-bully

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13. Cyber-feminism
14. Cyber-slacking
15. Cyber-stalking
16. Dashboard
17. Digerati
18. Egghead
19. Ego-surfing
20. Favourite
21. Follower
22. Friend
23. Gamification
24. Hackathon
25. Handle
26. Hashtag
27. Hat-tip
28. Hyperconnectivity
29. Inbox
30. Intexticated
31. Laymanise
32. Lexpionage
33. Lifecasting
34. Like
35. Linkbait
36. Lurker
37. Netconsciousness
38. Netiquette
39. Netizen

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40. Netlish
41. Netnography
42. Netspeak
43. Paywall
44. Plagiarhythm
45. Podcast
46. Retweet
47. Screenmuncher
48. Selfie
49. Sexting
50. Spamdexing
51. Spim
52. Textspeak
53. Textual harassment
54. Thumb generation
55. Troll
56. Tweebie
57. Tweetdeck
58. Tweetup
59. Twitterature
60. Twitterholic
61. Twittersphere
62. Twittionary
63. Unconference
64. Unfollow
65. Unfriend
66. Unlike

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67. Vlog
68. Vodcast
69. Wall
70. Webinar
Each of the seventy neologisms listed above will be analysed below in the same order,
showing its word class, word-formation type, meaning, context of usage and source, whether
primary or secondary. This section will satisfy the demands of the qualitative aspect of the
research questions and aims:
- What do the neologisms mean?
- What is the word-formation type inherent in each neologism?












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4.2. Data Analysis
This study requires a blend of both the qualitative and quantitative modes of analysis to fulfil
the demands of the research question. The data presented above will thus be analysed in both
ways, one after the other.
4.2.1. Qualitative Data Analysis
The qualitative analysis will delineate each neologism using the following format:
The neologism (its word-class)
- Its word-formation process
- Its definition
- A corresponding example and its source
1. Astroturf (Noun, Verb)
- Affixation (Prefix astro and noun turf)
- To conduct a fake grassroots campaign on an online social network that creates the
impression of legitimate interest in a product or service
- Astroturfs are motivated by a payment to the popular writer of a comment
(www.urbandictionary.com)
2. Blackberry thumb (Noun)
- Compounding (Blackberry + Thumb)
- A strain injury caused by the frequent use of your thumb to press buttons on your
mobile or other devices
- Blackberry thumb is a kind of muscle injury. (www.healthwatch.com)

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3. Blog (Noun, Verb)
- Blending (Web + Log)
- A type of website where you write your regular posts
- Ross pasted the posts onto his blog. (ABA Journal, Jan. 2008, Vol. 94, Issue 1)
4. Blogosphere (Noun)
- Blending (Blog + Atmosphere)
- The totality of blogs on the internet and the conversations taking place within that
sphere
- You cannot search half the entire blogosphere without finding Janets captivating
blog (www.urbandictionary.com)
5. Blook (Noun)
- Blending (Blog + Book)
- A printed blog
- This blook is about South Africa, a constructive look at our present, our future and
the opportunities that we have. (www.mikestopforth.com)
6. Bluejacking (Verb, Noun)
- Blending (Bluetooth + Jacking)
- Using your mobile phone with Bluetooth to discreetly send anonymous text messages
to the people around you (Maxwell, 2007: 27)
- What are the differences between bluejacking and bluesnarfing? (CNN Live Today,
2005)

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7. Bodybooking (Verb, Noun)
- Blending (Body + Facebook)
- The act of constantly posting pictures on Facebook of oneself in workout clothes or
swimsuits to show everyone how hot one is
- Stop bodybooking and upload decent pictures. (www.facebook.com)
8. Chatiquette (Noun)
- Blending (Chat + Etiquette)
- The social rules that have to be abided by when chatting with someone else on a
mobile device
- Terminating a chat without notifying the other party is a breach of chatiquette.
(www.urbandictionary.com)
9. Citizen journalist (Noun)
- Compounding (Citizen + Journalist)
- A person who uses digital technology and web-based media to broadcast to an online
audience what they witness real-life.
- Citizen journalists and bloggers pursue their own stories and disseminate them for
free on the internet, bypassing the mainstream media altogether.
(www.sanfranciscochronicle.com)
10. Civic media (Noun)
- Compounding

