Extensive Reading in The ESL Class

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CAMBRI DGE LANGUAGE EDUCA I I ON
Seri e s Edi tor: Jack C. Ri chards
Thi s seri es draws on thc best avai l abl e rescl rch. thcory. and educati onal practi ce to
hcl p cl ari fy i ssues and resol ve probl ems i n l anguagc teachi ng. l anguagc teacher cdu-
cal i on, and rcl atecl arcl s. Books i n the se' ri es fi rcus on a wi dc range of i ssues and are
wri tten i n a styl e that i s accessi bl e to cl assroorn teachers. teachen-i n-bdni ng. and
teacher educators.
In this series:
Agendas for Second Language Literacy bt'Sundra Lee MtKut'
Reflective Teaching in Second Language Classrooms by Juck C. Richards
and Charles Locklutl
Educating Second Language Children: The whole child, the whole
curriculum, the whole community etlited bt' Fred Genesee
Understanding Communication in Second Language Classrooms
ht' Karen E. Johnxtn
The Self-directed Teacher: Managing the learning process bt Duvitl
Nunun ond Clarice Lumb
Functional English Grammar: An introduction for second language
teachers bt' G rahum Lot'k
Teachers as Course Developers edited bv Kttthlcen Grat'es
Classroom-based Evaluation in Second Language Education bt Fred
Genesee antl Jolrrt A. Upshur
From Reader to Reading Teacher: Issues and strategies for second
language classrooms by Jo Ann Aebersold und Mury Lee Field
Extensive Reading in the Second Language Classroom ht Ri<.lrurtl R. Du,-
trtul J ul iun Bunr.fltnl
Language Teaching Awareness: A guide to exploring beliefs and
practices b1- Jcrrt G. Gebhunl arul Robert Opruntlt,
Vocabulary in Language Teaching bv- Nrtrbert St'hmirt
Curri cufum Devel opment i n Language l ' eachi ng bt' JuL' k C. Ri cl tanl s
Extensive Reading in the
Second Language Classroom
Richard R. Dav
Uni versi ty of Hawai i
Julian Bamford
Bunkyo Uni versi ty
F-eCavrnRrDGE
qJ@ UNIVERSITY PRESS
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C ' A N I B R I D G E T I N I v E R S I T Y P R F ] S S
Thc Edi nburgh Bui l di ng. Cambri dgc C' B2 2RU. UK
40 Wcst 20t h St rcct , Ncw York, NY l 00l I 42 I I , U S A
477 Wi l l i anrst own Road, Port Mel boume. VI C 3207, Arrst ral i a
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Dock Housc. Thc Wat erf ront , Capc Town 8001, Sout h Al i i ca
http://wwrv.cambridgc.org
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C' ambri dge Uni vcrsi t y Prcss l 99l J
I t i s nornral l y necL-ssary l br wri t t en pcrnri ssi on l br copyi ng t o bc obt ai ncd i n advancc
t i om a publ i sher. Fi gurc l (a) on pagc t l f l . Fi gurc 2 on page 147. and Fi gurc 3(a) on
pagc l 5l of t hi s book arc phot ocopi abl e. Thc nonnal rcqui rcrncnt s arc wai vct l hcrc,
and i t i s not ncccssary t o wri t c t o C' arnbri dge Uni vcrsi t y Prcss f i rr penxi ssi on f br an
i ndi vi dual t cachcr t o makc copi cs l br usc wi t hi n hi s or hcr own cl assroom.
l ' i rst pubt i shcd I 99t {
4t h pri nt i ng 200; l
Pri nt cd i n t hc Uni t ed St at cs of Amcri ca
Typeset in Tinrcs Roman
L i b ru r.t' t t
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l> t r b I i L u t i o n D u I u
Day, Ri chard I l .
Exl ensi vc rcadi ng i n t he second l anguagc cl assroor-n / Ri chard Day
zrnd Jul i an Banrl brd.
p. cl l l .
"Bi bl i ography of ' l anguagc l carncr l i t erat urc i n Engl i sh" : p.
I ncl uri cs bi bl i ographi cal rcl -crcnccs (p.
) and i ndcx.
I SBN 0- 521- 56073- X ( hb) . l St sN 0- 521- 56t i 29- 3 ( pb)
l . Languagc and l anguages St udy and t cachi ng. 2. Rcadi ng.
l . Bamt br d. Jul i an. I I . Ti t l c.
P53. 75. D39 t 997
4l f t ' . 4' 07 dc2l 97-24481
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,1 tttlulogtrt' rautnl lir tltis hook i.s ttt' uilttltla
fiont
thc British Lihrcn'
I SBN 0 521 56073 X har dback
I SBN 0 521 56u29 3 papcr back
To the l ate Dr. Shi gckazu Fukuyama
To Tcrry and Lcanne Day, ancl Mari on and
Vi ncent Barrrfi rrd
And t o Har ol d Pal mer and Mi chael Wcst , t he
parents of second l anguagc cxtensi vc rcadi ng
i n modern ti urcs
Contents
Seri es edi tor' s preface xi
Pref' ace x i i i
I THE DI MENSI ONS OF EXTENSI VE READI NG I
I An approach l ess taken: Extensi ve readi ng i ntroduced 3
Extensi ve readi ng 5
An extensi ve readi ng approach 6
The characteri sti cs of an extensi ve readi ng approach 7
Concl usi on 9
Further readi ng 9
2 A cogni t i ve vi ew of r eadi ng l 0
Readi ng as a cogni t i ve pr ocess I I
Interacti ve model s of readi ng 12
Readi ng i n a second l anguage 15
The rol e of extensi ve readi ng i n devel opi ng l l uent second
language readers I 6
Concl usi on l 9
Further readi ng l g
3 Al ' fbct: The secret garden of readi ng 2l
At t i t ude 22
Mot i vat i on 2l
The extensi ve readi ng bookstrap hypothesi s 30
Concl usi on 3l
Further reading 3 I
4 The power of extensi ve readi ng: Insi ghts from the
research 32
Resul ts of extensi ve readi ng programs 33
Second l anguage readi ng abi l i ty 35
vi i
I I
viii Contents
Affect 35
Vocabul ary 36
Li ngui sti c competence 37
Wri ti ng 37
Spel l i ng 37
Concl usi on 38
Further readi ng 38
5 Extensi vc readi ng and the sccond l anguage curri cul um
Integrati ng extensi ve readi ng i nto second l anguage
prograrns 4l
Extensi ve readi ng and second l anguage academi c
programs 44
Goal s of an extensi ve readi ng program 45
Why i s extensi ve readi ng the approach l ess travel ed' ?
Concl usi on 48
Further rcadi ng 48
MATERI ALS FOR EXTENSI VE READI NG: I SSUES I N
DEVELOPMENT 5I
6 The cul t of authenti ci ty and the myth of si mpl i fi cati on
Thc cul t of authenti ci ty 53
The rnyth of si mpl i fi cati on 56
Authenti ci ty and si rnpl i ci ty reexami ned 58
Communi cati on 60
Concl usi on 6l
Further readi ng 6l
7 Language l earner l i terature 63
Language l earner l i terature i ntroduced 63
Wri ti ng for an audi encc of second l anguage l earners
Language l earner l i terature as art 14
The i rnportance of content 76
Support fbr readi ng 77
Concl usi on 78
Further readi ng 19
THE PRACTI CE OF EXTENSI VE READI NG 8I
tl Setti ng up a program: Curri cul ar deci si ons
How much materi al shoul d students read?
83
84
53
I I I
Contents ix
l 0
How can teachers eval uate students' J l l 6
Shoul d students read i n cl ass or tbr homework or both?
At what l evel of di ffi cul ty shoul d students read' / 9l
Shoul d students use di cti onari es whi l e readi ne' J 93
Concl usi on 94
Further readi ng 95
Materi al s: The l ure and the l adder 96
Language learner literature 97
Chi l dren' s books 98
Learners' own stori es 99
Newspapers 100
Magazi nes 102
Chi l dren' s magazi nes 102
Popul ar and si mpl e l i terature 103
Young adul t l i terature 104
Comi cs 104
Transl ati ons 105
Concl usi on 105
Further readi ng | 06
The extensi ve readi ng l i brary 107
Deci di ng the si ze of the program 107
Maki ng a budget 108
Determi ni ng the students' readi ng l evel s 109
Di scoveri ng student i nterests 109
Purchasi ng the readi ng materi al s l l I
Catal ogi ng and organi zi ng the materi al s 112
Deci di ng where to pl ace the materi al s l l 2
Setti ng up a checkout system I I 5
Di spl ayi ng the rnateri al s I l 5
Concl usi on l l 6
Further readi ng I 16
Student ori entati on I l 8
The goal s of the program l 2O
The procedures of the program l 2l
Readi ng requi rements 123
Readi ng materi al s 124
Concl usi on 124
Bui l di ng a communi ty of readers 126
Ongoi ng cl ass gui dance 126
u
t2
x Contents
l ndi vi dual counsel i ng 127
l n- cl assacr i vi t i es 128
The teacher as rol e model 136
Hel p for struggl i ng readers 137
Concl usi on 138
Further readi ng 138
13 The readi ng communi ty i n acti on 140
Answeri ng quest i ons l 4l
Wri ti ng summari es 112
Wri ti ng reacti on reporl s 143
Gi vi ng oral report s 148
Popul ar books secti on l 5i )
I n-book opi ni on f orms 150
Ravc revi ews 153
A readi ng f ai r 153
Wal l di spl ays 154
Concl usi on 155
14 Progranr cval uat i on 156
Purpose 151
Audi ence 157
Method l 5l
Seei ng i f a program has achi eved i t s goal s t 5g
Seei ng what other resul ts a program mi ght have had
Identi fyi ng aspects of a program needi ng i mprovement
Rcsul t s 162
Concl usi on 163
Further readi ng 163
l 5 Taki ng the approach l ess travel ed 164
Extensi ve readi ng and thc teacher 167
Appendi x A bi bl i ography of l anguage l earner l i terature i n
Engl i sh 169
An EPER bi bl i ography of hi gh-qual i ty l anguage l eamer
l i terature 172
Descri pti on of the .seri es l gg
References 203
I ndex 217
159
160
( - .
I . , r
Jerrcs edrtor s pre.lace
Al t l r ough a nur nber of Lr sef ul books ar e avai l abl e on t he t eachi ng of r cadi ng
i n a second or fbrei gn l anguage, thi s i s the fl rst book to focus speci fi cal l y on
the nature of extensi ve readi ng ernd the devel opmcnt of extensi vc rcadi ng
prograrxs i n fbrci gn and second l anguage teachi ng. Ri chard Day and Jul i an
Bamforcl ot-fer an i ntbrnred and practi cal anal ysi s of thc nature and scope of
cxtensi vc readi ng. arguc convi nci ngl y fbr thc need to gi ve grcatcr attenti on
to extensi vc readi ng i n l anguage teachi ng, and provi de a val uabl c gui de to
devel opi ng an efI' ecti ve cxtcnsi t,e readi ng progral x wi thi n a sccond or
l br ei gn l anguage cun' i cul um.
In devcl opi ng thei r rati onal e fbr extensi ve rcadi ng, the authors rcvl cw a
cornprehensi vc body of rcscarch that demonstratcs the benefi ts that can
accrue fronr extensi vc readi ng. Tl resc bcnefi ts i ncl Lrde not onl y the obvi ous
i mpr over . nent s i n st udcnt s' r eadi ng ski l l s ar r d r eadi ng speed but changes i n
thei r gencral l anguage profi ci ency and i n thei r atti tudes toward readi ng and
l anguage l earni ng. For rnany l anuuage stucl ents, thc abi l i ty to engagc' i n
tl uent reacl i ng and to read both fbr i rnportant i nfbnrati on and fcl r pl casurc i s
perhaps thc most val uabl e bcnefi t they wi l l gai n fi orn l anguage study;
hence i t i s cruci al that such an outcontc i s pl anned fbr i n l anguage teachi ng
rather than l eft to chance.
The autl rors dernonstrate, however. that there i s tar ntore to cxtensi r,e
readi ng than si rnpl y provi di ng materi al s. They anal yzc the factors that nccd
to bc consi dered i n pl anni ng and i mpl ementi ng a progral x, and how such a
progral r can be efl ' ecti vcl y organi zed and adrni ni stcred. Detai l ed gui darrce
i s gi ven ccl nccrni ng how to i ntcgrate extensi ve readi ng i nto the second or
forei gn l anguagc curri cul um, what the goal s fbr such acti vi ti es are, what
rcsources and pl anni ng are needed, thc cri teri a fbr choosi ng sui tabl e read-
i ng tcxts, l tow to eval uatc the prograrn, and i rtrportarrt fi rctors to consi dcr i n
the day-to-day managenrent of a program.
The aut hor s emphasi ze t hat al t hough cxt cnsi vc r cadi r r s i s a st udenf -
centered and student-nranagcd acti vi ty si ncc sl utl crrts chori sc rl hal . rvl rcrr.
XI
xii Series editor's preface
and how to read
--teachers
have a cruci al rol e to pl ay i n ensuri ng the
success of the program. Teachers need a thorough understandi ng of the
nature of second l anguage readi ng, of the nature of extcnsi ve readi ng
materi al s, and of thc strategi es for devel optng readi ng ski l ts and a l ove of
rcadi ng through extensi ve readi ng.
Extensive Reading in the Second Lunguage Classroorn provides a com-
prehensi ve and sti mul ati ng account of these and other i mportant i ssues i n
extensi ve readi ng and wi l l be a val uabl e resource both for cl assroom
teachers and fbr teacher educators prepari ng novi ce teachers fbr careers i n
second and fbrei gn l anguage teachi ng.
Jack C. Ri chards
Prefoce
Students are unsure of what they have read; they feel that they
tlo not have sufficient language to say what they want to say.
' l ' hcy
hcsi tatc to admi t that thcy arc not surc what thcy j ust
rcad. Thcy arc apprehcnsivc about being evaluatcd by thc
tcacher and thci r pecrs. Thcy cl cct to si t si l cntl y and wai t for
the teacher to ask qucstions or for other studcnts to spcak.
' fhi s
i s a descri pti on of what Jo Ann Aebersol d and Mary Lee Fi el d (1997
,
p. I l 6) cal l "the worl d of real L2IFL readi ng cl asses." But students l earni ng
to read a second l anguage do not have to act l i ke that. Rather, they can be
cnthusi asti c and confi dent about readi ng, and can l eave the second l an-
guage reading course as independent and lifelong readers in the target
l anguage.
Thi s book can hel p make such a transformati on possi bl e. Al though i t i s a
book about the teachi ng and l earni ng of readi ng i n a second l anguage. i t
di ffers from most books on the subj ect because of i ts focus extensi ve
readi ng. The purpose ofthi s book i s to provi de a theoreti cal and pedagogi -
cal foundation for the premise that extensive reading should be an integral
part of reading instruction in the second language classroom.
Extensi ve readi ng i s an approach to the teachi ng and l eami ng of second
l anguage readi ng i n whi ch l eamers read l arge quanti ti es of books and other
materi al s that are wel l wi thi n thei r l i ngui sti c competence. Extensi ve read-
i ng, however, i s not j ust a matter of submergi ng students i n a bath of pri nt.
As Al bert Harri s and Edward Si pay observe, "l t takes superi or materi al s,
cl ever teachers who l ove to read themsel ves, ti me, and effbrt to devel op the
r eadi ng habi t " ( 1990, p. 655) .
The benefi ts of such an i nstructi onal approach are wi de-rangi ng. If set
up and carri ed out appropri atel y, extensi ve readi ng not onl y hel ps students
l earn to read i n the second l anguage, but al so l eads them to cnj oy readi ng.
xi i i
xiv Preface
Thi s encourages them to conti nue readi ng l ong after formal study of the
second l anguage i s over. In addi ti on, extensi ve readi ng, at the very l east,
consol i dates students' l eami ng of the second l anguage and, at best, i n-
creases thei r profi ci ency. For al l these reasons, we are fi rm advocates ofthe
i ncl usi on of extensi ve readi ng i n anv second l anguage readi ng program.
Second languages are learned by different people for different reasons.
Al though these di fl ' erences are i mportant i n some contexts, we see exten-
si ve readi ng as useful to anyone who reads or i ntends to read a second
language. We also see extensive reading as appropriate for both a second
l unguage context
-
where the target l anguage i s l eamed i n a cornmuni ty of
i ts speakers, such as l earni ng Engl i sh i n the Uni ted States- anda.l brei gn
l anguage context, i n whi ch the target l anguage i s l eamed where that l an-
guage i s not spoken, such as l earni ng Engl i sh i n Japan. For conveni ence,
throughout the book we use the term second language to include both a
second and a fbreign language learning environment. When the term
for-
ei gn i s used, i t i s to refer speci fi cal l y to a forei gn l anguage l eami ng context.
An extensi ve readi ng approach does not assume that the students have
any parti cul ar l evel of abi l i ty i n the target l anguage. In our vi ew, extensi ve
readi ng i s appropri ate at al l stages of l anguage l earni ng; i t i s never too
earl y
-
or too l ate
-
to l earn to read a second l anguage. At the same ti me, an
extensi ve readi ng approach has nothi ng parti cul ar to offer the prereadi ng
stages of l earni ng to read. Therefore, i n thi s book i t i s assumed that students
are al ready l i terate i n thei r fi rst l anguages and that they know the wri tten
form of the second l anguage.
The book has three maj or secti ons. Part I provi des a theoreti cal founda-
ti on for extensi ve readi ng. Part II i s a cri ti cal exami nati on of materi al s
devel opment i n second l anguage readi ng. Part III presents and di scusses the
practi cal aspects of conducti ng an extensi ve readi ng program.
Al though we bel i eve that extensi ve readi ng shoul d be a part of every
second l anguage r eadi ng pr ogr am. i t i s not our i nt ent i on t o evangel i ze.
Rather, we present an al temati ve or addi ti onal way of approachi ng the
teachi ng of readi ng. We are not so nai ve as to bel i eve that an extensl ve
readi ng approach can turn al l students i nto i ndependent, fl uent readers.
However, i fused appropri atel y, an extensi ve readi ng approach can consi d-
erabl y i mprove second l anguage readi ng i nstructi on and the chances that
students wi l l cnj oy readi ng i n the second l anguage. It woul d be an unusual
extensi ve readi ng cl ass that fi t the descri pti on of the typi cal L21FL readi ng
cl ass descri bed by Aebersol d and Fi el d.
We woul d l i ke to express our appreci ati on to Jack Ri chards, the edi tor of
the seri es i n whi ch thi s book appears, for hi s encouragement and support; to
Davi d Hi l l and the Edi nburgh Proj ect on Extensi ve Readi ng for maki ng
Preface xv
rrvl i l abl e thei r research i n the form of the bi bl i otraphy i n the Appendi x; to
Stcven Brown, Marc Hel gesen, Davi d Hi l l , Ted Pl ai stsr, Joyce Tani guchi ,
l (oberta Wel ch, and Cambri dge' s anonymous rcvi cwcrs fbr thei r i nval uabl e
cornments on earl i er drafts of the manuscri pt; to the Bodl ei an Li brary,
(
)xfbrd, and the CILT Li brary i n London and thei r staff; to Judy Davi s for
Ircr work on the i ndex, and to Mary Vaughn and Mary Carson at Cambri dge
tJni versi ty Press. We are parti cul arl y grateful to edi tor Ol i ve Col l en and
copy edi tor Davi d Thorstad fbr thei r excepti onal work on the manuscri pt.
We hope that the i deas presented i n thi s book wi l l sti mul ate readers to
rcf' l ect on thei r own second l anguage readi ng experi ences, both as teachers
rrnd as students. We al so hope that readers wi l l enj oy readi ng i t as much as
we enj oyed wri ti ng i t.
Ri chard R. Day
Jul i an Bamford
I ' A RT I :
I ' HE DI MENSI ONS OF
I { EADI NG
EXTENSI VE
l l ri s l l rst secti on of the book cndcavors to bui l d a cast-i ron case fbr broad-
e ni ng second l anguage readi ng i nstructi on so that i t bccomcs rnore natural ,
nrorc pl casant. and more ef-fecti ve than i s ofi en the case. Chaptcr I i ntro-
rl Lrces extensi vc rcadi ng as an approach to the teachi ng ofsecond l anguagc
rcadi ng. Then Chapters 2.3, and 4 bui l d a casc fi om thcory and fror.t.r
l cscarch that cxtcnsi vc readi ng shoul d be part ofsecond l anguagc rcadi ng
i nstrr-rcti on. Chaptcr 2 docs thi s by exami ni ng readi ng fi orn a cogni ti vc
poi nt of vi ew; Chaptcr 3, by cxami ni ng the affecti ve di rnensi ons of atti tude
rrnd n.roti vati on i n rel ati on to second l anguagc rcadi ng; and Chapter 4, by
l cporti ng the resul ts of a nurnber of extensi ve readi ng prograrns. Part I
eoncl udes wi t h suggest i ons i n Chapt cr 5 f or i nt cgr at i ns ext ensi ve r eadi ng
i rrto sccond l anguage readi ng progral ns.
I An approach less taken;
r f , . 7 |
Lxtensrve reaatng mtroaucea
' I
hc rat her curi ous si t uat i on has ari sen whereby, despi t e
uni versal accept ance of t he vi ew t hat onc becomes a
good reader through reading, reading lcssons where
rl ost t i mc i s act ual l y spent on readi ng (as opposed t o
di scussi on, answeri ng quest i ons. et c. ) are rel at i vel y
rare.
-Chri s
Moran and Eddi e Wi l l i ams ( 1993, p. 66)
I he purpose ofthi s chapter i s to:
.
Reexami ne thc purposes for second l anguage readi ng i nstructi on.
. Defi ne cxtensi ve readi ng and i ntroduce i t as an approach to the teachi ng
of sccond l anguage readi ng.
o Li st the defi ni ng characteri sti cs ofsuccessful extensi ve rcadi ng
programs.
r\t the begi nni ng of the | 950s Ameri can musi cal The Musi t' Man, Professor
l l arol d Hi l l bl ows i nto Ri ver Ci ty, l owa, and startl cs the resi dents wi th the
pronouncement that they havc troubl e. Bei ng careful not to cri ti ci ze them as
parents, Profcssor Hi l l asks the good ci ti zens of Ri ver Ci ty to thi nk about
thci r chi l dren: Do they dress badl y when they go out? Do they use sl ang?
Are there ni coti ne stai ns between thei r fi ngers? Do they keep sl eazy novel s
hi dden from vi ew' ?
In the same rhetori cal manner, we begi n wi th a si mi l ar pronouncement:
.fhcre
i s troubl e i n the second l anguage readi ng cl assroom. Take a moment
to consi der any students you know who are l earni ng to read a second
language. Are they reluctant to read? Do they seem bored or under stress'l
Do they come to readi ng cl ass wi th fear and trepi dati on' ? Do they read
anythi ng i n the second l anguage apart from thei r assi gnrnents' ?
ln The Mu,sic' Man, Professor Hill was in fact a con artist who stirrcd up
the ci ti zenry for hi s own unscrupul ous ends. Our i ntcnti ons, or.r the other
hand, are honorabl e. We rai se the possi bi l i ty that thcrc may be, i f not
troubl e, then at l east two good reasons to reexami nc thc scconcl l anguagc
3
4 The dimensions of extensive readinq
reading classrocrtrr: In general, student.s learning to reatl u .second language
do not read and lhe1, 610 not like reading.
Students not readi ng and not l i ki ng to read i s a probl em. It i s si mpl i sti c
but neverthel ess true that the more students read, the better they become at
i t. "Readi ng . . . must be devel oped, and can onl y be devel oped. by means
ofextensi ve and conti nual practi ce. Peopl e l eam to read, and to read better,
by r eadi ng, " st at es Davi d Eskey ( 1986, p. 21) . I n addi t i on, st udent s wi t h
negati vc atti tudes toward second l anguage rcadi ng are unl i kel y to be moti -
vated to do the reading they need to do to become fluent readers.
In an i deal worl d, are there any readi ng teachers who woul d not want
thci r students to /cri read a great deal and (b) enj oy readi ng' ? l t i s unl i kel y.
But such ai ms may seem remotc, unattai nabl e, and even i rrel evant to the
.j ob
at hand. Al l er i rl l , the curri cul urrr i s l l l l ed to the bri rr al ready. Teachers'
i nrrrredi ate pri ori ti es are maki ng sure thei r students do wel l i n thei r courses
and pass thc nccessary exami nati ons; i ndeed, thei r l i vel i hoods depend on i t.
What i s more, teachers al ready know how to achi eve these i mmedi ate
pri ori ti es. They ri ghtl y pri de themsel ves on thei r accompl i shments and
abi l i t i es.
Formal educati on has a l i fe of i ts own. For students. i t i s commonl y
somethi ng tl rat rnust be gone tl rrough, revol vi ng around ful fi l l i ng credi t
requi rements and passi ng exami nati ons rather than the l earni ng of some-
thi ng that one wants or fbel s a need to l earn. Pedagogi cal practi ces al so
have a l i fb of thei r own to the extent that they become di vorced from the
real needs or goal s ofthe students. Second l anguage readi ng cl assrooms are
no excepti on to thi s possi bi l i ty. Carl os Yori o, i n a paper ti tl ecl "The ESL
Readi ng Cl ass: Real i ty or Unreal i ty," notes that, i f one i s "to cotnpare . .
cl assroom acti vi ti es wi th real -l i fe si tuati ons i n whi ch peopl e are readi ng tbr
vari ous purposes or reasons . . . i n Inost cases the degree of' unreal i ty' of
t he ESL r eadi ng cl asses i s st r i ki ng" ( 1985, p. l 5l ) .
The second l anguage readi ng l esson can avoi d bei ng merel y an empty
ri tual come to cl ass. read the texts, do the exerci ses, l eave cl ass, return to
real l i fe
-
by addressi ng the two ai tns of students readi ng a great deal and
enj oyi ng readi ng. Teachers ri ghtl y feel sati sf' acti on when students pass
exami nati ons and rneet the requi renrents of the cl ass. But thei r sati sl acti on
woul d be even greater i f thei r students al so l eft thei r cl asses readi ng and
enj oyi ng the process.
Can the two ai ms of readi ng i n quarrti ty and devel opi ng a readi ng habi t
be i ntegrated wi th the i mrnedi ate pri ori ti es of teacher and student wi thout
undenni ni ng successful cl assroorn practi ces and methodol ogi es' ,) Or are
such ai ms rnerel y the l ofty drearrrs of academi cs l -ar removed from tl re
cl assroom, the preachi ngs of those wl ro do not know what i t i s l i ke to face
An approach less taken 5
r l r L t l ai l y r i gor s and pr essi ng demands of t eachi ng' l I n r csponse, we can say
tl rrrt the present vol ume deri ves fi om thc cxperi cnces of teachers whose
,rrrtl urts cl o read and enj oy i t. These are not extraordi nary teachers wi th
, rtraordi nary students. They are ordi nary peopl e l aci ng the same demands
r' r cl ' )r)ne el se faces, teachi ng and l eami ng i n si tuati ons that range from the
r' \tl cnre (a wal l -l ess secondary cl assroom i nZanz,l bar) to the conventi onal
r:r rvcl l -equi pped uni versi ty cl assroom i n the Uni ted States). Our purpose i n
tl ri s vol ume, then, i s to present theoreti cal and practi cal support l br the
pr cnri se that an extensi ve readi ng approach can be profi tabl y i ntegrated i nto
,rrrv sccond l anguage readi ng cl assroom.
Extensi ve readi ng
l ouis Keffy, in his volume 25 Centuries o./ Lunguage Teaching, credits
I larold Palmer with first applying the term extensive reading in foreign
l unguage pcdagogy ( 1969, p. l 3l ) . Pal mer was a pi oneer of l anguage
tcachi ng i n modern ti rnes, and arnong hi s many tal ents was a geni us for
tcrrni nol ogy. For hi s I9l 7 book The Sci enti fi c' Stucl l ' untl keu' hi ng of Lan-
gtuges, hc sel ected "extensi ve" from the mul ti tude of synonyms previ ousl y
rrscd to convey si mi l ar i deas such as "abundant readi ng" used i n the
l andrnark 1900 Report of' the Commi ttee ofTi ' el ve (Modern Language
,\ssoci ati on of Ameri ca, 190 | ), whi ch suggested how l anguages be taught
i n secondary school s.
For Pal mer , ext ensi ve r eadi ng meant " r api dl y" ( 192111964, p. 1l l ) r ead-
i r r g " book af t er book" ( 191111968, p. 137) . A r cadcr ' s at t ent i or r shoul d be
on the rneani ng, not the l anguage, of the text. Pal mer contrasted thi s wi th
what he termed intensive reuding, by which he rneant to "take a text, study
i t l i ne by l i ne, referri ng at every moment to our di cti onary and our grammar,
compari ng. anal ysi ng, transl ati ng, and retai ni ng every expressi on that i t
cont ai ns" ( 192111964, p. I I I ) .
A " mul t i pl e l i ne of appr oach" ( p. I I l ) was
one of Pal rrrer' s ni ne pri nci pl es of l anguage study, and he consequentl y saw
the i mportance of both types of readi ng.
In Pal nter' s concepti on of extensi ve readi ng, texts were cl earl y bei ng
rcad for the purposes of l anguage study, but, because attenti on was on the
content and not the l anguage, i t coul d onl y be that the texts were al so bei ng
read fbr ordi nary real -worl d purposes of pl easure and i nformati on. And so
i t was that extensi ve readi ng took on a speci al sense i n the context of
l anguage teachi ng: real -worl d readi ng but fbr a pedagogi cal purpose.
Other terms l br extensi ve readi ng were used. cven as i ts goal s were
bei ng made expl i ci t . Mi chael West , a t eacher and mat er i al s wr i l cr wor ki ng
6 The dimensions of extensive readino
i n Indi a who more than anyone el se establ i shed the methodol ogy of exten-
si ve readi ng, cal l ed i t "suppl ementary" readi ng (1926/1955, p. 26). Thi s
was also the term used by the New York City Board of Education for its
1931 S1'llabus of Minima in Modern Foreign Lunguages. Here the goal of
suppl ementary readi ng was "the devel opment to the poi nt of enj oyment of
t he abi l i t y t o r ead t he f or ei gn l anguage" ( 1931/ 1948, p. 301) , and t he
methodology involved "taking care of individual differences and encourag-
i ng the readi ng habi f' (p. 302).
Today, in language-teaching terms, extensive reading is recognized as
one of four styl es or ways of readi ng, the other three bei ng ski mmi ng,
scanni ng, and i ntensi ve readi ng. Eddi e Wi l l i ams and Chri s Moran note that
these four readi ng styl es are recogni zed "on the basi s of observabl e be-
havi our (notabl y speed of readi ng, degree of re-readi ng,
' ski ppi ng'
of text)"
( 1989, p. 222) .
However, the present vol ume i s not pri mari l y concerned wi th extensi ve
readi ng as a styl e; rather, the fbcus i s on extensi ve readi ng as an approach to
second l anguage r eadi ng i nsl r uct i on.
An extensi ve readi ng approach
An extensive reading approach aims to get students reading in the second
l anguage and l i ki ng i t. Or, to put thi ngs more fotmal l y, as the Longman
Dictionan' o/'Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics does, extenstve
readi ng i s "i ntended to devel op good readi ng habi ts, to bui l d up knowl edge
of vocabulary and structure, and to encourage a liking for reading"
(Ri chards, Pl att, & Pl att,1992, p. 133). As thi s defi ni ti on i mpl i es, extensi ve
readi ng al so pays off i n i ncreased general second l anguage competence.
Al though thi s wi l l occasi onal l y be referred to, the present vol ume mai nl y
restri cts i tsel f to the i mpact of extensi ve readi ng on the abi l i ty to read i n a
second l anguage.
William Grabe, in a 199 | TESOL
Quarterlv
paper, discusses some of the
benefi ts ofextensi ve readi ng. "Longer concentrated peri ods ofsi l ent read-
i ng bui l d vocabul ary and structural awareness, devel op automati ci ty, en-
hance background knowl edge, i mprove comprehensi on ski l l s, and promote
confi dence and moti vati on" (p. 396). In addi ti on, as Aud Mari t Si mensen
poi nts out (echoi ng Harol d Pal mer 60 years earl i er), extensi ve readi ng can
counteract "a tendency among foreign language leanrers always to regard a
text as an object for language studies and not as an object for factual
i nformati on, l i terary experi encc or si mpl y pl easure, j oy and del i ght" ( 1987,
p. 42) .
An approach less taken 7
l l r i s l ast poi nt may be mor c i r npor t ant t har r i t at l r r st sccms. St udi es of
l , , r l h l l r st and second l anguage begi nni ng r cadcr s i n nt any count r i cs have
r r ' r ci l l gd t el l i ng connect i ons bet ween r eadi ng abi l i t y and t he vi ews st udent s
l r,rl ti about rcadi ng. Readcrs of l owcr abi l i ty tend to see readi ng i n tenns of
' e l r ool wor k" ( Bondy, 1990, pp. 35 36) or " as a ser i ous, di f l l cul t pr ocess,
r t ' t ; t r i r i nghar dwor kanddi sci pl i nedef f or t " ( El l ey. 1992, p. 77) . St udcnt sof
l r rgl rcr readi ng abi l i ty, on the other hand, take a meani ng-ccntcrcd approach
t l ) cvi ne, 1984) . For t hem, r eadi ng i s a " pl easant . i r nagi nat i vc act i vi t y"
r l : l l cy, | 992, p. 77) , a way t o l ear n t hi ngs t hat i s bot h a pr i vat e pl easur e and
, r soci al act i vi t y ( Bondy, 1990, pp. 36 38) . I t i s t he l at t er vi ews- t he ki nd
Iostcrcd by extensi ve rcadi ng that are rnost often associ ated wi th success-
l r r l out comes when t eachi ng r eadi ng.
As an approach to l earni ng to read a second l anguagc, cxtcnsi vc rcadi ng
r r r ay be done i n and out of t he cl assr oom. Out si de t he cl assr oor n. ext cnsi vc
rcadi ng i s encouraged by al l owi ng students to borrow books to takc homc
, r r r d r ead. I n t he cl ussr oor n. i t r equi r es a pcr i od t l f t i r nc. al l casl l 5 l ni nul cs
ru.so, to bc set asi de for sustai ned si l ent readi ng, that i s, l br students and
pcrhaps the teachcr as wel l to rcad i ndrvrdual l y anythi ng they wi sh to.
Somc readi ng spcci al i sts Stephen Krashen and Beatri ce Mi kul ecky
f orne i mrrcdi ate l y to mi nd cal l cxtcnsi vc readi ngTrl cusure readi ng. As he
t ol d a 1995 col l oqui um audi cncc, Wi l l i am Gr abe i s not par t i cul ar l y keen on
ei thcr tcnn: extensi ve readi ng bei ng rather general . and pl easure readi ng
too speci fi c i n that "l ots of peopl e . . . get turncd on to al l ki nds of materi al s
t hat someone woul dn' t put i n a pi l c cal l cd pl casur e r eadi ng. . . . Ext ensi ve
l cadi ng i s peopl e wi l l i ng to cngagc . . .
fwi th]
a l ot of extended texts fbr a
vari cty of reasons." There i s al so a possi bi l i ty that "pl casurc rcadi ng" has
l i i vol ous ovcrtones for studcnts, parents, and adrni ni strators. Perhaps fbr
l l rcsc rcasons, Krashcn and hi s col l eagues have used another Iern.
fi ' ee
vol untan' reudi ng (as i n hi s 1993 book The Pow,er ol Reotl i ng).
The characteri sti cs of an extensi ve readi ng approach
.l ust as i t i s hard to fi nd a namc fbr cxtensi ve readi ng that sati sfl es everyone,
i t i s hard to reduce i t to a di cti onary-type defi ni ti on. For tcacl rcrs, a more
rrscf ul way of understandi ng the cornpl exi ty of cxtcnsi vc rcadi ng i s though
a cl escri pti on of the characteri sti cs that arc fbund i n succcssful extensi ve
rcadi ng prograrns.
l . Sl trtl enl s reatl as much as possi bl e, perhaps i n ancl cl ctl ni tcl y out of the
cl assroom.
2. .4 variet.t'of nrulerial.s on a v,ide runge,f'topic:.t is ut,uilublr, so as to
encourage reading fbr different reasons and in diff-ercnt ways.
3. Stttdent,s selec't whul the.t,tt'unt to reud and have the fieedom to stop
readi ng matcri al that fai l s to i nterest them.
4. The purposes o/ reading ure usuallv related to pleaswe, infitrmutittn,
und getteral uncler,stuntling. These purposes are deternrined by the
naturc of the rnateri al and thc i nterests of the student.
5. Reading is it'; .wn rewurd. There are f'ew or no follow-up exercises
afi er readi ng.
6. Reuding muterials are
y'ell
v,ithin the linguistic' t'ompetente of'the
.ttudent:i i n terms of vocabul ary and grarnmar. Di cti onari es are rarel y
ussd whi l e readi ng because the constant stoppi ne to l ook up words
makes fl uent readi ng di ffi cul t.
7. Reuding i.v ittclividuul und silent, at the student's own pace, ancl. outsidc
cl ass, done when and wherc the student chooses.
8. Reuding speed is usuullv./aster ruther thun slov'er as students read
books and othcr materi al they fi nd easi l y understandabl e.
9. Taut'hers rfient students to the godls ol the pntgram, erytluin thc meth-
odol ogy, keep l rut.k of what each student reads. and gui rl c studcnts i n
gctti ng the most out of the prograrn.
10. Tha teut'her i.s u role model of'u reuder
fitr stutlenl.t
*.an
active rrcmber
of the cl assroom readi ng communi ty, demonstrati ng what i t r.neans to
be a readcr and the rewards of bci ng a reader.
These el erl ents rai sc questi ons fbr both students and teachers al i ke. At
workshops on extensi ve rcadi ng, teachers ask such questi ons as:
o
What are the theoreti cal l ' ouncl ati ons of extcnsi ve readi ng' /
o
What are the benefl ts' J
o
Is thcrc any empi ri cal evi dence fbr these al l eged benefi ts' l
o
Do second l anguage l earners have thc proper atti tude toward readi ng to
al l ow extensi ve readi ng' ?
o Arc l earners moti vated to read outsi de the cl assroom' l
.