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- Any form of communication that strengthens the social bonds within a social network
- The ability to poke, hug or smile at a fellow Facebook user is a kind of civic media
(www.blogspot.com)
11. Crackberry (Noun)
- Blending (Crack + Blackberry)
- Another name for Blackberry, referring humorously to the danger of developing
addiction to it.
- Blackberry users are known for becoming addicted to their devices, to the point that
the little hand-helds have earned the nickname, Crackberry (Houston Chronicle,
2007)
12. Cyber-bully (Noun, Verb)
- Affixation (the fixing of prefix cyber- to noun bully)
- One who bullies another person with the use of electronic communication by sending
intimidating or threatening messages
- I avoid chatting with him because he is a cyber-bully. He cyber-bullies a lot.
(www.englishclub.com)
13. Cyber-feminism (Noun)
- Affixation (fixing prefix cyber to noun feminism)
- A community on a social network with philosophies and sets of practices concerned
with feminist interactions

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- Cyber-feminism is broadly concerned with expressing and developing feminism in
the context of online interactions. (www.livinginternet.com)
14. Cyberslacking (Noun, Verb)
- Compounding (Cyber + Slacking)
- To avoid work because one is surfing the internet and chatting on a social network
- Researchers estimate that cyberslacking costs employers over one billion dollars
annually in computer resources. (www.entrepreneur.com)
15. Cyberstalking (Noun, Verb)
- Affixation
- The practice of stalking someone on the internet using social media tools
- Most internet users love to cyberstalk movie stars. (www.indiewire.com)
16. Dashboard (Noun)
- Semantic extension
- The administrative section of a blog website that allows a blogger to manage his
homepage (www.urbandictionary.com)
- I was denied access to the dashboard, so I could not update my blog today.
17. Digerati (Noun)
- Blending (Digital + Literati)
- Technical experts who form the cyber elite on social networks

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- In a heretical gesture against the digerati, they burnt a laptop. (America, Jun 2001,
Vol. 184, Issue 20, page 12)
18. Egghead (Noun)
- Semantic extension
- One who is conservative even in the use of social networking; uses set graphics rather
than a personal picture, writes correct English rather than using slangs and short forms
- My lecturer is an egghead even on the internet. (www.livinginternet.com)
19. Ego-surfing (Noun, Verb)
- Compounding (Ego + Surfing)
- Using a search engine to look up ones own name on the internet to see how many
social networking sites it turns up in.
- Ego-surfing has only been possible since the advent of internet search engines.
(Maxwell, 2007: 63)
20. Favourite (Verb)
- Semantic extension (of the word favourite)
- To mark an item as one of your favourites on a social networking site
- Favouriting a picture means you like it. (www.digg.com)
21. Follower (Noun)
- Semantic extension
- Someone who is tracking a particular persons activities on a social networking site

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- I signed up on Twitter just last month, but I already have more than a thousand
followers. (www.twittionary.com)
22. Friend (Noun, Verb)
- Semantic extension
- Someone you regularly interact with on a social networking site.
- Most of my Facebook friends are people I have never met face-to-face, but I friended
them anyway. (www.urbandictionary.com)
23. Gamification (Noun)
- Affixation (Game Gamify Gamification)
- The application of typical elements of game-playing to other activities as an online
technique on a social network to encourage engagement with a product or service
- Gamification is exciting because it makes marketing so much fun
(www.urbandictionary.com)
24. Hackathon (Noun)
- Blending (Hack + Marathon)
- An online event typically lasting several days in which a large number of people
meet, usually on a social network, to engage in computer programming
- A series of 72-hour hackathon to build new web and mobile services
(www.urbandictionary.com)


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25. Handle (Noun)
- Semantic Extension
- A name someone uses on Twitter as a form of identification, usually different from
his real name. (www.twittionary.com)
- When you know someones handle, you can then search for him on Twitter.
26. Hashtag (Noun)
- Compounding (Hash + Tag)
- A tag (#) used on Twitter to annotate a message or show its relationship to an event
by placing the sign just before the message
- The message is not related to the party because it has no hashtags.
(www.twittionary.com)
27. Hat-tip (Noun)
- Compounding (Hat + Tip)
- A form of salutation from one blogger to another to show gratitude or recognition
- I got a hat-tip from a fellow blogger as soon as I logged in. (www.blogspot.com)
28. Hyperconnectivity (Noun)
- Affixation (Prefix hyper and noun connectivity)
- The use of multiple devices to ensure constant connection to social networks
- Hyperconnectivity takes up most of her study-time. (www.livinginternet.com)

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29. Inbox (Verb)
- Semantic extension
- To send an online message to a persons inbox on a social network site and not to
display it publicly on the persons profile page
- Kindly inbox me your pictures, do not post them on my page.
(www.urbandictionary.com)
30. Intexticated (Adjective)
- Blending (Text + Intoxicated)
- Being distracted because one is busy texting on a mobile phone
(www.urbandictionary.com)
- The accident occurred because the dtiver was intexticated.
31. Laymanise (Verb)
- Affixation (Noun layman and suffix -ise)
- To simplify social networking slangs in a way that a layman would understand
- I had to laymanise the words so that everyone would understand their meaning.
(Rice University Neologisms Database)
32. Lexpionage (Noun)
- Blending (Lexical + Espionage)
- The identification and collection of unique words from social networking sites

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- Sams friends accused him of lexpionage; he knows many social networking
terminologies. (www.livinginternet.com)
33. Lifecasting (Verb, Noun)
- Blending (life + broadcasting)
- To broadcast most events in your life to social network users through digital media
- Uploading photos and videos of daily activities is a form of lifecasting.
34. Like (Verb)
- Semantic extension
- To click a particular icon on Facebook to show that you approve of an item, such as a
photo or comment (www.facebook.com)
- I approved of Marys photo, so I liked it.
35. Linkbait (Noun)
- Compounding (Link + Bait)
- Interesting content posted on a website to attract readers and cause them to click on a
link (www.livinginternet.com)
- We use linkbait on other websites to get most internet users attracted to our
homepage.
36. Lurker (Noun)
- Affixation

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- A person who reads discussions on an online message board, but never contributes to
it; a person who lurks in the background (www.urbandictionary.com)
- Mary is a lurker; she does not like to participate in our discussion.
37. Netconsciousness (Noun)
- Blending (Internet + Consciousness)
- Knowledge of the internet and how social networks are used online
- Our parents are not interested in netconsciousness. (www.urbandictionary.com)
38. Netiquette (Noun)
- Blending (Internet + Etiquette)
- The rules of conduct when using the internet (www.livinginternet.com)
- Facebook should have strict penalties for lack of netiquette
39. Netizen (Noun)
- Blending (Internet + Citizen)
- One who uses the internet regularly; a citizen of the internet (www.livinginternet)
- She is a real netizen; she is always on Facebook.
40. Netlish (Noun)
- Blending (Internet + English)
- The variety of English used on the Internet (www.livinginternet.com)
- George is yet to master Netlish.

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41. Netnography (Noun)
- Blending (Internet + Ethnography)
- The branch of ethnography that analyses the behaviour of individuals on a social
network website (www.livinginternet.com)
- Experts of netnography provide information on online sociability
42. Netspeak (Noun)
- Blending (Internet + Speak)
- A type of language displaying features that are unique to the internet, arising out of its
character as a medium which is electronic, global and interactive (Crystal, 2005:37)
- Some people consider netspeak a language variety
43. Paywall (Noun)
- Compounding (Pay + Wall)
- A way of blocking access to a part of a website which is only available to subscribers
who have paid a certain fee (www.blogspot.com)
- I could not read the full details because the site had a paywall.
44. Plagiarhythm (Noun)
- Blending (Plagiarise + Rhythm)
- The act of stealing a singers tunes and lyrics by downloading them from YouTube
and incorporating them into new pieces of music (www.youtube.com)

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- Unlike the UK, Houston resists the urge to commit plagiarhythm.
(www.houstonpress.com)
45. Podcast (Noun)
- Blending (IPod + Broadcast)
- An internet-based audio programme which can be downloaded from an online social
network onto a mobile device such as an IPod or smart-phone
- For example, to record a podcast, you just log in and click the audio tab. (PC
World, July 2005, Vol. 23, Issue 7, page 74)
46. Retweet (Verb)
- Affixation (the fixing of prefix, re- to tweet)
- To forward a message posted by another user on social networking site Twitter
- Johns message inspired me, so I retweeted it. (www.urbandictionary.com)
47. Screenmuncher (Noun)
- Compounding (Screen + Muncher)
- A mobile phone application that captures the layout of the phone screen and saves it
as a photo
- I downloaded and installed screenmuncher on my BlackBerry
(www.appworld.com)
48. Selfie (Noun)
- Coinage