How much readi ng i s rneant by extensi ve' !
r
what materi al s are sui tabl c for stuci ents at vari ous abi l i ty l evel s i n tl rc
second l anguage' ?
r
Are si rnpl i fi ed rrrateri al s tbr Icl wcr-l cvel students i nl bri or to authenti c
"real -l i f-e" rnateri al s' l
o
On what basi s mi ght students who read cxtensi vel y be eval uated and
grades be gi ven?
o
Horv mi ght the success of an extensi ve readi ng program be cval uatecl ' J
An approach less taken
g
. , , r l c ( ) 1' t hesc
i ssucs havc bar el y been deal t wi t l r i n t hc pr ot essi onal l i t er a-
r r r r ' . i r nd one of t he ai ms of t hi s book i s t o r cnr cr r y t hat dcf l ci cncv.
Concl usi on
l . l hcr c t r oubl e i n t he second l anguage r eadi ng cl assr oom' l I s i t a pr obl cm
r l r i r l . i l s not ed by Mor an and wi l l i ams at t he begi nni r r g ol - t hi s chapt er ,
.l rrtl cnts do not rcad rnuch i n readi ng cl ass' l Is i t a probl em that, as
yori o
, l rri rns. readi ng cl asses bcar l i ttl c rcsembl ance to tl re real worl cl of readi ng?
It i s our posi ti on that these arc probl ems and that thcy have a di rect beari ng
,rr sl udcnts' readi ng abi l i ty and atti tude toward readi ng; f urther, that sccond
l rrn{uagc readi ng i nstructi on can and shoul d al l ow students to <l evel op i nto
l l trcnt, i ndependent, and confi dcnt second l anguage readcrs; and, ti nal l y,
t l r . t . t o par aphr ase Eva Mayne wr i t i ng i n 1915, r eadi ng cr asses can gi vc
:trrdcnts a l ovc for rcadi ng i n the second l anguage, a thi rst tbr i t that wi l l
' t ay wi t h t hem t hr oughout t hci r l i vL' s.
Further readi ng
Maxi rn Newmark' s 1948 edi ted col l ecti on Tv,enti <:th Cenrun. Modern Lun-
::uoge Teuching: sourt'e.v und Reuelings contains. along with other valuable
rnateri al , excerpts fi om thc rnaj or U.S. rcports on modern l anguage teach-
i ri g f' rorn the fi rst hal f of the twenti eth century. If you can l ocate the vol ume
i tscl f-, i t i s a conveni ent source of the even harder-to-fi nd ori gi nal docu-
rnents that outl i ned goal s and methods of sccond l anguage readi ng
I nst r uct l on.
For more on Harol cl Pal r' er and Mi chael west, a good pl acc to bcgi n i s
A. P. R. Howatt's .4 Hi.stor.t' o/'English Lunguuge Teuc'hing ( | 994). chapter
l 6 covers Pal mcr' s l i f-c, work, and methodol ogy (pp. 230-244; see arso pp.
325 327). "Al together."
says Howatt. "no
orhcr si ngre i ndi vi cl ual rJi d more
to create the Engl i sh l anguage teachi ng prof-essi on i n the present century"
( p. 327) . An out l i ne of Mi chael wsst ' s wor k i n I ndi a f ol l or vs i n chant er l 7
( pp. 245- 250; see al so pp. 335 336) .
^
Z A cognitive view of reading
To t cach f orci gn or sccond l anguagc rcadi ng wel l , wc
nccd t o know as rnuch as possi bl e about how t hc
rcadi ng proccss works and how t o i nt egrat c t hat
knowl cdgc ef t cct i vcl y i nt o our rcadi ng pedagogy.
Mar va Bar net t ( 19t 39, p. l )
Thcrc i s not hi ng as pract i cal as a good t hcory.
Anonvl nous
The purpose of t hi s chapt er i s t o:
r Exarni ne f l rst and second l anguage readi ng as a cogni t i ve process.
. Expl ai n f i orn a cogni t i vc pcrspcct i vc t hc rol c of ext ensi ve readi ng i n
dcvcl opi ng f l ucnt sccond l anguagc rcadcrs.
Whi ch of t l r csc st at cl ncnt s bcst capt ur cs your vi cw of t hc r ol c of t heor y i n
thc teachi ng of rcadi ng' l
l . " To t cl l t hc t r ut h, I r cal l y don' t pay r nuch at t cnt i on t o t hi s whol e t heor y
busi ncss. I ' m a t eachcr and I nccd t o know what t o do i n cl ass. "
2.
"Wel l ,
I get very confused. I hcar thcm tal ki ng about top-down and
bottom-up readi ng i rnd terns l i ke that; I don' t undcrstand i t. Ij ust tcach
fi orn thc books that thc school ordcrs cacl r ycar."
3.
"The
rcadi ng col l rse i n ury r.nastcr' s prograrn was bascd orr thcory, so I
tunderstand the i ssues. But I rcal l y l carned to tcach rcadi ng i n thc
practi curn."
4. "l t' s i rnportant, no doubt abor-rt i t. I rnean, everythi ng that wc do has a
thcorcti cal fbundati on. Isn' t that ri ght' ?"
We have encountercd vcrsi ons of thcsc fbr-rr poi nts of vi cw about thc
val ue of theory i n the teachi ng of readi ng fi om wi dcl y di fftrcnt typcs o1'
rcadi ng teachers
-
fi orn graduate s of advanced-degree programs i n Engl i sh
as a sccond l anguagc to tcachcrs who have r.ni ni rnal cornpetence i n the
second l anguagc and l i ttl c forrral trai ni ng i n l anguage teachi ng. The' posi -
ti on taken i n thi s book i s cl oser to rrurnbcr 4 than to any of thc others.
Thcory i s i mpoftant.
When cducators dcsi gn sccond l anguagc rcadi ng progral ns, and when
readi ng teachers ordcr texts, scl cct rratcri al s, and pl an acti vi ti cs, assump-
10
A coonitive view of readino 11
r r, rn\ l re bei ng made about the nature of rcadi ng. and how students l earn to
' , , r , i r r second l anguage. These assumpt i ons ar c i n r cal i t y t heor i cs of r ead-
, r r r ' . r ur d i t i s not uncommon f br t hem t o go unexami nccl . I f t hey ar e br ought
t,, l l l g ssrfsse
and compared to accepted theorcti cal model s, however,
,' ri ous contradi cti ons and i nconsi stenci es l xay emerge. A deeper under-
.t,rrrdi ng of the readi ng process and how students l earn to read a sccond
l .rrrsrrage can ofTer a stronger theoreti cal rati onal e for second l anguage
r r' rtl i ng prograrxs and i nstructi onal approaches.
l n thi s chapter we set out the fi rst of two j usti fi cati ons fbr thc premi se
tl urt an extensi ve readi ng approach has i mportant benefl ts to offer a second
l rursuaqe readi ng program. Thi s fi rst j usti fl cati on i s based on the nature of
rt' rrtl i ng as a cogni ti ve process. Thc fl rst hal f of the chapter i s a consi der-
rrl i on of cogni ti vc i ntcracti vc model s of readi ng; the second hal f exami ncs
tl rc rol e that extensi ve readi ng can pl ay i n devel opi ng second l anguage
: t t r dcnt s' r eadi ng abi l i t y.
Readi ng as a cogni ti ve process
l {cadi ng takcs many tbnns. Thi nk fbr a morrent of al l the acti vi ti es that can
l rc l abel ed reudi ng. They i ncl ude seri ous academi c readi ng (what you are
tl oi rl g now), readi ng the comi cs, scanni ng the tel evi si on l i sti ngs fbr your
l ' avori te prograrn, ski mmi ng a magazi ne arl i cl e to fi nd out whether i t rneri ts
cl ose attenti on, scttl i ng i nto a ncw novel by your f' avori te author, rcadi ng
l l oud to your chi l dren, absorbi ng the subti tl es as you watch a movi c i n a
l i rrci gn l anguagc, and gl anci ng at your notes as you gi vc a spccch. And thi s
l i st does not begi n to capturc the cnti re spectrum of acti vi ti es that can be
cal l cd r eadi ng.
These vari ed acti vi ti es that go by the name of readi ng can be vi ewed
l i orn a number of di fferent perspecti ves, i ncl udi ng soci ocul tural , phys-
i ol ogi cal , atl ecti ve, phi l osophi cal , educati onal , and cogni ti ve. Al though
these perspecti vcs are i ntcrrcl atcd and i nterdependent (as Marti n Gi l l poi nts
out, for exampl e, "cul ture and cogni ti on are stri ctl y i nconcei vabl e wi thout
cach other"
U992,
p 62]), thcrc i s al so val ue i n l ooki ng at each perspecti ve
i ndi vi dual l y i n i ts own terms. An anal ogy mi ght be that al though a novel
can be appreci ated i n i ts enti rety, i nsi ghts can bc gai ned fi om a detai l ed
scruti ny of the devel oprnent of the mai n characters. The fbcus of thi s
chapter i s the support a cogni ti ve perspccti vc on the readi ng process off-ers
an extensi ve readi ng approach to second l anguage readi ng i nstructi on.
Al though there are rnany acti vi ti es cal l cd reutl i ng, i t i s possi bl e to offer a
defi ni ti on that most readi ng expcrts woul d accept as hel ptul i n understand-
i ng readi ng fi om a cogni ti ve poi nt of vi cw. Thi s si mpl e defi ni ti on i s that
reading is lhe t'onstruction of'meuning
lrom
u printed or wrilten mes.\uge.
The constructi on of rneani ng i nvol vcs thc reader connecti ng i nfbrmati on
from the wri tten message wi th prcvi ous knowl edge to arri ve at meani ng at
an understandi ng.
Cogni ti ve psychol ogi sts have l ong been i nterested i n how i t i s that a
reader i s abl e to create meani ng fi orn thc pri nted page. The acti vi ti es of the
brai n, of course, can onl y be vi cwcd unhel pful l y as bursts of el ectri cal
energy. The detecti ve work carri ed out by cogni ti ve psychol ogi sts. thcrc-
fore, i s done i n mctaphori cal terms. Over the past forty years, scorcs of
model s of the readi ng process have been produced. Al though essenti al l y
works of i rnagi nati on, rnodel s are based on what can be observed about
readi ng. They seek to expl ai n such phenomena as the r-ni stakes and sel f-
correcti ons peopl e rnake when readi ng al oud, or the way the eyes dart al ong
l i nes of pri nt. These rnodel s, then, arc rcal i ty-based specul ati ons that "com-
bi ne fi ndi ngs fi om many studi cs i nto a si ngl e, coherent systern" (Adarns,
t 994, p. 842) .
Interacti ve model s of readi ng
The rnost wi del y acccptcd model s of fl uent fi rst l anguage readi ng posi t an
i nl eructi on of a vari ety of processes, begi nni ng wi th the l i ghtni ng-l i kc,
automati c rccogni ti on of words. Thi s i ni ti al process of accuratc, rapi d, and
autornati c recogni ti on of vocabul ary fi ccs the mi nd to use several si mul ta-
neous processes i nvol vi ng rcasoni ng, knowl edge of the worl d, and knowl -
edge of the topi c to construct meani ng. Al though thc hypothcti cal con-
structs bottom-up processi ng (i .c., tcxt-dri ven) and top-tl own prcr' es.ti ttg
(i .e., concept-dri vcn) were useful heuri sti cs i n conceptual i zi ng earl i er
modcl s of rcadi ng, i t i s probabl y better to l eave them behi nd l est they
unhel pful l y pol ari ze a descri pti on of how mental processes i nteract wi th
text f' eatures i n fl uent readi ng comprchensi on.
The fol l owi ng descri pti on of the readi ng proccss draws on a number of
sour ces, i ncl udi ng Adams ( 1990, 1994) , Per f ' et t i ( 1985) , Samuel s ( 1994) ,
and St anovi ch ( 1992) .
c Reucling begin.s v'ith the u('curate, sw'ili, und automutit' visuul rettryni-
tion ol voc'ubulur.t', indepentlent o/ the contexl in whit'h il ot'<'urs.
Automati c word recogni ti on i s the basi s of f' l uent readi ng; i t i s what
al l ows ski l l ed rcaders to read wi th apparent ease and l ack of ef' fort. rapi dl y
breezi ng through materi al . Research has establ i shed that readers
/l ral e
(rest
on) al most every worcl of text as thei r eyes move across the pri nted page.
A cognitive view of reading 13
t ol i n Hami son sums up the work of fi rst l angrurgc rcadi ng researchers
r r ' por t cd i n, f br cxar npl c, Rayner ( 1983) , . f ust and
( ' ar pcnt er ( l c) 87) , and
l i r r yner and Pol l at sek ( 1989) t hi s way:
\\c now know that, i n norrnal readi ng, adul ts . . . ti xatc ncarl y al l words (ovcr
\0 pcr cent ofcontent words. and over 40 pcr ccnt offi rncti on words. such as o/
,' r thL' ). and al most ncver ski p ovcr morc than two words. Fi xati ons on words
,' e ncral l y l ast fi orn a fi fth to a quarter of a sccond (200 250 rni l l i scconds).
t l l ar r i son. 1992. p. 9)
\Vords that readers are abl e to recogni ze automati cal l y are often ref' erred to
rrs .rig&l voc'u bu lary'.
' fhi s
automati c, rapi d, and accurate process of word recogni ti on shoul d
rrot be confused wi th the strategy of sl ow l ettcr-by-l cttcr, or syl l abl e-by-
' vl f abl c soundi ng out of words. That strategy, termed phonemi c dec' odi ng,
rs used by fl uent readers onl y when they encountcr words that are not part
ot' thei r si ght vocabul ary.
Thi s vi ew of the central i ty of word rccogni ti on processi ng does not
strggcst that a l argc si ght recogni ti on vocabul ary (' uuses cornprehensi on. As
Kci th Stanovi ch states, "Efl l ci ent word recogni ti on seems to bc a neccssary
l ) ut not suf f l ci ent condi t i on f br good compr ehensi on" ( 1992, p. 4) .
o Automulic' rec'ognition of u wonl ullov's le.rit'ul u('('ess.
Le.ri cal u(' ces.\ i s the automati c cal l i ng up fi orn memory of
"the
word' s
nr cani ngs and i t s phonol ogi cal r epr esent at i on" ( St anovi ch, 1992. p. 4) .
(' ontextual l y
appropri ate meani ngs, both senranti c and syntacti c, are re-
l at ed t o wor ds. Mor e spcci t i cal l y, awar eness of t he cont ext i n whi ch t hc
rvord occurs automati cal l y "enrphasi zes those aspects of a word' s total
rneani ng that are rel evant to i ts ongoi ng i nterprctati on" (Adarns. 1994, p.
849) .
Lexi cal access, l i ke word rccogni ti on, i s bel ow the l evel of consci ous-
ncss, automati c and rapi d. Thi s i s cri ti cal fbr, as Mari l yn Jagcr Adarns
poi nts out, "Onl y to the extent that the abi l i ty to recosni zc and capture the
nreani ng of pri nt i s rapi d, efl brtl ess. and automati c can the rcadcr have
avai l abl c the cogni ti ve energy and resources on whi ch truc cornprchensi on
t l cpcnds" ( 1994, p. 840) .
There i s evi dence to suggest that the rol c of i nstantaneous, autcl nrati c
l cxi cal access i n readi ng i s not restri cted to l anguages that use an al phabcti c
rvri ti ng system. Kei ko Kuhara-Koj i rna, Gi yoo Hatano, Fl i roti nni Sai to, and
' fomokazu
Haebara i nvesti gatcd i ts rol e i n reaci i ng .l apancsc hi ragana (a
phoneti c syl l abary) and kanj i (Chrnese characters). Thcy concl ucl c that thc
process mi ght i ndccd be general across l anguages: "Thc gcncral aspccts
fof
rcadi ng theoryl rnay i ncl ude thc autonrati ci ty of l exi cal access as a prereq-
ui si t c of r eadi ng compr ehensi on" ( 1996, p. 169) .
If l exi cal access l ai l s, the readcr has to sl ow down and gi ve consci ous
attenti on to l i nki ng the orthographi c representati on of the word (how i t i s
spel l ed) wi th possi bl e scr.nanti c and syntacti c i nterpretati ons (Harri s &
Si pay, 1990, pp. 436 431). As Charl es Perfbtti expl ai ns, "l neffi ci ent l cxi -
cal access, sl ow and cftbrtful , makes i t rnore di ffi cul t for worki ng mcnrory
t o do
[ i t s]
wor k" ( 1985, p. I l 3) .
. The phonologi<'al representutions of'the v:ords in u senlence holtl the
word:; in w,orking memotl long enough
for
comprehen,sion to oc('ur.
The phonol ogi cal representati ons, hel d i n worki ng memory, are i nrer-
preted both
"on
the fl y" whi l e readi ng and whi l e pausi ng bri efl y at the end
of a cl ause or sent ence ( Adams, 1994, p. 856) . Adams, who cal l s pho-
nol ogi cal rcpresentati ons phonol ogi c' ul tran.sl uti on.r (pp. 854-857), wri tes
that duri ng thi s i ntcrprcti ve process readcrs "work out the col l ecti ve mean-
i ng of the chai n of words i n memory and that rneani ng' s contri buti on to
thci r overal l undcrstandi ng of the conversati on or text" (p. 857).
l f the readcr cannot hol d the cl ause or sentencc i n worki ng memory l ong
cnough to construct rneani ng, then cotnprehensi on i s severel y di srupted.
Thi s happens whcn a reader takes too l ong to recogni ze words i n a sen-
tence. As Adams phrases i t. "the begi nni ng of thc sentence wi l l fade fi orn
memory bcfore the end has been regi stered" (p. 857).
o
Comprehension drav,s on the reacler'.s prior knowledge o/'the lunguage,
ol the world. rl tert 1ype.s. and ofthe topic.
C-' ruci al to cornprchensi on i s the knowl edge that the rcader bri ngs to the
text. The constructi on of meani ng depends on thc reader' s knowl edge of the
l anguagc, the structure oftcxts, a knowl edge ofthe subj ect ofthc readi ng,
and a broad-based background or worl d knowl cdge. Fi rst l anguage readi ng
authori ti es Ri chard Anderson and Peter Freebody posi t the knov,l edge hv-
pothesi s to account fbr the contri buti on these el ements pl ay i n the construc-
t i on of r neani ng ( 1981, p. 8l ) . Mar t ha Rapp Ruddel l r ef i nes t hei r hypot h-
esi s when shc cl ai ms that thesc vari ous knowl edge el ements i nteract wi th
one anot hcr t o bui l d r neani ng ( 1994, p. 416) .
Many researchers poi nt to the rol e that schema theory pl ays i n under-
standi ng how thcse hi gh-order comprehensi on processes work, si nce i t
descri bes how readers mi ght organi ze and access knowl edge. Readers need
more than j ust a randorn col l ecti on of vocabul ary knowl edge, worl d knowl -
edge, l i ngui sti c knowl edge, and so on, i n order to construct meani ng. As
Wi l l i arn Nagy and Patri ci a Hcman wri te, "Knowl edge does not consi st
, r r r r pl y of an unst r uct ur ed set of i ndi vi dual l i r ct s. but r at l r cr of or gani zed,
rrtcrrel ated structures or schemata" ( l 9tt7, p. 2tt). Schcrna theory provi des
. nt r WOy of under st andi ng how t hi s or gani zat i on ol ' knowl edge mi ght be
, r r ' hi cved.
In contrast to word recogni ti on and l exi cal acccss, whi ch by vi rtue of
tl rci r speed, accuracy, and automati ci ty use l i ttl e processi ng capaci ty, these
l rrLrh-order processes of comprehensi on are "usual l y costl y i n terms of
, l cr r r ands on at t ent i on" ( Samuel s, 1994, p. 829) . The mi nd has onl y a cer t ai n
rrruount of processi ng capaci ty avai l abl e at one ti me. Thus, when fl uent
rcaders have to sl ow down and pay consci ous attenti on to recogni zi ng
n' ords (i .e., empl oyi ng the strategy of phonemi c decodi ng, descri bed ear-
l i cr), they fi nd i t di ffi cul t to undcrstand the meani ng of the sentence or the
paragraph i n whi ch thc unknown or unfami l i ar words occur. As l sabel Beck
cxpl ai ns, "i f attenti on i s rnore than occasi onal l y fbcused on getti ng through
tl rc words duri ng rcadi ng, too much proccssi ng capaci ty wi l l be taken up
rvi th decodi ng and that wi l l i nterfere wi th the hi gher l evel components of
t hc r cadi ng pr ocess ( i . e. . const r uct i ng r neani ng) " ( 198 | ,
p. 75) .
What i s true l br fl uent reade rs
-
that sl owi ng down and payi ng consci ous
attenti on to recogni zi ng words i nterfcrc wi th the constructi on of meani ng
-
i s even l nore true fbr bcgi nni ng rcadcrs. The di srupti on i s such fbr begi n-
ners that the l i nk between the decodi ng process and the comprehensi on
processes may be severed. As S. Jay Sarnuel s descri bes i t, "i f the reader' s
attcnti on i s on dccodi ng and i fattenti on can be di rected at onl y one process
at a t i me, t he compr ehensi on t ask i s not get t i ng donc" ( 1994, p. 821) .
Samuel s bel i eves that begi nni ng readcrs are fbrccd to swi tch thei r attenti on
back and forth from decodi ng to constructi ng rneani ng, whi ch, i n hi s words,
i s
"sl ow,
l abori ous, and fi ustrati ng" (p. 822).
In sum, the rnost wi del y accepted cogni ti ve model s of fl uent readi ng
crnphasi ze the i mportance of accurate, autornati c word recogni ti on; thi s
proccss i s the precursor of a number of other i nteracti ve, concuffcnt pro-
ccsscs that, together wi th hi gh-l evel cogni ti ve reasoni ng, resul t i n the con-
structi on of meani ng. Al though these i nteracti ve. concument processes
havc bcen arti fi ci al l y separated i n thi s secti on fbr the purposes of di scus-
si on, fl uent readi ng i s i n fact a seaml ess whol c.
Readi ng i n a second l anguage
l ' rorn a cogni ti ve vi ewpoi nt. are fl ucnt fi rst l anguage readi ng and f' l uent
second l anguagc readi ng di ff' erent' / Charl es Al derson and Al cxander Ur-
quhart state at the beginning of their book Reutling in u Foreign Language,
"We do not. and i ndeed fl nd i t di fTl cul t to. draw a cl ear di sti ncti on between
f i r st and f br ei gn l anguage r eadi ng" ( 19U4, p. xv) . l n mor e t cchni cal t enxs,
Catheri ne Wal l ace notes i n her book Reudi ng that "we draw on si mi l ar
processi ng strategi es i n the readi ng of al l l anguages, even where the wri ti ng
systems are very di fferent" (1992, p. 22). Thus, i t can be sai d that the
dcscri pti on of thc cogni ti vc i ntr' racti vc processcs of fl uent readi ng
di scussed i n the previ ous secti on i s al so useful i n capturi ng the essence of
f' l ucnt sccond l anguagc rcadi ng.
The rol e of extensi ve readi ng i n devel opi ng fl uent
second l anguage readers
Extensi ve rcadi ng can perhaps rnust pl ay an i mportant rol e i n devel op-
i ng the col rponents upon whi ch fl uent second l anguage reacl i ng depends: a
l argc si ght vocabul ary; a wi de gcneral vocabul ary; and knowl edge of the
targct l anguage, thc worl d, and text types. The rol e of extcnsi ve rcadi ng i n
dcvcl opi ng cach of t hcst - cor nponcnt s i s cxar ni ncd bcl ow.
The development of sight vocabulary
The devel opment of a l arge si ght vocabul ary can be seen as overl earni ng
words to the poi nt that they are autornati cal l y recogni zed i n thei r pri nted
fbrm. The bcst and easi est way to accornpl i sh thi s i s to read a great deal .
Begi nni ng rcadcrs si rrpl y havc to cncountcr repeatedl y words wi th whi ch
they have some f' ami l i ari ty. As an i ndi vi dual word i s met and understood
agai n and agai n i n vari ous contexts, "al l the sources of i nfbrmati on about a
word are consol i dated i nto a si ngl e, hi ghl y cohcsi vc reprcscntati on. . . .
Thus a pri nted word becomes a syn-rbol fbr i ts phonol ogi cal , semanti c,
syntacti c, and orthographi c i nformati on" (Harri s & Si pay, 1990, pp. 435
436). As a resul t of mul ti pl e encounters, the word enters the reader' s si ght
vocabul ary. Fami l i ari ty brecds automati ci ty.
To refbrmul ate Stephen Krashen' s farnous desi gnati on of second l an-
guage compr ehcnsi bl c i nput ( c. g. , 1985, l 99l
) ,
t he r nat er i al s f br t hi s " aut o-
r nat i ci t y t r ai ni ng" ( Samuel s, 1994. p. 834) must be at
" r
mi nus l " whcr c
"i "
i s the student' s current l evel of acqui si ti on. Thi s i nl i nu.r 1 i s i n contrast
to Krashen' s cornprehensi bl e i nput hypothesi s. i n whi ch, fbr further acqui -
si ti on to takc pl acc, thc comprchcnsi bl e i nput has to contai n el ements that
are sl i ghtl v be1' 6rr1
","
that i s,
"i
+ l .
"
Thc rcason for i mi nu,s 1 i s that
thc goal of the automati ci ty trai ni ng i s devel opi ng a l arge si ght vocabu-
l ary rather than the l earni ng of new l i ngui sti c cl cmcnts. Of course, i mi nu.s I
text i s an i deal target when l earni ng to read; i ncvi tabl y, matcri al i ncl udes
A coqnitive view of readino 17
, t t t r t us l vocabul ar y and synt act i c st r uct ur cs as wcl l as r ( t he r eader ' s
, rrrl cnt l evel of l i ngui sti c competence) and son.rc i + 1 (el ernents that the
, , ,rtl cr has not yet mastered). But as l ong as thc bul k o1' thc vocabul ary and
, ' l i l nunar
i s wel l wi t hi n t he r eader ' s compet ence i mi nus 1 wi t hout t oo
r r r r ny r + l di st r act i ons, t he devel opment of a si ght vocabul ar y i s possi bl e.
Ilrc development of general vocabulary knowledge
l r l l rst l anguage readi ng, the ovcrarchi ng rol e of vocabul ary i n fl uent
r r ' i r ( l i ng l r as been wel l est abl i shed. Si r npl y put , t he l ar ger chi l dr en' s vo-
, , r bul ar i es ar e, t he bet t er t hci r cor npr ehensi on. For exampl e, Jeanne Chal l
rr ri tcs. "Every study of readi ng achi evement poi nts to the i mportancc of
r r r cabul ar y knowl cdge" ( 1987, p. l 5) . Nagy and Her man st at e i t unequi vo-
, ; r l l y: " Chi l dr en
who know mor e wor ds under st and t ext bet t er " ( 1987, p.
, ' /
) .
(i i ven
our posi ti on that, from a cogni ti ve poi nt of vi ew, there i s no
t sscnti ol di ffercncc between t' l ucnt fi rst and sccond l anguage readi ng, the
rrecd l br a l argc vocabul ary i s cqual l y true i n fl ucnt second l anguage read-
rrrg. .l ust how i mportant i t i s can be gaugcd frorn the fol l owi ng observati on
Itv Wi l l i arn Grabc. a second l anguage readi ng cxpert not gi ven to overstate-
rrrcnt. Grabe poi nts out that fl ucnt readers nced "a mussi ve
fi tal i cs
added]
rcccpti vc vocabul ary that i s rapi dl y, accuratel y, and automati cal l y ac-
t csSod" ( 1988, p. 63). The l ack ofsuch a vocabul ary, says Grabe, "may be
tl rc greatest si ngl e i rnpedi rnent to fl uent readi ng by ESL students" (p 63)
Chi l dren l carn l arge numbcrs of new words i n thei r tl rst l anguage by
ruessi ng thci r meani ngs i n context whi l c they read. Nagy and Herman
eoncl ude, after a rcvi ew of the rcscarch l i teraturc, "l nci dental l earni ng of
rr ords duri ng readi ng rnay bc the easi est and si ngl e rnost powerful means of
l rrornoti ng
l arge-scal e vocabul ary growth" ( 1987, p. 21).
Can second l anguagc l earners do the same
,
l earn words i nci dental l y
ri ' hi l c readi ng' ? Al though the second l anguage rcsearch i s not as abundant or
robust as i t i s i n fi rst l anguagc rcadi ng, i t al l ows a si mi l ar, al bei t qual i fi ed,
tortcl usi on; Second l anguage readcrs who read masses of vari ed and i nter-
csti rrg i mi nus I materi al can i ncrease thei r general vocabul ary knowl edge.
.l arres Coady, i n a revi ew of the rel evant second l anguagc research, con-
e l ucl es, "The i nci dental acqui si ti on hypothesi s suggests that there i s gradual
l )ut stcady i ncremental growth of vocabul ary knowl edge through meani ng-
l i r l i nt er act i on wi t h t ext " ( 1993. p. l 8) . But Coady poi nt s out t haL how,
l caders ei ther frrst or second l anguage do thi s i s not known.
Part of the qual i fi cati on for the concl usi on, i n addi ti on to i ts sl i rn re-
scarch base, i s thc nature of thc di fl erences bctween besi nni ns fl rst and
begi nni ng sccond l anguagc readers. Bcgi nni ng second l anguage readcrs are
at the earl y stagcs of second l anguage l i ngui sti c devel opment, unl i ke thei r
fi rst l anguage counterpafts. Begi nni ng second l anguage readers al so l ack
the l arge oral vocabul ary that begi nni ng fi rst l arrguage readers bri n-e to the
task of l earni ng to rcad. Thi s rneans that vocabul ary l earni ne ti orn context
whi l e r eadi ng i s. as Thomas Hucki n and Mar got Haynes put i t . " di st i nct l y
pr obl emat i c" ( 1993, p. 290) f br begi nni ng second l anguage r eader s.
But the proccss of i nci dental vocabul ary l earni n-e becomes more effi -
ci ent as second l anuuage r eadi ng abi l i t y i mpr oves. " once a cer t ai n l evel of
knowl cdge (and vocabul ary) i s achi cved . . . ." say Fredri cka Stol l er and
wi l l i arn Grabe,
"students
wi l l then be abl e ro appl y the ri cher knowl edge to
l ear ni ng new vocabul ar y" ( 1993, pp. 3l 32) .
To al l ow thi s i ni ti al l y di fl cul t and probl enrati c process of guessi ng,
l carni ng, and re fi ni ns the knowl cdge of words fi orn context, second l an-
guage readcrs nl ust read materi al s wi th a very l ow rati o of unknown to
known words. In other words, texts shoul d be essenti al l y i mi nus /, contai n-
i ng onl y a very srnal l nurnber of unknown words and di ffi cul t syntacti c
structures. And the readi ng of thcse easy texts r.rrust be pl enti ful because "a
cl ear sense of a word' s defi ni ng I' eatures can onl y be rcached through
r epeat ed cncount er s i n di vcr se cont ext s" ( Hucki n & Hayncs, 1993, p. 290) .
As Paul Nati cl n and Jamcs Coady concl ude, "l n general the research
l eaves us i n l i ttl e doubt about the i mportancc of vocabul ary knowl edge for
readi ng, and the val ue of readi ns as a ffl eans of i ncrcasi ng vocabul ary"
( 19U8, p. 108) . Scccl nd l anguage st udent s must r ct r d and r ead sol r e mor e
both to l earn words fi om contcxt through rnul ti pl e encounters and to be-
come better rcaders so that i nci cl ental vocabul ary l earni ng becornes easi er.
An extensi ve readi ng approach i n whi ch second l anguage readers read
l arge amounts of easy, vari cd, and i nteresti ng materi al
-
ensures that stu-
derrts have the best pt' rssi bl c chance to do thi s.
The development of different knowledge types
The tl nal fbctor necessary fbr fl uent readi ng i s knowl edge, l br i t i s on
knowl edge that cc-rmprehensi on dcpcnds. Interesti ngl y, i t seetl s as though
rcadi ng i s an excel l ent source of the knowl edge that i s needed forrca<l i ng
comprehensi on. Al bert Harri s and Edward Si pay, i n di scussi ng fi rst l an-
guage rcadi ng devel opment. state that "wi de readi ng not onl y i ncreases
worcJ-meani ng knowl edge but carr al so produce gai ns i n ropi cul and worl d
knrvl al ge
[i tal i cs
added] that can further faci l i tate readi ng cornprehen-
si on" ( 1990. p. 533) .
Grven that cogni ti ve processes of fl uent reacl i ng are the same i n both fl rst
, l . econd l anguages, t her e i s a par al l cl si t uul i on i n scconcl l anguage
r , l r r g: Second l anguage r eader s need l i ngui st i c, wor l d, and t opi cal
' , r , ' r r l sl l qs,
and i t appear s as t hough t hey can acqui r c t hi s knowl edge
' , ' r r ! l r sccond l anguage r eadi ng. Gr abe asscr t s t hi l t
" t hc
t nor c r eadi ng
1,,rrr' . oI the grcatest i nfbrmati onal vari ety ancl range of
l .rurposes.
the
1r r r , kcr t he r eader wi l l achi eve . . . t he capaci t y t br cr eat i ng, r et i ni ng, and
, , nncct i ng di ver se ar ays of cogni t i ve schemat a" ( l 9t l 6, p. 36) .
\rr crtensi ve readi ng approach, i n whi ch studcnts rcad fl Lrentl y and
r L r \ ( ) n t he meani ng of what t hey r ead. can t her ef br e pl ay a key r ol e i n
r \ ur i ng t hat st udent s have t hc bcst possi bl e chance of dcvcl opi ng t hi s
I l r r r i l edg0.
\ l t hough t he di scussi on i n t hi s sect i on has separ at ed t he acqui si t i on of
r r ' l r l vocabul ar y, gencr al vocabul ar y knowl edge, and l i ngui st i c. t opi cal ,
rn,l rvor-l d knowl cdge, we suggest tl rat thei r dcvcl opntent i s i nterrel ated. l t
, t l i l i l cul t t o i r r r agi nc a st udent r eadi ng ext ensi vcl y and t ai l i ng t o have
r r r ' r ci l ses i n al l t hr ec of t hese knowl edge t ypes.
Concl usi on
l l r c soal of t hi s chapt cr has been t o show how a t hcor ct i cal r nodel can be
r r st r ur ncnt al i n hel pi ng r eadi ng t cachcr s cl ar i f y how t hey ni ght hcl p t hci r
,trrdcnts l carn to read a second l anguagc. A nurnber of i nsi ghts about
r t ' r r di r r t can bc l car ncd l i om vi ewi ng r cadi ng as an i nt er act i ve couni t i vc
l ) r ( ) ccss.
One of t hcse i s t hc basi c i r npor t ance of a I ar yc si ght vocabul ar y as
,r prccondi ti on fbr fl uent readi ng. Moreover, second l anguagc studcnts r.nust
,l cvcl op a l argc gcneral vocabul ary. The readi ng of l arge arnounts of corn-
pl chensi bl e and i nteresti ng tcxts i s an obvi ous way of bri ngi ng thcsc about.
\ r r ch r eadi ng al so l r as an i mpor t ant r ol e i n devel opi ng t he l i ngui st i c and
rr orl d knowl edqe necessary tbr rcadi ng cornprehensi on. In short. an cxtcn-
' i vc readi ng approach makes i t possrbl e fbr studcnts to devel op i nto fl uent
l cacl ers.
Tl ri s cogni ti ve exami nati on of readi ng provi dcs the fi rst j usti fi cati on fbr
t he- i ncl usi on of ext cnsi vc r eadi ng i r r t he second l anguagc r cadi r r g cur r i cu-
Iunr. The seconcl j usti fi cati on i s an at-tecti ve one, and i s thc subj cct of the
ncrt chapter.
Further readi ng
f he 1988 vol ume edi t cd by Pat r i ci a Car r el l , . kr annc Dcr , ' i r r c. and Davi cl
lrskey, Inteructive ,4pproac'he.s to Sct'ond Lunguug( Rcuding, is an csscntial
col l ecti on of papers that traces the devel oprnent of thi nki ng toward i nterac-
ti ve model s of tl .re second l anguage readi ng process.
l nteracti ve rnodel s of readi ng owe much to the work and wri ti ngs of
Fr ank Smi t h and Kcnnet h Goodman i n t he 1970s. Col i n Har r i son. i n hi s
arti cl c
"The
Readi ng Process and Leami ng to Read" ( 1992). gi ves a l i vel y,
bal anced account (fi om a fi rst l anguage perspecti ve) ofboth the enduri ng
i mportance of Srni th and Goodman' s i nsi ghts i nto tl re readi ng process and
the modi fi cati ons that rrust be made i n l i ght of subsequent research.
For rnore i nformati on and detai l s about the fi rst l anguage research that
hel ped to establ i sh thc rol e that automati c, rapi d, and accurate word recog-
ni ti on pfays i n tl uent reerdi ng, see The Ps.trhol og,, o/' Reudi ng und Lun-
guuge Comprehensi on by Marcel Just and Patri ci a Carpenter (1987) and
The Psvc'futlog.t, t7/' Rcuding by Keith Rayner and Alexander Pollatsek
( 1989). Al though techni cal , these books repay the i nvestment of efl brt and
t i me.
The l earni ng of vocabul ary through readi ng i s di scussed i n the 1993
vofume Sec'ontl Lunguuge Reucling anel Wtcabulun. Learning, edited by
Thorl as IJucki n. Margot Haynes. and Janres Coady. Si ncc most research on
tl ri s topi c has been done wi th fi rst l anguagc subj ccts, a chapter of parti cul ar
i nt er est i s " l r npl i cat i or r s f or L2 Vocabul ar y Acqui si t i on and I nst r uct i on
ftonr Ll Vocabul ary Research" by Fredri cka Stol l er and Wi l l i am Grabe-.
-i Affect: The secret garden of
, .
reaatng
At t i t udes and pcrccpt i ons col or our cvcry cxpcri cncc.
' l -hey
arc t hc f i l t cr t hrough whi ch al l l carni ng occurs.
Rober t Mar zano ( 1992. p. 3)
I t i s not t hat st udcnt s ci rnnot l earn: i t i s t hat t hcy do not
wi sh t o l car n.
Mi hal y Csi kszcnt mi hal l ' i ( 1990b, p I l - s)
I l r c pur posc of t hi s chapt er i s t o:
.
I)rovi dc an i ntroducti on to atti tudc and rrroti vati on i n sccond l anuuage
l cadi ng.