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- A picture taken of someone taken by that person with the intention of uploading it to a
social network website. The persons arm is usually visible holding out the camera to
snap himself (www.urbandictionary.com)
- A selfie looks more natural than a group photo on Facebook.
49. Sexting (Verb, Noun)
- Blending (sex + texting)
- The sending of sexually explicit photographs or messages through a mobile device
- Sexting is common among sexually active youths.
(www.macmillandictionaries.com)
50. Spamdexing (Noun, Verb)
- Blending (Spam + Indexing)
- The act of creating deceptive web links on a social network site
(www.livinginternet.com)
- When you click on a web link that leads you to a strange site, you have fallen prey to
spamdexing.
51. Spim (Noun)
- Blending (Spam + Instant Messaging (IM))
- Unsolicited commercial messages sent via an instant messaging system
- I delete any spim on my phone as soon as I receive it. (www.urbandictionary.com)


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52. Textspeak (Noun)
- Compounding (Text + Speak)
- The language typically used in mobile phone texting (SMS) (Crystal, 2005: 62)
- She types in regular English; she is not used to textspeak.
53. Textual harassment (Noun)
- Compounding (Textual + Harassment)
- To harass someone through text messages (www.urbandictionary.com)
- Textual harassment is not the only form of cyberbullying. (www.sexetc.org)
54. Thumb generation (Noun)
- Compounding (Thumb + Generation)
- A generation of people who spend the leisure time with activities involving constant
pressing of keypads with the thumb, such as texting and mobile games
- The growing thumb generation posed the greatest new challenge to traditional media,
with cell phone text messages conveying news about current events. (Associated
Press, 2007)
55. Troll (Noun)
- Semantic extension
- Someone who posts controversial messages on an online message board in order to
disrupt normal topics of discussion (www.linkedin.com)
- The discussion was going fine until that troll posted a crude message.

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56. Tweebie (Noun)
- Blending (Twitter + Newbie)
- One who is new on Twitter and not conversant with its usage (www.twittionary.com)
- She is a tweebie; she only signed up yesterday.
57. Tweetdeck (Noun)
- Compounding (Tweet + Deck)
- An online platform that connects Twitter users with other internet users across
Facebook, MySpace, LinkedIn and other social networks (www.twittionary.com)
- With Tweetdeck, you connect with a lot of fellow internet users.
58. Tweetup (Noun)
- Blending (Tweet + Meet-up)
- An organised or impromptu online gathering of people that use Twitter
(www.twittionary.com)
- I got an invitation to connect online and attend the tweetup.
59. Twitterature (Noun)
- Blending (Twitter + Literature)
- Any article about social network site Twitter (www.twittionary.com)
- I have a collection of Twitterature I read when I am not working.


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60. Twitterholic (Noun)
- Blending (Twitter + Alcoholic)
- One who is always posting comments on social network Twitter
(www.twittionary.com)
- She updates her Twitter profile every minute like a twitterholic.
61. Twittersphere (Noun)
- Compounding (Twitter + Sphere)
- The sphere or domain of Twitter (www.twittionary.com)
- Such applications are not found in Twittersphere
62. Twittionary (Noun)
- Blending (Twitter + Dictionary)
- A dictionary of Twitter terms (www.twitter.com)
- You can look up the term follower in a twittionary.
63. Unconference (Noun)
- Affixation (the prefix un fixed to noun conference.)
- An online gathering that avoids the regular features of a real conference
- I missed the unconference. (www.linkedin.com)
64. Unfollow (Verb)
- Affixation (fixing prefix un- to follow)

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- To stop tracking someones activities on a social networking site.
- His messages are vulgar, so I unfollowed him. (www.twittionary.com)
65. Unfriend (Verb)
- Affixation (fixing prefix un- to friend)
- To remove someones name from your list of friends on a social networking site
(www.facebook.com)
- He was stalking me, so I unfriended him.
66. Unlike (Verb)
- Semantic extension
- To click an icon on Facebook to show you no longer like an item you previously liked
(www.facebook.com)
- I changed my mind and unliked the photo.
67. Vlog (Noun)
- Blending (video + blog)
- A blog that produces regular video content on a particular theme on the internet
(www.blogspot.com)
- I download videos from her vlog regularly.
68. Vodcast (Noun)
- Blending (Video + Podcast)

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- A downloadable video program from a social network website
- Most vodcasts are not worth your time. (PC World, Sept 2006, Vol. 24, Issue 9, pg
105)
69. Wall (Noun)
- Semantic Extension
- A persons profile homepage on a social network website where others can post
messages, pictures and newsfeed and can be viewed by anyone who is granted access
to it. (www.facebook.com)
- You can view a persons recent online activities on her Facebook wall.
70. Webinar (Noun)
- Blending (Web + seminar)
- Meetings, trainings or presentations conducted live on the internet
(www.livinginternet.com)
- You have to register for the webinar for you to participate.







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4.2.2. Quantitative Data Analysis
The seventy neologisms analysed above will be classified below according to their word-
formation types and according to the word class to which they belong. This is the first step
towards responding to the demands of the quantitative aspect of the research questions and
objectives:
- What is the most common word-formation type among the neologisms?
- What is the most common word-class among the neologisms?
4.2.2.1. Quantitative Data Classification according to Word-formation
From the data analysed above, the following classification is made to show the number of
neologisms that fall within each word-formation type below.
Blending
1. Blog
2. Blogosphere
3. Blook
4. Bluejacking
5. Bodybooking
6. Chatiquette
7. Crackberry
8. Digerati
9. Hackathon
10. Intexticated
11. Lexpionage
12. Lifecasting
13. Netconsciousness

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14. Netiquette
15. Netizen
16. Netlish
17. Netnography
18. Netspeak
19. Plagiarhythm
20. Podcast
21. Sexting
22. Spamdexing
23. Spim
24. Tweebie
25. Tweetup
26. Twitterature
27. Twitterholic
28. Twittionary
29. Vlog
30. Vodcast
31. Webinar
Compounding
1. Blackberry thumb
2. Citizen journalist
3. Civic media
4. Ego-surfing
5. Hash-tag
6. Hat-tip
7. Link-bait

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8. Pay-wall
9. Screenmuncher
10. Textspeak
11. Textual harassment
12. Thumb generation
13. Tweetdeck
14. Twittersphere
Affixation
1. Astroturf
2. Cyberbully
3. Cyberfeminism
4. Cyberslacking
5. Cyberstalking
6. Gamification
7. Hyperconnectivity
8. Laymanise
9. Lurker
10. Retweet
11. Unfriend
12. Unlike
13. Unconference
Semantic Extension
1. Dashboard
2. Egghead
3. Favourite
4. Follower
5. Friend

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6. Handle
7. Inbox
8. Like
9. Troll
10. Unlike
11. Wall
Coinage
1. Selfie

4.2.2.2. Quantitative Data Classification according to Word-Class
The seventy neologisms above will then be classified according to the word class they belong
to. This will help to show the most common word-class in the data.
Nouns
1. Astroturf
2. Blackberry thumb
3. Blog
4. Blogosphere
5. Blook
6. Chatiquette
7. Citizen Journalist
8. Civic media
9. Crackberry
10. Cyber-bully
11. Cyber-feminism
12. Cyberslacking
13. Cyberstalking

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14. Dashboard
15. Digerati
16. Egghead
17. Ego-surfing
18. Follower
19. Friend
20. Gamification
21. Hackathon
22. Handle
23. Hashtag
24. Hat-tip
25. Hyperconnectivity
26. Laymanise
27. Lexpionage
28. Lifecasting
29. Linkbait
30. Lurker
31. Netconsciousness
32. Netiquette
33. Netizen
34. Netlish
35. Netnography
36. Netspeak
37. Paywall
38. Plagiarhythm
39. Podcast
40. Screenmuncher

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41. Selfie
42. Sexting
43. Spamdexing
44. Spim
45. Textspeak
46. Textual harassment
47. Thumb generation
48. Troll
49. Tweebie
50. Tweetdeck
51. Tweetup
52. Twitterature
53. Twitterholic
54. Twittersphere
55. Twittionary
56. Unconference
57. Vlog
58. Vodcast
59. Wall
60. Webinar
Verbs
1. Astroturf
2. Blog
3. Blue-jacking
4. Body-booking
5. Cyber-bully