. l { cl at e cxt cnsi vL- r e- acl i ng t o at t i t udc and nr ot i vut i on.
l cachcrs havc a deep rcspcct fbr the rtl l e that atti tudc and moti l ' ati on pl ay
rn l carni ng. Thcy know fi orn thci r cl assroom experi cnccs that students wi th
poor atti tudcs about school , the subj cct matter, and thei r cl assroom are
ol i en poorl y rnoti vated and thus prcsent nra.j or teachi ng chal l engcs.
l l owcvcr, cven though tcachcrs rccogni ze thei r i rnporl ancc, concerns for
thc afl ecti vc aspects of readi ng scl dom fi nd tl rerr way i nto rcadi ng i nstruc-
t i on, r vhet hcr i n t l r c f i r st or a second I anguage. Mi chael McKcnna. u, r i t i ng
rrbout the teachi ng of fi rst l anguage rcadi ng, suggcsts a reason l br thi s:
" Poor
conccpt ual i zat i on of what At hey ( 1985) has cal l ed t he
' shadowy
r ari abl es' of affect (p.521) may rei nforce the noti on that school ti ure i s best
t l cvot ed t o t he pur sui t of r cadi ng pr of i ci ency" ( 1994, p. l 8) .
The si t uat i on i s si mi l ar i n second l anguage r eadi ng i nst r uct i on. Not wi t h-
standi ng work on general rnoti vati on to l eam a second l anguage f' ew
l cachers arc unl anri l i ar wi th Robert Gardncr and Wal l ace Larrbcrt' s i ntcg-
r at i ve and i nsl nr r ncnl al r not i vat i onal or i cnl at i ons ( e. g. , 1959) , f br
cxar npl e
-
t her e has bccn conr par at i vel y l i t t l e conccnl f i r r at t i t ude and
ruroti vati on i n l earni ng to rcad a seconcl l anguagc.
The l ack of syst er nat i c and pr i nci pl ed at t cnt i on t o t hc af l bct i ve di r nen-
si ons of second l anguagc r cadi ng i s unt or t unat c. Al t cr al l . whcn t cachcr s
21
desi gn thei r rcadi ng courses, order texts, devel op l esson pl ans, and set up
readi ng tasks, cxerci ses, and acti vi ti es. they are i n ef-fect rnaki ng statcments
about the rol c that atti tude and moti vati on pl ay i n thei r teachi ng and thc
l eami ng of thei r students. Pcrhaps, l i ke theorctrcal assumpti ons about the
nature ofhow students l carn to read a second l anguage, thesc statenrents are
unexami ned. They are often pushed i nto the background by the dai l y pres-
sures of teachi ng and a j usti fi ed
concern fbr rnecti ng the tangi bl e, concretc
ai ms and goal s of the rcadi ng course. Ncverthel css, a decper understandi ng
ofatti tude and rnoti vati on and how teachers can use them to thei r advantagc
can have i mntedi atc, practi cal benefi ts.
Thi s chapter i ntroduccs and di scusses a second j usti fi cati on
fbr i ncl ud-
i ng extcnsi ve rcadi ng i n a second l anguage readi ng program a j usti fi ca-
ti on based on the affecti ve di mcnsi on of the readi ng proccss. We bcgi n by
throwi ng Athcy' s shadowy vari abl es of afl ect i nto as sharp a rel i ef as
possi bl e, and then rel ati ng them to extcnsi ve rcadi ng. The fl rst afl -ecti ve
vari abl e to bc exami ned i s atti tude; thc second. moti vati on.
Attitude
Atti tude i s a compl ex, hypotheti cal constructi on, whose gencral defl ni ti on
usual l y i ncl udes some not i on of eval uat i on. For exar npl e, I cck Aj zen st at es
that "an atti tude i s a di sposi ti on to respond l avorabl y or unf-avorabl y to an
obj ect , per son, i nst i t ut i on, or event " ( 1988, p. 4) . Si ni l ar l y, Al i ce Eagl y and
Shel l y Chai ken ( 1993, p. l ) wr i t e, " At t i t udc i s a psychol ogi cal t endcncy
that i s exprcssed by cval uati ng a parti cul ar enti ty wi th sorne degrec of favor
or di sfavor." Thi s eval uati ve aspect of atti tude i s i ts dcfi ni ng attri bute, and
sets i t apart from other aff-ecti ve vari abl es.
Another i mportant poi nt about atti tudes i s that they are subj cct to
change
-
thcy are not set i n concrete. Thi s i s good news for teachcrs, i n that
poor atti tudes can be changed. But the good news i s tcmpered by the l -act
that there arc many vari abl cs associ atcd wi th atti tude change (e.g., other
atti tudes, the strcngth of the parl i cul ar atti tude. and i ts source) so that
attempts to change atti tudcs may not al ways be succcssful . There i s some
research, howcver, i ndi cati ng that an awareness of a negati vc atti tudo and
i ts source may hel p compensate fbr cl r even el i mi nate the bi as (pratkani s,
I 989, p. 82). A useful fi rst stcp fbr teachers, thcrcfbre. can be to understand
the sources of student atti tudes posi ti ve or ncgati ve toward sccond
l anguage rcadi ng.
First language reading attitudes
Previous experiences with
learning to read other second
languages (if any)
Attitudes toward the second
language, culture, and people
The second language classroom
environment (teacher, classmates,
approach to and suppo( for L2
readi ng. ongoi ng expenences i n
L2 reading)
Affect 23
I t:ltrt'e I Model of the uc'quisition untl developnrent o.f .set,ond languuge
,'
,rtl i ng utti l udes.
Attitudes and second language reading
\ornc anal ysi s of fi rst l anguage readi ng atti tudes has been made, notabl y
(
,rovcr Mathewson' s 1994 "Model of Atti tude Infl uence upon Readi ng and
I cl rni ng to Read" and Mi chael McKenna' s devel oprnent of that model ,
pr r bl i shed as " Towar d a Model of Readi ng At t i t ude Acqui si t i on" ( 1994) .
I i sure I i ntcrprets thi s work from a second l anguage perspecti ve, and i s a
rrrodcl depi cti ng four sources of studcnt atti tudc toward second l anguage
l cadi ng. Thcse fbur sources atti tudes toward fi rst l anguage readi ng; pre-
vi ous sccond l anguage readi ng experi ences; atti tudes toward the second
l rrnguage, cul ture, and peopl e; and the second l anguage cl assroorn
crrvi ronment arc exami ned i n tum bel ow.
FI BST LANGUAGE BEADI NG ATTI TUDES
Assumi ng that studcnts are al ready l i terate i n thei r fi rst l anguage, onr:
source of atti tudcs toward second l anguage readi ng i s the atti tude that
students havc toward readi ng i n thei r nati ve l anguage. In short, students
wi th posi ti ve atti tudes toward readi ng i n thci r own l anguagc are l i kel y to
bcgi n wi th a posi ti vc atti tude toward sccond l anguagc rcadi ng; students for
whom fi rst l anguage readi ng i s l ess attracti vc or i rnportanl wi l l corne to
second l anguage readi ng wi th l ess than posi ti ve. r)r cvcn ncr.l al i vc, i rtti tudes.
Fi rst l anguage readi ng atti tudcs dcri ve fi om the student' s i nfbnnal expe-
ri ences wi th readi ng, i nstructi onal practi ces i n the cl assroom, and the way
readi ng i s vi ewed wi thi n the fi rst l anguage cul ture. Al bert Harri s and Ed-
ward Si pay ( 1990, pp. 49 5 I
)
provi de a hel pful summary of research on the
acqui si ti on of readi ng atti tudes. It i s cl ear that earl y experi ences wi th read-
i ng shape atti tude, i n addi ti on to bei ng the i mportant fi rst steps i n l earni ng
to read. As Harri s and Si pay note, "Seei ng parcnts and ol dcr si bl i ngs rcad
and bei ng read to devel op a f' avorabl e atti tude toward readi ng, and hel p
chi l dr en t o val ue r cadi ng" ( p. 49) .
Chi l drcn fortunatc cnough to bcgi n fomral school i ng wi th posi ti ve atti -
tudcs about readi ng may recci ve l i ttl e subsequent rei nforcement. Al though
the i rnportance of fbsteri ng posi ti ve atti tudes toward readi ng i n students i s
wi del y recogni zed, actual practi ces may not fol l ow. Betty Heathi ngton
expl ai ns that,
"when
forced to rnake a choi ce between promoti ng posi ti ve
atti tudes or errphasi zi ng ski l l devel opment. teachers seem to choose ski l l
devel oprnent. Thei r practi ces i ndi cate that thcy bcl i evc that ski l l s arc more
essenti al for thei r students than the atti tudcs thei r studcnts havc toward
l i t cr acy" ( 1994. p. 199) . Such pr act i ces, Heat hi ngt on bel i eves, can have
di sastrous consequences, because "fbrci ng students to engage i n acti vi ti es
they see as mcani ngl ess onl y dri ves them to adopt an atti tudc of hati ng
those engagcrnents and avoi di ng l i teracy acti vi ti es once they l eave school "
( p. 200) .
Interesti ngl y, and perhaps contrary to common sense, these negati vc
atti tudes cut across rcadi ng profi ci ency, and can be hel d by students who
are consi dcrcd successes i n terms of l earni ng to read. In Frank Smi th' s
words, "The real tragedy i s that cornpetent readers and wri ters as wel l as the
l ess abl c l eave school wi th a l i f-e l ong aversi on to readi ng and wri ti ng, whi ch
they regard as purel y school acti vi ti es, as tri vi al and tedi ous
' work"'
( 1983,
p. I 15) .
It i s the hope of any second l anguage rcadi ng tcachcr to havc students
who hol d the atti tudc that readi ng i s i mportant and i ntercsti ng. E,ven rn a
worst-casc scenari o, however, al l i s not l ost, fbr fi rst l anguage readi ng
atti tudcs arc onl y onc of fbur vari abl es i nfl uenci ng the devel opment of
second l anguage readi ng atti tudes.
PREVI OUS EXPERI ENCES WI TH LEARNI NG TO READ SECOND
LANGUAGES
l f students have had experi ences wi th l earni ng to read other l anguages,
thcse experi enccs wi l l i nfl uence thei r atti tudcs towarcl rcadi ng i n thc ncw
l anguagc. Pri or succcssl ul cxpcri cnces wi l l prcdi spose l eamers toward the
Affect 25
\ ( \l rcri ence. whercas unsuccessful ones can turn thcm ofTeven befbre
l ) r ( ) ccss
of l ear ni ng t o r ead i n t he new l anguagc bcgi ns.
. I I I UDES TOWARD THE SECOND LANGUAGE. CULTUBE. AND
I
( ) l , L E
l " ' . r l i r c at t i t udcs i n t hi s cat egor y can r not i vat c st udent s t o r ead i n t he
, , ( ) r ) ( l
l anguage about i t s cul t ur e and peopl c. I t i s not uncommon t o f l nd
r, l r l avorabl c atti tudes i n communi ti es whcrc thcrc are l arge nuurbers of
' , ,' pl c whose ancestors i rnmi grated to the cor.nmuni ty. Thci r dcscendants
r r , ol i cn eager t o l eam t he l anguagc, t o under st and t he cul t ur c, and t o vi si t
r I r \ ' n al l cest r al homel and.
I I I t -
SECOND LANGUAGE CLASSROOM ENVI FI ONMENT
Lrr orabl e l -ccl i ngs for and experi ences wi th thc tcacher, cl assmates, t.nate-
' r . r l s. act i vi t i es, t asks, pr ocedur es, and so on, can f br gc posi t i ve at t i t udes
r,r*l rd readi ng i n the sccond l anguage. Unf' avorabl e f-cel i ngs and ongoi ng
' r pcr i enccs can l ead t o negat i ve at t i t udes.
l ' cachers know that l carni ng to read a second l anguagc i s no casy task fbr
rl rei r students. They acknowl cdgc thi s i n vari ous ways, for cxantpl e, by
t' rri l di ng background knowl edgc pri or to readi ng so as to rnake readi ng
, , r si er , or by pr ovi di ng appr opr i at el y si r npl e t asks t o accompany di f Tl cul t
r t ' r t cl i ngs.
At the same ti me, i n spi tc of teachers' best efl brts, i t i s probabl y a trui stn
to say that i n the maj ori ty of cl assroorns, students consi dcr second l anguage
rerrdi ng "di fl l cul t." Rccal l the descri pti on of "the worl d of rcal L2IFL
r er r cl i ng cl asses" f r or n Aebcr sol d and Fi el d ( 1997, p. l l 6) quot ed at t hc
l rcqi nni ng of the Preface, whi ch characteri zcs students as "unsure of what
thcy have read" and "apprehensi ve" about cl assroom practi ces.
A si mpl e response woul d be that i n rxany cases thi s cannot be hel ped;
rrrdeed, a goal of sorne readi ng courses. fbr exampl c, i n academi c prepara-
ti on programs, i s to equi p students to deal wi th readi ng passagcs that are rn
\ome ways beyond those students' l i ngui sti c abi l i ty i n the second l anguage.
Such a response, however, i gnores the i ncvi tabl e atfecti ve tol l that cl i fTi cul t
ol unpl easant readi ng experi ences take.
The consequences of students l eavi ng second l anguagc courses wi th
ncgati ve atti tudes toward readi ng are sel dom di scusscd. The probabl e re-
sul ts can, however, be deduced from the fi rst l angua-ec studcnl s' aversi on to
rcadi ng ref-erred to earl i er i n thi s chapter.
26 The dimensions of extensive reading
Extensive reading and attitude
What i nt' l uence can an extcnsi ve readi ng approach to tcachi ng second
l anguage readi ng be expected to have on student atti tudes? Not al l of the
ti rur sources of second l anguage readi ng atti tudes i n Fi gure I can be i nfl u-
enced by extensi ve readi ng: Fi rst l anguage readi ng atti tudes and previ ous
experi cnccs wi th rcadi ng i n othcr sccond l anguagcs both bcl ong to the past
and are beyond the reach of subsequent readi ng programs, extensi ve or
otherwi se. But as l br the other two atti tude sourccs, the i mpact of cxtcnsi vc
r eadi ng can be subst ant i al .
An extensi ve readi ng approach nray i nfl uence atti tutl es toward the sec-
ond l anguage cul ture and peopl e i f the str-rcl ents. through thei r reacl i ng.
cornc to vi cw thc sccond l anguagc cul ture and pcopl c i n a f-avorabl e l i ght.
Thi s, however, i s onl y a possi bi l i ty, as there i s no guarantee that students
wi l l read about the target cul ture and peopl c, si nce they arc free to read
what they want to.
On the other hand, because i t i ncl udes i ndi vi dual i zed, fi ee choi ce of
readi rrc materi al , an extensi ve readi ng approach makes i t possi bl e for i ndi -
vi dual studcnts to fbl l ow thci l own i ntercsts i n rcadi ng. It i s thercl brc
possi bl c fbr thcrn to cl l tcr thc sccond l anguaee cul ture on thei r own tenns.
and even to enter i t deepl y. One of the authors of thi s book, for exarnpl e, has
studcnts i n an Engl i sh l anguagc cxtsnsi ve readi ng program readi ng about
(to ci te four students) Ameri can maj or l eague basebal l , i rnportant fi gures
fi orn the past such as Charl i e Chapl i n and Marti n Luther Ki ng, hol i sti c
heal th and envi ronmental acti vi sm, and contemporary cul tural i ssues
through Ameri can and Bri ti sl r young adul t fi cti on. Equal l y to thc poi nt,
these i ncl i vi dual s do not have to read about the other tl rree topi cs, whi ch
i nt cr cst t hcm l css or not at al t . Thi s f l cxi bi l i t y i s l ess avai l abl e i n cl asses i n
whi ch students l xust read thc sarne texts sel ected by the teacher.
Successful extensi ve readi ng progrants al so pl ace great emphasl s on
posi ti ve cl assroom envi ronrnent and ongoi ng readi ng experi ences.
Teachers takc the rol c of acti ve parti ci pant and model reader. l endi ng
presti ge. exarnpl e, and support to the acti vi ty. The i ndi vi dual , pri vate nature
of cxl ensi ve readi ng al so nrakes i t casi er fbr tcachcrs to establ i sh a noncom-
pcti ti vc. nonj udgrncntal corrruruni ty of readcrs. Fcar of eval uati on by
tcachcr and peers i s rni ni mi zed bccause the crnphasi s i s not cl n a ri ghl
answer, but on stucl ents' personal reacti ons to the readi ng materi al . The
i ndi vi dual vari ati on i nhercnt i n any teachi ng and l earni ng si tuati on can al so
be catered to, fbr an extensi ve readi ng approach does not deal wi th students
i n a l ockstep manner i n whi ch al l l earners have to read the same materi al at
approxi matel y the same rate.
Affect 27
It rs i r.rdced the ongoi ng experi ences ol ' cxl crrsi r.' c scconcl l anguaee read-
' , ' t l l r t have t he most pot ent i al t o est abl i sh posi t i vc at t i t udcs t owar d sec-
' r r , l
l i r nsuage r eadi ng. St udent s r ead nr at er i al r vcl l wi t hi n t hei r l i r r - eui st i c
, l , r l r t v, t hcy havc a choi ce of what t o r ead, and t hey ar e not t br ced t o r ead
l , ( ) ut t opi cs i n whi ch t hey have no i nt er est . l n addi t i on, t hey have t he
rr' ( (l orr to stop readi ng when they want to, wi th no questi ons asked. They
,, .rtl
' uvhcn
and where they want to.
l hese el ements of students' choosi ng what, when, how, and where to
r , , r t l ar e hal l r nar ks of aut onor . t r y i n l ear r r i ng. I n a r evi ew of aut onomy and
( r ' ond l angua- ue l ear ni ng, Lesl i e Di ckr nson ( 1995, p. 114\ f i nds subst ant i al
, r rdcncc that l carncrs taki ng responsi bi l i ty l br and bei ng abl c to control
r l r ci r own l ear ni ng hel ps t her n succeecl i n t hei r second l aneuage l ear ni ng.
l :rtensi ve readi ng i s thus a powerful tool fbr teachers concerned wi th
I' rri l ci i ng and u.rai ntai ni ng posi ti vc atti tudcs toward sccond l anuuage readi ng
,rnong thei r students. But the devel opment of posi ti ve atti tudes i s not an
, rrtl i n i tsel f, for atti tude i nfl uences somethi ng equal l y i rnportant i n readi ng:
r r r ot i vat i on.
Moti vati on
It i s easy to conf use atti tude and rnoti vati on. They have thi ngs i n comtnon:
Nci ther can be di rectl y observed; both rnust be i nf' erred fi om behavi or and
l cti ons. Both have degrees of i ntensi ty, rangi ng from strong to weak. But
tl rere are di l ' l brences. Robert Franken (1988, p.3) wri tes that l l re study of
rnoti vati on has tradi ti onal l y been concerned wi th the arousal , di recti on, and
pcrsi stcncc of bchavi or. Si rnpl y put, l roti vati on i s what makcs pcopl c do
( or t t ot do) scl r net hi ng.
Psycl r ol ogi cal model s of mot i vat i on ar e t hi ck on t he gr ound. One gr oup
of cogni t i ve model s par t i cul ar l y hel pt ul f r om a t eacher ' s poi nt of vi ew sees
rrroti vati on as havi ng two equal components expec' tati ons and ual ue (see
I' eather, f 982, pp. I 5). The gi st of these expec' tanct, + val ue rnodel s i s that
pcopl e do what thcy cxpcct to accompl i sh succcssful l y and tcnd to avoi d
what they expect they cannot accompl i sh. Thi s i s bal anced by peopl e
tendi ng to undertake tasks that they val ue, and tendi ng to avoi d those thi ngs
that have l i ttl e val ue for thenr, even thoush they reasonabl y expect that they
coul d do them.
Looki ng at expectancy + val ue i n terms of readi ng, unl css students have
a reasonabl e expectati on that they wi l l be abl e to rcad a book wi th under-
standi ng, they wi l l most l i kel y not begi n the undertaki ng:
"l ' d
l i ke to read
that book, but I know that I can' t, so I won' t even trv." But cxpectati on of
E
X
P
E
C
T
N
C
Y
Readi ng abi l i ty i n
the second l anguage
Soci ocul tural
envi ronment,
i ncl udi ng i nfl uence
of family and friends
Figure 2 Model of the mujor variubles motivuting the det'ision to reud
in u ,secontl lunguuge (u solicl line indic'ules a .\tronger influence thun u
brt*en line).
success or fai l ure i s onl y hal f of thc pi cture. In an i deal cl assroom, students
pl ace a hi gh prcrni urx on readi ng, bel i evi ng i t to be of val ue i n l earni rrg to
read and as a source of pl casure and i nfonnati on. They may consequentl y
try to read di ffl cul t books becausc they val ue thc resul t of the cl fort. In sucl -r
cases, the val ue attached to thc act of readi ng mi ght outwei gh the expecta-
ti on that they wi l l havc a hard ti mc rcadi ng.
Motivation and second language reading
F-i gure 2 i s an cxpcctancy * val ue model of moti vati on i n the context of
sccond l aneuage readi ng. Four maj or vari abl es
-
materi al s, readi ng abi l i ty,
atti tLrdes, and soci ocul tural envi ronl xent- are sccn as moti vati ng thc desi re
to rcacl a sccond l anguage. Two of these vari abl es materi al s and readi ng
abi l i ty rcf ate to Ihe expec' tati nr of success i n readi ng the second l anguage,
antl two atti tudcs and soci ocul tural envi ronment rel ate to the val ue
atl ucl rcd to rcadi ng the second l anguage.
' l
' ,vo
of the vari abl cs i n thts model materi al s and atti tudes
-
are con-
si rl cl cd pri rnary. and i t i s di ffi cul t to rank thern. Rather than attenrpti ng to
cstabl i sl r a casc fcl r ei ther as more i mportant than the other, i t rni ght be
Attitudes toward
reading in the
second l anguage
Affect 29
'
r l o cl ai r n t hat t hey ar e of equal wei ght . A l i r i l ur c t o have posi t i vc
'
r r l r ' : t ) l ' l he appr opr i at e mat er i al s woul d r csul t i n a l ack ol ' t hc necessar y
r Lr , r t i on t br a l car ner t o deci de t o r ead t hc sccond l anguage. What t he
,,1,
I srrrgcsts i s that ei ther a l ow readi ng abi l i ty or an i nappropri atc
rr,t 11111,' ' u1 envi ronmcnt can be compensated tbr by posi ti ve second l an-
L, , r ' r cucl i ng at t i t udes and appr opr i at e mat er i al s.
\ /( r/rslye reading and motivation
, , ' .l ensi vc
rcadi ng approach to the teachi ng of readi ng has the potenti al
r r l l Lr cncc al l of t he var i abl es i n t hi s r not i vat i on model .
' . . , \
I E RI A L S
l l r t r cadi ng r nat er i al s used i n ext ensi ve r eadi ng mot i vat c posi t i vcl y t he
I , rsi on to read i n the second l anguage, as they are i nteresti ng, at thc
1r 1r r 1r p1f 3[ s
l i ngui st i c l evel s ( i . e. , pr edomi nant l y i mi nus 1) , and r cadi l y
, , r i l i r bl e. l t i s di f f i cul t t o pl acc t oo r nuch emphasi s on t he r ol e i nt er est i ng
r , r r cr i al pl ays i n t hc dcsi r c t o r cad. I ndccd, Ray Wi l l i ams makes i nt er est i ng
r, \ rs ths trrst i n hi s top ten pri nci pl es for teachi ng fbrei gn l anguage readi ng.
\ . hc put s i t :
l rr tl rc abscncc of i ntcrcsti ng tcxts. vcry l i ttl c i s possi bl c. An obvi ous pri nci pl e,
,Lrr onc whi ch i s ofl cn fbrgottcn. Intcrcst i s vi tal , fbr i t i ncrcascs moti vati on,
' l rreh i n turn i s a si gni ti cant f-actor i n thc dcvcl opmcnt of rcadi ng spced and
l l r r c nc y . ( 1986. p. 42)
f : ADI NG ABI LI TY
I ow-l evel readi ng abi l i ti cs woul d nonnal l y l owcr expectati ons of success,
rrtl thus l ower the rnoti vati on to read. Thi s does not happen i n an extensi vc
rci rdi ng approach, however. because the l earners read at l evel s appropri ate
to thei r readi ng abi l i ty. They do not experi ence the fi ustrati on of havi ng to
re i rd rnateri al beyond thei r readi ng capabi l i ti es. As there i s a wi de vari ety of
rrri rtcri al s that range from easy to di ffi cul t, students are abl e to sel ect mate-
r i i r l t hey can r cad wi t h case.
ATTI TU D E
l ' hat an extensi ve readi ng approach i s l i kel y to produce posi ti ve atti tudes
Ioward readi ng i n the second l anguage was di scusseci carl i cr i n thi s chapter.
SOCI OCULTU RAL ENVI RONMENT
The fol l owi ng anecdote mi ght sound deprcssi ngl y f-ami l i ar: an Ameri can
teenager, studyi ng second-year German, i s made fun of by hi s best fri end
fbr readi ng poetry i n German. The student was readi ng poetry i n the fi rst
pl ace througl r thc cncouragement of hi s German teacher and hi s cl assmates
who wcre maki ng si mi l ar adventures i n sccond l anguage readi ng.
An extcnsi ve readi ng approach creates a cl assroom envi ronment that
val ucs and encourages readi ng. Such an cnvi ronment can counteract the
i nfl uence of soci ety, fami l y, and fi i ends i f they are l ess than encouragi ng
toward readi ng. It may cven provi de a saf' e haven for readi ng poctry away
from the cri ti cal eyes of one' s best fri end.
The extensive reading bookstrap hypothesis
The extraordi nary i rnpact of extensi ve readi ng on both atti tude and moti va-
ti on can be expl ai ned by an extensi vc rcadi ng versi on of bootstruppi ng, an
engi neeri ng concept descri bi ng a proccss i n whi ch the resul ts of an acti on
are f' ed back to achi eve greater resul ts more qui ckl y wi th l ess effort. Gi ven
that the concern here is with reading, lct us use the terrn hookstt'up. The
extensive reucling bookstrap h.t,pothesis works like this: Students' initial
successful experi ences i n cxtcnsi ve readi ng resul t i n the di scovery that they
can read i n the second l anguage and that i t i s rcwardi ng and pl easurabl e.
Thi s sti mul ates the devel opment of posi ti vc atti tudes toward readi ng i n the
second l anguage and the growth of moti vati on to read i n the second l an-
guage. These posi ti ve begi nni ng experi cnccs thcn f-eed back i nto subse-
quent extensi ve readi ng expcri enccs and assi gnments, resul ti ng i n greater
gai ns i n readi ng abi l i ty and posi ti ve atti tudes, and i ncreases i n rnoti vati on
and enj oyment.
Eventual l y, bookstrappi ng may l ead some students to become hooked on
books. Peter Johnston and Ri chard Al l i ngton (1991) wri te that readi ng
i nstructi on that captures the student' s i ntcrest and i nvol vement may resul t
i n
.fl ov'
experi ences
-
the l osi ng of oncsel f i n the acti vi ty (cf .
Csi kszentmi hal yi , 1990a). Fl ow expcri ences are a powerful i ncenti ve to
conti nue one' s i nvol vcment wi th readi ng, and to make readi ng a part of
one
' s
l i f-e. Col i n Harri son descri bes such readers. They
pi ck up books. curl up wi th them on casy chai rs, worry or gct cxci tcd about
what i s goi ng to happcn to tl rc charactcrs i n a story, and l ater tal k spontaneousl y
about what they havc bccn rcadi ng to thci r parents or thei r fri ends. As chi l dren,
many of us bccarnc so kccn on books that we read under the bedclothcs by
Affect 31
' l r r
nski ng l he anger or concenr of our par cnl s and acl ur oni t i ons t hat wc
I r r r ) ( ) ul s i ght . ( 1992, p. l 3)
, 1 n\ ' l cuchi ng st udent s who had even a f i act i on of such r not i vat i on t o
( . oncl usi on
Lrrr r' \ l l odgson Burnett' s The Sec' rat Garcl en provi des an apt n.retaphor
'
rl rr' rol c of afl ' ect i n second l anguagc readi ng i nstructi on. By most
, ' r r r r l s, st udent s f l nd t he l ear ni ng of second l anguage r cadi ng t o be
i l r( ul t and stressful . Second l anguage readi ng teachers rnay accept a
r L. i vi nt r y cl assr oom as i ncvi t abl c, gi vcn t he r eal i t y of t he t ask t o be
, , , r r r pl i shed. Never t hel ess, out of si ght i s a gar den wher e i t i s al ways
1, r r r r l . I l ' st udent s can ent er t hat gar den, t hat i s, devel op posi t i ve at t i t udes
, , 1 i r st r ong r not i vat i on t o r cad i n t hc sccond l anguagc, t hcn l he whol e
, r , l L r l aki ng of l eami ng t o r ead i s t r ansf bnncd. Ext cnsi vc r cadi ng can bc t he
'
r l o the secret garden.
Further readi ng
' .rrnnafi
Feathcr' s Introducti on l o Expectuti on,s antl Acl i ons: Erpectunt' v-
t,tl rrc Model .s i n Psychol og:t,, the vol urnc hc cdi tcd on cxpectancy + val uc
r r , ' t l cl s, has a hel pf ul over vi ew of mot i vat i onal r r r odcl s ( 1982, pp. I 5) .
Onc of the f' ew i ntroducti ons to affect and readi ng i s thc vol ume cdi tcd
1,r l :ugene Cramer and Marri etta Castl e (1994), Fosl eri ng l he Love o/
l i , Lttl i ng: The A//ecti ve Dontui n i n Reudi ng Edu<' uti on. Al though the fbcus
' ,
l i rst l anguage readi ng devel opment, much of the rnateri al wi l l be of
rrtcrcst to those i nvol ved i n sccond l anguagc rcadi ng, parti cul arl y the re-
ports of research and hel pful pedagogi cal suggcsti ons. Thi s vol umc al so
r r r cl udes Mi chael McKenna' s r nodel of f i r st l anguagc r cadi ng at t i t udes.
Another book that does not fbcus on second l anguagc readi ng but con-
trri ns r.nany i nsi ghts i nto readi ng i n general and extensi ve readi ng i n parti cu-
lrrr is Victor Nell's Lo.sl in a Bctok: The Ps.vc'holog.t,o/ Reuding.fbr Pleuwre.
I t l l so boast s soms of t he best opcni ng l i nes i n acader ni a:
I{cl cl i ng fbr pl casurc i s an cxtraorcl i nary acti vi ty. Thc bl ack scl ui ggl cs on thc
ri hi tc pagc are sti l l as the grave, col orl ess as thc rnoonl i t dcscrl ; but thcy gi vc
thc ski l l cd rcadcr a pl casurc as acutc as thc touch ofa l ovcd bocl y. as rousi ng.
col orfi rl and transfi guri ng as anythi ng out therc i n thc rcal worl d. (l 9l ttl . p. l )
1-rl r
r ne power oJ extensrye
reading: Insights
from
the
7
researc n
The arrount of l i ec rcat l i ng donc consi st cnt l y
corrcl at cs wi t h pcrl brnt ance on readi ng cor-nprehcnsi orr
t cst s. a rcsul t t hat conf l rms t hc hypot hcsi s t hat wc l carn
t o rcad by readi ng.
St ephcn Kr ashcn ( 198U. p. 291 )
The purposc of thi s chapter i s to:
r Di scuss cr npi r i cal r csul t s of cxt ensi ve r cadi ng pr ogr at ns
TI . rc sccne i s a serni nar of st udcnt s enrol l ed i n t he rnast cr of af t s degrce
program i n Engl i sh as a scconcl l anguagc at t hc Uni vcrsi t y of Hawai i . They
arc di scr"rssi ng t hei r pri or expcri enccs i n l carni ng second l anguages. one of
t hc par t i ci pant s, Mci Fung E, l sa Shek. dcscr i bcs her l car ni ng of Engl i sh i n
Hong Kong:
I st art ed l carni ng Engl i sh wl rcrr I was t hrec. wc l carncd Engri sh at school .
where t hcy t aught vocabul ary. I n pri mary school , wc werc t aught more vocabu-
l ary. grarrmar. punct uat i on, and si mpl c sent cnces. Frorn secondary school on. I
rccei vcd bi l i ngual cducat i on. ot hcr t han chi nesc l anguagc and chi nesc hi st ory,
al l t he subj ect s werc t aught i n Engl i sh, t hough our t eachcrs of t cn swi t ched bc-
t wcen l rngl i sh and Cant oncsc.
My Engl i sh l anguage as a subj cct was okay. I got good gradcs. Howcver, rny
I : ngl i sh r cal l y t l our i shcd whcn I st al t cd t o r cad cxt cnsi vcl y whi l c I was i n scni or
hi gh. My Engl i sh t cachcr. Mi ss wong. brought hcr col l cct i on of Engl i sh novcl s
ancl l l ct i on t o our cl assroom and sct up a cl ass l i bl ary. She cncouraged us t o
rcuti rvhatcvcr appcalcd to us. wc had to read fifiy pages a wcek and writc a re-
port on t hosc f i f t y pages. At f l rst i t was real l y hard t o f l ni sh f i t l y pages i n a
rvcck. but l at cr. I coul d rcacl 200 pagcs i n onc day (8 hours). I remcrnber I di cl
rrot chcck cvcry ncw worcl . but onl y t hose words whi ch appcared f i cquent l y rn
l hc book or words t hat I want cd t o l cam. I underst ood t he st ory and enj oycd
rcut l i nu t l crncncl ot rsl y. My vocabul ary was cnl argcd and my wri t i ng grarnmar
i rrrPnrrct l . ()ncc.
a f t l l ow st udent cornrrrcnt ed at i cr readi ng onc of my essays.
"\ V. *' .
1' orr
rvri t c l i kc t hosc aut hors (of t hc books)! " Si ncc t hen, I havc con_
t i rrLrct l rcucl i nrr. ancl i t ccl rrt i nues t o hcl p rnc i nt provi ng rny Engl i sh.
J Z
The power of extensive reading 33
I \ l ' Shck' s experi ence unusual ' l Can wc cxpccl ol hcr students to havc
.rr rcsul ts from readi ng extensi vel y' l Rcsearch on second l anguage
' r . r r c r cadi ng pr ogr ams i ndi cat es t hat hcr cxpcr i encc- i s an expcct ed
' ,.rl c.
studcnts can i mprove thei r second l anguagc rcadi ng abi l i ty, and
, l , ' p posi ti ve atti tudes toward readi ng and i ncrcased rnoti vati on to read.
"
, r r ' r ) \ cr ,
r eadi ng ext ensi vel y can r esul t i n gai ns i n vocabul ar y and ot her
; , ' . t : ol ' second l anguage l ear ni ng.
l l r t t i l l e of t hi s chapt er , " The Power of E, xt ensi ve Readi ng: I nsi ght s
rrr l l rc Research," cchoes the ti tl e of Stephen Krashen' s 1993 book on
, r ol untary readi ng. Thi s i s to recogni zc the substanti al contri buti ons of
,
r,l rcn and hi s associ ates to an understandi ng of the rol e that readi ng
,r ' i n l anguage acqui si ti on and l earni ng to read.
l l esul ts of extensi ve readi ng programs
t r l , l c I i s an over vi ew of a number of i nvest i gat i ons of ext ensi ve r eadi ng i n
,,' tl r
sccond and fbrei gn l anguage setti ngs. Wi th one exccpti on. al l were
I r l l r sh as a second l anguage ( ESL) or Engl i sh as a f br ei gn l anguage ( EFL)
r,r()sri i rns. It i s apparent fi om Tabl e I that cxtensi ve readi ng i n thcse pro-
r.rrrrs had benefi ci al resul ts. Students i ncreased thei r readi ng abi l i ty i n the
r rrrl ct l anguage, devel oped posi ti ve atti tudes toward readi ng, had i ncreased
rr.l i 1r31i en to read, and made gai ns i n vari ous aspects of profi ci ency i n the
r rr l ct l anguage, i ncl udi ng vocabul ary and wri ti ng. These programs were l n
r r rrri cty of setti ngs wi th di verse popul ati ons, from young chi l dren to
r . l r r l t s .
(
)ne of the most comprehensi vc i nvesti gati ons of extcnsi ve readi ng was
,l ,rrl c by Warwi ck El l ey and Franci s Mangubhai i n a rural area of Fi j i i n
l ' )fi 0. In a careful l y control l ed l ongi tudi nal i nvesti gati on i nvol vi ng many
,, l rool s, some students were "gi ven a ri ch di et of books" whi l e othcrs had
l r t t l e or no access t o books" ( 1981, p. 4) . The r i ch di et of books, l abel ed
l rook f1ood," featured "acti vi ti es desi gned to cncourage extensi ve rcadi ng"
rp 6). Ei ght months l ater, compari sons i n a number of di ffcrent categori es
rr crc made wi th groups of si mi l ar abi l i ty and ci rcumstances. The resul ts
rrcrc exci ti ng. As El l ey and Mangubhai wri te:
l l rc i mpact of the books i s cl carl y posi ti ve. and, as onc woul d cxpcct, ntost
rrnrkcd i n those Engl i sh ski l l s whi ch the pupi l s had bccn practi si ng
-tcncral
rcacl i ng and l i steni ng comprehensi on. However, the eftcct cl i d sprcad to rcl ated
' ki l l s, as shown by the greatcr progress made i n l earni ng wri ttcn l i ngl i sh struc-
trrrcs. and the abi l i ty to reci te compl ex Engl i sh sentcnccs corrcctl y. (pp. 24 2-5)
34 The dimensions of extensive readina
Tabl e l . Summary of resul ts of extensi ve readi ng programs
Report Population Results
El l ey & Mangubhai
( l e8r )
Janopoul os ( I 986)
Haf r z&Tudor ( 1989) ;
Tudor &Haf l z( l 9t i 9)
Pi tts et al . ( 1989)
Robb& Susser ( 1989)
Haf r z&Tudor ( 1990)
El l ey ( 1991
)
Lai ( 1993a; 1993b)
Cho&Kr ashen( 1994)
Rodr i go ( 1995)
Mason & Krashen
( r ee7)
EFL; pri mary; Frj i
ESL; uni versi ty; USA
ESL; adol escents;
Engl and
ESL; adul t s; USA
EFL; uni versi ty; Japan
EFL; pri mary; Paki stan
EFL; pri mary;
Si ngapore
EFL; secondary; Hong
Kong
ESL; adul t s; USA
Spani sh; uni versi ty;
USA
EFL; uni versi ty; Japan
Gai ns i n readi ng and
general profi ci ency,
i ncl udi ng l i steni ng and
writing; growth in
positive affect
Gai ns i n wri ti ng
profi ci ency
Gai ns i n readi ng
profi ci ency, posi ti ve
affect, and general
l i ngui sti c competence,
i ncl udi ng wri ti ng;
sl i ght, nonsi gni fi cant
i ncrease i n vocabul ary
base
Gai ns i n vocabul ary
Gai ns i n readi ng
profi ci ency and posi ti ve
affect
Gai ns i n vocabul ary
base and writing
Gai ns i n readi ng
profi ci ency and posi ti ve
affect
Gai ns i n readi ng
profi ci ency and
vocabulary
Gai ns i n readi ng
profi ciency, vocabulary,
positive affect, and oral
ski l l s
Gai ns i n posi ti ve affect;
no stati sti cal l y
si gni fi cant gai ns i n
vocabulary
Gains in reading
profi ci ency, posi ti ve
affect, and writing
The powerof extensive reading 35
rrrportant to stress that these resul ts were obtai ncd i n a cul ture i n whi ch
, r r ' l ol pl easur e " i s not a wi del y accept ed cust om" ( p 3) Anot her
, ,r tl rl t mi ti gated agai nst the benefi ts was that nrost of the chi l dren were
, 1, 1, 1, r 1' , L" books home because of school r ul es.
I l rr' r' crrrai nder of thi s chapter descri bes the resql ts of the studi es l i sted i n
, , I i n the fol l owi ng areas: second l anguage readi ng abi l i ty; afl bct;
r l r r l l ' 1r t ' l i ngui st i c compet ence; wr i t i ng: and spel l i ng.
ri ccond l anguage readi ng abi l i ty
,'
rl re scven studi es that i nvesti gated the i mpact of extensi ve readi ng on
,,rrtl l anguage readi ng, al l reported gai ns, from pri mary students i n Fi j i
t l , r & Mangubhai , l 98l ) and Si ngapor e ( El l ey, 1991) t o secondar y
r,l trrts i n E,ngl and (Hafi z & Tudor, | 989; Tudor & Hafi z. 1989) and Hong
, , r r r r ( Lai , 1993a, 1993b) . These r esul t s ar e st r ong conf i nnat i on of t he
,,rl i on
that second l anguage students, l i ke fi rst l anguage chi l drcn, l earn to
r , l by r eadi ng.
\rr cxtcnsi vc readi ng approach seems to be effecti ve i n a wi de vari ety of
r, unrstanccs and wi th di fferent types of students. Even when ci rcum-
r rrrecs mi ght be j udged as l ess than favorabl e, the gai ns are nonethel ess
l ' t ) i r cnt .
For exampl e, Fung- Kuen Lai ( 1993a, 1993b) i n Hong Kong
l r,r' oVefed that i n a four-wcek surl mcr cxtensi ve readi ng program the
rrrrl cnts di spl ayed gai ns i n thci r rcadi ng performance i n Engl i sh. Beni ko
"l .rson
and Stephen Krashen ( 1 997) report that "rel uctant" EFL readers at a
I rl rrncsc uni versi ty made stati sti cal l y si gni fi cant gai ns on a cl oze test after
' e rrrester of readi ng extensi vel y.
Affect
r :ri rrs i n aff-ect, l i ke gai ns i n readi ng abi l i ty, are i mpressi ve. Study after
trrtl y shows how atti tudes changed toward readi ng i n thc second l anguage
rrrtl how the students became eager readers.
.In
Si ngapore, Warwi ck El l ey reported that the students seemed to
tl cvel op "very posi ti ve atti tudes toward books as they rai sed thei r l i teracy
l cvcl s i n Engl i sh" ( I 991 ,
p. 391) .
. In the Uni ted States, Kyung-Sook Cho and Stephen Krashen reported
tl rat the atti tudes of thei r four subj ects toward readi ng i n Engl i sh changed
dramati cal l y as a resul t of readi ng books from some of the popul ar Sweet
l'a11e-r' series written fbr young native speakers. The subjects quickly
became moti vatcd to read, di scovcri ng the pl easure that readi ng can
bri ng. Cornments of the subj ects i ncl ude:
"l never get bored readi ng the Sweet Val l cy scri cs. Thi s scri cs of Engl i sh
books i s thc rnost i ntcrcsti ng and understandabl e I have cvcr rcad." (1994, p.
665)
"When I fl ni shed readi ng one vol ume of Swcet Val l cy Ki ds, I was l ooki ng
forward to readi ng thc ncxt onc. Thi s was thc fi rst cxpcri ence i n whi ch I
wanted to read a book i n Engl i sh conti nuousl y." (p. 665)
o In a Spani sh as a forei gn l anguage program i n the Uni ted States, Vi ctori a
Rodri go reportcd that the twcnty-seven Engl i sh-speaki ng uni versi ty stu-
dents devel oped "extraordi nary posi ti ve reacti ons towards a readi ng pro-
gr am" ( 1995, p. l 2) . A sampl e of t hese r eact i ons:
"l do enj oy readi ng i n Spani sh vcry much."
"Rcadi ng sti mul atcd my i ntcrcst i n l carni ng thc l anguage."
"My fi rst book, I fcl t i t was an accornpl i shment." (pp. l 2 l 3)
Vocabulary
Three of the fi ve studi es that l ooked speci fi cal l y at vocabul ary reported
gai ns. In one of the studi es that di d not fl nd an i ncrease i n vocabul ary
knowl edge, Rodri go ( 1995). the treatment groups di d score hi gher than the
control group on a vocabul ary checkl i st test, but the gai ns were not stati s-
ti cal l y si gni fi cant. However. Rodri go expl ai ns that thi s was expected bc-
cause of the "ti ny sampl e si ze" of thc control group (p. l 0).
In the other study that di d not report gai ns, Hafi z and Tudor ( 1989) found
a srnal l i ncrease i n vocabul ary knowl edge that was not stati sti cal l y si gni fi -
cant. Thcy expl ai ncd that the l ack of a si gni fi cant gai n i n vocabul ary coul d
have been due to the l evel of cxposurc that thei r subj ects had to Engl i sh.
Bccausc thcy wcrc l i vi ng i n Engl and and were rel ati vel y f' l uent i n Engl i sh,
the subj ects had extensi ve contact wi th the target l anguage on a dai l y basi s.
Thus. Hafl z and Tudor concl uded, the contri buti on of the extensi ve readi ng
program to thei r vocabul ary devel opment was somewhat l essened ( 1990,
pp. 36 37). In thei r other study (Hafi z & Tudor, 1990), the subj ects wcrc
studyi ng Engl i sh i n Paki stan and had a rel ati vel y l ower l evel of profi ci ency
i n Engl i sh. These subj ects di spl ayed si gni fi cant gai ns i n thei r vocabul ary
base. whi ch Hafl z and Tudor defi ned as total number of l exi cal i tems and
accuracv of usaee.
t rngui sti c competence
' . r , r l l 1g1' var i abl e
posi t i vel y r cl at ed t o ext ensi vc r cadi ng i s second l anguage
, l r t r , [ r ver yst udyt hat i nvest i gat edt hi svar i abl er cpor t st hat t hei r sub. j ect s
. , r \ ' i l scd t hei r ovcr al l compet encc i n t he t ar get l anguagc. For exampl c:
. l r r t hc Uni t ed St at cs, Cho and Kr ashcn ( 1994) r epor l cd t hat as a r esul t o1'
r t r r t l i ng novcl s f cl r pl easur e, t hci r f bur adul t l car ncr s i ncr eased cot xpc-
r r ' ncc i n bot h l i sl cni ng and speaki ng abi l i t i es.
.
l n l :ngl and. Hafi z and Tudor fbund that "tl re cxpcri ntcntal group shows
, t r r t i st i cal l y si eni f l cant l cvcl s of i t npr ovcr ncnt on al l scvcn t est s.
l l r csc r esul t s woul d appct r r t o i ndi cat c t hat t he ext ensi vc r cadi nu pr o-
l ,ri l mrne undertakcn had effbcted a substanti al i r.nprovcmcnt i n sub.j ects'
l r ngui st i c pr of i ci ency" ( l 9l J9, p. 8; see al so Tudor & Haf r z, l 9t l 9) .
.
l rr Hong Kong, Lai wrotc,
"the
extcnsi vc readi ng schcr.r.rc dcsi gnecl fbr
tl rc present study. cspeci al l y thc summer readi ng progranl l re
, di d sati s-
l r r ct or i l y f bci l i t at e st ucl cnt s' Engl i sh l anguagc acqui si t i on" ( 1993a. p.
\ I
) .
Wr i t i ng
l l r c i nf l uence of cxt cnsi ve r eacl i ng cxt cnds t o wr i t i ng. suppor t i ng t hc
' r r l cl y hel d not i on t hat wc l ear n t o wr i t c t hr ough r eadi ng. I n sever al of t hc
l , r ogr ar ns
r cpor t cd i n Tabl c l , gai ns wer e nr adc i n t he st udent s' wr i t i ng
r l r r l i t i cq wi t hout any speci al i nst r uct i on or f bcus on wr i t i nq.
In Fi j i , El l cy and Mangubhai rcportcd that thc young chi l dren ntadc
r ! r r i f l cant i mpr over nent i n " l car ni ng wr i t t en Engl i sh st r uct ur cs" ( 1981, p.
'
l ) . l n Engl and, Haf i z and Tudor ( 1989) wcr c i r npr essed by t hc gai ns t hei r
, r r b. j cct s r l ade i n wr i t i ng i n Engl i sh, evcn t hough t hey wcr c not gi ven any
t , r r t i cul ar
wr i t i ng t asks. I n t hc Uni t ed St at es, Mi chael Janopoul os, r n an
r r r r cst i gat i on of uni ver si t y ESL st udent s, f bund a si gni f i cant cor r cl at i on
l r e t r vccn pl casur c r cadi ng and pr of i ci cncy i n wr i t t e n l r ngl i sh ( I 9U6, p. 7 67) .
Spel l i ng
\ or nc st udi es i ndi cat c t hat r eadi ng ext cnsi vcl y i s l i nkccl t o spel l i ng pr of i -
, i cncy. Kr ashen ( l 9t t 9) r evi ews t hc cvi dence f br nat i vc spcaker s of Engl i sh
.rrrcl cstabl i shes a rather strong case. But the ernpi ri cal cvi dcncc fi l r tl ri s
rcl ati onshi p i n sccond l anguage l carni ng i s weak. Thcrc arc onl y two stucl -
r cs, t o our knowl cdge, on t hi s t opi c: Pol ak and Kr ashcn ( l 9t t 8) ancl Day and
Swan ( l 99t J) . Al t hough t hesc t wo st udi cs di d not t ake pl ace i n t hc cont ext
of extensi vc readi ng prograrrs (and are therefbrc not i ncl udcd i n Tabl e l ),
thcy arc di scussed here because of thei r rel evancc to extensi ve- readi ng.
Jeanne Pol ak and Stephen Krashen i nvesti gated the readi ng habi ts of
comrnuni ty col l egc E,SL students i n the Uni ted States and found a correl a-
ti on wi th thei r spel l i ng profi ci cncy
-
the rnorc the studcnts read, the bctter
thei r spcl l i ng. Ri chard Day and Jatnes Swan i nvesti gatcd the effect of
readi ng tbr rneani ng on spel l i ng by Japanesc uni versi ty EFL students. Thei r
study rcvcal ed that the treatment group
-
subj ccts who rcad for pl easurc a
story that contai ned thc target words correctl y spel l ed si gni fi cantl y rnore
of the words on a posttest than the control group.
Concl usi on
The outcomes of programs that used an extcnsi ve readi ng approach are
i urpressi vc. Krashen expresses the bcnefi ts i n thcse words:
Readi ng i s good fbr you. The rcscarch supports a strongcr concl usi ou. howcvcr:
Rcadi ng i s thc onl y way, the onl y way wc bccotne good rcadcrs. devcl op a good
wri ti ng styl e. an adcquatc vocabul ary, advanccd gri tl tl trar. and the onl y way we
bccor nc good spcl l cr s. ( 1993b, p. 23)
And, cqual l y exci ti ng, students who l earn to read through an extcnsi ve
readi ng approach devcl op posi ti vc atti tudes and become moti vated to rcad
i n the second l anguage.
If teachers and admi ni strators are i mpressed by these outcomcs, the next
i ssuc bccornes how to i ntegrate extensi vc readi ng i nto thei r sccond l an-
guage cuni cul a. Ther e ar c I nany possi bi l i t i es f br t hi s, as wi l l be seen i n t he
next chapter.
Further readi ng
Warwi ck El l ey' s cornprchensi ve summary of the resul ts of a numbcr of
"book fl ood" programs. "Acqui ri ng Li teracy i n a Second Languagc: The
Eftcct of Book-Based Programs." i s wel l wofth rcadi ng. It appears i n the
j our naf Languuge Leur ni ng ( 1991) .
Therc arc a nutnbcr of sourccs for Stephcn Krashen' s work i n cxtcnsi vc-
rcadi ng. For cxar.npl e:
o "Do We Lcarn to Read by Readi ng' l The Rel ati onshi p betwecn Free
Rcadi ng and Readi ng Abi l i ty," i n Deborah Tannen' s edi tcd vol urne Li n-
gui.stit's in Contert; Connec'ting Observutiort ttncl Unclerstunding ( 1988)'
\\,' ,,\cqui re Vocabul ary and Spel l i ng by Rcacl i ng: Acl i l i ti onal Evi dence
t , , r l l r c I nput Hypot hesi s, " i n The Moder n Lut t guuge . l our nal ( 1989) .
I lre
('ase
for Free Voluntary Reading," in lhc Cunudian Modern Lan-
' t t , t \ : (
Revi ev'
(
1993a) .
\ lrtrok-length treatment, The Power o/ Reuding: Insights
/iom
the Re-
, , ut l t (
1993b) .
5 Ertensive reading and the
second language curriculum
One maj or way to round out a readi ng progranr i s to
i ntroduce extensi ve readi ng materi al i nto the
cun' i cul um.
Wi l l i am Cr abe ( 1986. p. 43)
The purpose of thi s chapter i s to:
o Di scuss how extensi ve readi ng can be i ntegrated i nto second l anguage
programs.
o Di scuss reasons for i ncl udi ng extensi vc readi ng i n prograrns whose
goal i s the preparati on of students for academi c work i n the sccond
l anguage.
o Present possi bl e goal s of an extensi ve readi ng program.
. Specul ate as to why extensi ve readi ng i s not a ntore common
approach to the teachi ng of second l anguage readi ng.
Most readi ng teacher rc-source books menti on the i mportant rol e extcnsi ve
readi ng must pl ay at al l stages of the second l anguage readi ng curri cul um.
For exampl e, i n thei r books on readi ng i nstructi on, both Beatri ce
Mi kul ecky ( 1990) and chr i st i ne Nut t al l ( 1982, 1996) i ncr ude a chaor er on
extensi ve readi ng. Mi kul ecky states that "students
must devel op tne nabi t
of r eadi ng massi ve amount s" ( 1990, p. l 3) . Nut t al l says,
. . We
l ear n t o r ead
by reading. . . . we want students to read better. . . . To do this they neecl to
read more" (1996, p. 128). And i n the 1986 vol ume Tbut' hi ng sec' ontl
Lunguage Reading
/br
Academit' Purpose.s, Fredricka Stoiler's proposar for
a l ow-l evel readi ng ski l l s course has extensi ve readi ng as a br-ri l t-i n compo-
nent, and Li nda Jensen i ncl udes extensi ve readi ng as the thi rd i n a three-
component advanced readi ng ski l l s course.
Al though such chapters are more or l ess detai l ed on the practi cal aspects
of extensi ve readi ng, they sel dom provi de expl i ci t gui dance on how to
i ntegrate extensi ve readi ng i nto the curri cul um. Thi s chapter expl ores cur-
ri cul ar i ssues i n extensi ve readi ng and l ooks fi rst at how cxtensi ve readi ng
nri ght be i ncl uded i n a vari ety of second l anguage cl assrooms, courses. and
programs, i ncl udi ng academi c preparati on programs. Thi s i s fol l owed by a
40
Extensive reading and the second language curriculum 41
, r r ssi on of goal s t hat mi ght be set when est abl i sl r i ns an cxt ensi ve r eadi ng
, ' r ' nun.
Fi nal l y, we addr ess t he quest i on t hat wi l l i r nr
( j r abe
asked at t he
, ' t r
l ' [ $Ql Col l oqui um on Resear ch i n Rcadi ng i r r I Second Language:
' , ' r e rr l he overwhel mi ng evi dence for the i mportance of extensi ve readi ng
l i l rni ng to read a second l anguage, why i sn' t everybody doi ng i t? Why
1,,, \ cxtensi ve readi ng conti nue to be the approach l css taken when i t
, , r r r cs
f o t eachi ng second l anguage r eadi ng' /
Integrati ng extensi ve readi ng i nto second l anguage
l)rograms
I \l cnsi ve readi ng can be i ncl uded i n a second l anguage curri cul urn i n at
, .r:l fbur broad ways:
.
i rs a separate, stand-al one course
.
i rs part of an exi sti ng readi ng course
.
r s a noncr edi t addi t i on t o an exi st i ng cour se
. . r \ i r n ext r acr r r r i cul ar act i r i 1y
l hese fbur ways are cxpl ai ned i n turn.
As a separate course
\e (ti ng
up an i ndependent extensi ve readi ng course i nvol ves basi cal l y what
tl rc cstabl i shi ng of any other coursc does: a teacher, a syl l abus, a cl assroom,
, nr t cr i al s, and a set t i me sl ot . And j ust as wi t h ot her cour ses, t he amount of
r r r r r c dcvot ed t o t he ext ensi ve r eadi ng cour se has t o be cal cul at ed i n r el at i on
t,r the overal l goal s of the enti re second l anguage curri cul um. It coul d vary,
l ()f cxampl e, from a si ngl e 5O-mi nute peri od once a week to fi ve ti mes a
i r cck fbr 50 mi nutcs each rneeti ne.
As part of an existing reading course
I hr s i nvol ves bui l di ng i nt o an cxi st i ng cour se a cer t ai n amount of ext ensi ve
rci rdi ng (e.g.. the readi ng of a certai n nunrber of books per week or per
\cnrester, both i n cl ass and fbr homework). The amount of credi t to be gi ven
Ior the extensi ve readi ng assi gnrnents i s cal cul ated i n rel ati on to the per-
( cntage of curri cul urn ti me that extensi ve readi ng occupi es. In addi ti on to
rrr-cl ass readi ng, ti rne i s set asi de i n the readi ng cl ass fi rr cxtensi ve readi ng-
rcl ated acti vi ti es such as student oral book reDofts.
As a noncredit addition to an existing reading course
Students are encouraged to read according to their interests and for their
own enj oyment. It i s an opti onal assi gnment and not a fbrmal part of the
course. Al though no credi t i s gi ven fbr the purpose of awardi ng grades,
extra credi t that mi ght hel p ti l t a student' s fi nal grade coul d be gi ven i f the
student were on the borderl i ne between, say, an A and a B. Exactl y how
much attenti on i s gi ven to extensi ve readi ng as an opti onal suppl ement
depends on the atti tude of the teacher. If a teacher i s fi rml y comrni ttcd to
extensi ve readi ng and promotes i t acti vel y, then students general l y catch
the teacher' s enthusi asrn and are drawn to doi nrr i t.
As an extracurricular activity
Opti onal extensi ve readi ng can al so take the fbrm of an extracurri cul ar
readi ng cl ub, not conncctcd to rcqui red courses i n the curri cul um. Such an
extensi ve readi ng cl ub can bc opcn to anyone i n the l anguage program,
regardl ess of l evel , and al l can be cncouraged to j oi n. Li ke other extracur-
ri cul ar acti vi ti es, the extensi ve readi ng cl ub meets after school . The tcacher
i n charge treats i t l i ke any other after-school acti vi ty. How much i s accom-
pl i shed depends enti rel y on the i nterests of the parti ci pants, i ncl udi ng the
teacher. It coul d range from a weekl y or semi monthl y acti vi ty to a more
demandi ng acti vi ty i n whi ch the students rneet two or three ti mes a weck
for an hour.
These tbur possi bi l i ti es fbr i ncl udi ng extensi ve readi ng i n a second
l anguage program are not mutual l y excl usi ve. Dependi ng on the si zc of the
program, two or three of these ways coul d be uti l i zed at di fl erent l evel s or
i n di fferent subj ects of the l anguage program. Further, for those educati onal
i nsti tuti ons whose admi ni strators and teachers do not wi sh to commi t them-
sel ves to the fi rst opti on (an i ndependent, stand-al one extcnsi ve readi ng
course), choosi ng one of the other three opti ons can be a fi rst step. In ti tnc,
when the bencfi ts of extensi ve readi ng are real i zed, consi derati on can be
gi ven to i ntegrati ng extensi ve readi ng more ful l y i nto the i nsti tuti on' s
curri cul um.
Just as there i s no parti cul ar fbrm that an extensi ve readi ng program
must take, nei ther i s there a parti cul ar way to go about setti ng up a program.
One of the authors of thi s book, for exampl e, approached the presi dent of a
pri vate hi gh school at whi ch he was teachi ng and i ntroduced the i dea of
extensi ve readi ng. The presi dent was persuaded and, as a resul t, authori zed
the establ i shment of an el ecti ve extensi ve readi ng course. It i s thi s sort of
cutti ng through red tape that i n paft cxpl ai ns Davi d Hi l l ' s cornment that
r r : r r c r codi ng pr ogr ams r equi r e " of l l ci al sul l por t at i r r st i t ut i onal l evel "
, , '
p. 50) . l t i s al so possi bl e, howevcr . f i r r i r cur r i cul ur n coor di nat or ,
,
r p ol ' t cacher s, or an i ndi vi dual t eachcr t o i ncl Lr cl c cxt cnsi ve r eadi ng i n
, r r ' l i r sses wi t hout sceki ng an admi ni st r at or ' s st ant p of appr oval .
l l r e par t i cul ar ci r cur nst anccs of a school cl r i nst i t ut i on wi l l i n par t det er -
r\' l row cxtensi ve readi ng i s i ntegrated i nto the curri cul urn. The fbl l ow-
l ,rrcl ' sccnari os i l l ustratc how extensi vc readi ng can takc di fl ' erent l orrns
, l
I r l oducc
cl i f f br ent out comes i n di f f cr cnt envi r onnr cut s.
, 1
I NTENSI VE LANGUAGE PROGRAM
,r l i rl l -ti rrc second or fbrci gn l anguagc course, studcnts have onc 50-
rrrrrtc rcadi ng l esson pcr day. The progral r i s reorgani zcd so that thc l l rst
' t
nr i nut cs of cach r eadi ng l csson ar e devot cd t o sust ai ncd si l cnt r eadi ng
r r , r cadi ng of i ndi vi dual l y sel ect ed nt at er i al s by st udcnt s. I n addi t i on,
rrrrl cnts are expcctcd to read fbr horncwork, fbr at l cast an hour pcr day,
' , ' , , ks
of t hei r own choosi ng. At t hc cnd of t he quar t cr . st udent s havc r ead
rr,,r' g fl 11p a tl ' rousand pagcs cach. Sotne studcnts report that fbr the fi rst
r r r r c l hcy f ' cel t hcy havc bcen t r ul y r cadi ng i n t hc sccond l anguagc.
l , , r chcr s, havi ng obser ved st udcnt s r eadi ng dur i ng t l r e per i ods of sust ai ned
rl r' rrt rcadi ng. report that thcy are l norc aware of each studcnt' s strcngths
,rrtl rvcaknesses as a rcader, ancl arc thus better abl c to gi ve
studcnts
r , l i i ' i dual gui dancc.
i i I GH- SCHOOL
FOREI GN LANGUAGE CURRI CULUM
l rr tl ri s scenari o, thc fbcus i s on a rcadi ng progral n i n a ftl rei gn l anguage
, r t r r at i on one i n whi ch t he st udent s ar e l ear ni ng a l anguage t hat i s not used
, r \ an of f i ci al l anguage of t hc count r y ( e. g. , Engl i sh i n Japan) . Wi t h a
l , ) r ci sn l anguage cur r i cul unt ai r ned at pr cpar i ng f br al l - i mpor t ant exal nl na-
tror.rs, the teacher feel s that no cl ass ti me can be sparcd fbr anythi ng new:
I hcre i s not even enough ti me to cover tht: exarni nati on curri cul urn. Nev-
, rthcl css. the teacl ter dcci des that thc students coul d rcad fbr about an hour
,r rvcck on thei r own ti me. Apart fi orn the benefl ts to the students' readi ng
r r bi l i t y and conf l dence, t hc t cacher consi dcr s t hat ext er r si vc r eadi ng, by
rral ure rel axi ng and pl easurabl e, wi l l be a good bal ance to thc hi gh-pressurc
e rarrrni ng that charactcri zes most of the students' l anguage study. The
tcacher rcpl aces one of thc weekl y homcwork readi ngs fl ' om the tcxtbook
rvi th an cxtensi ve readi ng assi gnrnent: Students rnusl scl cct and rcad onc
:l rort book and wri te a short repoft on i t. Students arc tol cl that thcy rnust
tl kc no more than an hour to cornpl ete thi s: 40 rri nutes tbr rcadi ng antl 20
mi nutcs for wri ti ng. They are i nstructccl to note at the bottotn of thci r report
how l ong thcy took to read and to wri te.
Afl cr a f-ew weeks, several students say that they l i ke thi s homework best
of al l because i t i s l un and easy. Several students rcad tl rei r books and wri te
the reports duri ng thei r l unch break. Others say that they read on the trai n
on the way home f}orn school or whi l e wai ti ng for di nner at homc, thus
frcei ng up thei r eveni ng fbr thei r own pursui ts or other study.
ADULT EDUCATI ON OR COMMERCI AL LANGUAGE SCHOOL
In a once-weekl y adul t educati on second l anguage cl ass hcl d afl er worki ng
hours, students arri ve one eveni ng to tl nd a smal l l i brary of books on a shel f
at the back of the cl assroom. The teacher i nvi tes students tcl sel ect and take
a book home to read. Frorn then on. the teacher rcgul arl y devotes the fl rst
l 0 rni nutes of the 90-mi nute cl ass to short oral book repofts by students,
and desi gnates the fi nal 5 rni nutes of cl ass as a ti me l br students to sel ect
books from thc l i brary to take home. Readi ng i s enti rel y vol untary; studcnts
nray choosc as many books as they wi sh, and they can read as l i ttl e or as
nruch as they t-eel l i ke. Afl er some weeks. students tel l the tcachcr that they
are readi ng anywhere ti om 20 mi rtt-ttcs to several hor.rrs per week. For them,
thc readi ng does not feel l i ke hornework
-
homework l tas ncver been a pafi
of thi s cl ass anyway.
Extensi ve readi ng and second l anguage academi c
programs
A fi rst, understancl abl c reacti on to extensi ve readi ng fi om admi ni strators
and teachers i n prograrns that prepare students fbr the stri ngent demands of
acaderni c work i n a second l anguage Inay be one of di smi ssal . Uni versi ty
students need hi gh-l evel readi ng ski l l s i n order to cope wi tl t the vast amount
of readi ng ofi en rcqui rcd of both undergraduates and graduates. What
woul d a readi ng approach based on rcadi ng easy sel l ' -sel ected materi al have
to off-er such studcnts'l
Therc arc sound reasons why extensi ve readi ng shoul d be an i ntegral .
even rnaj or, part of prepari ng students for academi c readi ng. Extensi ve
readi ns, of course, Itas an essenti al rol e i n devel opi ng the si ght vocabul ary.
qeneral vocabul ary, and worl d knowl edge on whi ch f' l uent readi ng i s based.
It can al so gi ve students confi dence and a posi ti ve atti tude toward second
l anguage rcadi ng of no smal l i mportance consi deri ng the fundamental
rol c that rcadi ng so ofi en pl ays i n academi c success. But tl re reasons for
l rrtl i rtrr extensi ve readi ng i n academi c prcpari rti on
I)r()Ll ri uns
cxtend even
r t l r cr . and have t o do wi t h cogni t i ve gr owt h.
I rtcnsi ve readi ng may pl ay a rol e i n devcl opi ng thc capaci ty for cri ti cal
, r r r kr ng so i mpor t ant f or success i n hi gher educat i on. Wi l l i am Gr abe,
1,,\ ussi nq the teachi ng of readi ng i n an acadcmi c setti ng to students of
'
, r : ' l r sl l l s I second l angul r ge, wr i t es:
t .rorcU and creati vc thi nki ng arc cmergent processes whcl c the nti nd, al most
t rt:cl f . rl akes nonobvi ous connecti ons and rel ati ons betwecn prcvi ousl y i nde-
rrtl cnt domai ns of knowl edge i n thc mi nd of thc person. It i s al ways stri ki ng
rrol c thc i nabi l i ty of forei gn students to di scuss new orcompl cx noti ons i n
rr' l rsh. cven when thci r l anguage abi l i ti es bcgi n to al l ow for thi s. What i s
, rrrr notcd i s the rathcr fornrul ai c thi nki ng and cxpressi ons of opi ni ons that of-
r ()ccur i n advanced ESL cl asses. l n short. sccond l angr,ragc students usual l y
,l ' t
l or' "safc" rcsponses. Whi l c there arc many causcs fbr thi s phcnornenon, a
l rrt' l ' one i s thc l ack of background knowl cdgc assurnpti ons whi ch forn.r a basi s
' r.111
l yhl ch to begi n more spccul ati ve thi nki ng. and whi ch form thc basi s for
,,,rnv Engl i sh l anguagc assurnpti ons. Thc poi nt i s that pri or readi ng cxperi cnccs
rr, cruci al for havi ng thc i nforrnati on basc to makc nonobvi ous connccti ons.
|
' )l ' i (r.
p. 3,5)
Sccond l anguage students i n academi c prcparati on progrants rnust cer-
r . r r r r l y r nast er speci al ski l l s f or r eadi ng chal l engi ng acadent i c t ext s. But un-
, .s they are al so readi ng wi th fl uency and contl dence i n the second l an-
' rrrrge,
they arc unl i kel y to read broadl y and deepl y enough to achi eve the
rrrrss of background knowl edge on whi ch specul ati ve thi nki ng depends. An
, \l cnsi ve readi ng approach can rnake such readi ng possi bl e for students.
Goal s of an extensi ve readi ng program
\\' hen you are pl anni ng a new extensi ve readi ng program, some or al l of the
()utcomes
fi orn extensi vc readi ng programs such as those di scussed i n the
i rrecedi ng
chapter can be fornrul ated as prograrn goal s. Havi ng goal s means
rl rat at the cnd of a progrant you can tel l wl rether you have achi eved what
rou wanted to achi eve. Possi bl e goal s are that the students wi l l
| . Have a posi ti ve atti tude toward readi ng i n the second l anguage.
'
Have confi dence i n thei r readi ng.
i . Have r.noti vati on to read i n the second l anguage.
1. Read wi thout constantl y stoppi ng to l ook up unknown or di l fi cul t words
i n the di cti onary.
r.
Have i ncreased thei r word recogni ti on abi l i ty.
(r.
Know for what purpose they are reading when they rcad.
7. Read at an appropri ate rate fbr thei r purpose i n readi ng.
8. Know how to choose appropriate reading materials fbr their interests
and l anguage abi l i ty.
The extent to whi ch these goal s are appropri ate and wi l l be successful l y
nret depcnds i n part on the i ntensi ty and durati on ofthe extensi ve readi ng
program. The more ti me al l otted to the program, and the more the students
read, the greater the l i kel i hood that thcy wi l l bccomc cffecti ve and effi ci ent
readers. As Leo Schel l states, "The amount of ti me spent i n actual readi ng
may be the most i mportant factor i n readi ng growth" ( 199l
, p. I l 5). At the
same ti me, i t i s i mportant not to be di scouraged by constrai nts or l i mi ta-
t i ons. Remember t hat even Fung- Kuen Lai ' s st udent s ( 1993a, 1993b)
showed gai ns duri ng a summer progranl .
Why is extensive reading the approach less traveled?
In l i ght of the f' l exi bi l i ty of i ncorporati ng an extensi ve readi ng approach
i nto a second l anguage curri cul um, and the posi ti ve outcol xes reported i n
the previ ous chapter, an obvi ous questi on to ask i s why extensi ve readi ng i s
not more common i n second l anguage programs. Vari ous reasons have been
suggested, i ncl udi ng
.
cost
o
the work required to set up a program
o the di ffi cul ty of fi ndi ng ti me for i t i n the al ready-crowded curri cul um
o tlre different role of the teacher
o
the "l i ght" nature of the readi ng materi al
o the domi nance of the readi ng ski l l s approach, especi al l y i n ESL aca-
demic preparation programs
o the bel i ef that readi ng shoul d be del ayed unti l students can speak and
understand the second l anguage
o confusi on between extensi ve readi ng and cl ass readers
Al though concerns such as these can seem to range from the i rrel evant to
the i nsurmountabl e dependi ng on the si tuati on, the t' act that they have been
rai sed at al l means that they shoul d be addressed.
Cr.r.sl i s i ndeed a maj or consi derati on. Money must be avai l abl e to fund
an adequate l i brary. For programs on a l i mi ted budget, a sol uti on i s to start
smal l .
The umounl of' uttention ond orguniztrtion involted in setting up un
cxtensive rcuding program is another real concern. Again, a solution is to
starl smal l and to l et the posi ti ve resul ts j usti fy the expendi ture of addi ti onal
ti me and energy i n expandi ng the program.
'
Ittq ti me.fttr extensi v' e readi ng i s a nrattcr ol pl i rl ri ti cs. l l -teachers
, , l r r r r r r i st r at or s suppor t t he not i on of t hci r st ur l cnt s bccor ni ng f l uent ,
,, rrtl crrt readers i n the second l anguagc. thcn l i rnc wi l l bc fbund, even i f
, , r r l r r r n hour of homewor k a week.
,,'
' l i l l i ' renl rol e of' the teucher i n extensi vc rcadi ng can be a probl em
'
. r , l r cl ' s usqd t o t r adi t i onal r ol es. I n ext ensi ve r eadi ng, t eacher s do not
,
rrr knowl edgc as much as gui de students and parti ci pate wi th therrr as
,,l rt' r' s r)f a readi ng communi ty. As Davi d Eskey has poi nted out, thi s
,r' e nr
"profbundl y
anti -pedagogi cal . Teachers l i ke to teach; they l i ke to
t l r ev ar e doi ng somet hi ng" ( 1995) . Cer t ai nl y, r edef i ni ng t he t eacher ' s
, rrrrtl responsi bi l i ti es takes some getti ng used to. Thi s i s onc of the
r l l r ' r ) { oS of an ext ensi ve r cadi ng appr oach, and i t i s a chal l enge t hat
' r ,
r r , l s t o t hc ot hcr si de of t he dcsk. St udent s. t oo. must become accus-
r , t l t o new r ol es and r esponsi bi l i t i es as l ear ncr s.
l l tc ttul ure o.f l he materi al used i n cxtensi ve readi ng may be controver-
rl Stcphen Krashen observes that "l i ght readi ng" such the Sweet Val l ey
rr' \. nragazi nes, ncwspapers, and corni cs may be regarded as l acki ng
r, r,rl y nreri l . Teachers, admi ni strators, or parents may fear that the use of
, , l r l i ght r cadi ng " wi l l l ead t o a decl i ne i n t ast e, t hat i t wi l l det r act f r om
I ' l , r cci at i on of t he cl assi cs" ( Kr ashen, 1993a. p. 80) . As Kr ashen obser ves,
11, \ or ) opposi t e may be t he casc: The use of such l i ght r eadi ng can be a
t , r
r r r sboar d i nt o t he cl assi cs. [ { e ci t es a1992 st udy by James Davi s, Lynn
r , r r r cl l ,
Rebecca Kl i ne, and Gl or i a Hsi ch t hat t bund l ei sur e r cadi ng i n t he
r,' re i qn l anguage as among the strongest prcdi ctors of posi ti ve atti tudes
r . \ \ i t r d l i t cr at ur e.
l ' ha cmphu.si s on the teut' hi ng o/ readi ngski l l r rrri ght contri bute to tl re
l , r , k of at t ent i on gi ven t o cxt cnsi ve r eadi ng ( Day, 1993, p. xi ) . A ski l t s
' 1' proach to the teachi ng of rcadi ng has achi eved a sort of unstoppabl e
r r r onl cnt unl . The domi nance of ski l l s, especi al l y i n ESL academi c pr o-
,,ri ul rs,
l eaves l i ttl e room for consi deri ng other approaches.
l-lte belie/ thut reading ,should be delayed until students have a solid
r l r i l i t y t o speak and under st and t he second l anguage i s st i l l hel d by some
r ( ' r r chcr s, and Gr abe ( 199- 5) has suggest ed t hat t hi s r r r ay be par t ol ' t he
( \pl anati on for extensi ve rcadi ng' s l ow profi l e. Thc "speech-fl rst" vi ew
r i us a char act er i st i c of t he audi ol i ngual er a of t he 1950s and 1960s. I t i s
rrow hard to j usti fy wi thhol di ng the wri tten form of a second l anguage on
t' rtl rcr theoreti caI or pedagogi cal grounds.
Con/u.sion befw'een exten,sive reuding and c'lus,s rt,uders rnay have lcd to
l css at t ent i on f br ext ensi ve r eadi ns. Col i n Davi s ( 1995. pp. 330 33 |
) sug-
scsts that a program of cl ass readers (i n whi ch each student rcads tl tc samc
book at t he same t i me i n cl ass) may appear t o bc a way of ' avoi t l i ng t hc
rl rawbacks of an cxtensi ve readi ng approach, such as thc cost ancl thc work
i nvol ved i n organi zi ng i t. Howevcr, a program of cl ass readers has more
in cornmon with traditional fonr-rs of teaching reading and literature than
wi th sel f' -sel ected, i ndi vi dual i zed extensi ve readi ng. Cl ass readers can
suppl ernent and support cxtensi ve readi ng, but they cannot repl ace ex-
tensi ve readi ng as a means of devel opi ng readi ng fl uency and posi ti ve
atti tudes.
Davi s, revi ewi ng some of the probl ems associ ated wi th extensi ve read-
i ng. concl udes:
Ul ti matel y. whcthcr or not thcsc probl cms are overcomc i s a rnattcr of pri ori ti cs.
Teachers and educati onal pl anncrs fl rst havc to become convi nced ofthc cnor-
mous boost such a programmc can gi vc to thci r pupi l s' command of thc l an-
guagc i n ordcr to fecl i t worthwhi l e comn.ri tti ng thc rcsourccs rcqui rcd. (1995.
p. 331)
Fortunatel y, as Davi s al so poi nts out, "any teacher i ntroduci ng extensi ve
readi ng to hi s or her pupi l s wi l l gradual l y become aware
[of
i ts benefi ts]"
(p. 330). The rnost eff' ecti ve way to address the percei ved probl ems associ -
atcd wi th extensi ve readi ng rnay therefore be si mpl y to i ntroduce extensi ve
readi ng, and l et the proof of the puddi ng bc i n the cati ng.