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6. Cyber-slacking
7. Cyber-stalking
8. Ego-surfing
9. Favorite
10. Friend
11. Inbox
12. Laymanise
13. Life-casting
14. Like
15. Retweet
16. Sexting
17. Spamdexing
18. Unfollow
19. Unfriend
20. Unlike
Adjectives
1. Intexticated

4.2.3 Tabulation of Data
The seventy neologisms above will be presented below in a tabular form to make them
compact enough to reveal clearly the most dominant word-formation type and word-class. To
this end, two tables will be constructed; one according to the word-formation of the
neologisms, the other according to their word-class. Each column represents each of the
word-formation type and word-class identified among the neologisms from the qualitative
analysis. Each row is numbered to show the number of neologisms listed under each column.

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On the last row of the tables, the total of neologisms in each column will be stated. At that
point, the highest number represents the most common word-formation type and word-class.
Figure 4.2.3
Tabulation according to Word-Formation Type
BLENDING COMPOUNDING AFFIXATION SEMANTIC
EXTENSION
COINAGE
1 Blog Blackberry thumb Astroturf Dashboard Selfie
2 Blogosphere Citizen journalist Cyber-bully Egghead
3 Blook Civic media Cyber-feminism Favourite
4 Blue-jacking Ego-surfing Cyber-slacking Follower
5 Body-booking Hash-tag Cyber-stalking Friend
6 Chatiquette Hat-tip Gamification Handle
7 Crackberry Link-bait Hyperconnectivity Inbox
8 Digerati Pay-wall Laymanise Like
9 Hackathon Screenmuncher Lurker Troll
10 Intexticated Textspeak Retweet Unlike
11 Lexpionage Textual harassment Unfriend Wall
12 Lifecasting Thumb generation Unlike

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13 Netconsciousness Tweetdeck Unconference
14 Netiquette Twittersphere
15 Netizen
16 Netlish
17 Netnography
18 Netspeak
19 Plagiarhythm
20 Podcast
21 Sexting
22 Spamdexing
23 Spim
24 Tweebie
25 Tweetup
26 Twitterature
27 Twitterholic
28 Twittionary
29 Vlog
30 Vodcast

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31 Webinar
TOTAL- 31 TOTAL- 14 TOTAL- 13 TOTAL- 11 TOTAL- 1


Figure 4.2.4
Tabulation of Data according to Word-Class
NOUNS VERBS ADJECTIVES
1 Astroturf Astroturf Intexticated
2 Blackberry thumb Blog
3 Blog Blue-jacking
4 Blogosphere Body-booking
5 Blook Cyber-bully
6 Chatiquette Cyber-slacking
7 Citizen Journalist Cyber-stalking
8 Civic media Ego-surfing
9 Crack-berry Favorite
10 Cyber-bully Friend
11 Cyber-feminism Inbox

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12 Cyber-slacking Laymanise
13 Cyber-stalking Life-casting
14 Dashboard Like
15 Digerati Retweet
16 Egghead Sexting
17 Ego-surfing Spamdexing
18 Follower Unfollow
19 Friend Unfriend
20 Gamification Unlike
21 Hackathon
22 Handle
23 Hash-tag
24 Hat-tip
25 Hyperconnectivity
26 Laymanise
27 Lexpionage
28 Lifecasting
29 Link-bait

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30 Lurker
31 Netconsciousness
32 Netiquette
33 Netizen
34 Netlish
35 Netnography
36 Netspeak
37 Paywall
38 Plagiarhythm
39 Podcast
40 Screenmuncher
41 Selfie
42 Sexting
43 Spamdexing
44 Spim
45 Textspeak
46 Textual harassment
47 Thumb generation

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48 Troll
49 Tweebie
50 Tweetdeck
51 Tweetup
52 Twitterature
53 Twitterholic
54 Twittersphere
55 Twittionary
56 Unconference
57 Vlog
58 Vodcast
59 Wall
60 Webinar
TOTAL- 60 TOTAL- 20 TOTAL- 1





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Representation of Data in Charts
Figure 4.2.5