Concl usi on
As the di scussi on i n thi s chapter rnakes cl ear, there i s no di chotorny be-
tween the use ofan extensi ve readi ng approach and other approaches to the
teachi ng of second l anguage readi ng. Extensi ve readi ng can be i ntegrated
i nto the second l anguage curri cul um i n a vari ety of ways, from a stand-
al one course to an extracurri cul ar cl ub acti vi ty. Appropri ate goal s for the
extensi ve readi ng program shoul d be set based on the resul ts desi red and
the amount of readi ng that wi l l be done.
There i s no avoi di ng the fact that i mpl cmenti ng extensi ve readi ng i s
chal l engi ng on many l evel s. In general , reservati ons about commi tti ng to
extensi ve readi ng can be dcal t wi th by starti ng smal l and l etti ng extensi ve
readi ng prove i tsel f.
Further readi ng
The Edi nburgh Proj ect on E,xtcnsi vc Readi ng has al ways favored getti ng
i nsti tuti onal and even govemmental support for programs. on thc grounds
that thi s i s the rnost effecti ve rl cans of i ntroduci ng and ensuri ng the conti n-
uance of extensi ve readi ng. Davi d Hi l l wrote the book on how to so about
l l rt' F,PER Gui de to Organi .si ng Pntgruttrrtrt,.s ol 1...t' tt,rt.;i ve Reutl i ng
,
' t
I ' hi s how- t o gui dc t o desi gni ng, pr cpar i ng. ancl i nt pl cr ncnt i ng a
' r , r r r r
i s i ndi spcnsabl e t br such l ar gc- scal c cncl cavor s. l t al so has r nuch t o
, , l ' , , . , ' u' Ouot
t cacher s and ot hcr s i nt r oduci ng cxt cnsi vc r eadi ng i n any
I ' \ I I T I I :
\ I \ TERI ALS FOR EXTENSI VE
l { l ' . ADI NG: I SSUES I N
I ) I . , VELOPMENT
l rt rni cl dl e secti on of thc book i s a bri dge between Part I, whi ch l ays the
, , r r r r t l ut i on
and makes a case f br ext ensi ve r eadi ng, and Par t I l l , whi ch
1\ e5 practi cal advi ce fbr i ntroduci ng extcnsi vc rcadi ng i n the cl assroom.
I l rr: bri dge i s necessary because conl usi on and controversy suround
'
l rrch rnateri al s are and whi ch are not sui tabl e for second l ansuasc students
, r ci l d.
l ' art II ai ms to breathe reason and l ogi c i nto thi s debate. Chapter 6 covers
l rt l wo rnai or i ssues i n thc controversy, exami ni nc what uuthenti <' i tt, means
rr rcl ati rrn to readi ng nrateri al , and what ,si mpl i /i tuti orr of readi ng materi al
r ' r (ccond
l anguage students i nvol ves. Thc di fl ' erent poi nts of vi ew con-
' nl i ng these two terms arc revi ewed, and a perhaps surpri si ng concl usi on
. rcached. Then, a brand-new concept i n readi ng materi al s for l anguage
r' i u' ngrS i s i ntroduced' . l unguage l earner l i terature. Part l l concl udes wi th
rrr i n-depth l ook (i n Chapter 7) at j ust what a l i terature tbr l anguage l earners
, r r l r r i l s .
h
'fhe
cult of authentic'it.v and the
nryth of simplification
I t i s i rnpof t ant t o use aut hent i c t ext s whcne-r' cr possi bl c.
Fr angoi se Gr cl l ct ( l 9t 3 l . p. 7)
I l rcrc i s r. ro such t hi ng as aut hent i c l anguage dat a.
I { cnr y Wi ddowson ( 1976. p. 270)
Sr nr pl i ci t y i s di l l l cul t .
Al an Davi es ( 1984, p. l U l )
' ,
l ) r l r pose
of t hi s chapt er i s t o:
. I vrr.ni ne cri ti cal l y the conccpts of authcrrti ci ty and
r , l l t cd t o second l anguage r cadi ng nr al cr i al s.
. \rrgsest the nccd fbr authcnti cal l y si mpl e texts that
l . r nguage l ear ncr s.
si mpl i f i cat i on as
communi catc to
r l rrs been argucd i n thi s book that, for thc purposes ol devel opi ng readi ng
tl rre rrcy and confi dence, second l arrguage students nccd to read i nteresti ng.
, r r r t l cr st andabl e mat er i al s t hat ar e basi cal l y at t hc i mi nu. s I l evel , t hat i s,
' . l ol v thei r l i ngui sti c abi l i ty. Most second l anguage books, newspapers.
rrrtl magazi nes are. however, di ffi cul t for second l anguage students to
, r nt l cr st and bccause t he st udent s havc l i r ni t ed l i ngui st i c and backgr ound
Lrror.vl edge. The l ogi cal sol uti on woul d appear to be to wri te texts for
, t eof l d l anguage st udent s t hat t akc i nt o account t hei r l ack of l i ngui st i c
,rbi l i ty ernd background knowl edge. Such a sol uti on, l rowever. goes agai nst
rl rc wi del y hel d assurnpti on that authenti c (real -l i fe) materi al s shoul d be
r scd i n l anguage t cachi ng. Thi s chapt er bcgi ns wi t h a cr i t i cal anal ysi s of
r Lr t hcnt i ci t y and t hen r noves t o a si mi l ar l ook at si r npl i f i cat i on. The f i nal
tri o secti ons di scuss how secorrd l anguage nateri al for cxteusi ve readi ng
r i ur cornbi ne the best features of both authcnti c and si mnl i fi ed materi al s
r r hi l e avoi di ng t hei r pr obl er ns.
The cul t of authenti ci ty
l )cvel opi ng terts fbr second l anguage students that ti tke i nto acccl unt thci r
l l ck of l i nsui st i c abi l i t y and backgr ound knowl edgc i s, r cgl ct t abl y. con-
54 Materials for extensive readino
t r over si al . I n l anguage t eachi ng. t hcr c i s an cndur i ng " cul t of aut hent i ci t y"
that ori gi nated wi th the communi cati ve l anguage teachi ng (CLT) rnove-
ment of the l ate 1970s. CLT argued that, l br l anguage teachi ng, authenti c
materi al s those wri tten by and for nati ve speakers and not speci fi cal l y l br
l anguagc t cachi r r g wcr c super i or t o mat er i al s especi al l y wr i t t en or si m-
pl i fi cd fbr l anguage l earners.
The appeal that autl renti c texts have fbr teachers and, as a consequence,
fbr studcnts, and the i nfl uence those texts have on students' i deas about
readi ng, can be gaLrged ti om the "l ntroducti on to the Student" i n Cathcri ne
Wafter' s Genui tre Arti t' l es. Authenti c Reudi ng Texts
l br
Intermedi ul a Stu-
dents of .4nerit'un English:
Al l of thc texts i n the book are rcal sar.npl cs of rvri ttcn E,ngl i sh. . . . Nonc of
them was writterr espccially fbr forcigncrs. This mcans that somc tcxts n-ray bc
casier to undcrstarrd than othcrs; but o,r,n thc eusicr lc' rr
[italics
added] will
hcl p you rcad bcttcr. (l 9ti 6. p. vi i )
Part of the cul t status of authenti ci ty i s the i dea that i t i s the very di fl i cul ty
of texts that makes thern worthwhi l e as l carni ng tool s.
In spi te of the wi cl esprcad acccptancc of thc use of authenti c tnateri al s,
there i s no consensus as to the meani ng of uttthenti c. Robi n Scarccl l a and
Rebecca Oxl brd note that, "gencral l y, authcnti c l anguage i s consi dered
unedi ted, unabri dgcd tcxt that i s wri tten fbr nati ve. . . speakers" (1992, p.
98). Catheri ne Wal ter, on the other hand, i ncl udes texts both "shortened"
and "sl i ghtl y adapted" (1986, p. i x) i n her Genui ne Arti c' l es textbook. Yet
another vi ew i s expressed by Henry Wi ddowson, who argues that authcn-
ti ci ty i s not a qual i ty of tcxt at al l ; i nstead, "authenti ci ty . . . i s achi eved
when t he r eader r eal i zes t he i nt ent i ons of t he wr i t er " ( 1916. p. 264) . Fi nal l y,
Eddi e Wi l l i ams says si nrpl y that an authenti c tcxt i s onc "wri ttcn to say
somet hi ng. t o convey a message" ( 1984, p. 25) .
Authenti c texts however defl ned are used i n l anguage teachi ng
because they are consi dered i nteresti ng, engagi ng, cul tural l y enl i ghteni ng.
rel evant, moti vati ng. and the best preparati on for rcadi ng ar,rthenti c texts.
(Thi s l atter reason can presumabl y be summed up i n the axi om "We l earn to
read authenti c texts by readi ng authenti c texts.") As Wi l l i ams expl ai ns. "i f
the l earncr i s expected eventual l y to cope wi th real l anguage outsi de the
cl assroom, then surel y the best way to prepare fbr thi s i s by l ooki ng at real
l anguage i nsi de t he cl assr oom" ( 1984, p. 25) .
But, for rnany tcachcrs, thc most compcl l i ng argument fbr thc usc of
aut hent i c t ext s i s t hat t hey ar e genui ne t l i scour se. Chr i st i ne Nut t al l , i n t l r e
second edi ti on of her i nfl uenti al book Teuchi ng Reudi ng Ski l l .s i n a Forci gn
Cult of authenticity and myth of simplification 55
' t t t . gt t oge, cl abot ' at es on t hi s poi nt . As shc put s i t , r r t r t l r cnt i c t nat cr i al s t r ot
, r r l v
r not i vat e st udent s but " exhi bi t t hc cl r ar act cr i sl i cs of ' t r uc di sccl ur se:
r , r r i ns sor r et hi ng t o say, bei ng coher cnt and cl car l y or gani zed" ( 1996, p.
I 7) .
, , \ l t he same t i me, aut hent i c t ext s, f br al l t hei r vi r t ucs, can act ual l y sct
,.re
k readi ng dcvel opment. wi l l i ams refbrs to the paradox that the usc of
r r r l hcr r t i c t ext wi t h l ear ncr s of t cn has an ef f ect opposi t e t o t l r at i nt snded;
rr:tcad of hel pi ng thc readcr to rcad for the rncani ng of the rncssagc, an
' rl hsnti c text at too cl i ffi cul t a l cvel of l angua-ee fbrccs the rcacl er
(o
focus
, , r r t hc cocl e ( 1983. p. 175) . Wi l ga Ri ver s poi nt s out t hat " when
avL- r Asc
,trrrl cnts encounter ungraded materi al too soon, they arc usual l y fbrccd
l , . r ck i nt o cl eci pl r cr i n- q wi t l r t l r e ai d of a di ct i onar y, and val uabl c t r ai ni ng i n
t l r c r eadi ng ski l l i s r vast ed" ( 1981, pp. 37 38) . Nur t al l , i n her di scussi on of
r ut l r cnt i c mat er i al s, concedes t hat " l i ngui st i cal l y di f 1l cul t t cxt s ar c unl i kcl y
r , ) bc sui t abl e t br devel opi ng r r ost r eadi ng ski l l s" ( 1996. p. l j l \ .
l n addi t i on, t hcr c i s t hc af l - cct i ve t ol l . Ri vcr s obscr ves t hat " r ushi ng
,trrdents too soon i nto rcadi ng rnateri al beyond thci r prescnt capaci ty for
l l r cnt compr ehensi on wi t h c' r ccasi onal cont ext ual gucssi nq
. . . dest r oys
, onl l dencc" ( l 9t t l . p. 260) .
And yet, i rr spi te of thcse drawbacks, ar.rthcnti c r.nateri al s havc bcc.rrc.
rrr [)avi d Cl arke' s wcl rds, "al most
a categori cal i rnpe rati vc, a nrcl ral si na quu
t t t r t of t hc l anguagu- cl assr oor r r " ( 1989, p. 13) . As a col l caguc obser vcd t o
, ' nc of us. " Al l I hear d i n gr aduat c school t en ycar s ago was t hc need t o use
, r r r l hcnt i c r nat cr i al s, whct her i n t eachi ng r eadi ng or l i st eni ng or what evcr .
Itrrt at the ti rne, I kncw fi orn my own cxperi cnces bcl th as a second l anguage
t cl cl r er and l ear ner t hat si r npl i f i cd r nat cr i al s wor kcd. So I was conf used.
\ ncl cver si nce t hcn. I have f cl t gui l t y usi ng t her n. "
That he and ot hcr t cacher s use si r npl i t i cd nr at cr i al s at al l poi ni s di r cct l y
r , ) t hc f bt al f l aw of aut hent i c r nat cr i al s. Had Ar nbr ose Bi er ce been a l an-
r ' uage t eacher . l r c r r r i ght wcl l havc added t he l bl l owi ng wondcr f ul l y cyni cal
,i cti ni ti on, courtcsy of Andrew Cohen, to hi s Do' i l l r Di t' ti onun,; "Authen-
ti c materi al s are thosc whi ch are i rnpossi bl e- or di ffi cul t fbr l anguagc
l carners to understand."
Thcre was, i n tact. sorre rccogni ti on of thi s probl ern i n the wri ti ngs of
rrpcrts l i onr the bcgi nni ng, but ofi en so i ndi rectl y stated that thc poi nt was
l rrst. l n Deval opi ttg Reudi ng Sl i i l .r, when Franq-oi sc Grel l ct says "l t i s
r r npor t ant t o usc aut hent i c t ext s wl t encver possi bl e" ( 198 1, p. 7) , i t i s t hc
l i rst part of thc staternent that nrakes the i rnpact. not the l ast two worcl s.
And so i t i s that teachers and students l rave corne l o see authenti c
rnateri al s as prcf-erabl e to easy, si rnpl i fi ed texts. For l ess-than-fl ucnt secorrd
l anguage readers, thi s i s a dangcrous vi ew, fbr i t can rob them of the most
i rnportant source of the readi ng materi al s they need to bccome f' l uent
readers.
The i dea that si mpl i fi ed texts are to be avoi ded and that di ffi cul t texts are
presti gi ous i s equal l y perni ci ous i n terms of atti tude toward readi ng. In
eff-ect, i t associ ates readi ng i tsel f wi th di fl i cul ty. Students wi l l a1u' a-t,s be
abl e to fi nd texts that are di ffi cul t fbr them, and they are l i abl e to equate
readi ng and l earni ng to read wi th struggl i ng through thcse texts. Thi s i s not
thc way to i nsti l l an appreci ati on fbr readi ng.
But the cul t of authenti ci ty di d not ari se i n a vacuurn. Part of i ts promi -
nence can be traced to the nature of what may seel n to be the onl y al terna-
t i ve t o aut hent i c t ext s: si mpl i f i cd mat cr i al s.
The myth of si mpl i fi cati on
To say that si rnpl i fi cd tcxts have a bad name i n l anguage teachi ng i s an
undcrstatcment. If authc' nti c texts are seen as natural , i nteresti ng, rel evant,
and pedagogi cal l y sound, texts-made-si mpl e are general l y consi dered to be
j ust
thc gpposi te: sti l ted, unnatural , unreal , bl and, and a pedagogi cal dead
end. Thcre i s, to be sure, good reason fbr thi s poi nt of vi ew, but i t i s pun
not i ntended
-_
si mpl i sti c. In Ronal d Carter and Mi chael Long' s words, "l t i s
worth rememberi ng that as wi th al l books thcrc are good, bad and
i ndi ff-erent si rnpl i fi ed tcxts" ( l 991 ,
p. l 52). Why' ? Is i t a matter of good and
bad wri ti ng' / Good and bad stori es' ? Or i s there more to i t than that' ?
It i s fi rst ncccssary to be cl ear about what i s meant by si mpl i fi ed texts, as
thc product of simplification goes by many names: simpli/ied. gracled,
ubridged, adupted, and pedagogic'al. This is unfortunate, because the nu-
merous terrns tend to cause confusi on and rni sl ead teachcrs and studcnts.
Si rnpl i fi cati on can be used to devcl op at l east two di ffercnt typcs of
second l anguage readi ng rnateri al s: texts si mpl i fi ed fi om fi rst l anguage
ori gi nal s and texts wri tten speci fi cal l y for second l anguage l earners. The
fi rst type, text si mpl i fi ed fi orn materi al ori gi nal l y wri tten fbr an audi ence of
fi rst l anguage readers, often uses cl assi cs whose copyri ghts have expi red
and that are therefore i n the publ i c domai n. In Engl i sh, there are l i teral l y
hundreds of stori es that have been si mpl i fi cd, such as Bl ac' k Beuutt, The
Advenlures q/'Ttm Suw,yer, The Hound o/ the Baskervilles, F-runkenslein,
From Rttssiu with Love, A Tule oJ'hvo Cities. Sinhacl the Suilor and The
Great Gatsb.v.
Thi s rewri ti ng or adaptati on of texts wri tten ori gi nal l y fbr an audi ence of
fi rst l anguage readers i s approached i n one of two ways. The fi rst i s by
Cult of authenticitv and mvth of simplification 57
r r r , l v r cst at i ng t he i dcas of t he t ext i n si r npl cr l i r r r n ancl l anguagc. Henr y
' ,
,l rl trwSor, who has a sharp eye fbr di chotonti e s. chri stcncd Ihi s a si mpl e
. , , t ut t ( l 978, pp. 79, 89- 91) . The sccond way i nvol ves r et ai ni ng i n
r( nrl temrs the fbrr and l anguage of thc ori gi nal tcxt, but abri dgi ng,
1,l ,re
i rrg certai n di ffi cul t words or structurcs wi th si rnpl er ones, perhaps
, ' r,l cri ng certai n parts for cl ari ty, and someti rnes cl aborati ng on di ffi cul t
, , l r ( cl r t s. Wi ddowson cal l s t hi s asi mpl i / i ed ver si on ( 1978, pp. 19, 88- 89) .
l l r, l css profi ci ent the l anguage l earner, the rnore l i rni ted the words and
rr {r( l ures used to rewri tc or adapt the ori gi nal text.
I l rc second type of si mpl i fi ed rnateri al i s text wri ttcn speci fi cal l y fbr
' ()ncl l anguage l carners. Wri ti ng an ori gi nal text fi orn scratch fbr an
, , r , l i cncc of l anguagc l ear ner s has been t er med a. si mpl e or i gi nul by Davi d
1 | rl l rrnd Hel en Rei d Thomas ( I 988, p. 44)..f ust as i n rcwri tten and adapted
I 1r \l l anguage texts, the words, structures, and text types of si rnpl c ori gi nal s
,r , tl ctcrmi ned by thc parti cul ar l evcl of the studcnts tbr whom the text i s
i l l t . | l ded.
Whatever thei r ori gi n si rnpl e account, si mpl i fi ed vcrsi on, or si mpl c
,,r rgi nal
-
si mpl i fi ed materi al s are devel oped and used fbr sccond l anguagc
' , , r t l i ng f or one i ncscapabl e r eason: Begi nni ng and i nt ennedi at e second
l ur sLr age st udent s need t her n. And yet , r ef l cct i ng t he cul t of aut hent i ci t y.
.rrrrpl i fi ed materi al s are rarel y consi dered fbr what they arc
-
a posi ti vc
,,,rrtri buti on to readi ng i nstructi on and l anguage l earni ng. They are gener-
rl l v seen i n terms of what they are not, as when Chri sti ne Nuttal l wri tes,
\uthenti c materi al i s the i dcal , but i f you cannot fi nd cnough at the ri ght
l r ' \ cl , you wi l l have t o use si mpl i f i ed or spcci al l y wr i t t en r nat er i al s t o begi n
r r i t h" ( 1996, p. 178) ; or when shc l ament s. " Howcvcr good a si r npl i f i cat i on
r\. sornethi ng i s al ways l ost; thi s i s why sornc teachers rcfuse to use si tn-
1' l i l i cd
ver si ons" ( 1996, p. 178) .
Certai nl y, cri ti ci sm of si mpl i fi ed materi al s i s j usti fi ed, fbr they can be
1,,rorl y
wri tten, uni nteresti ng, and hard to read, and can l ack nonnal text
Ir' l tures such as redundancy and cohesi on. Many of thesc shortcomi ngs can
l rc traced to two sources, one to do wi th l anguage and the other content.
Because, fbr l anguage l carners, di fl l cul t l anguage i s the probl em wi th
rrrrthenti c texts, si mpl e l anguage i s someti mes consi dered the sol uti on.
Sccond l anguage texts may be pri mari l y wri tten or adapted i n terms of a
l i nsui sti c forrnul a based on l i sts of words and grammar pattcrns that
l carners are expected to know. Unfbrl unatel y fbr a wri ter, when worki ng
n' i th a l i st of vocabul ary and structures, "onc' s focus of attcnti on i s on l exi s
l rrd syntax rather than on the di scourse they are uscd to create" (Wi c1-
t l owson, 1978, p. 89) .
Content probl erns can occur when attempts are made to si rnpl i ty a
cornpl ex ori gi nal text. Davi d FIi l l , rcvi ewi ng thc Pengui n Reucl ers seri es.
gi ves one exarl pl e:
"l n
Prt,sumed Inntx' ent, l 0 characters are i ntroduced i n
thc fl rst cl rapter. three cl f thcrn wi th ni cknanres. and i nci derrt tbl l ows i nci -
dent i n rapi d staccato. The efl bct i s ofi en l i ke a 33rprn rccord bei ng pl ayed
at 78r pm" ( 1995. p. l 7) .
Whatever tl re sourcc of tl re probl em, l anguagc or content, the resul t i s the
sanre. By tbcusi ng too rrruch on si rrrpl e l anguagc or the content of thc
ori gi nal text. wri ters of si nrpl i fi ed texts pay l css attenti on to the esscncc of
wri ti ng: communi cati ng wi th an audi ence. Thi s has l cd to the wel l -j usti fi ed
conscnsus that si rnpl i fi ed ntatcri al i s not nonnal di scoursc (text wri tten fbr
conrnruni cati orr), ancl i s therefbre l css than goocl practi cc fi rr l carni ng to
read.
Thi s l eaves t eachcr s on t he hor ns of a di l cmma. For conf i dencc bui l di ng
and devel opi ng rcadi ng fl uency, authcnti c ntateri al s are not at thc rcqui red
i r r t i t r u, s / I evel , whcr cas. si r npl i f i ecl r nat cr i al s. wi t l r al l t hei r shor t comi ngs,
are. What second l anguagc readers actual l y nccd fbr extensi vc rcadi ng are
texts that con.rbi ne the desi rcd f-catures of authenti c tcxts (thei r authenti ci ty)
and si rnpl i fi ecl texts (thei r si mpl i ci ty) i n other words. tcxts that are both
autl renti c and appropri atel y si rrpl c.
Therc are precedents fbr such tcxts. Nati ve spcakcrs have chi l drcn' s
l i teraturc anc' l young adul t l i teraturc. Because thesc tcxts ai m to comrnuni -
cate wi th thci r parti cul ar audi ences, the di scourse i s natural . They are al so,
agai n by vi r t ue of t hci r ai r n t o cor nr nuni cat c. appr opr i at el y si r t r pl c i n l an-
guage and concept.
Authenti ci ty and si mpl i ci ty reexami ned
Can such a fusi on of aLrthenti ci ty and si rrrpl i ci ty be attai ncd i n second
l anguage texts' J C-' l oscr exarni nati on of thc concepts of authenti ci ty and
si mpl i ci t y woul d suggcst so. The def l ni t i on of aut hent i ci t y i n t he Lon5l mun
Dic'tionan, o/ Lunguuge Tbat'hing untl Applied Lingui.stic's begins: "Thc
degrec to whi ch l anguagc tcachi ng nrateri al s havc the qual i ti es of natural
speech or wr i t i ng" ( Ri char ds, Pl at t , & Pl at t , 1992, p. 27) . Thi s i s an i nsi ght -
ful departurc bccausc. rather than bci ng an appeal to author and audi ence
(e.g., nati ve speakcrs) or source (e.g., takcn fi ' om newspapcrs or maga-
zi nes), thi s defl ni ti on hi ghl i ghts
-
wi thout nami ng, however those natural
cl ual i t i es t hat r nake a t cxt aut hent i c. Not onl y t hat , i t al l ows t hat t hese
"qual i ti es of natural sl .rccch or wri ti ns" rnay bc possessed by tcxts wri ttcn or
edi ted for l anguage l eanrcrs, that i s, texts that are termed si npl i /i ed
Cult of authenticitv and mvth of simplification 59
r l r r s vi cw. si r npl i f i ed and aut hent i c ar c r l ol r r r ut ual l y excl usi ve op-
. l l ather, si mpl i fi ed tcxt can be
j udgccl i n tcrrns of' whcther i t has the
. r l t qual i t i es ol aut hent i ci t y. l t i s t hcr cl or c no par adox f or Char l es
'
r .rrrr and Al exandcr Urquhart, i n thei r col l ccti on Reudi ng i n u Forei grt
' //,/q(,,
to state: "We are cornmi ttecl to bcl i svi ng that si rnpl i fi cd texts
i , , r r ut hent i c" ( 1984, p. 198) .
r rrl rers
have reachcd the samc concl usi on. Sandra Si l berstei n. tbr exam-
rn lrcr volumc Tec'hniques and Resourc'es in Tcac'hing Reuding, states
' rcucl i ng texts, evsn those whi ch are edi ted, can and shoul d be authen-
r l ( X) 4, p. I I l ) . Thcy
r,l bc authcrrti c i n thc scrtsc that thcy rcscnrbl c tl tc "rcal -worl tl " tcxts stu-
r , ni l l cncount cr . . . i n t cnns of . . . synt ax, di scour sc st r uct ur e, vocabul ar y
l ,rrrrl l
contcr.rt. . . . At al l profi ci cncy l cvcl s, wc want studcnts to bc cngaged
'
rr' \1s thal arc "authcnti cal l y" si rni l ar to those whi ch l cprcscnt thci r rcadi ng
i . t P. 102)
l l r r r v can f ul l y aut hent i c but si mpl e t ext s bc pr epar ed' l I s t he answer , as
'
I r r r v Wi ddowson once suggest ed, t o " br i ng t hc l anguagc wi t hi n t hc scope
t rr l ri rl we suppose to be tl re l earncr' s capaci ty l br appl yi ng i nterpretati ve
, , ( c( l ur es or r f br ci gn l at t guage dat a" ( 1979, p. 190) i n ot her wor ds, sor t r e
r r , l of - bet t er l i ngui st i c sr mpl i f i cat i on' l Thi s has been t hc t hr ust of most
,,' rrsht and rcscarch on thc subj ect. John Kl appcr, for exampl e. ref-ers to
' , ' r L
donc by Rut h Ber mar r ( t r nd r epor l cd i n t he al br cr nent i oned Al der son
' r r . l I Jr quhar t col l ect i on) cl n how cot npl ex synt ax r nakcs t ext
" heavy"
ancl
, , r r t l cr t o dcci pher . Kl apper suggcst s t hat " Ber man' s ( 1984) conccpt s of
\rual densi ty and hcavi ncss . . .
[shoul d
be used] as cri teri a l br the pro-
, . s of si mpl i t i cat i on, and cl r - r e not c. . . t akcn of t he i r npor t ant r ol c pl ayed
"r
rcdundancy i n creati ng an adccl l rate contcxt tbr i nfbrrned gucssi ng"
, |
( ) 9r ,
p. 53) .
I hcrc have al so been a number of studi es of whcther and under what
, nr ' ul r st ances l i ngui st i c mani pul at i on can hel p second l anguagc l ear ner s
rrrtl crstand a tcxt. Patri ci zt Johnson. fi ' rr exanrpl c. i nvesti gatcd the i nterac-
rron r)f background knowl edge and si nrpl i fi cati on of vocabul ary and struc-
r rr c and concl uded that forei gn l anguage students are hel ped by si rnpl i fi ca-
r r ' ) n onl y wher r t hey l ack backgr ound knowl edgc ( 1981) . Yasukat a Yano.
\ l i chacl Long, and St even Ross ( 1994) cor npar ed t hr ee ver si cr t r s of a t ext :
, r t r ( hcnt i c ( e. g. , " Bccause he had t o wor k at ni ght t o suppor t hi s f ar ni l y, Paco
, ' l i cn f ' el l asl eep i n cl ass. " ) ; si mpl i f i ed ( " Paco had t o r nake money f br hi s
l , r r ni l y. Paco r vor kcd at ni ght . He ol l en went t o sl ccp i n cl ass. " ) ; and
.l rrhorated ("Paco had to
"vork
at ni ght to earn rnoney to support hi s l -arni l y.
. o hc of i en t ' el l asl eep i n cl ass t he next day dur i ng hi s t eacher ' s l esson. " ) ( p.
193). They fbund l i ttl e di ffbrcncc i n l orci gn l anguage students' cornprehen-
si on of the si mpl i fi ed and thc el aboratcd versi ons, and concl uded that
el aborati on i s prcfbrabl e to si mpl i l i cati on as i t hel ps i nf' erence and provi des
"the ri ch l i ngui sti c form
fl camers]
nccd fbr. . . l anguage l eami ng" (p.21\.
What thcse suggesti ons and studi es have i n common i s that they con-
ti nue to see si mpl i fi cati on i n l i ngui sti c terrns. Certai nl y. texts communi cat-
i ng wi th l anguagc l earners wi l l be wri ttcn i n si rnpl e l anguage. l t does not
fol l ow, however, that si mpl e l anguage i s what makes a tcxt communi cate to
l anguage l earncrs. As readabi l i ty expcrt George Kl are notes, "much
more
goes i nt o wr i t i ng t han wor d and sent cnce consi der at i ons" ( 1984, p. 703) ,
whi ch i s perhaps why Al an Davi cs and Henry Wi ddowson once asked,
"Does the si rnpl i fi cati on of l i ngui sti c el cntents neccssari l y resul t i n the
si r npl i f i cat i on of a t ext as a pi ece of communi cat i on' ?" ( 1974, p. 183) .
Communi cat i on
l s better si mpl i fi cati on of l i ngui sti c el erncnts the concct approach to the
si mpl i fi cati on of a text as a pi ece of comrr-runi cati on' l l f not, what other
approach to si rnpl i fi cati on mi ght therc be' l A defi ni ti on of authenti ci ty by
Janet Swafl-ar of-fcrs an answer:
For purposcs ofthe forci gn l anguagc cl assroont. an authenti c tcxt . . . i s onc
whosc pri nrary i ntcnt i s to cornrnuni catc ntcani ng. In othcr words. such a tcxt
can bc onc whi ch i s wri ttcrr fbr nati vc spcakcrs of thc l anguagc to bc read by
other nati vc speakers (wi th the i ntcnt to i nform, pcrsuade. thank, ctc.) or i t rnay
bc a tcxt i ntcndcd for a l anguage l carncr group. Thc rcl cvant consi dcrati on hcrc
i s not fbr whom i t i s wri ttcn but that thcrc has bccn an authcnti c cornmuni cati ve
obj cct i vc i n mi nd. ( l 9t l 5, p. l 7)
Thi s charactcri zati on gocs one step further than the Longnrun Di c' ti onan, of
Languuge Tbuching und Applied Linguistic,s, fbr it suggests that the
"qual i ti cs of natural speech or wri ti ng" possessed by authenti c text deri ve
l rom the author' s havi ng a communi cati ve obj ecti vc.
Swaffar poi nts out that, because textbooks ai m to "tcach l anguage . . .
rathcr than to communi catc i nfbrmati on . . careful l y edi ted shorl readi ngs
l ack the essenti al f' eatures of authenti c messages: repeti ti on, redundancy,
and di scour sc mar ker s" ( 1985, p. l 7) . Appar ent l y. t hen, i t i s t he aut hor ' s
i ntenti on to communi cate that endows text wi th the "essenti al f' eatures" that
make i t authenti c. And so, to rcturn to Sandra Si l berstci n' s concern earl i er
i n thi s chapter (that edi ted texts shoul d be authcnti c) and the questi on thi s
suggests (how can texts be edi ted so as to be authentrc' /), perhaps the
answcr i s fbr the author/edi tor to i ntend to coml nuni cate.
Cult of authenticity and myth of simplification 61
I l r i s i n t ur n suggest s anot her i nt er est i ng cl t t csl i ot r : I ) t t cs si nr pl i l i cat i on
.
r .t
'
I-hc bond between si mpl i fi cati on and cttt.t.ttttttrti cati on i s tl rade cl ear
l r, rr l l enry Wi ddowson defi nes si rnpl i fi cati on as
"tl rc
process wl tereby a
Lr l , ul gc user adj ust s . . . l anguage behavi our i n t he i nt cr cst s of cot nnr uni -
l r l \ c ct l - ect i veness" ( 1979
" p.
196) . And so i t i s t hat Chr i st opher Br umf l t i s
' , , r g1l
1e ask i f i ndeed " si mpl i f i cat i on deser ves i t s spcci al st at us. or whet her
, prrcti ce i t i s si mpl y another way of rcf-crri ng to fundarncntal communi ca-
, , ' r " ( 1993, p. 2) . Al t cr nat i vel y. as Al der son and Ur quhar t wr yl y st at e,
" l f
, r r pl i f i cat i on i s def i ned as I naki ng a t ext appr opr i at e t o t he audi encc, t hen
, , , r l nl . r s dn- l ' t ext r nay be consi der ed a si mpl i f i cat i on" ( l 9t t 4, p. 196) .
I i l hcr way, i t i s suggested that, i n second l anguage teachi ng, si rnpl i fi ca-
'
,,| rs no more than a tcrm even a sonrewhat i nsul ti ng tcnn to ref' er to
\ r l r l g f br l anguage l ear ner s; and t hat any si mpl i ci t y det ect cd i n such
, r r t i ng i s not sor nct hi ng gai ncd at t he expcnsc of ar " r t hent i ci t y but i s t hc
, r r cxpr essi on of aut hcnt i ci t y i t sel f .
Concl usi on
I r st l anguage chi l dr en' s l i t er at ur e ant l young adul t l i t er at ur c ar e especi al l y
r r r t t cn t o pr ovi de what chi l dr en and young adul t s nccd i n t er r ns of cnt cr -
, r r r r nr ent and i nf or r nat i on. These t ext s, wr i t t en on a wi dc var i et y of t opi cs
r.r i 1 1vl d. vari ety of age groups, al so provi dc materi al wi th whi ch to l cart.l
r , r 1gi 1d and t o becomc hooked on books.
l :or al l the sar.ne rcasons entcrtai nntent, i nfbrrnati on, l earni ng to read,
rrrtl becomi ng hooked on books second l anguage l earncrs need a vari cty
,' l cxccl l ent materi al wri tten espcci al l y fi l r thcrn. Bccausc of i ts corn-
, r r ur r i cat i vc i nt ent , such mat er i al woul d be aut hent i c and appr opr i at cl y si r n-
l ' l c
i n l anguagc and conccpt. Such r.nateri al rrri ght propcrl y be cal l ecl /rrr-
,u(t{e
l eurner l i teruture, and thi s i s the subj cct of thc ncxt chapter.
Further readi ng
l i rccn, Davi cs. and Wi ddowson provi dc the general l y accepted scl ni nal
, l r scussi ons of aut hent i ci t y: Mi chael Br een consi der s t hc sub. i cct i n a l 9t l 2
pl pcr " Aut hent i ci t y i n t he Language Cl assr oom" ( r epr i nt cd i n 1985 i n t hc
r,' rrrnal Appl i ecl Li ngui sti c' s). Al an Davi es di scusscs authenti ci ty i n hi s
, l r apt er " si mpl e, Si mpl i f i ed and Si mpl i f i cat i on: What l s Aut hent i c' J" i n J.
t l rarl es Al derson & A. H. Urquhart' s cl assi c col l ccti on Reudi ng i n u F' rtt'
, i .qr Lunguu,ge (1984). Henry Wi ddowson' s rcfl ccti ons on authcnti ci ty
r r r cl ude:
l . " The
Aut he. t i ci t y of Languagc Dat a, " i n Fansel ow and Cr ymes' s O,
'|ESOL
'76,
reprinted in Widdowson's Explorations in Apptied Linguis_
ti t' s (1979\.
2. The carl y part of a chapter ti tl ed "Comprel rendi ng
and Readi ng," i n
Widdowson's kur.hing Lurtguuge u.s
('onmunic,ution
( l 97g). The mos(
rcl evant pages arc 19 82.
3. "Readi ng and comrnuni cati on," i n wi ddowson' s E,rpl orati ons i n Ap-
pl i ed Li ngui sti t' .s 2 (1984a), al so i ncl uded i n Al derson and Urquhart' s
Reuding in u F-oreign Lunguuga.
A wel l - known cxar ni nat i o. of t he shor t cor ni ngs of si r npl i f i ed t ext s i s
Jol rn Honcyfi el d' s I 911 TESOL
Quurterl .l ,
arri cl e
..Si mpl i fi cati on."
wi l l i am Lcc was an earl y cri ti c of thc concept "authenti ci ty."
In "Some
Poi nts about
' Authcnri ci ty"'
(l Mtrl d Languuac Engl i sh, l 9g3), he takes a
di fl erent approach ttorn thc one uscd i rr thi s chaptcr to reach cs.senti al l y the
sanrc concl usi on: that "authenti ci ty"
i s another word fbr "conrmuni cati on."
Language learner literature
l rr I i rt ure ycars. t he absencc of i magi nat i vc cont cnt i rr
Lr r r r : uugc t cachi ng r vi l l bc consi dcr cd t o havc nl r r kcd a
t , r i r r r i t i v c
s t agc of t he di s c i pl i nc .
J ohn Mc Rac t 199 l . p. v i i )
l ) ur . l l osc
of t hi s chapt er i s t o:
. l r r r r or l ucc t he conccpt of l anguage l ear ner l i t cr at ur e.
. |
' ,;rnri ne
tcchni ques of wri ti ng fbr an audi ence of l anguagc l earners.
l r r s hi st or y of l anguagc t cachi ng, Loui s Kel l y t r accs t he devel opment of
r r r I l i l l ed t ext s back t o t hc l at e l l f l eent h cent ur y. whcn t hey wer e wr i t t en
, r l r ' i r nr er s of Lat i n ( 1969, p. l 4l ) . But t he r r odenr vcr si on of such books,
1l ( rl tcnrcd rcuder.s. i s, hi stori cal l y at l east, synonyrnous rvi th the narne of
r r r ' nr an. As Al an Mal cy r el at es wi t h r el i sh, " Shor t ened, si mpl i f i ed,
, l , r r t l gcd and adapt ed Rcader s have bcen wi t h us f r om t he di m r ni st s of
, r , nr cr al
Engl i sh Languagc Teachi ng . . . wher e t he wr ai t h of Mi chael
i \ r : l ci l n st i l l bc seen f l i t t i ng t hr ough t hc swar l ps" ( l gl t | . p. 3) . West ,
r , , r . hi ng Engl i sh i n I ndi a i n t hc 1920s, wr ot c f bl kt al es and adapt ed l i t cr a-
r ' r r e l i r r hi s st udcnt s. Combi ni ng met i cul ous car e f br si r npl e but nat ur al
ur!uage wi th storytel l i ng fl ai r, he si ngl c-handedl y i nvented the contempo-
r r r r vcr si on of t hc si r npl i f i cd r cader . A nur nber of hi s books ar e st i l l i n pr i nt
r , ' t I r y ( see t he Appcndi x) .