The pie chart above shows what percentage of the data each word-formation type accounts
for. As was also shown in the tables above, the chart shows that the most common word-
formation type used in the neologisms is blending, while the least common is coinage.
Figure 4.2.6


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The pie chart above shows the most dominant word-class in the data. As the tables earlier
revealed, most (86%) of the neologisms are nouns, while adjectives making up 1.5 per cent
are the least found. 28.5 per cent of the neologisms are verbs while 14% can be used either as
nouns or as verbs. This is also shown in the pie chart above.
Representation of Data in Graphs
Figure 4.2.7

The graph above shows the number of neologisms each word-formation process accounts for.
As it clearly shows, blending is the most common word-formation type, accounting for thirty-
one out of the seventy neologisms, while coinage is the least, accounting for only one word
out of seventy. Compounding accounts for fourteen, affixation thirteen and semantic
extension eleven.




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Figure 4.2.8


The graph above shows the number of neologisms belonging to each word class. Sixty out of
the seventy neologisms are nouns; this is the highest number. Twenty neologisms are verbs,
while only one is an adjective. Some of the neologisms can be used as either nouns or verbs.
Ten of the neologisms belong to this class.
As required of this study, the qualitative analysis and the quantitative analysis of the data
have been presented above and the results of the analysis were clearly shown. The section
below presents a discussion of the results of the analysis.





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4.2. Discussion
The first section of the analysis is qualitative. It shows how each word is formed, the word
class it belongs to, what it means and an example to show its context of usage. This section
revealed that not all word-formation types are used in the creation of social media
neologisms, and not all word-classes can admit neologisms. The word-formation types
identified in the data (in order of frequency) are: blending, compounding, affixation, semantic
extension and coinage; while the word-classes they belong to are nouns, verbs and adjectives.
The most common word-formation type among the neologisms used in this study is blending.
Thirty-one out of the seventy neologisms are blends. Technically, this is forty-four per cent of
the data examined for this study. This is close to the findings of a similar study by Cook and
Stevenson (2010) in which blends accounted for roughly 44% of the neologisms examined.
The next word-formation type in order of frequency is compounding which accounts for
fourteen out of the seventy neologisms; that is 20% of the entire data examined. After
compounding comes affixation which accounts for thirteen of the neologisms (18.5%),
semantic extension which accounts for eleven of the neologisms (16%) and coinage which
accounts for only one out of the seventy neologisms (1.5%).
The most common word-class in the data is the noun. Out of the seventy neologisms, sixty
are nouns. That is 86% of the entire data examined. This conforms to Stekauers notion of
onomasiology. Since words are coined to name existing objects and concepts, it is natural for
most neologisms to be nouns. The analysis above also showed that neologisms can only
belong to the open class of English words which include nouns, verbs and adjectives the
three word classes identified among the neologisms in this study. They are typically able to
absorb new words into their class, unlike grammatical words which rarely absorb neologisms.
Next to nouns is the verb, which accounts for twenty out of the seventy neologisms (28.5%).

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As a result of the ease with which language users convert nouns to verbs, and vice versa,
some of the neologisms which were originally nouns and verbs are now used
interchangeably, either as nouns or as verbs. Thus, out of the seventy neologisms, ten (14%)
can be used in this manner. Adjectives account for only one (1.5%) out of the seventy
neologisms.
Conclusion
This chapter has presented the social media neologisms collected as data for this study, their
analysis and the discussion of the results drawn. The results from the analysis have been
found to be consistent with the findings of related studies on English neologisms. In addition,
the distribution of various word-formation types and word classes among the neologisms was
explored to reveal consistency with distribution of same in other studies. As a general
conclusion to the entire research, the next chapter will discuss the findings and their
implications to language usage and further research.









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CHAPTER FIVE
Conclusion
The purpose of this study was to investigate the new words and expressions that were created
as a result of online social networking. The objectives of the study were to analyse the
neologisms to reveal their meanings, word-classes and word-formation processes, and to
distinguish the most dominant word-class and word-formation process among the neologisms
collected as data.
Seventy neologisms were collected and delineated in the analysis. The observation method of
data collection was used to gather social media neologisms from both primary and secondary
sources; and both the qualitative and quantitative modes of inquiry were adopted. The
primary sources were mostly social networking websites; while the secondary sources were
published works in which some neologisms were documented and defined. The qualitative
mode of analysis involved a definition of each neologism, revealing its meaning, word-class
and word-formation process, with an example to show its context of usage. The quantitative
mode of analysis involved the compact arrangement of the data in tables and graphs to show
the number of neologisms that fall under each word-class and word-formation process
identified in the data. Pie charts were also drawn to represent the data in order to reveal what
percentage of the data was accounted for by each word-class and word-formation type.