Wcst' s pi oneeri ng work has l cd to books ftrr l earners i n rnany di ff-crent
Lrrrguages, and i n al most every gcnre: thri l l er, bi ography, rol nance, horror,
' tncr' 81
fl cti on, sci ence fl cti on. to name but a t-ew. l t i s thi s body of work
r l r r r t i s i nt r oduced and cxar ni ncd i n t hi s chanl cr .
Language l earner l i terature i ntroduced
( ) nc of t he hal l r nar ks of good w' r i t i r r g i s t hat i t spcaks t o ar r i nt cnded
, r t r t l i cnce. Wr i t i ng i s an act of cor nr nuni cat i on. r cgar dl ess of who t he i n-
tcndcd audi ence rni ght be, or thc author' s pal ti cr,rl ar pl l rposc. In ordcr to
wr i t c successf ul l y, an aut hor r nust bcar i n r ni nd t he char act cr i st i cs of t he
audi cnce. Tl r i s i s not an opt i on, but a pl er equi si t e f br al l wr i t i ne. The
i ntended audi ence rni ght be the readers of popul ar newspapers, chi l dren, or
thc readers of books such as thi s onc, fbr exarnpl e. Or i t rni ght be sccond
l anguage l earncrs.
Language l carners are an audi ence on a par wi th any other. To wri te
rnatcri al for an audi cnce of sccond l anguagc l carners i s no l css an act of
communi cati on than other fbnns of wri ti ng. Si nce thcre i s an i denti fi abl e
audience, since the tcrnts uuthentic' anrJ simpli/ietl are arnbiguous and inac-
curate and carry unsati sfactory connotati ons, ancl si nce i t i s not si rnpl i fi ca-
t i on or el abor at i on but cor nnt uni cat i or r t hat i s t he i ssLr c. we suggest an
al temati ve terrrr l or rcadi ng rnateri al that has bcut wri ttcn wi th an audi cnce
of second l anguage l carners i n rni nd: l anguagc l earncr l i terature.
Wc see thc tenn lunguuge leurner literutura as analogous to tlte terms
r\)utlg uclult lileruturc aru.l childran'.s literuture established gcnres in their
own r i ght . I t i ncl udcs f i ct i on and nonf i ct i on, or i gi nal wr i t i ng, and t cxt s
adapted for l anguage l earncrs. But whatevcr fbrrn i t takes, l anguage l carner
l i teraturc presupposes thc i ntegri ty that rnarks al l gcnui ne wri ti ng: that i t be
not a l ssser ver si on of sor net hi nq cl se but a f ul l y r cal i zed. cour pl et c- i n- i t sel f
act ol cor.nrl uni cati ol .t betwccn author and aucl i cncc. Thc basi s l br j udgi ng
the succcss or l i ri l ure of l anguagc l earner l i teraturc i s thercfbre i dcnti cal to
that of other wri ti ng: l hc response of i ts readers the scnse they rnake and
thc experi ences thcy l rave.
Wri ti ng for an audi ence of second l anguage l earners
In general tenns, an author wri ti ng fbr i ur audi ence of sccond l anguage
l earncrs must beat' i n rni nd thrce speci al characteri sti cs of thesc readers.
One i s l i mi t cd l anguage abi l i t y, and consequent l ' at i guc and l i r ni t ed at t en-
tl on span when readi ng. The second i s unfbmrl i ari ty wi th concepts and
topi cs that are col nmon knowl edge i n the target-l angr-rage cul ture. Thi rd,
sccond l anguage rcaders may be unfi rmi l i ar wi th parti cul ar cul ture-spcci fi c
tcxt types. They rrray rrot understand the way such texts arc organi zcd
thei r rhetori cal conventi ons
-
and how pcopl e norrnal l y rcact to such texts.
Thesc three gcneral factors arc most pronouncecl fbr begi nner l anguage
l earners/readers and gradual l y l essen i n i ntportance as l carners make prog-
ress i n the scconcl l an-cuage.
Beyond these thrcc thi ngs hcl d i n cornmon. second l anguage l carners are
of vari ous ages, have' vari ous i ntercsts. and conte fi om a wi dc vari ety of
r r r r r ' s. Thcr c ar e st i l l gener al i zat i ons t hat can bc r r r acl c. however . Wi t h
r , . l ' i r shi on, nr ovi es, and TV ci r cl i ng t l r e gl obc. i t i s, as Kei t h Mor r ow
' l \ f r r l i t a Schocker obser ve, " f ai r t o assume. l br exampl c, t hat l 7- year
t rrr l l ri tai n arc i ntcrested i n much the same sort of thi ng as are l 7-year
l r r
( i cnnany" ( 1987, p. 253) . Thus, wr i t er s who f bcus on t he i nt er est s
, I rrrcrrtal i ty of a parti cul ar group of l anguagc l carncrs wi th whi ch they are
, r l r r r r wi l l al nr ost cer t ai nl y be cor nr nuni cat i ng t o a vast wor l dwi de ar . r -
r r i c t ) f si r ni l ar l ear ner s.
t ( ) n) muni cat i ng wi t h l anguage l ear ner s i nvol ves consi dcr at i ons of bot h
' r r t
nt and l anguagc. and i n pr act i ce t he t wcl ar e i nsepar abl e. I n al l t cacl t -
rrs Ifcnry Wi ddowson poi nts out, "cotrccpts . . are orguni :ed und
, , , r r r r ( , ( /
f i t al i cs
added] so as t o r nake t l r ct n congr ucnt wi t h t he l ear ner ' s
.
t ' \ ' r
i cncc" ( 1979. p. 200) . He coul d have becn t al ki ng about al l
, r r r n r t r ni cat i on.
I l r r s i nt cgr at cd cont ent and l anguage per spcct i vc i s an i nt er est i ng one
, , r r r r vhi ch t o l ook agai n at bot h t he. l ohnson ( 1981) and t hc Yano et al .
' ) ' ) l ) st udi es
di scusscd i n t hc pr ecedi ng chapt er . These and ot her st udi es
, ' , r . r t l cr ed
l i ngui st i c si r npl i f i cat i on apar t f i ol t t cont ent , and pr oduced r e-
, r : t hat have bcen used t o di scr cdi t l i ngui st i c si r npl i f i cat i on. Johnson
It(,r' tcd
thi l t l earners who l ackcd l rackgl ound knowl edge benel l ted ti ont
r r r gr l i l i cat i on of ' l anguage. Thi s r csul t scr vcs t o i l l ust r at e t he i nt er depen-
I r r r ' c ol - cont ent and l anguage when t ext i s an act of communi cat i on. Yano
r ,rl courparcd si rnpl i fi ed and el aborated prose. In terms of comrnurti ca-
' ,rr. l rowever, thc poi nt i s not whether the author uses f-ewer words i rnd
l rr rr l g1' ssnfsl ces ("si rnpl i fi cati on") or more words i n ernbedded sentences,
, , r l . i r r r expl i ci t any backgr ound supposi t i ons ( " cl abor at i on" ) . The poi nt i s
' . \ l ) r ' css wi t l r out bci r t g pat r oni zi ng. t cr se. ( ) r vcr hose t he conl cnt i n a
,
. r r t l r at cor nmuni cat cs t o t hc audi cncc.
l l ccausc wri ti ng fbr l anguage l earners l ras general l y bccn consi dered a
r ucr of usi l l g si r npl e l anguage, wr i t er s use l i st s of easy wor ds and si r r r pl e
rr ue l rrrcs, or appl y rcadabi l i ty forrnul as that j udge the di fl i cul ty of a text i n
rrrs of how l ong the sentences and words are. The i dea i s that si mpl e
r r l uage ai ds cor r t muni cat i on. But t hi s or der of pr i or i t i es i s t he opposi t c of
r r r t ' *' r i t i ng.
\\' hcn an author comrnuni catcs wi th an audi ence, the rneans cl f
' .
l r r cssi on
-
t he l anguage i s nonnal l y i nt ui t i vc. Whcn an aut hor f ocuses
rr tl rc rncssage ancl the audi ence. that i s, fbcuses on the comtnttni cati on, tl re
rnrtrrrge suggests i tscl f. As George Kl are pul s i t, "ntost
esti mates of read-
, l , r l r t v ar c. . . nr ade by wr i t er s i n t he pr ocess of wr i t i ng i n most cases
r r l r j cct i vcl y and per haps even unconsci ousl y" ( 1984. p. 1O2l . Char l cs Al -
l , rson and Al exander Urquhart make thi s l i rrther observati on:
Thc c' i dcncc . . . suggcsts that whc' i l corrpctcnt wri tcr produces a
.si rnpl i fi ed,
vcrsron of' a tcxt. \vi thout expl i ci t rcf' crcncc to the fbrrnul ac, then thc si mpl i fi ed
vcrsi orr i s ..t onl y casi cr to rcad, but al so ratcs casi cr accordi ng to the for-
rnul uc. l -hc i ntercsti ng qi rcsti on i s uhat wri ters do i n ordcr to Droduce such
t cxt s. ( l 9t l 4, p. 196)
Answers have becn offered from a vari ety of sources, i ncl utri ng the
cdi tors of successful ancl hi ghl y rcgarded seri es of books fbr Encl i sh l an-
guage l camers. John Mi l ne, edi tor o1' Hei nemunn ctri tl etl Rea,l er.rl expl ai ns
that tcxts i n hi s seri es are wri ttcn "based on the wri ters' and edi tors'
expcri ence of what vocabul ary students can cope wi th at a parti cul ar
l evcl . . . . we have thus used an i ntui ti ve approach to vocabul ary control
rather than rel yi nu on control s bascd on mecl rani cal word counti or ri si d
wor d I i st s" ( 1977. p. l 6) .
As wi th al most al l Engl i sh l anguage seri cs, Hei nemunn Gui tted ReatJers
are marked for l evel by usi ng both a name and the numbcr of basi c vocabu-
l ary wortl s wi thi ' whi ch the books arc wri ttcn for exarnpl e. begi nner
l evel /600 words, or el emc.tary l ever/ l ,l 00 words. Interesti ngl y. however,
these vocabul ary fi gures were arri vcd at ufi er the books were wri tten. As
John Mi l ne expl ai ns, " At
each l evel a number of r nanuscr i pt s wer e pr e-
pared. . . . Then an esti nrrte was rnadc of thc numbcr of basi c rvords used
acr oss t hese manuscr i pt s. By' basi c' wc I nean wor ds not pecul i ar t o t he
st or y" ( p. l 7) . St r uct ur e i s appr oached i n t he same way:
Wri tcrs arc not askcd to appl y structurc control s ri gi dl y ancl autornati cal l y. In_
stcad, wri tcrs are cxpcctcd to havc constant . . .
[rccoursc]
to thci r i ntui ti vc fbel -
i ng fi rr l anguagc and hol d a bal ancc bct,uvccn thosc stnrcturcs ,uvhi ch
rnav bc
ncccssary fbr thc tel l i ng ofa parti cul ar story and thosc whi ch nri ght causc stu-
dcnts i nsunnountabl c di fl i cul ty. (p. l 2)
Befbre wri ti ng. i t i .s a basi c necessi ty to, i n cl rri stopher Brurnfi t' s words.
"cl ari fy i n your own mi nd the type of l earner you are wri ti ng fbr, as
pr eci sel y as possi bl e" ( 1985, p. 98) . Then, as Tr i ci a Hedge acl vr ses i n her
gui del rnes to wri ters of the or/i trd Btxthtorm.s scri es l or l angua_ee l earners,
i t i s "uscful
to wri te the fl rst part of your story i ntui trvel y, wi th a certai n
l evel of l anguage l eamer i n rni nd, and then see whi ch l evcl i n thc seri es i t
f i t s" ( 1988. p. 5) .
Li sts of words that l eamers probabl y know (<l r ought to know) can sti l l
be of great assi stance to a wri tcr i f used properl y. chri stopher Brumfl t, i n
a revi ew of the Cumhri dge Engl i sh Lt ti c' on, ol fers thi s advi ce:
..Wri te
your
text as cl earl y a.d appropri atcl y as you can. wi thout any rcf' erencc to the
l exi con. . . . The l exi con . . .
[can]
i nfbrm and sensi ti ze your j udgement
[i f]
uscd negati vel y by wri ters, not posi ti vel y. Onl y i n thi s way *i tt . . .
wr i t i ng . . . r enr ai n wr i t i ng" ( 1985, p. 98) . I n ot her wor ds. do not weavc t exr
' , r r or ds known t o l ear ncr s. or aut or nat i cal l v cxcl udc wor ds unknown t o
rr( r' s. Instead, usc tl te l exi con a/i cl wri ti ng to al crt you to words you
, l t l r r t l ear ner s nt ay not kr r ow. Thal i nl i l r nl r l i on can hcl p you t o j udgc
r r , r t l r c use of a wor d i n t er ms of t hc cf f bct i t wi l l have on t he i nt encl ed
r r l t l S .
l , ' : 119u. r , t hat wr i t cr s wr i t e i nt ui t i vel y does not necessar i l y mcan wr i t -
'
rr rl l rtl Lrt consci ous attcnti on to l an{uage as such. Certai n authcl rs rnay bc
t ' ,
r eonsci ous of t hi s aspect of communi cat i on, wei ghi ng cvcr y wor d f or
, , r r r l r i but i on t o t he f l ow of t hc t cx1. I n t l r e end. what al l aut hor s ar e
, 1' ,
I i r l l y ai mi ng f br i s t hat el usi vc qual i t y of good wr i t i ng. When. l ohn
' 1, l r r e
suggest s t hat " each sent ence has t o bc wcl l bal anced i nt er nal l y,
Lrrrur{ ofl smoothl y fi orn tl re sentence whi ch preceded i t and l cacl i ng on
, t r r r r l l y t o t he one whi ch f bl l ows" ( 1977, p. - 5) . he i s t al ki ng as r nuch aboi r t
l , r r s cohesi on. Tr i ci a Hedge i s al so concer ned wi t h st yl c whcn she ur ges
r r l r or s l o " devel op a t ext wi t h' l i ght and shade' by f bcussi ng i nl i r r r nat i on
, i r l l r ' r ent ways" ( 1988. p. 3) .
\ l l t hi s i s not t he i ci ng on t hc cakc. I t must bc t he essence of wr i t i ng f i r r
r 1' ul sc l car ner s, t br , as Mi l ne poi nt s out , " a book whi ch i s badl y wr i t t en
r l l r r t r l bc casy t o r cad" ( 1977. p. 5) . Chr i st opl r er Br ur nf l t . t hcr cl br c, i s
, rkrrru An i rnportant poi nt whcn hc states that books tbr l anguage l earners
t ' , t 11, 411[ i t al i cs
addcd] need t o be wr i t t en by peopl e who can wr i t c wcl l "
l ' ) \ i . p. 99) . Her c Br unt f l t cchocs Mi chael West , t he t eacher and wr i t cr
,
l r , ' si nsl e- handedl y br ought l anguagc l car ncr l i t er at ur c i nt o bei ns. West
It tl rut books fbr l anguage l earners were best wri tten by pcopl c "abl c to
'
r r r c i l n or i gi nal shor t st or y or novel . . . . What i s r equi r ed i s a pcr son who
, r r ur i t c wi t h sor ne i nspi r at i on" ( 1960, p. 28) .
:o l hr i n thi s chaptcr, wri ti ng for l anguage l earners has been consi dcrcd
, , r r r r l v i n t er ms of t he t cchni cal . But j ust
as t r ul y nr aki ng l ove goes bcyond
i rrrrr' -to rnanual l i ke The .l o.t. t1/ Sc.r, corr.rrnuni cati ng wi th Ianguage
r r r r cr s t akcs pl ace on a di f t er ent pl ane t han, l et us say, conj oi ni ng cont ent
, r r . I l l nguage. I t i s l i nt e, t her ef or e, t o consi der l anguage l ear ner l i t cr at ur c on
r d\\' l ) rncri ts, as a gcnui nc art forrn.
\rr i dcal way to begi n to do thi s i s to l ook at sol ne exarnpl es of l anguagc
r r r cr l i t er at ur e. Wc concl udc t hi s sect i on. t her ef or e, wi t h si x ext r act s i n
r r ' l r sh r vr i t t en or adapt cd l or l car ner s at pr ogr essi vel y hi gher l et , el s of
r r 1' ul sc abi l i t i es. These sanr pl es wer e choscn by Tr i ci a l l cdgc and Jen-
rl , r l Jassett. edi tors of the O.r/brcl Bookv' orm.s seri cs, as i l l ustrati ons for
, ' , t t ' r r t i al
aut hor s. So set t l e back now ancl enj oy a t ast c of t hc ecnr c cal l cd
r r l ul gc l car ner l i t er at ur e. *
l l rc cxccrpts on pp. 6l l to 74 al c rcproducccl by pernri ssi on ol
(\
Orl i rr.d []ni vcr--
, t l \ l ) f c s s .
68 Materials for extensive reading
Sample Text for Level One
The Phantom of the Opera by Jennifer Bassett
The Opera House i n Pari s i s a very famous and beauti f ul bui l di ng. l l
i s the bi ggest Opera House i n the worl d. Work on the bui l di ng
began i n 1861, f i ni shed i n 1875, and cost f ort y-seven mi l l i on f rancs.
It has seventeen fl oors, ten above the ground, and seven under
the ground. Behi nd and under the stage, there are stai rs and pas-
sages and many, many rooms
-
dressi ng-rooms for the si ngers
and the dancers, rooms for the stage workers, the opera dresses
and shoes . . . There are more t han 2, 500 doors i n t he bui l di ng
You can wal k for hours and never see dayl i ght' under the Pari s
Ooera House.
And t he Opera House has a ghost , a phant om, a man i n bl ack
cl othes. He i s a body wi thout a head, or a head wi thout a body. Htr
has a yel l ow face, he has no nose, he has bl ack hol es for eyes .
Thi s i s the true story of the Phantom of the Opera' l t begi ns otttt
day i n 1880, i n t he dancers' dressi ng-room . . .
CHAPTER 1: THE DANCERS
' Oui ckl
Qui ck! Cl ose t he door! l t ' s hi m! ' Anni e Sorel l i ran i nt o l l t o
dressi ng-room, her face whi te.
One of the gi rl s ran and cl osed the door, and then they al l turtrrxf
t o Anni e Sorel l i .
' Who?
Where? What ' s t he mat t er?' t hey cri ed.
' l t ' s
t he ghost ! ' Anni e sard.
' l n
t he passage. I saw hi m. He came
t hrough t he wal l i n f ront of me! And . . . and I saw hi s f ace! '
Most of t he gi rl s were af rai d, but one of t hem, a t al l gi rl wi t h bl ack
hai r, l aughed.
' Pooh! '
she sai d.
' Everybody
says t hey see t he Opera ghost , but
t here i sn' t real l y a ghost . You saw a shadow on t he wal l . ' But she
di d not open t he door, or l ook i nt o t he passage.
' Lot s
of peopl e see hi m, ' a second gi rl sai d.
' Joseph
Buquet saw
hi m t wo days ago. Don' t you remember?'
Then al l the gi rts began to tal k at once.
' Joseph
says t he ghost i s t al l and he wears a bl ack eveni ng
coat . '
' He
has the head of a dead man, wi th a yel l ow face and no nose
' .
. . and no eyes
-
onl y bl ack hol es! '
Then l i t t l e Meg Gi ry spoke f or t he f i rst t i me.
' Don' t
t al k aboul
tri m. He doesn' t l i ke i t. My mother tol d me.'
' Your
mot her?' t he gi rl wi t h bl ack hai r sai d.
' What
does your
rnot her know about t he ghost ?'
Sample Text for Level Two
f he Death of Karen Silkwood by Joyce Hannam
r , l l APTER 1: THE ACCI DENT
I t was dark. Nobody saw t he acci dent . The smal l whi t e car was
l ot rnd on i t s si de by t he bri dge. A ri ver ran underneat h t he road
t l rere, and t he car was l yi ng next t o t he bri dge wal l , bel ow t he road.
l r: ; i de t he car was a dead woman. Her name was Karen Si l kwood
rrrd she was t went y-ei ght years ol d. l t was November 13t h, 1974.
How di d the car come off the road? Why was i t on the wrong
, ri r: of t he road? Why was i t so f ar f rom t he road? There was
rl l )i ng wrong wi t h t he car. Karen Si l kwood was a good dri ver.
I v()rybody knew t hat .
I he pol i ce t hought t hat t here was an easy answer t o t hese
1
rr, st i ors. Karen was t i red af t er a l ong day, so she f el l asl eep whi l e
' Lr,
was dri vi ng. l t coul d happen to anyone very easi l y. They took
, ' (; ar
t o a garage and t hey t ook Karen' s body t o a hospi t al .
l i rt some peopl e were not happy about t he acci dent . Fi rst of al l ,
, , r l royf ri end, Drew St ephens. Al so a newspaper
j ournal i st f rorn
'
' ' New York Ti mes and a Uni on offi ci al from Washi nqton. These
I
1
l
three men were wai ti ng for Karen on the ni ght of the acci dent. She
was bri ngi ng them some papers and some photographs i n a bi g
brown envel ope. The papers were very i mportant. The men were
wai ti ng for Karen i n a hotel room a few mi l es from the acci dent. But
she never arri ved. When they heard about the acci dent, the men
l ooked for the brown envel ope at once. They l ooked for i t i nsi de the
whi te car. They l ooked for i t at the hospi tal and at the pol i ce stati on.
The next morni ng they l ooked al l around the wal l and i n the ri ver,
but they never found i t. Nobody ever found that brown envel ope.
Sample Text for Level Three
' Sredni
Vashtar' trom Tooth and Cl aw
Short stori es by Saki , retol d by Rosemary Border
Conradi n was ten years ol d and was often i l l .
' The
boy i s not strong,' sai d the doctor.
' He
wi l l not l i ve much
l onger.' But the doctor di d not know about Conradi n' s i magi nati on.
In Conradi n' s l onel y, l ovel ess worl d, hi s i magi nati on was the onl y
t hi ng t hat kept hi m al i ve.
Conradi n' s parents were dead and he l i ved wi th hi s aunt. The
aunt di d not l i ke Conradi n and was often unki nd to hi m. Conradi n
hated her wi th al l hi s head, but he obeyed her qui etl y and took hi s
medi ci ne wi thout argui ng. Mostl y he kept out of her way. She had
no pl ace i n hi s worl d. Hi s real , everyday l i fe i n hi s aunt' s col ourl ess,
comfortl ess house was narrow and uni nteresti ng. But i nsi de hi s
smal l , dark head exci ti ng and vi ol ent thoughts ran wi l d. In the
bri ght worl d of hi s i magi nati on Conradi n was strong and brave. l t
was a wondedul worl d, and the aunt was l ocked out of i t.
The garden was no fun. There was nothi ng i nteresti ng to do. He
was forbi dden to pi ck the fl owers. He was forbi dden to eat the frui t.
He was forbi dden to pl ay on the grass. But behi nd some trees, i n a
forgotten corner of the garden, there was an ol d shed.
Nobody used the shed, and Conradi n took i t for hi s own. To hi m
i t became somethi ng between a pl ayroom and a church. He fi l l ed i t
wi th ghosts and ani mal s from hi s i magi nati on. But there were al so
t wo l i vi ng t hi ngs i n t he shed. I n one corner l i ved an ol d, unt i dy-
l ooki ng chi cken. Conradi n had no peopl e to l ove, and thi s chi cken
was the boy' s dearest fri end. And i n a dark, secret pl ace
at the
back of the shed was a l arge wooden box wi th bars across the
front. Thi s was the home of a very l arge ferret wi th l ong, dangerous
teeth and cl aws. Conradi n had bought the ferret and i ts box from a
f ri endl y boy, who l i ved i n t he vi l l age. l t had cost hi m al l hi s money,
but Conradi n di d not mi nd. He was most terri bl y afrai d of the ferret,
but he l oved i t wi th al l hi s heaft. l t was hi s wonderful , terri bl e secret.
He gave the ferret a strange and beauti ful name and i t became hi s
god.
Sample Text for Level Four
A Tale of Two Cities by Charles Dickens, retold by Ralph
Mowat
CHAPTER
' l :
THE ROAD TO PARI S
-
1775
It was the best of ti mes, i t was the worst of ti mes. l t was the season
of l i ght, i t was the season of darkness. l t was the spri ng of hope, i t
was the wi nter of sadness. l t was the year one thousand seven
hundred and seventy-fi ve.
In France there was a Ki ng and a Queen, and i n Engl and there
was a Ki ng and a Queen. They bel i eved that nothi ng woul d ever
change. But i n France thi ngs were bad, and getti ng worse. The
peopl e were poor, hungry, and unhappy. The Ki ng made paper
money and spent i t, and the peopl e had nothi ng to eat. Behi nd
cl osed doors i n the homes of the peopl e, voi ces spoke i n whi spers
agai nst the Ki ng and hi s nobl emen; they were onl y whi spers, but
they were the angry whi spers of desperate peopl e.
Late one November ni ght, i n that same year 1775, a coach
goi ng from London to Dover, stopped at the top of a l ong hi l l . The
horses were ti red, but as they rested, the dri ver heard another
horse comi ng fast up the hi l l behi nd them. The ri der stopped hi s
horse besi de the coach and shouted:
' l
want a passenger, Mr Jarvi s Lorry, from Tel l son' s Bank i n
London. '
72 Materials for extensive readinq
' l
am Mr Jarvi s Lorry,' sai d one of the passengers, putti ng hi s
head out of the wi ndow.
' What
do you want?'
' l t' s
me! Jerry, Jerry Cruncher, from Tel l son' s Bank, si r,' cri ed the
man on the horse.
' What' s
the matter, Jerry?' cal l ed Mr Lorry.
' A
message for you, Mr Lorry. You' ve got to wai t at Dover for a
young l ady.'
' Very
wel l , Jerry,' sai d Mr Lorry.
' Tel l
them my answer i s
-
CAME
BACK TO LI FE. '
It was a strange message, and a stranger answer. No one i n the
coach understood what thev meant.
Sample Text for Level Five
King' s Ransom by Ed McBain, retold by Rosalie Kerr
CHAPTER. I : ' WE WANT YOUR VOTI NG STOCK, DOUG'
Outsi de the wi ndow boats sai l ed up and down the Ri ver Harb. In
the cl ear October ai r, orange and gol d l eaves screamed thei r col -
our agai nst the col d bl ue sky.
The room was ful l of ci garette smoke. l t hung over the fi ve men
l i ke the breath of ghosts. The room was enormous, but i t was ful l
now, full of the dirty ash-trays, used glasses and empty bottles left
at the end of a l ong and di ffi cul t di scussi on. The men themsel ves
were as exhausted as the smoky ai r.
Ti red but determi ned, the men si tti ng opposi te Dougl as Ki ng
hammered out thei r argument. Ki ng l i stened to them si l entl y.
' We' re
aski ng you to thi nk about profi t, Doug, that' s al l ,' George
Benj ami n sai d.
' l s
that a l ot to ask?'
' Thi nk
of shoes, yes,' Rudy Stone sai d.
' Don' t
forget shoes. But
t hi nk of prof i t . Granger Shoe i s a busi ness, Doug, a busi ness.
Profi t and l oss. The bl ack and the red.'
' And
our
j ob, ' Benj ami n sai d,
' i s
t o keep Granger i n t he bl ack.
Now take another look at these shoes.'
A thi n man, he moved fast and si l entl y to a gl ass tabl e, whi ch
was covered wi th women' s shoes. He pi cked one up from the pi l e
and gave i t to Ki ng.
' What
woman wants to buy a shoe l i ke thi s?' he asked.
' Don' t
mi sunderst and us, ' St one sai d qui ckl y. He was a muscu-
l ar bl ond man who l ooked much younger than hi s forty-fi ve years.
' l t' s
a good shoe, a fi ne shoe, but we' re thi nki ng of profi t now.'
' The
red and the bl ack,' Benj ami n repeated. He turned to an
ol der man si tti ng besi de hi m.
' Am
I ri ght, Frank?'
' One
hundred per cent , ' Frank Bl ake sai d, i n a t hi ck Sout hern
accent. He bl ew ci garette smoke at the hi gh cei l i ng.
' The
Ameri can housewi fe,' Benj ami n sai d,
' can' t
afford thi s
shoe. But even i f she coul d afford i t, she woul dn' t want i t. Mrs
Ameri ca, our customer. The stupi dest l i ttl e woman i n the worl d.'
Sample Text for Level Six
Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen, retold by Clare West
CHAPTER 1: THE BENNETS' NEW NEI GHBOUR
It i s a truth wel l known to al l the worl d that an unmarri ed man i n
possessi on of a l arge fortune must be i n need of a wi fe. And when
such a man moves i nto a nei ghbourhood, even i f nothi ng i s known
about hi s f eel i ngs or opi ni ons, t hi s t rut h i s so cl ear t o t he surround-
i ng fami l i es, that they thi nk of hi m i mmedi atel y as the future hus-
band of one or other of thei r daughters.
' My
dear Mr Bennet , ' sai d Mrs Bennet t o her husband one day,
' have
you heard that someone i s goi ng to rent Netherfi el d Park at
l ast?'
' No,
Mrs Bennet, I haven' t,' sai d her husband.
' Don' t
you want to know who i s renti ng i t?' cri ed Mrs Bennet
i mpati entl y.
' You
want t o t el l me, and I don' t mi nd l i st eni ng. '
Mrs Bennet needed no further encouragement.
' Wel l ,
my dear, I
hear that he' s a very ri ch young man from the norl h of Engl and. l t
seems he came to see Netherfi el d on Monday and was so
del i ghted wi th i t that he arranged to rent i t at once. Of course, i t i s
the fi nest house i n the area, wi th the l argest gardens. Hi s servants
wi l l be here by the end ol the week, and he wi l l be arri vi ng soon
afterwards!'
' What
i s hi s name?' asked Mr Bennet.
' Bi ngl ey. '
' l s
he marri ed or si ngl e?'
' Oh,
si ngl e, my dear, of course! A si ngl e man ol l arge fortune
-
he has an i ncome of four or fi ve thousand pounds a year. How
wonderf ul f or our gi rl s! '
' Why?
How can i t affect them?' Mr Bennet asked.
' My
dear Mr Bennet,' she repl i ed,
' how
can you be so annoyi ngl
You must real i ze l ' m thi nki ng of hi s marryi ng one of our daughters.'
' l s
that hi s purpose i n comi ng to the area?'
' Hi s
purpose? No, of course not. But i t' s very l i kel y that he' l l fal l
i n l ove wi th one of them. And I want hi m to see the gi rl s as soon as
I
I
I
ti
possi bl e, before our other nei ghbours i ntroduce themsel ves. So
you must vi si t hi m as soon as he arri ves.'
' l
real l y don' t see why I shoul d, ' sai d Mr Bennet .
' You
and t he
gi rl s can vi si t hi m, or perhaps you shoul d send them by them-
sel ves. Yes, that mi ght be better, as you' re as attracti ve as any of
t hem, and Mr Bi ngl ey mi ght l i ke you best . '
' My
dear, you fl atter me,' repl i ed hi s wi fe,
' l
cefi ai nl y have been
cal l ed beauti ful i n the past, but I thi nk a woman wi th fi ve adul t
daughters shoul d stop thi nki ng of her own beauty. Mr Bennet, I beg
you to vi si t hi m. You know i t' s correct for the gentl eman of the
fami l y to vi si t new nei ghbours fi rst. I si mpl y cannot take the gi rl s to
see hi m unl ess you have al ready met hi m. '
' Surel y
you worry too much about the rul es of pol i te soci ety. I' m
sure Mr Bi ngl ey wi l l be del i ght ed t o see you al l . And l ' l l wri t e hi m a
few l i nes, whi ch you can gi ve hi m, agreei ng gl adl y to hi s marryi ng
any of the gi rl s, al though I must especi al l y recommend my dear
l i ttl e Li zzy.'
' Oh
no, Mr Bennet ! ' gasped Mrs Bennet , horri f i ed.
(Hedge and Bassett, forthcomi ng)
Language l earner l i terature as art
Moni ca Vi ncent states that si mpl i fi ed texts "arc qual i tati vel y di fferent"
( 1986, p. 210) l r om genui nc l i t er at ur c. But do t hey r eal l y have t o be?
What i s l i tcrature' l Ronal d Cartcr and Mi chacl Long. i n thei r exccl l ent
and practi caf book Tcut' hi ng Li l eruture, suggest that i t i s wri tten to
"create
an ef-fcct through words" ( l 99l
,
p. 105). John McRae i n hi s book Li teruture
v' i l h a Smul l
' l ' sees
i t as text that "wi l l sti mul ate rcacti on and response"
( 199 I , p. vi i ) . McRac el abor at cs on t hcse not i ons, t aki ng as hi s st ar t i ng
poi nt George Orwcl l ' s choi cc of the word "gri my" to descri be London i n
tlre novel Nineleen Eight.t,-Four rather than the simpler "dirty."
Li t cr at ur c r . s t hc di f f cr cncc bct wccn' di r t y' and' gr i r ny. ' Thc ver y unf anr i l i ar i t y
and. frequcntl y, the uncxpcctedncss of the author' s choi cc of words or of struc-
turcs i s what makes an i rnagi nati vc tcxt di ftcrcnt from a purel y rcfbrenti al pi ccc
oi l anguagc use. . Thcre i s a cl car rcl ati on between how the wri tcr sees what
hc- i s wri ti ng about ancl horv hc or she rvants the reader to see the same thi ng.
Thc choi ccs an authol nrakes
-
whut ro wri tc about and l ron' to wri tc about i t
-
arc fundamcntal to the tcxt the readcr rccei ves. And what rni ght be cal l cd
' cl csi rcd
effect'
-
. . . thc i nrpact thc tcxt has on i ts reader
--
depends vcry much
on t hcse aut hor i al choi ccs. ( 1991. p. 42)
l l r r : t l ocs l t ot mean I ht t t gr i mv woul d bc t hc bel t cr choi ce t br l anguage
. r ncr s or t hat r l l r t u woul d be t he r i ght choi ce. ci t hcr . I t deper r ds on t he
' l , .rl cd effbct i ntended by an author sensi l i t,t' to u
l turti cul or
audi enc' e. One
r er ni nded of John Mi l ne' s obser vat i on i n t hc pr cccdi ng sect i on, t hat
, r t er s
need t o use " t hei r i nt ui t i ve f ' eel i ng f i r r l anguage and hol d a bal ance
,,
r\\ ccn . . .
fl anguage]
whi cl r may be necessary fbr the tcl l i ng of a parti cu-
, rr stury and . . .
[that]
whi ch mi ght cause students i nsurmountabl e
, l r l l r c ul t y " ( 1911, p. l 2) .
\ l cRae' s asscr t i on t hat l i t cr at ur e depends on t he unf ami l i ar i t y and unex-
' , r tccl ncss of the author' s choi cc of words woul d seem to back up Vi n-
, rt' s cl ai m that si rnpl i fi ed texts cannot be l i terature. Di rtt' , after al l , i s a
\ ( ' r ( l sui t abl e t br I anguage l camer s, wher cas gr i nr . t , woul d pr obabl y j ust
,' nl use: l anguage l earners cannot understand or apprcci ate such vocabu-
rrr And yet, tbr l earncrs whose l i ngui sti c worl d i s smal l er, words com-
r r onpl ace t o nat i ve speaker s can possess al l t he unf ami l i ar i t y, unexpect ed-
r r L r \ . ond i nr pact of a wor d sucl r as gr i mv. Cl evcr aut hor s can expl oi t t hi s t o
' r t ' r r t
cf l - ect .
l here arc exampl es of careful and cffecti ve choi ce of words of l anguage
l , . r r ' ncr l i t cr at ur c i n t he passagcs i n t hc pr evi ous sect i on. Roser nar y Bor der
, i r wr i t er wondcr l ul l y sensi t i ve t o t he nuances of l anguagc. Adapt i ng
' .,rki ' s
short story
"Srcdni
Vashtar" fbr pre-i ntcnnedi ate students of En-
,l rsl r,
shc uses the word
/i rbi d
rather than the rnore col nmon suv somebod),
,uut()t or not l et/al l ov' . Forbi cl i s far beyond the approxi rnatel y 1000-word
l , r cl at whi ch Bor der i s wr i t i r r g, but i t has t he sense of pr ohi bi t i on by
,(,nrcone i n authori ty, thus emphasi zi ng the powerl essness fel t by Conradi n
rr Iri s aunt' s worl d. F<trhi d i s a word al most certai n to cause di fl i cul ty to
l , ss t han ski l l ed r eader s who have pr eci ous l i t t l e cogni t i vc pr occssi ng
,,rpuci ty avai l abl e to dcvote to unfhmi l i ar words. Yet Bordcr chooses to
rrre l ude i t preci sel y for i ts desi red cffect on the reader. She probabl y f' el t that
rt rvt)ul d not cûse i nsunnountabl e di ffi cul ty, fbr i t i s pl aced so that i ts
nerrni ng can be guessed fi om context. She al so repeats the word no l ess
t l r r r r t hr ee t i mes i n as many l i nes, t her eby r endcr i ng i t maxi mal l y sal i ent .
| (' f
a pre-i ntennedi ate l anguagc l earner, i t i s arguabl e that the i mpact of thi s
' rrrrcl ("He was fbrbi cl dcn to pi ck thc t' l owcrs. He was fbrbi ddcn ro cat the
tr Lri t. He was forbi dden to pl ay on the grass.") i s as powerful and l i terary i n
,l e scri bi ng Conradi n' s worl d as George Orwe-l l ' s use of the word gr.rnl -r' i s i n
, l r \ cr i bi ng
London.
It i s cl car that authors of Ianguage l eanrer l i teraturc can conrmuni cate
rri l l r i rnpact and afl ect i f they are al l owed to. But, as Chri stopher
l i l r r r nf l t
-
speaki ng as a wr i t er of Engl i sh l anguage t ext s, - r el at es wi t h
I r ustrated bi tterness.
i
I
r
ii
I
Most of us havc or,rl favouri tc hcl rror stori cs ol - publ i shcrs' ccl i tors rej ecti ng any-
t hi r r g i nt er est i ng i n f hvour o1' anyt hi ng dul l ( ' shc was cont i ng t o t hc cvcni ng of
hcr l i fb' becorl c-s
' shc
was very i l l ' ) on the assunrpti on that l carncrs of Engl i sh
comc to readi ng as bl arrk and unl i tcrary and i nhul nan as thc cornputcrs on whi ch
thc prcval ent i nfornrati ttn transfcr ntctaphor i s bascd. ( I 985, p. 96)
Fortunatcl y, sensi ti ve edi tors exi st, as evi denccd by thc fl exi bl e ap-
proach to vocabul ary and the unexpurgated poeti c and fi gurati ve expres-
si ons i n the sarnpl e tcxts: In "Srcdni Vashtar," C' onradi n' s aunt i s "l ocked
out" of hi s worl d of i nragi rrati on; i n A Tal e of' Ttro Crl l e,.s, Di ckens' s evoca-
ti ve paradox "l t
was the best of ti rnes, i t was thc worst of ti mes" rernai ns;
and i n Kl l g.s Runsrtm, thc rnood i s sct by autur.nn l eavcs that "scrcarned
thci r col our" ancl by ci garette srnoke hangi ng i n the ai r
"l i ke
thc breath of
ghosts." Thc autl rors i ncl ude and the edi tors r-etai n these expressi ons i n
texts wri tten fbr l anguage l earners beyond tl re begi nni ng stagc. These
l carners al rcady havc a si ght vocabul ary, al bei t l i mi tcd i n deve l opment, and
thus some cogni ti ve capaci ty avai l abl e to work out and appreci ate such use
of l anguage.
The importance of content
"Unfbrtunatcl y,"
notcs Davi d Hi l l wi th rneasured restrai nt, "the
content of
rcaders has not exerci sed wri tcrs and edi tors of gradcd readers nearl y as
much as t he wr i t i ng and appl i cat i on of gr adi ng scher nes" ( 1997, p. 59) . I t
appcars that publ i shers and edi tors vi ew a gradcd reader pri mari l y as part of
a ser i es and onl y t hen as an i ndi vi dual cr cat i on. Wi t h such an or der of
pri ori ti es i t i s no wonder that the content of thc books tends to take thc back
scat. Wri ters and edi tors appear to fbrget that, above al l cl se. i t i s thc appeal
of a book i n ancl of i tsel f that rxatters to l l re person rcadi ng i t.
For l anguagc l earner l i tcrature to fl ower. i t wi l l probabl y need to brcak
ti ee of the confl nes of nronol i thi c graded seri cs presi ded over by edi tors
whose apparent mai n concern i s wi th the rnccl rani cs of produci ng a l i n-
gui sti cal l y appropri ate product. Publ i shers, cdi tors, and authors must take
seri ousl y thc i dea of cornrnuni cati ng wi th l anguage l earners as readcrs wi th
thei r own i nterests. desi res, and tastes. Then popul zrr wri ters, characters,
and seri es wi l l appear fbr l anguage l carners, dri vcn by the marketpl ace,-j ust
as t hey have i n chi l dr cn' s and young adul t l i t cr at ur e.
To gi ve but one exarnpl e of what rnrght bc, rvri ter Stcphen Rabl cy and
i l l ustrator Inga Moorc have creatcd a couragcous (i f stcrcotypi cal ) French
rrouse detccti ve cal l cd Marcel . Because he i s a l l ouse, hi s expl oi ts go
unnoti ccd by the humans he hcl ps. and thcrei n l i es hi s charm. Thrcc or fbur
Marcel stori es have been publ i shed by Longrnan i n i ts Engl i sh-l anguagc
. r \/(1/' /.r and Lottgntun Ori gi nul s seri es (scc l cvcl s l r l rntl G i n the Appen-
' r
l . car ner s who l ove Mar cel and C' el i r r c, hi s pl r r t r t cr i n sol vi ng l . uyst er -
r r oul cl gl adl y r ead t nor e of t hei r advct t l t t r cs. [ ] t r t as l ong as Mar cel
, , ' 1. :
i l r c nr er c i t ems wi t hi n a gr aded ser i es, t hc publ i shcr i s unl i kel y t o
, ' r . r t l cr
t hem as wor ks i n t hci r own r i ght and unl i kel y t o publ i sh cnough
. , l ( ) si r t i sl y der nand.
l r r nquage l eamer l i t er at ur e shoul d i ncl udc al l gcnr es, even books t hat
' l o ccho . l ohn McRae. l i t er at ur e wi t h t hc sr t t al l est " 1" of al l . l n ot her
, , ' r , l s.
l br adul t l ear ner s and i f cul t ur al l y appr opr i at c, l anguage l ear ner
r , r i l l r r r c shoul d i ncl ude what B. M. Z. Mur phy. wr i t i ng i n Mot l er n Engl i sh
, , , / i cr ; cal l s
" bad books and di r t y books" ( 1987, p. 23)
" pul p- st yl e
, r r or r " ( p. 22) r vi t h al l t hc st camy cr ot i ci st n t hat dr i ves t hat genr e t o t he t op
t r r r r t i ve- l anguage best - sel l er l i st s.
I ruruuage l earners arc an audi cncc l i ke any other, deservi ng not j ust
rrl i rrr-r matter but a vari ed l i tcraturc that spcaks to thenr. There i s cause fbr
,,t).' when Jul i c Stone, ELT secretary for a nraj or publ i sher, tal ks i n thc
, ,l l orvi ng tcrnrs. Bcl cl ks fbr l anguage l earners
r , , ' 11111 bq as acccssi bl c as possi bl c wi t hout pat r oni zi nt t hc r cadcr abovc al l
-
, r sl roul d bc cn.j oyabl c. . . . Stori cs urust bc strong on pl ot wi th a nrodcst
rrrrl rcr t)f characte' rs and sub-pl ots.
(' haracl crs
shoul d havc moti vati ott attd
' re shoul d bc a strong thcurc as wcl l as dranra attd tcnsi on. Rcadi ng' fbddcr'
r l l soor r dct cr and di sappoi nt cvcn t hc t r ost cncr gct i c st udcnt . ( 1994. p. l 5)
\ \ l r cn St one t al ks of books bci ng acccssi bl c, shc i s al l udi ng t o a f i nal
,,rr:i cl crati on i n produci ng l anguage l camcr l i tcraturc: the support ofl -ered
r , , : t udcnt s t o makc r eadi ng easi er . Thi s i s a mat t er , no l ess t han cot n-
r r r r r i cat i on and ccl nt ent , i n whi ch edi t or s t nust cl cci ds t hci r pr i or i t i es.
Support for readi ng
I t t ' t l i t or sof l anguagcl car ncr l i t er at ur eappear r el uct ant t ot hi nki nt er t r r sof
r l r \ ' cont ent of t l r ei r books, t hcy sccm posi t i vcl y set agai nst pr ovi di ng as-
r.l i urce to the reader. A f-ew scri cs of-fcr i ntroducti ons that hel p the reader
, l , pr cci at e t he cont ext of t he wor k. but t hcsc ar c t he except i on, not t he r ul e.
l l r e onl y suppor t r nost edi t or s gi ve t he r eader i s t he quest i ons on t he mai n
t , , ' r nt s of t hc st or y at t l r e end of t he book, a/ i cl r eadi ng i s f l ni shed. Thi s i s a
t r onq i ndi cat i on t hat cdi t or s ar e t hi nki ng of t he neecl s of t he t eacher , not of
r l r . ' i car l c- r / r eader . Davi d Hi l l l uci dl y makcs t hc casc f or t nor e hel pl i r l ai ds
, , r ' cadi ng.
l rr rrrv j udgemcnt, l L-arncrs necd prc-rcadi rr-u su1' tpor1 to hcl p thcm ovcrcomc the
, l r l l r cul t y of
' get t i ng
i nt o' a book. Thcy al so ncc- d whi l c- r cadi ng suppor t . ci t her
r thc l brm of a summary of the sal i cnt poi nts su fi tr. or as a notc of thc poi nts
1r
I
l
t o l ook out f br whi l c rcadi ng t hc ncxt scct i on. or bot h.
' Janc
Eyre has l ef i
school and obt ai ncd a j ob as a govcrncss t o t hc ward of a ri ch gent l crnan. How
wi l l shc be t reat cd by hcr ncw cmpl oycrs' / How wi l l shc get on wi t h hcr pupi l ?'
Such an i nscrt i on bet wcen chapt ers woul d conf i rm t hc l earncrs' undcrst andi ng
of what t hey had read. and provi dc t hcm wi t h a cl car si gnpost t hrough t he next
scct i on. I t woul d al so t akc account of t hc f hct t hat l carners l cavc a book f or a
f bw hours or days, and can casi l y l osc t he t hrcad.
This sorr of support may bc considcrcd intcrfcring and patronizing. and for
l earncrs who arc compct cnt and cxpcri cnccd rcadcrs i n t hci r own l anguagc, t hi s
may be so. But t hey necd not use t hcm. and graded rcaders shoul d cat er f br
t hosc who arc unski l l ed i n rcadi ng l ong t cxt s. ( 1997, pp. 64 65)
But t hc rnost di f f i cul t aspect of rcadi ng f or l anguage l carners i s vocabu-
l ary. St udent s nced hel p bot h i n undcrst andi ng unknown words and i n
bui l di ng t hei r vocabul ari es. Fcw seri es of f -er such assi st ance. Those t hat do,
r ar el y do i t ef Tect i vcl y, as Hi l l poi nt s out :
Some mark
' di f f l cul t '
words i n t hc t cxt but do not put t hcrn i n a gl ossary. ot hers
provi dc a gl ossary but do not rnark t hc words i n t hc t cxt . whi l c ot hers mark t he
word and put t hcm i n a gl ossary. Edi t ors arc rcady t o go t o t hc barri cadcs i n de-
f -cncc of t hei r pol i cy. but t hc onl y onc t hat rnakcs t ny scnsc t o nrc- i s t o rnark t he
t ext and havc a gl ossary. I hat c l ooki ng up a word
[ at
t hc back of a book] onl y
t o f i nd i t i s not t hcrc. or rcachi ng t hc cnd ol -a book bcf brc di scovcri ng t hat
t herc i s a gl ossary. ( 1997, p. 65)
Wri t i ng t br and communi cat i ng wi t h l anguage l carners means ant i ci pat -
i ng how t hcy wi l l respond. Measuri ng t he ef l -ect a t ext wi l l have on a reader
shoul d i ncl ude consi dcrat i on of support t o ensure t hat readi ng i s a pl easant
and f rui t f ul experi ence rat hcr t han a di f f l cul t and myst i f yi ng onc. Gl oss-
ari es and ot her ai ds t o readi ng are val uabl c and appropri at e t ool s f or l an-
guagc l earners and novi ce readers. . l ust as bol d i l l ust rat i ons and bi g pri nt
charact eri zc chi l dren' s l i t erat ure, and short chapt ers and col l oqui al l an-
guage charact eri ze young adul t l i t crat ure, di f f l cul t words marked i n t he
t ext , gl ossari es, sul nmari es, and gui de quest i ons shoul d charact eri ze a t rue
litcrature for language learncrs.
Concl usi on
Lcarni ng to rcad i n a second l anguage i s a fbmi dabl e task, i nvol vi ng ti me
and efforl on the part of student and teacher al i ke. Both deserve the best
possi bl e tool s, i n thi s casc readi ng rnatcri al s.
There i s a need fbr a strong and vari ed l anguage l earner l i terature i n as
many second l anguages as possi bl e. Teachers, students, and others i nter-
estcd i n second l anguage readi ng must ask for l anguage l carner l i teratures
l l rat are i nherentl y i ntcresti ng and wcl l wri ttcn. antl that ol l ' cr appropri tte
\ uppor t s f br r cadi ng. l t i s not an i r npossi bl c dcnr and. Unt i l i t i s I nct ,
l cachcr s who wi sh t hci r st udent s t o dcvcl op r eadi ng abi l i t y and a l ove of
rcacl i ng i n a second l anguage wi l l conti nuc to have a tough row to hoe.
Further readi ng
l rr Chapter 4,
"C-' omprehendi ng and Rcadi ng," of hi s l 97tl vol unre Teuchi ng
I trnguage u:; Communi c' ati on, Henry Wi ddowson exami ncs the process of
ri ri ti ng tcxt that i s both comprehensi bl e fbr l anguage l earners and he l pfi rl
l i r r l eami ng t o r ead. See espcci al l y pages 11 93.
Davi d Hi l l , who has al most certai nl y rcad morc graded readers than
, r ny ot l r cr human bei ng l i vi ng or dead, has di st i l l cd hi s exper i cncc i nt o
' survey
Revi ew: Graded Rcadcrs" (1997). a statc-of-the-art anal ysi s of
tl rcse books that i s useful fbr tcacl rer and wri ter al i ke. Al so useful fbr
l rtrtcnti al
wri ters of l anguage l earner l i tcrature are.l ohn Mi l nc' s Hci nentunn
t irritled Reaclers I'lontlbook (1977) and thc rcvised edition of O.r/onl Book-
\t()t' tns; Gui del i nes
/br
Author.s by Tri ci a Hcdgc and Jenni f' er Bassctt (l brth-
( ( ) l t t i ng) .
It i s al ways i nteresti ng to cornpare an adaptati on wi th i ts ori gi nal , and
:cverol authors have done thi s.
Al an Davi cs and Henr y Wi ddowson ( assi st ed by Jul i an Daki n) cor npar c
the famous "Pl case, si r, I want soffl c l nore" passagc frorr Charl es
I)i ckcns' s Ol i ver fi r' rsl wi th two si rnpl i fi cd vcrsi ons, wi th thought as to
rvhat the si mpl i fi crs rni ght have bccn tryi ng to do i n each casc. Sce pages
116 177, 182 I l l 5, and 190- 195 of t hci r chapt er " Readi ng and Wr i t i ng"
( pp. 155 201) i n Al l en and Cor der ' s 1974 Techni que. s i n Appl i ed
Li ngui st i t' s.
Il onal d Cartcr and Mi chael Long cotnpare l engthy passagcs fi onr the
rrri gi nal and si mpl i fi ed vcrsi ons of Georgc El i ot' s Adum Bede i n thci r
bctt-tk Tbut' hi ng Li terututr (1991, pp. l 4tt 153), cl earl y showi ng the
tl i l -fbrences between an cxcel l ent si rnpl i fi cati on and i ts l i terary ori gi nal .
I' ri ci a Hedgc j uxtaposes an ori gi nal and a si rnpl i fi cd passage fi orn Al -
tl ous Huxl ey' s Brave Nex' Il 4trl tl . fol l owed by carcful compari son, i n her
l rook U^si ng Reoders i n Languuge Teuthi ng (1985, pp. l 6 20).
I ) l vi d Hi l l and col l eagues at t he Edi nbur gh Pr oj ect on Ext cnsi ve Readi ng
rl l ' l rR) have l ong been separati ng l anguage l earncr l i tcrature fi orr-r readi ng
l ,rtkl er. The EPER database ranks E,ngl i sh l anguage gracl cd rcaders, both i n
1, r r nt
and out of pr i nt , on a qual i t y scal c. nn EPER l i st i ng of t l r e best of
' rrrtl ed
readers appears i n the Appendi x.
I ' , \ RT I I I :
I I I E PRACTI CE OF
I { I . ] ADI NG
EXTENSI VE
I l r r s l l nal sect i on of t he book
- - occupyi ng
r nor e t han hal f i t s l engt h det ai l s
' l r r ' pr ocess
of sct t i ng up ( Chapt er s 8 l 0) , car r yi ng out ( Chapt cr s l l l 3) ,
' r r , l l i nal l y cval uat i ng ( Chapt cr l 4) an cxt cnsi vc r eadi ng pr ogr am.
(' hapter
8 i s concerned wi th preparati ons fbr an extensi ve readi ng pro-
' r , r r r r .
bcgi nni ng wi t h quest i ons such as how r nuch st udcnt s wi l l r cad and on
r l ut basi s thei r readi ng wi l l bc eval uated. The next two chapters fbcus on
' ,,rtl i ng
rrrateri al s: the vari ous types that can be used fbr extensi ve readi ng
t l urpter 9) and how to assembl e thern i nto a worki ng l i brary (Chapter l 0).
l l rc extensi ve readi ng program i tsel f begi ns wi th a student ori entati on.
, , r cr cd i n Chapt cr l l , and cont i nucs wi t h cl assr oom act i vi t i es ( Chapt er
L
' )
and act i vi t i es used as a f bl l ow- up t o r eadi ng ( Chapt er l 3) . At t he end of
' l rt'
l cnn or year, the program i s anal yzed i n terms of i ts success and fai l ure
' t l r apt cr l 4) .
l ' art Il l concl udes by l ooki ng, i n Chapter 15, at the condi ti ons necessary
1,r1 gr{snsi vs
readi ng to fl ouri sh. One of these condi ti ons i s the devel op-
rrr' rrt of l anguage l earner l i terature. Both to encouragc that proccss and to
r r r r kc t he book as pr act i cal as possi bl e ( at l east f or t eacher s of Engl i sh as a
,,ond l anguage), a bi bl i ography of the best l anguage l earner l i terature i n
I r r ql i sh i s i ncl udcd i n t he Appendi x.
(Y
Setting up a program;
Curricular decisions
Teache' rs have t o crcat c t he ri ght condi t i ons t i l r readi ng
t o bccome a val ued part of every st udent ' s l i l ' e.
--Chri st i ne
Nut t al l ( 1996.
n. 127)
l l re purpose of thi s chapter i s to address these curri cul ar questi ons:
. l l orv rnuch rnateri al shoul d students read' l
. I l ow can teachers eval uate students?
. \houl d students read i n cl ass or tbr hornework or botl r' l
. .\t what l evel of di fl i cul ty shoul d studcnts read?
. Shoul d st udent s usc di ct i onar i es whi l c r eadi nu' l
\\ l rcn tcachers or admi ni strators deci dc that students woul d benefi t fi om
\tcr)si vc rcadi ng, they arc nrost l i kel y enteri ng uncharted tcrri tory. Exten-
rrc readi ng bcl ongs i n an educati onal worl d di fferent from thc one that
r,l rni ni strators, tcachers, and students usual l y i nhabi t. For one thi ng, the
r n j or
act i vi t y, r eadi ng, i s not conf l ned t o t he f bur wal l s of t he cl assr oom.
l , ) r ' auot her , gr owt h i n posi t i ve at t i t udc may be as i nt pof t ant a goal as
,r
ou' th i fl readi ng abi l i ty. l n the cnd. teachers may di scover that they are not
, r rnLl ch teachi ng a cl ass i n readi ng as bui l di ng a communi ty of readers.
Mappi ng extensi ve readi ng onto the ternpl ate of compul sory educati on
. rrot al ways strai ghtforward. In school , students ofi en fl nd themsel ves
rrrtl yi ng subj ects that do not, on the surl hce, seem to fi t thei r i mmedi ate
r ! e( l s and i nt er cst s. Al t hough t he i deal envi si ons a cl assr oor n i n whi ch
tr rtl cr.rts are cager and ready to take on al l assi gnments wi l l i ngl y, the real i ty
. tl i fl ' erent. Thcrefore, the pcdagogi cal suggesti ons i n thi s chapter are
, rrrched i n terms of the real i ty of the everyday cl assroom: grades; requi re-
' r . ' r ) t \ :
r ul es t nd r cgul at i ons.
I l ti s chapter i s basi cal l y an ori entati on fbr teachers and admi ni strators
\ l r() ure consi deri ng i mpl ementi ng an extensi ve readi ng approach. The fi ve
l rrcsti orrs
at thc head ol - the chapter fi arne the rnaj or i ssues that teacl rers
,rr' ed to resol ve when setti ng up an extcnsi ve readi ng program. We wi l l
, ' nsi t l cr cach
quest i on
i n t ur n.
84 The practice of extensive reading
How much material should students read?
Extensi ve rcacl i ng means readi ng a l argc atnount i n the second l arrguagc,
Thi s i s thc very essence ofthe procedurs, and al l benefi ts are based on i t. At
the same ti me, tl tere i s no parti cul ar amount of readi ng that qual i fi es for thc
term extensi ve. How much students read i s rel ati ve to thci r ci rcunl stanccs
and abi l i ti es. Tl rc answer i s therefbre that, i f thei r goal i s to become fl uenl
readers, students shoul d read as much as i s reasonabl y possi bl e.
The maj or consi derati on i s how much cl ass and homework ti rne thc
students have fbr readi ng. Are readi ng cl asscs once a week or dai l y? How
much ti me can students reasonabl y be expected to devote to homework
readi ng per day or per wcck?
Another consi dcrati ott i s how l ong the students ci rn read pl easurabl y
before l osi ng i nterest. Bcgi nners obvi ousl y cannot read fbr as l ong as morc
advanced l earncrs. It i s not onl y that they read more sl owl y, they get ti red
more qui ckl y. A begi nner wi l l perhaps have had cnough after 20 nri nutes,
whereas a more advancecJ student n-l ay not l tel l i ke stoppi ng readi ng for an
hour or more.
Reading expectations
Oncc al l of the consi derati ons havc bccn di scussed, the amount of readi ng
expected of studcnts can be expressed as a readi ng target. As Wi l l i am
Grabe says:
Progress i n readi ng i s onl y rccogni zabl e ovcr a peri od ofti mc. . . . Tcachcrs
must bc wi l l i ng to bcl i cvc i n the proccss. . . . Onc cl car i ndi cati on of fai th and
commi tmcnt i s to demand perfbrmance. Rcadi ng i s a persol ral experi ence and
the tcachcr cannot peer over the shoul dcr of thc studcnt. But the teacher can . . .
pl ace cxpcctati ons on thc students. Most studcnts ri ghtl y i ntcrprct such behavi or
as conrni tnrcnt and i nvol vement on thc tcachcr' s part. ( 1986, pp. 44 45)
Readi ng targets whether expectecl or requi red and rrreasuri ng progress
toward them are very i rnportant i n extensi ve readi ng. Thcy are part of what
keeps students readi ng i n thei r own ti me, and cven moti vated students can
be assi sted by them. Students have many cal l s upon thei r ti rne that can
rnake i t di ffi cul t 1br therr to accor.npl i sh everythi ng that they wi sh to.
Establ i shi ng rcadi ng expectati ons ensures that they kccp movi ng toward
thei r goal of becomi ng fl uent readers.
Readi ng targets can be expressed i n terms of thc matcri al (nurnber o1'
books or pages read) or ti me (nunrber of hours spent readi ng), or a com-
bi nati on of both. Bernard Susser and Thomas Robb, i n an overvi ew of
Setting Ltp a program 85
r r ' i r c r cacl i r . t g i r t st r uct i on. sur vcycr l t hc l i t cr l r l t r l c t o r l ct er nr i nc how
, l r r cudi r r g was suggcst ed. and l r or v cl r ant i t l ' ol ' r cut l i ng r vas nr easur cd
, ' ' ( 1.
1r p.
l ( r 5 166) . Thcy f bund such susscst i or t s us:
. i o
l ) uses
an hour ( l l i l l & Rei d Thour as, l 9f l t t . p. - 50)
. { l
l ) l sss
pcr week ( Paul st or r & Br ucl cr . 1976.
1" t . 202)
o r , t i l r r xr ks
a yet r ( Br i ght & Mc( i r e' - uor . 1970. p. 6t ) )
' , r l t l l css
ol - t he quant i t y ancl how i t i s cxpr essed. howevcr , an i r r por t ant
r . r t l cr at i cl n i s t hat t hc r eacl i r r g assi gnr ncr r t s be l ong enough t o di scour age
' ' r r si vc st udy or t r ansl at i on. Al t er nat i vel y. ancl t o t he sanr c end, a l i t . ne
r r l ( i l l r bc i nt r oduccd wi t hi n whi ch st udent s ur ust f l ni sh r cadi ng. Thi s was
l r r t l r c hi gl t - school t eachcr i r t Chapt cr 5 i nsi st cd t hat st r - r dent s conr pl et e
r r l r or . r . r cwor k r cadi ng u' i t hi n a sct t i r ne l i r r i t .
l ) r ni cl l l i l l ' s r Lr l c of t hur r b a book a week i l - t he books ar e shor t and
r r r pl g i s a good poi nt of dcpaf t ur e whcn f i l r nr ul at i ng r eadi ng t ar gct s. One
' , ' k
of ' l ar t guagc l car uer l i t cr at ur c at t hc l owcst l cvel can pcr haps bc r eacl
. r bcgi nni ng- l cvcl st ucl cnt i n about l 5 n. r i nut cs. Such a book cont ai ns
, , r Lr t
l ( r pagcs of t er t . An i nt er r nccl i at e- l evcl book ( 60 70 pagcs) ni ght
l e ubout 2 hcl ur s t o r cad. ar r cl an advar r ccd- l evcl book ( l l 0+ pages and
' r , r l l cr pr i nt ) about 3 hour s. Books wr - i l t en f br nat i vc spcakel s can be r ead
' Lri tabl y advanccd str.rcl cnts at thc rate of approxi matel y 30 pages pcr
, ' r r r ' ( l pagc ol - t ext has abor r t 300 wor cl s. and st udcnt s nr ay r ead at an
L' r ' i r ec of 150 wol ci s pcr nr i r t ul c, i ncl t r di ng pauscs) . Fr onr l hese f i gur cs,
rr,l by survcyi ng your own stucl cnts about how l ong i t takcs thenr to rctrd, i t
possi bl c to work out how nruch to cxpect sl url c' nts to rcad i n thc ti nrc
, , r i l l bl c. St udcnt s cr r t t hcr r bc expcct cd t o r cacl a ccl t ai n nunr bcr of l r ooks
,,
r Vu' eek, scl l ester, or yeaf.
l cachcl s are sor.ne-ti mes l i ustratccl bv rvatchi ng studcnts sel ect l i trrary
, , ' , r ks " bccause
t hcy' r e shor t . " Shoul dn' t st udcnt s bc cnc<t ur agccl t o car c
r , r l ' s 11[ e111 t hc cont ent o1- t he books t hcr r scl ves' ] Sol nc' t eachcr s havc
rr' rrtccl "wei ghtcd pages" fornrul as. i n part as a way of prevcnti ng l azy or
r r : r nr bi t i ous st udeut s f i om r eacl i ng easy or shor t books i n or der t o avoi d
r , r nr cwol ' k. For mul as al so gi ve t eachcr s a r easor r abl y obj cct i ve cr i t el i r l r r t o
, , t t cr cal cul at c cxact l y how r r r uch cach st ucl cnt has r cad dur i ng t he school
, i I f .
l i or nr ul as wor k l i kc t hi s. E. ach book i n t hc l i i r r al y i s exanr i ned ancl gi vcr t
r *ci ght cd pages val ue abovc or bel or v er st andar d. Bcr nar d Susscr and
I l r onr as Robb. f br cxal npl e, t cachi ng Engl i sh at . l apanesc uni ver si t i es. cr e-
Lr.' tl i t fbrnrul a basecl ott worcl s pcr pasc. arca of' wl ti te space aud i l l ustra-
r { ) nsi and r cadabi l i t y l cvel as i ndi cat ccl by a r eadabi l i t y f or nr ul a. Books i n
rl rei r l i brari es "ranged fi onr 0.70 l i rr sonrc i nternrcdi ate-l evcl gracl ccl
r eacl cr s. . . t o 2. 30 f br st andar d, adul t novel s" ( 1989, p. 9) . ( Sce " Fur t her
readi ng" at l hc' cnd of thi s chapter fbr exact detai l s of thei r formul a.)
And yct, thc i deas of "short" or "easy" are among the natural cri teri a
uscd i n scl ccti ng what to read, and they are not al ways a mark of l azi ness. A
teacher tol d us that one ofher studcnts purposel y sel ected short books so as
to be abl e to read thern duri ng hcr trai n ri de to school , for exampl e.
Teachers have the choi cc of l etti ng such thi ngs be part of the book sel ecti on
process or l eei sl ati ng agai nst thern. Needl ess to say, l etti ng books be books
wi thout i rrposi ng spcci al fbrmul as on them i s l ess compl i cated for tcacher
and studcnts al i ke. It al so avoi ds the possi bi l i ty that teachcr and student
come to see readi ng as a l natter of numbcr of (wei ghted) pages per week
rather than as thc apprcci ati on of i ndi vi dual books. There are al ways other
forces that encouragc students away fi orn short, easy books. Ifstudcnts are
exposed to the opi ni ons of thei r cl assmates, fbr exampl e, they tend to read
what i s recornrncnded to them, regardl ess of l ength. And i f al l cl se fai l s,
thcre wi l l come a ti me when students wi l l havc read most of the shorter
books i n the l i brary, and they wi l l havc to staft sel ecti ng l onger ones.
Whether to count quanti ty i n terms of ti rne spent readi ng or i n tcnns of
books, pages, or wei ghted pages and whether to have any readi ng quotas
at al l i s fi nal l y up to the teacher. In smal l cr programs, where teachers can
gui dc studcnts i ndi vi dual l y, the amount and l evel of readi ng expectcd or
rcqui rcd can be appl i ed fl exi bl y to i ndi vi dual students. In l argcr programs,
when such cl ose, i ndi vi dual attcnti on i s di ffi cul t, more ri gi d requi rements
may havc to bc i rnposed.
How can teachers evaluate students?
There i s nothi ng about extensi ve readi ng that says that requi rements cannot
bc sct, rccords kept" or grades gi ven as i n other fbrrns of i nstructi on.
Students can al so be requi red to dernonstrate understandi ng of thei r readi ng
through wri tten reports or answers to qucsti ons. Thc progress of i ndi vi dual
l eamers can therefbre be tracked, achi evements can be recogni zed and
rewarded, and assi stance can be gi ven as necessary to l camers who are
havi ng di f l l cul t i cs.
Onc way of eval uati ng students i s i n terrns of the readi ng targets, as
di scussed i n the precedi ng secti on. Speci fi cal l y, credi t can be gi ven for
books read and reports turned i n. A standard way of doi ng thi s i s to assi gn
the readi ng of a certai n number of books or pages (for exampl e, a book a
week) i n order fbr students to pass the cl ass or to recei ve a certai n grade.
Setting up a program 87
1
,l rcl
grades or extra credi t can be ofl l rcd l o l strrtl crrl l i l r rcadi ng over
, , l r r bovc t he mi ni mum r equi r ed t o pass t l r c cl uss. I hi s r r sual l y pr ovi des an
, ( nti vc for students to chal l enge themscl vcs to srcatcr achi evernents.
',lrtthods
of record keeping and evaluation
^ DI NG NOTEBOOK
.rrrs readi ng targets to eval uate students requi res sonl e way of keepi ng
,, k of how much students are readi ng. Thi s can be accompl i shed through
r , r r i ct y of r ecor d- keepi ng act i vi t i es done by t he st udcnt s t hcmscl vcs. Thc
,,,st basi c i s a readi ng notebook. Students keep thei r own notebooks i n
' l r r el r
t hcy wr i t c t he names of t he books and ot her r r at er i al s t hey r ead.
l rr' r' udd the dates on whi ch they read the rnateri al , for how l ong thcy rcad
rr el ch date, and whether they cnj oyed i t. Tcachcrs can l ook at these
, ' t t ' l r ooks per i odi cal l y, and usc t hcm as a basi s f br eval uat i on.
, . , I I : KLY READI NG DI ARY
i r rrri ati on of thc readi ng notebook i s the weekl y readi ng di ary. Prepri nted
,rnrs
can be used: Students wri te thei r names at the top and frl l i n the fbnns
1 rrl v. noti ng down what they read that day and for how l ong. They shoul cl
, , r l d al l r eadi ng i n t he second l anguage, i ncl udi ng ncwspaper s and maga-
rres. If thesc di ary forms are turncd i n at the end of each week, teachers
rrr scc at a gl ance how rnuch readi ng each student di d over the previ ous
r cn cl ays. Fi gur e l ( a) i s an exampl e of a r cadi ng di ar y f or m, and l ( b) a
, , nr pl ct ed di ar y f or nt .
) OK REPORTS
\ rrol her acti vi ty that can be part of eval uati on and record kccpi ng i s wri tten
,, ' ok repofts. Thi s i s a si mpl e procedure. as i t i nvol ves onl y the students
,
r r t i ng br i ef summar i es of or per sonal r eact i ons t o t he books t hcy r cad.
,\ ri tten book reports make record keepi ng easy, al though thcy wi l l not
l l cct i nci dental readi ng of newspapers or magazi nes and so may gi ve a
,' l han compl ete pi cture of thc readi ng habi ts of the students. Teachers
ur kccp track of how many reports were submi tted befbre handi ng them
,
r. k to the students. Al ternati vel y, studcnts can be i nstructed to resubmi t
l r,' rr portfol i o of repofts at the cnd of the course.
Name:
Date Material
Target:
- per day
Monday I read for
minutes
Tuesday I read for
minutes
Wednesday I read for
minutes
Thursday
I rcad for
minutes
Friday I read for
minutes
Saturday I read for
minutes
Sunday I read for
minutes
F-igure I (a) Weekllt reading diary,. Cop.yright @ Cambridge University
Press.
READI NG TESTS
Some teachers may wi sh to try to measure growth i n readi ng abi l i ty. Beni ko
Mason and Tom Pendergast offer a hol i sti c means of eval uati ng i ntennedi -
ate and advanced students' vocabulary, grammar, and general reading abil-
i t y ( 1993, pp. l 6- 17) . The f ol l owi ng i s a si mpl i f i ed f onn of t hei r
procedure.
Setting up a program gg
Name:
thuichi
Date Material
Target:
t hr.
pr aay
Monday
I read for
60
mi nutes
'%u
Gandhi
Iuesdav
'
Oandhi
26
I read for
60
mrnutes
The WonderfulWizard
of Oz
Wednesday
z /
The WonderfulWizard
of Oz
ATruL IN MO^COW
THE NEW KOAD
I read for
60
minutes
Thursday
2B
HEKCULE)
ANNA and the Fighter
I read for
50
mrnutes
Friday
29
ANNA and the Fiqhter
Deat hof af ugot di er
The Lonq Tunnel
I read for
60
minutes
Saturday
30
The long Tunnel
Grace Darlinq
I read for
20
minutes
Sunday
1
I read for
o
mlnutes
'trr
c l(b) Weeklv reoding diary (iilett out).
(
l r()()sc a text (of about I ,500 words) of the type and di fl l cul ty that you
| r' ct students to be abl e to read at the e' d of the year. Leave the fi rst
rsral l h i ntact, and then del ete every tenth word of the rest of the text fbr
i "ri rl of 100 del eted i tems. Ask several nati ve speakers to take the rest.
"rrr
tl ri s i nfbrmati on, cornpi l e a master l i st of acceptabl e words for each
I r ' l | ( ) l l .
( , r ' c
t he t est t o t he st udent s at t he begi nni ng of t he cour se. I t can be
compl etcd i n about an hour. Do not tcl l the students that they wi l l be doi ng
the same test as a posttest. Afi cr gi vi ng the pretest, col l ect al l materi al s so
that the test remai ns secure. Ask a nati ve speaker to l ook at the students'
papers to see whether there are any more acceptable words for thc
del eti ons-- add these to the mastcr l i st of acceptabl e answers. The average
score for thi s prctest shoul d be l ess than 35 poi nts out of 100. Gi ve the samc
test at the end of the course.
Mason and Pendergast' s cl oze test can be reused wi th di fferent students
year after year and can thus repay the i ni ti al i nvestment of preparati on ti me.
NEGOTI ATED EVALUATI ON
A di fl erent approach to eval uati on i s offered by Beatri ce Dupuy, Lucy Tse,
and Tom Cook. In thei r l 996 TESOL Jountal arti cl e, "Bri ngi ng Books i nto
the Cl assroom: Fi rst Steps i n Turni ng Col l ege-Level ESL Students i nto
Readers," they rel ate thei r experi enccs wi th "negoti ated eval uati on," a
proccss by whi ch students choose how they wi sh to be eval uated for thei r
readi ng. As Dupuy, Tse, and Cook wri te, "Teachers may expect that stu-
dents woul d choose easy assessments, but i n our experi ence, i f the students
take the responsi bi l i ty seri ousl y, they oftcn cxceed teacher standards" (p.
l 4). Exampl es of ways students chose to be eval uated i ncl uded "forrni ng
book promoti on teams to i ntroduce books to other cl asses,
[and]
wri ti ng
sequel s to stori cs or books" (p l 4)
A ncgoti ated approach to eval uati on i s cl oser to thc spi ri t of extensi ve
readi ng and i ts overal l goal s than teacher-i mposed requi rements. l f the goal
of extensi ve readi ng i s not merel y readi ng i mproven-rent, but for students to
become i ndependent readers, students must experi ence taki ng responsi bi l -
i ty fbr thei r own readi ng. As Dupuy, Tse, and Cook note, negoti ated eval ua-
ti on can be "l i berati ng" for students as wcl l as tcachers (p l 4).
Shoul d students read i n cl ass or for homework or
both?
Once i t i s determi ned how much students coul d be expected to read and
how they mi ght be eval uated, a thi rd curri cul ar deci si on to be made i s
where students should read. Albert Harris and Edward Sipay state the issue
thi s way for the fi rst l anguage readi ng teacher: "l f we do not demonstrate
that readi ng i s a worl hwhi l e acti vi ty by provi di ng school ti me. how can we
expect chi l dren to val ue readi ng' ?" ( 1990, p. 656). Thi s i s no l ess a consi der-
ati on for second l ansuase students. When ti me i s set asi de for students to
r , l i n cl ass, i t shows st udent s t he val uc t hat i s pl accr l or r r cacl i ng and gi ve- s
' :ti rrc to the acti vi ty.
\l thc samc ti ms, extensi ve reacl i ng rccl ui rcs stucl cnts to read i n
, r , r r r t i t y mor e t han i t i s possi bl e t o do i n t hc cl assr oor . n evcn i n t he best of
,r' unl stances. Much readi ng, thcrcti rrc, wi l l havc to bs done by the stu-
L nts l br homcwork. But thi s i s rnore than j ust a mattcr of cxpcdi cncy. As
r ' rth Morrow and Mari ta Schocker poi nt out i n an arti cl e on how to
, r , r l vc st udent s i n r cadi ng, r eadi ng i nvol vcs choi cc on t . nany l cvcl s and
rL' i nrportant aspect of choi ce i s "when and under what concl i ti ons the text
r cr r cl " ( 1987, p. 254) . Fur t her , as John Kl apper poi nt s out , " l ear ner s wi l l
, ' r c l i kel y r espond t o r cadi ng books of t hci r own choi ce at t hei r own
l ,r' e(I.
rathcr than bci ng cornpel l ed to confbrrn to somc uni fbnn pro-
' r , r nune
( 1992. p. 54) .