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5.1. Findings
By following four main research questions closely, the research focused its data analysis on
the specific domain of neologisms in social networking to answer to the demands of the
research questions:
RESEARCH QUESTIONS ANSWERS
1 What word-classes and word-
formation processes are inherent
in the creation of these
neologisms?
The word-classes identified are nouns, verbs and
adjectives; while the word-formation processes
identified are blending, compounding, affixation,
semantic extension and coinage.
2 What do these neologisms mean? The qualitative analysis showed a definition of each
neologism with illustrations to show its context of
usage.
3 Which word-formation process is
most common in the creation of
social media neologisms?
Blending
4 Which word-class is the most
common among the neologism?
Noun

The first objective of the study, which was to define the meanings of social media
neologisms, was met as the first part of the analysis revealed their meanings with clear
illustrations, word-classes and word-formation types. It forms the major focus of this study as
it provides adequate information about each of the neologisms to facilitate its use accurately.

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The second objective of the study, which was to foreground the word-formation process and
word-class of each neologism, was met as the neologisms were all listed under the
corresponding word-classes and word-formation processes identified in the data. Not all
word-formation processes in English were identified in the data. Blending, affixation,
compounding, semantic extension and coinage were identified and each neologism in the data
was classified under one of these. In like manner, not all word-classes in English were
identified in the data. Nouns, verbs and adjectives were identified and each neologism was
classified under at least one of them. As is typical of the English vocabulary, some
neologisms can be used as both nouns and verbs. The analysis of data showed this too and
grouped such words accordingly. They made up 14% of the data.
The third objective, which was to distinguish the most common word-class and word-
formation process among the neologisms, was met as the data was compactly arranged in
tables, bar graphs and pie charts to show the word-class and word-formation type that
accounts for the highest number and highest percentage of the neologisms. These
arrangements revealed that the most dominant word-class is the noun. This is in line with
Pavol Stekauers notion of onomasiology which formed part of the theoretical framework of
this study and states that words are coined to name existing objects and concepts in a speech
community. Thus, most of the neologisms are typically nouns (names). The structural
arrangements also revealed that the most dominant word-formation type is blending.
Blending is a very frequent process of word-formation typically accomplished by taking only
the beginning or end of one word and joining it to the beginning or end of the other word.
However, words in the data like intexticated are a complete mix of text and intoxicated.
44% of the neologisms collected are formed through blending. Most studies on lexical
creation have shown that blending is the most common form of neology and nouns,
belonging to the open class, are the most coined class of words. Verbs are mostly derived
from existing words through semantic extension or from nouns through the process of
conversion.



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5.2. Significance of the Study
This study will be a significant endeavour in providing additional reference for those
students, lecturers or researchers and translators interested in similar studies. It will
improve the readers knowledge of social media neologisms, what they mean, how they
are used and how much their coinage contributes to vocabulary development in English.
This study will also be of significance to language users by increasing their awareness of
the productivity of existing words in the English vocabulary, as it revealed that the
neologisms were coined from existing linguistic elements. It will also encourage language
users to look beyond the belief that neology is purely creative (Crystal, 2006) and stop
gainsaying its larger role in language change. Moreover, this research will provide
recommendations on what related fields to carry out further research.
5.3. Contributions to Scholarship
Theses by definition are required to be original contributions to scholarship. Focusing on
the practice of analyzing social media neologisms, this study will contribute to the
empirical records of ways in which technological advancements in social networking
interacts with language use on the internet. It will draw on and contribute to scholarly
literatures that examine word-formation as part of the naming process in a speech
community. It will also draw on and contribute to scholarly works on the computerization
of social networking as well as that of the interaction between computer-mediated
communication and sociolinguistics. The results of this investigation will contribute to the
advancement of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) as the neologisms collected can be
described as belonging to the social media register. The theoretical foundations of this
study buttress the need for improved educational efforts towards a single linguistic theory
that can account for such multi-disciplinary investigations.