I hus, out - of - - cl ass r eadi ng i s a cr uci al col r ponsnt i n bui l di ng t he habi t of
,rtl i ng. Studcnts havc to fi nd out when and where they l i kc to read. In an
r r l or nr ol sur vsy by onc of t he aut hor s of t hi s book, one st udent sai d t hat she
, . r t l f br ci gn l anguage l i br ar y books i n bed, i n t he school l i br ar y. i n t he
, nn. on breaks fi om work, and i n a cof-fcc shop. Anothcr sai d that he rcad
, r , r i r r l y at hi s desk at home, bccausc t hat was t hc bcst pl acc l br hi r r t o
, , nccnt r at c. Whcr c and whcn t o r cad ar c mat t cr s of i ndi vi dual choi cc and
, r ,
l cr ence, di scover ed by t r i al and cr r or . Rcadi ng i n onc' s own t i mc and on
, nr " s
own t er ms i s t hc onl y way t o begi n t o do t hi s.
l ntcrcsti ngl y, thc two students j ust rnenti oned added that thei r nati ve
rr.guage readi ng habi ts wcrc thc sanrc as tl rosc they had reported tbr
, ' r ci un l anguage r eadi ng. l t sccr ns t hat , bccausc t hcy wcr c gi vcn t hc choi cc
I u here and when to read, fbrei gn l anguage readi ng had ceascd to be
, ' r r r ct hi ng speci al and had bccomc si r npl y r cadi ng.
At what l evel of di ffi cul ty shoul d students read?
l , r 1 [ cnghsl s who ar e l ucky cnough t o havc a l ar gc l i br ar y wi t h books of
. r r i ous l cvcl s, i t i s a good i dea f br al l st udent s t o bcgi n by r eadi ng ver y easy
, , ' , r ks.
Thi s wi l l qui ckl y bui l d conf l dcncc ancl makc i t casi cr f br t hcm t o
,,
rl n to bui l d both si ght and general vocabul ari es. Readi ng i n the second
r r r Ll uage di r ect l y wi t hout t r ansl at i on and wi t hout st r uggl e wi l l l i kel y be a
,, rv cxpcri ence. Readi ng very easy r.nateri al , at the i ni nu.s I l cvel , bui l ds
, ' r r l l dcnce and makes i t cl car t o st udcnt s t hat t hi s i s a di f l cr cnt ki nd of
.rtl i ng practi cc frorn what they are probabl y used to.
,,\s students devel op thci r l anguagc and rcadi ng compctcncc, i t i s i rnpor-
r r nt t l t i t t t hey l udcl er up. By t hi s i s mcant t hat t he l cvcl of I nat cr i al s t hc
students read i s i n conccrt wi th thci r ci cvcl opi ng l i ngui sti c and readi ng
compctcncc. Materi al that was oncc bcyond a studcnt' s capaci ty gradual l y
becomes i mi nu.s 1 as thei r comfbrt ttne the range of materi al s that can bc
read easi l y and wi th confi dcnce cxpands. General l y, l adderi ng up occurs
wi thout the teachcr' s prornpti ng because students are al l owed to sel ect thei r
own materi al accordi ng to thei r i nterests. Studcnts have an i ncenti ve to
l adder up because, as a rul e, the hi ghcr thc l cvel , the more i nteresti ng the
books.
Students doi ng extensi ve rcadi ng do not al ways fbl l ow a strai ghtfor-
ward, upward path, howcvcr. Marc Hel gesen, teachi ng Engl i sh i n a
women' s j uni or col l cgc i n Japan, noted that hi s students di d not al ways
rrovc fi om l ower- to hi gher-l evel books, but moved rnore randoml y be-
tween l evel s. After readi ng a ffl ore chal l cngi ng book, fbr exampl e. a student
rni ght choose to rcad one or two easi er books. Thi s i s natural . and swi tchi ng
back and fbrth between l evel s shoul d not bc di scouraged. Sorne students
wi l l be eager to read on a topi c that mi ght present a sl i ght chal l enge. Others
wi l l wi sh to read books recommcndcd by cl assmates no matter how easy or
di ffi cul t they arc. And so students wi l l read at di fferent l evel s at di ffbrent
ti mcs somc rnateri al that i s wel l wi thi n thei r comfort zonc. and some that
i s sl i ghtl y beyond i t. Adul t begi nni ng students, fbr cxarnpl e, may be readi ng
easy books and yct al so be avi dl y consurni ng fashi on and soccer magazi nes
wri ttcn fbr nati ve speakers i f such thi ngs are avai l abl e i n the l i brary or the
student l ounge at break ti me. Becausc such students cannot understand
rnuch of the l anguagc i n the magazi nes, they wi l l i gnore i t. At the same
ti me, thcy arc rcadi ng a photo capti on here, and an arti cl e on thei r favori te
star thcre, and are thoroughl y enj oyi ng themsel ves.
Thcrc i s a danger, however, that some students wi l l try to read above
thci r comfbrt l evel , not tbr enj oyrnent but becausc thcy thi nk they ought to
bc readi ng rnore di ffi cul t rnateri al , or becausc thcy thi nk i t i s the best way to
make progress. Furthcrmorc, students may struggl e to conti nue readi ng
di ffi cul t or uni ntcrcsti ng texts, bel i evi ng that stoppi ng and cl rangi ng the
matcri al i s an adrni ssi on of def-eat.
Thi s i s a symptom of what mi ght be cal l ed the muc' ho muri m of second
lunguuge reuding inslruc'tion: no reading pain, no reatling gain. Students
rnust understand through careful ori entati on that onc of the pri rnary goal s of
the prograrn, bui l di ng rcadi ng fl uency, i s acl ,i eved through rnuch practi ce
wi th ca,r' r, texts. Struggl i ng wi th di fi cul t or uni nteresti ng texts i s not thc
way to bui l d rcadi ng fl uency. Students shoul d real i ze that i t i s better to read
morc matcri al that i s casi er than l ess rnateri al that i s harder. and that i t i s
bcttcr to cnj oy what one reads than to be bored or uni nterestcd. Thi s poi nts
to the need fbr teachers to rnoni tor thei r students' progress, maki ng sure
r l \ l udent s ar e engagi ng nat ur al l y wi t h t ext s. St udcr r t s coul d be advi sed t o
,' rtl nrateri al that has more than four or l l vc unknown words pcr page
, ' r r ' unknown
wor ds t han t hi s means t hat t hc r nat er i al i s pr obabl y t oo
r l r ( ul t and somet hi ng easi er shoul d be choscn.
Shoul d students use di cti onari es whi l e readi ng?
l rs l i nal curri cul ar questi on rni ght seem margi nal compared to the prc-
,,' us fbur, but for students i t may be of consi derabl e i mpoftance. In ad-
,' ,si ng the questi on, the nature of fl uent readi ng needs to be understood.
' rrt
ol ' fl uent and effecti ve readi ng i nvol ves the reader i gnori ng unknown
, , , r t l s
and phr ases or , i f under st andi ng t hem i s esscnt i al , guessi ng t hei r
I' l ,rori mate meani ng. Fl uent readi ng i s hi ndered by a rcader stoppi ng to
, rr cl i cti onary. Stuart Luppescu and Ri chard Day (1993) fbund that the
, ol ' di cti onari es by Japanese uni versi ty E,FL students doubl ed the ti rne i t
,,' k
to read a shoft story.
(
)l ' course, to some extent, the probl cm of unknown l anguage i s not a
rt()r i ssue, for most of the vocabul ary i n the materi al s that students read
rrrr;l { 6" farni l i ar cnough to be understood wi thout recourse to a di cti on-
,r l l ut, i nevi tabl y, unknown or hal f-forgotten words wi l l come up, and i s
r,' l l l y so bad for students to be l ooki ng thern up? l f they do not l ook them
l '
rrrcn' t they mi ssi ng an opportuni ty to dcvel op thei r vocabul ary? And
, ' r r l t l n' t t he dr aconi an di r ect i ve " no di ct i onar i es" i mpi nge on t hs st udent s'
,, , tl orn and choi ce two i rnportant fbatures of cxtensi ve rcadi ng?
It i s true that di cti onary use must depend on the studcnts and thci r
rr tre ul ar needs. There are strong reasons for consi dcri ng a ban on di cti on-
,r, ' . however, at l east i ni ti al l y. Extensi ve rcadi ng i s probabl y very
l r I l e l cnt fi om the way students have been trai ned to consi der and deal wi th
, ()l )(l
l anguage text. Di cti onari es or rathcr "no di cti onari es" can
,rrcrful l y
symbol i ze the di ffbrences bctween extcnsi ve and other ap-
r,' rcl rcq to readi ng i n the mi nds of the students. Students rnust break the
rl rrl ,r1 l ooki ng up every unknown word.
I rrrthcr, i f students have the opti on of l ooki ng up words, then i nevi tabl y
' rrsci snti ous
studcnts wi l l feel that they have to l ook up more and rnore
,' rtl s
i n order to understand the text "properl y." Thus, when students are
l r t() thei r own devi ces at home, a ban on di cti onari es may be the onl y way
,r sl rrdents to feel they can compl ete the assi gnrnent i n good consci ence. l t
rr al so be the onl y guarantee that the assi gnment i s compl eted as the
rr' l rcr i ntended
-
i n other words. that the rcadi ns was i ndeed extensi ve i n
| | Ur c .
'lt-
Students must, i n Dupuy. Cook, and Tse' s words, get "i nto the habi t of
readi ng dai l y and out of the habi t of l ooki ng everythi ng up i n the di cti on-
ary" (1995, p. 2). An ori entati on for extensi ve readi ng novi ces wi l l there-
fore probabl y i ncl ude the i nstructi on to never use di cti onari es, and thc
reasons for such a di recti ve.
Students who understand what extensi ve readi ng i s can be gi ven more
freedom. When a word appears several ti mes i n a text and seems to hol d
i mportant rneani ng, i t i s sensi bl e to seek i ts rneani ng. If a word j untps out of
the text as once l eamed. si nce forgotten, but naggi ngl y fami l i ar, students
deserve the opti on of i gnori ng i t i n order to get on wi th the story or putti ng
thei r mi nds at rest by l ooki ng i t up. Havi ng the freedom to use a di ctronary
al l ows students to get used to maki ng deci si ons l i ke thi s on a case-by-case
basi s. Students l eam a fl exi bl e approach to unknown words dependi ng on
the way a word i s used i n the text and why one i s readi ng the text.
Advanced students readi ng materi al wri tten for nati ve speakers may face
real dilemmas. Should tlrey read for a rather vague general understanding
or try to understand more at the cost of laborious dictionary work? Perhaps
such students woul d enj oy and get more out ofreadi ng easi er books, savi ng
the harder ones for l ater whcn they know rnore of the second l anguage.
There i s a useful tecl rni que for moti vated students who are readi ng more
di ffi cul t books for pl easure and are al so ai mi ng to bui l d thei r vocabul ari es.
They sirnply mark the words that they do not know as they encounter them
(i f i n a l i brary book, usi ng a very l i ght penci l , l ater erased) wi thout i nter-
rupti ng thei r readi ng to check the meani ng. At the end of a chapter, they go
back and l ook up some of the words. For most students, three or fbur words
per chapter i s a reasonabl e number of words to check. Students then con-
ti nue readi ng the next chapter i n the same way. Readi ng i s undi sturbed and
frustrati on i s deal t wi th. Hi ndsi ght may al so hel p the student better deci de
whi ch words are more i mportant to understand and whi ch ones can be
i snored.
Concl usi on
Havi ng consi dered the fi ve curri cul ar questi ons l i sted at the begi nni ng of
thi s chapter, teachers and admi ni strators can begi n to draw a mental bl ue-
pri nt fbr extensi ve readi ng i n thei r own cl ass or i nsti tuti on. Ihe next step i s
to survey the spcctrum of materi al s that mi ght be used i n extensi ve readi ng.
Thi s i s a fundamental i ssue si nce, i n order for students to read extensi vel y,
the ri sht rnateri al s must be obtai ned and made readi l v avai l abl e. The sel ec-
, r r
: r r r r l pr ovi si on of r eadi ng mat er i al s
t I l er s .
i s t hc subj cct o1- t hc next t wo
l urt her readi ng
, ,r
rl ctai l s of Bernard Susser and Thomas Robb' s wci ghted pages formul a,
, tl rci l 1989 ar-ti cl e "E.xl ensi ve Honrework" i n The Lunguuge Teuc' her.
' r
.orrveni ence, we i ncl ude thei r formul a here for i nterested parti es. It i s
, ,r' tl on standards. A standard page has 50 charactcrs per l i ne and 40 l i nes
' .(X)0
characters). A standard book has l 9 pages oftext to I page of
l i l rc space or i l l ustrati on. The standard l evel of text readabi l i ty i s 7th
' r,l c l cvel . These standards have no empi ri cal base but wcre chosen so that
,,,' ks coul d be corrrpared to each other. To cal cul ate the wei ghti ng factor
t\ I ) l i rr a parti cul ar book. /ai count the characters on any ful l page oftext,
, r' l rooss a rcpresentati ve run of 20 conti nuous pages and count how many
, rl es of whi te space and/or i l l ustrati ons are i ncl uded addi ng together
rt l i ons of a page of whi tc space as necessary, and (c) use a computeri zed
r , l r r bi l i t y l evel pr ogr am or subj ect i ve est i nr at i on t o assi gn a r eadabi l i t y
' , r , l c l cr . cl . Put t he r esul t s i nt o t he f ol l owi ns f onnul a:
pages of pri nt
per 20 pages
x ( ( [ gr adc l cvel
-
7] x 0. 1) + l )
(Susser & Robb, 1989, p. 9)
charactcrs
pcr page
2. 000 l 9
9 Maturials; The lure and the
I t l
maaer
The wat chwords are quant i t y and vari et y, rat hcr t han
qual i t y. so t hat books are sel cct ed f br t hci r
at t ract i veness and rel evancc t o t hc pupi l s' l i vcs rat hcr
t han f or l i t erary meri t .
Col i n Dav i s
( 199- s. p. 329)
t f t he ri ght books were avai l abl e, t he pupi l s l apped
t nenl uP
J. A. Bri ght and
C. P. McGrcgor ( 1970,
P.
72)
o Introduce a vari ety of materi al s sLri tabl e for extcnsi vc rcadi ng.
. Suggcst al temati ve readi ng rnateri al s for begi nni ng and i nterrnedi ate
students when l anguage l eanter l i terature i s not avai l abl e.
Ruth and Hal l i c Yopp made an i nteresti ng di scovery when they asked fi fty-
si r el ementary-school teachers i n the Uni tcd States to namc thei r bcst i deas
for teachi ng chi l dren to rcad. Matcri al s that moti vatc studcnts rvas thc
number one ovcral l bcst i dca. Yopp and Yopp concl uded that "provi di ng
studcnts wi th rnoti vati ng matcri al s and i nvol vi ng thern i n a vari ety of
i ntcresti ng acti vi ti cs are cri ti cal to a sttccessftrl readi ng program" (199 l , p.
132) .
Thc samc can bc sai d for sccond l anguage readi rrg programs. Wi thoul
rcadi ng tnateri al s that i rre attracti ve, i nteresti ng, at a range of appropri ate
l evel s, and of an appropri ate l ength, a program cannot exi st, l et al onc
succeed. More speci fi cal l y, as Al bert Harri s and Edward Si pay expl ai n,
"The
basi c pri nci pl es that underl i e the successful devel oprnent of an i nter-
cst i n rcadi ng have bcen admi rabl y summari zed as consi sti ng of a
' l ure
and
a fa<l der"' (1990. p. 674\. In extensi ve readi ng, the l ure i s the i nteresti ng
and attracti ve trrateri al dcsi gned to hook the studcnts and reel them i n. Thc
l adder i s the wi de range of materi al , frorn very easy to chal l engi ng, that
96
Materials 97
, ' r r s t he st udent s t o pr ogr ess upr var cl i r t sr t t i t l l st cl l s as t hci r r cadi ng
. , r r e v devel ops.
l l r i s chapt er i s an exar ni nat i on of r naj ol cat cgor i cs of ' r t t at er i al pot en-
l l r Lrseful tbr cxtensi ve readi ng. These i trc l angttaqc l carncr l i tcrature.
r l r l r cr . r ' s books, l eal ner s' ol vn st or i es, ncwspapcl ' s. t t r agazi ncs. chi l dr er t ' s
,
, r r zi ncs.
popul ar and si mpl e l i t er at ur c, youn- q acl ul t l i t cr at ur e, col ni cs.
,,1 tl i rrrsl ati ons. We cxami ne each categol ' y tl f rcadi ng tl l ateri al i n tr"rrn.
' ,
l r, rr nraki ng deci si ons about speci ti c types of ntatcri al fbr speci fi c stu-
r t \ . l cucher s can consi der t hcse quest i ons:
. \ \ r l l t hi s r nat cr i al at t r act t hcm' J
r I ). nry studcnts have enough l anguage ancl background knowl cdge to bc
, r r cr t ai ned or i nf or r ncd when r eadi ng i t on t hei r own' l
. l r t cmr s of t hei r scl t ' - i mages as r eadcr s, wi l l r eadi ng i t be an encour agi ng
, ' r rr cl i scouragi ng experi cncc' l
t anguage l earner l i terature
,nl ui l gc l carner l i teraturc i s the vcry cmbodi rnent of- tl tc l ure and tl tc
1, 1, ' i : var i ecl . at t r act i ve r nat el i al at di f t br ent l evcl s oi di f f l cul t y. l 1 i l l cl udes
, , , 1, s
ol - al l ki nds, as wcl l as t " nagazi ncs and newspapcr s pr ocl uced espc-
, l l ' , l i r r sccond l anguagc l ear ner s. I l - i t i s avai l abl c i n t hc l anguage you
, l r . l angua- { c l car ner l i t el at ur c i s t he obvi c' r us f i r st choi ce ol - r cadi ng
Lt , r ' i ul f i r r al l but advanccd l car ncr s.
. ttt'rature adapted for language learners
' , r ,
Pul t i cul al
t ype of l anguage l ear ncr l i t el at ur e r ccl ui r es adcl i t i or t al cont -
rrt l tcre. Thi s subcategory consi sts of cl assi c works of l i teraturc adapted
, r r r l l r c or i gi ni r l s f br second l anguage st uder r t s. Sont e peopl c t ar r r i l i ar wi t h
, rri rl i nal s have expressed di sappoi ntrncnt and even horror at the adaptcd
r .rorrs sol d under tl re sal l c tl arrl e. Thi s i s an uncl erstandabl e reacti on, but
, l r snr i ss acl apt at i ot t s i n t hi s way i s t t t nr i sunt l er st and t l r ei r pt t r posc and
I I I l l l css.
\ l ovi cs based on wor ks of l i t er at ur c pr ovi de a l r cl pf ul anal ogy. Whcn a
,,r rc sl tares the sar.nc ti tl e as a fantous ori gi nal , i t prof-esses to be a vcrsi on
r l r r r t or i gi nal . But i t i s an adapt at i on f br anot her r nedi t t l n and anot hcr
, 1r e r r c' c. Thc r novi e ver si or t , f br exampl e, l r t t t st be pr unccl of nt uch det ai l ,
, ) nl y a cef t ai n nunt ber of char act er s and i nci dent s can bc i ncl uded i n t hc
r r r r l
1- hour
r unni ng t i mc. I n ot her wor ds, t he nr aker s of t l t c r r r ovi e t ai l or
r' ontcnt to sui t tl re mcdi urn and thc expecti tti cl ns ol ' the i ntcndcd
, , l r cr t cc.
It i s rarc fbr a rnovi e vcrsi on to catch tl tc essence of the book on whi ch i t
i s basecl . But cven when i t does, the rncl vi c i s sti l l an i ndcpendent experi -
ence that succeeds or f-ai l s on i l s own terrns, regardl ess of i ts rel ati onshi p ttl
the ori gi nal . And so i t i s wi th wri ttcn adaptati ons of cl assi cs and othcr
works of l i terature. Whether an adaptati t' rn i s l nore or l ess successful al
capturi ng thc cssence of i ts source i s bcsi de the poi nt. Ul ti matel y' an
adaptati on must be
j udgcd on i ts own tenns: l s i t a successtul readi ng
experi encc i n and of i tsel fl The questi ons to ask i n consi deri ng whether an
acl aptati on has a pl acc i n an extensi vc readi ng program, therefore, are thc
santc as fbr any nratcri al : Does thi s book comtrtuni cate to i ts audi cnce of
l anguage l earncrs' l l s i t l i kel y to be enj oycd by rny students' l
Language l carner l i teraturc does not exi st i n cvery l anguagc. Ifyou teach
a l anguage that has no such l i teratttre, you have to l ook el sewhere for
sui t abl y easy r cadi ng r nat er i al . Onc possi br l i t y i s t o l ook at l anguage t ext -
books other than the ones your students arc usi ng to see i fthcy i ncl ude any
i nteresti ng rcadi ng passages. You can al so l ook al sonte ofthc other catego-
ri es of materi al descri bcd bel ow.
Chi l dren' s books
If a l anguage l acks l anguage l earncr l i terature, teachers can turn to a sure
source of easy rcadi ng rnateri al that exi sts i n al most every l anguage: books
dcsi gned to tcach chi l dren to read thei r fi rst l anguage. The books, n.rany of a
qual i t y t hat appeal s t o chi l dr en and adul t s al i ke, can add var i et y t o any
extensi vc readi ng l i brary. Thi s val uabl c resource shoul d not be ovcrl ooked.
Il ooks i n thi s category range fi om pi cture books wi th no words (not
sui tabl e for readi ng practi ce) to si rnpl e storybooks wi th rnany i l l ustrati ons.
The rnaj or assets oi these books arc rel ati vel y casy l anguagc. attracti ve
l ayout, bi g pri nt. and appcal i ng i l l r.rstrati ons. Equal l y i mpoftant i s thei r
l ength: They are usual l y short enough to bc fl ni shed i n l 5 mi nutes or so.
Al t hough l anguage can bc col l oqui al . t hc i l l ust r at i ons hel p compr ehensi on.
Gl ossi ng ( cxpl anat i ons or t r ansl at i ons of di f l l cul t wor ds) coul d be added t o
the books by the teachcr as an ai d to comprehensi on.
Adul ts do not ncccssari l y I' eel i nsul ted at bei ng offered materi al for
chi l dren. The appeal of thesc books to l nattl re students i s on several
clifl'erent fronts. Sorne books are enjoyed bccause they offbr a delightful
return to thc worl d of chi l drcn. Others may be appreci atcd as works of arl
and l i teraturc and wi ndows on cul ture. Somc deal wi th themcs of i nterest to
al l ages, such as prej udi cc. the envi ronntent, and cotl i ng to terms wi th the
death of a l oved one. Tcachers can dcci de whi ch books are appropri ate
Materials 99
, , r ' r l t ) D t hei r knowl edge of t he st udent s. I l ' l cacl r cr s I ack conf i dence i n
, Lr ns such deci si ons, Li nda Thi st l ct hwai t e ( 1994) , i n an ar t i cl e di scuss-
'
thc use of chi l dren' s books wi th adul t rcaders. prcsents a scal e for
.rl rrl ti n-e the appropri ateness of i ndi vi dual books based on such f' actors as
, r r r c and i l l ust r at i ons.
I l rc tbl l owi ng account of adul ts l earni ng a fbrei gn l anguage and rrsi ng
,,,' ks
wri tten for chi l dren i s i nformati ve. Franci ne Schumann rel ates her
' tr\' f
i cnces of l earni ng Persi an wi th hcr husband whi l c they wcre l i vi ng i n
l .' hran thcy sol d books for chi l dren i n Pcrsi an that had f' antasti c ar1 work. It
' . thi s art work whi ch grcatl y attractcd me, and I deci dcd I wantcd to l carn to
r,l rrsi ng thesc chi l dren' s books. John sai d I shoul dn' t wastc ntoncy on thcm as
i contai ned no vocabul ary l i sts or transcri pti ons . . . and thercforc. al l rny
,rr' r\' oul d bc spcnt l ooki ng up words i n thc di cti onary and nti spronounci ng a
,,' ,i
paft of what I read. Fi nal l y at the end of thc fi rst month of our sray John
r, e(l tO try sonl c.
Io rny dcl i ght we had cnorrnous succcss wi th them. Thc stori es wcrc so cn-
r,rrrri ng that they l cd to a much grcater cffbn l canri ng to read than di d thc
r\\r' oom] rcadcrs. In fact, studyi ng now bccamc that part of the day that' ,ve
,,1,' tl tbrward to as a spcci al treat. Thc i l l ustrati ons grcatl y ai dcd our under-
,rr,l rng of nruch of thc acti on. . . . An addcd bonus was thc i nsi ght thesc sto-
. *i rvc us to l rani an cul turc. (F. Schun.rann & J. Schun.rann. 1977, p.2a5)
i l tl rough her cxperi ence may not be true for al l adul ts who havc used
l rrl tl l cn' s books to hel p them l earn to read a second l anguage, i t does show
' , *
t r sef ul t hey mi ght t ur n out t o be.
t hi l dren' s books are bcst chosen by recon-trncndati on, or by browsi ng i n
I' r:rri cs and bookstores. Paperback edi ttons arc rel ati vel y cheap, so that i t
1' ,rssi bl e
gradual l y to bui l d up a handsome l i brary of books.
t earners' own stories
r \()u l ack a publ i shed l anguage l earncr l i terature, consi dcr rnaki ng your
r rr. Ask your students to wri te a seri es of short cornposi ti ons i n the second
rrl l i l ge for readi ng by other students i n thei r own cl ass or l ower-l cvel
1..:cs. These composi ti ons can be about topi cs that are farni l i ar to them
, l l i kcl y t o be of i nt er est t o ot her s, such as:
rrr i nteresti ng person I know
.r l l nny thi ng that happened to rne
,r scary experi ence I once had
r pl ace I r ecommend vi si t i ng
100 The practice of extensive readinq
o my homet own ( or , i n a r nul t i l i ngual cl ass, r ny count r y)
Sel ect the most i nteresti ng of these, i f possi bl e. usi ng one from each student
i n the cl ass. Type out each composi ti on, rewri ti ng, edi ti ng, and correcti ng
as necessary so that the students' i deas appear i n natural l anguage. Add a
ti tl e and the name of the author. Gl oss any di ffi cul t l anguage. over a peri od
of ti me, you wi l l be abl e to bui l d up a rather l arge col l ecti on of i nteresti ng
and readabl e stori es.
If students fi nd wri ti ng di ffi cul t, or i f the number of students i n the cl ass
i s smal l , and i f there i s an avai l abl e computer wi th word-processi ng abi l i ty,
students can i ndi vi dual l y di ctate thei r stori es to the teacher. The fol l owi ng
procedure i s adapted from one devel oped by Nancy Lee and
j udi th
Neal
(1992-1993)
for hel pi ng a mi ddl e-school chi l d wi th fi rst ranguage readi ng
di ffi cul ti cs. A student di ctates a story and the teacher types i t. For students,
watchi ng the chosen words appear on the corxputer screen hel ps them gai n
farni l i ari ty wi th the wri tten fonrr of words. It i s al so an exci ti ng cxperi ence.
Lee and Neal tal k of how thei r student "gl owed
wi th pl easure at choosi ng
words and seei ng them appear on the screen" (p. 2g I
).
whi l e the student di ctates, the teacher makes oral suggesti ons for re-
phrasi ng or otherwi se changi ng what the student sai d. If the student agrees
wi th these oral revi si ons, they are typed as the student watchcs. At the end,
a draft i s pri nted out and gi ven to the student to read over. If the student
wi shes to add or edi t anythi ng, thi s can be done before the fi nal versi on of
the story i s pri nted out. Stori es can be very short at ti rst, but are l i kel y to ger
l onger as the student gets used to the procedure.
Newspapers
cheap and wi del y avai l abl e, newspapers can be a superb resource for
i ntermedi ate and advanced students, parti cul arl y for readi ng outsi de the
cl assroom. The l ayout, content categori es (l ocal news, worl d news. edi -
tori al s, cartoons, adverti sements. and so on), and rhetori cal organi zati on
(hcadl i nes, summary paragraphs, detai l paragraphs, ad copy, photo cap_
ti ons, and so on) are broadl y si mi l ar across many cul tures, whi ch nrakes
readi ng easi er.
Newspaper arti cl es tend to be short, whi ch means that rcaders can
qui ckl y get a sense of accompl i shment f r om f i ni shi ng t hem. Br evi t y i s al so
a benefi t for l ess proti ci ent second l anguage readers who ti re qui ckl y of
readi ng. In addi ti on, because peopl e typi cal l y read onl y those parts of a
paper that i nterest them, newspapers can qui ckl y be "fi ni shed." Thi s i s
I
Materials 101
" l r \ i r r i l l g;
Second l anguage r eader s can pi ck , p a ncwspaper knowi ng
\ ( . ' successf ul l y be done wi t h i t i n as l . ng or shor t a t i me as t hey wi sh.
l l rerc i s sonrethi ng to i nterest armost evL' ryor.rc i n a ncwspaper. The
' rrre
' t i s up to date. cruci ai l y, i t nray al ready be rami l i ar to l earnei s i f they
' | \ \' r' cad or heard about the same news or topi cs i n thei r own l anguage.
rrrcrs' ay al so be i nterested i n, and thus possess background r.10r"l -
l ". i n. certai n areas (l or exampre, i nternati onar pori ti cs. i ock musi c, or
r rrr.' r' i can
footbal l ). Such knowl edge makes i t possi bl e for secon<i l anguage
rr [' r' .s to make rnore scnse of l i neui sti cal l y di l rcul t materi al .
pri or
knowl -
l "L rnd i nterest i n a topi c are parti cul arl y necessary for l ower-l evel
r , nCf S.
I rtcnsi ve readi ng i deal l y i ncl udes the readi ng of vari ous materi al s for
' (' r' cnt purposes to practi ce appropri ate choi ce of readi ng styre. The
rrrt' l y of content i n a newspaper provi des some excel l ent reaJi ng practi ce
r tl ri s ki nd. because di l ferent secti ons encourage readi rrg i n di fferent ways.
I \ l rsti ngs, sports resul ts, horoscopes, an<l weather fbrecasts are an i nci te-
, rrr to scanni ng. Browsi ng through a newspaper i s al so natural practi ce
i n
' ' r r r r i ng
and scanni ng. Ar t r cl es and capt i ons. on t he ot her hand. r nvi t e
"
' t' r' and more carefi rr readi ng rbr as l ong as they hol d the reader' s
I r ' t CSl .
l rrbl oi d ncwspapers. wi th thei r shorter arti cres, may appear wei l sui ted
'
\' \tcnsi vc readi ng. They are desi gned fbr fi rst l anguage readers who
rr)l )cr to share some of the samc needs as secon<i l anguagl reacl ers: They
I ' ,.t wi i rt to i nvest a l ot of ti me and effort i n readi ng, and they want thei r
rr' r' cSl orouSed by headl i nes and i mages. Maj or drawbacks for second
' | ri r' ' i l gc readers, however, are unfar.' i l i ar col l oqui al l anguage and pop-
r l t r r r c r ef er ences.
t.l ual i ty
newspapsrs are usefur fbr acl vanced-l evel stucl ents. Al thoush
r r r : r l l y l ess i nvi t i ng wi t h t hei r acr es of dense pr i nt . t hey pr ovi de soi l d
, ,rsure to readers i nterested i n parti cul ar topi cs.
l hc l atcst copi es of newspapers can be matre avai rabre tbr readi ng-.on
r( rl rscs. ol der papers coul d be borrowed by l earners. Interested studcnts
' "rl rl
cl i p arti cl cs, and gracruai l y assembl e scrapbooks of appeal i ng mate-
rl pcrhaps arranged by topi cs such as fashi on and sport. ti .y uo.uburory
, ' r ( l s
can be gl ossed.
l i ccause they are produced i n sLrch quanti ty, and become out of date the
' r rrl i er they are sol cl , ol d newspapers can be obtai ned vi rtual l y fi ee.
' ' r!' l gn
l anguage newspapers may be produced or sol cl i n the country
l r t ' r c you t each. I f not , wi t h a l i t t l e i nge' ui t y i t shoul d be possi bl e t o f i nd
' ,re()ne
to col l ect. bundl e up, and send you vari ous ol d newspapers by
rr l l rce ntai l from thei r country of ori si n.
Magazi nes
Weekl y and monthl y magazi nes are usual l y col orl ul and attracti ve, and
thei r vi sual emphasi s can hel p readers understand thc contcnt. Li ke news-
papers, magazines are more appropriate for intennediate and advanced.
l evel l earners. Al so l i ke newspapers, magazi nes are browsed rather than
read fi om cover to cover, and so can be qui ckl y fi ni shed. Most magazi ncs
can useful l y be kept i n a l i brary for about a year, after whi ch they start both
fal l i ng apart and goi ng out of date. Magazi nes can be checked out by
students for readi ng at home. Together wi th newspapers, hi gh-i nterest,
i l l ustratcd popul ar magazi ncs can al so be made avai l abl e i n l ounge areas.
Thi s encourages spontaneous readi ng.
Magazi ne arti cl es are often l onger than those fbund i n a newspaper.
Unl i ke newspapers, whi ch have a vari ety of content, magazi nes usual l y
fbcus on one topi c, fbr exampl e" teen f-ashi on and l i f' e, cars, tenni s, currenl
events, or heavy metal rnusi c. As a resul t, comparati vel y few peopl e may be
i nterested i n a parti cul ar magazi ne. Thi s means that a vari ety of magazi nes
may be necessary to appeal to the di fferent members of a second l anguagc
readi ng cl ass. Thc probl em i s that new rnagazi nes arc not cheap. l f there rs
no budget fbr new magazi nes, back i ssues can be a good substi tute. It i s
harder to get hol d of sui tabl e used magazi nes, but wi th some organi zati on i t
mi ght be possi bl c to get a suppl y from a l ocal di stri butor or from contacts
overseas.
Sampl e i ssues are a good approach to choosi ng whi ch magazi nes to
subscri be to. Buy a vari ety of di fferent magazi nes, paste a sheet of paper on
thc back cover of cach and i nstruct studcnts to wri tc any coml ncnts they
rni ght have, i ncl udi ng whether they woul d l i ke to read the magazi ne reg-
ul arl y and why.
Students can al so bc encouraged to buy sccond l anguage magazi ncs i n
thei r own area of i nterest and l ater make them avai l abl e to thei r cl assmates.
Usual l y, the onl y necessary encouragement for thi s i s havi ng a peri od of
sustai ned si l ent readi ng duri ng readi ng cl ass. Students commonl y bri ng
second l anguage magazi nes i nto thi s readi ng peri od; other cl assmates i n-
vari abl y noti ce these and ask to borrow them. Wi th such shari ng and
cooperati on, the cl ass begi ns to take on the feel i ng of a readi ng communi ty.
Chi l dren' s magazi nes
Al though the precedi ng category, rnagazi nes. i s general l y sui tabl e fbr those
wi th at l east an i ntermedi ate fl ucncy i n the second l anguage, there are
magazi nes wri tten for chi l dren of vari ous ages, some of whi ch are sui tabl e
l"
Materials 103
, \s profl ci ent second l anguage l earncrs. 1' l rcy hur,' c urany i l l ustrati ons
l r cl p r cadi ng compr ehensi on, and ar e at t r act i ' u' cl y put t ogct hcr . Chi l -
r \ nl agazi ncs al so t end t o i ncl ude act i vi t i cs and gar r r cs. i ncl udi ng l an-
r , ' r ' eamcS, whi ch can be hel pf ul f br second l anguagc l ear ner s.
I ( ' r ' udul t s, chi l dr en' s r nagazi ncs nt ay scel n t oo chi l di sh t o be of i nt cr cst .
, , r r r sc t he nat ur c of an cxt cnsi vc r eadi ng appr oacl r cal l s f br r cadcr ' s
, ' r , c. l hi s i s not r cal l y a pr obl cm. Those adul t s who ar e r cl uct ant t o r cad
r r r t kl not havc t o.
l r r t l r c Uni t ed St at cs, t her e ar e hundr ecl s of i nt er est i ng and i nf br nt at i vc'
' l r sl r
l anguagc r nagazi nes f br chi l dr en. Thesc bcgi n wi t h r r agazi nc- s
tterr fbr very young chi l dren, prcschool crs aged 3 to 5. such as Waakl .t'
t,l L' r. Sesante Strcet Muguzi ne, and thc conservati on-ori ented Yow' Bi g
. . l , r ' t r nl . They ar e wr i t t en i n l anguagc t hat i s ver y easy t o undcr st and and
, bi g. bri ght pi ctures, stori cs dcsi gncd to be read al or"rd, and si rnpl c
' z
l cs ancl garnes. Becausc thcy arc i ntcnded fi l r the very young chi l d who
nol yet or has j ust bcgun to rcad, the appeal of sontc of- thcsc
l r t cr i l t c r r agazi ncs t o ol dcr l ear ner s may be r at hcr l i mi t cd.
\ l l sazi ncs t br ol dcr age gr oups have r nor c pot cnt i al t o appcal t o bot h
' r r r s
acl ul t s and adul t s. The st yl c and l ayout of t hcsc magazi nes ar e r nor e
l ' l r r st i cat cd
t han t l . r osc l br pr eschool er s. I n t hc Ur r i t cd St at cs, f or exanr pl e,
, , t , 1, ' t ' Ri c' k ( a r nont hl y nat ur c r r agazi nc) and t hc bcst - scl l i ng mont hl y
' l tl l ,ql rts
/or
Chi l dren (r.notto: "fun wi th a purpose") are wri tten fbr chi l -
r ascd approxi rnatel y 6 to 12 Cri t' kct, a worl d l i tcraturc and art
, , r r r l r l y. i s ai mccl at chi l cl r cn aged 7I o 14 Sul cr ' ( " about sur f br s, f br
, r l . ' r ' s. by sur t - cr s" ) i s ai r ncd at a l 0 50 age gr oup ( whi ch i s not t o say t hat
r l r ' r ' s over , 50 wcl ul d not cnj cl y i t t oo) .
l r t he Uni t cd St at cs. t hc Educat i onal Pr ess Associ at i on and t hc l nt er na-
,rrrrl
l l cadi ng Associ ati on publ i sh Magu:i na.s
/br
Ki tl s und Teens, an i ntro-
, t r on and gui de edi t ed by Donal d St ol l , wi t h nt or e t han 200 r nagazi ncs
t , t l by t ar get age ( pr eschool , pr i nt ar y, r ni ddl e school , j uni or hi gh school ,
' l r
scl tool , and non-age-spcci l i c) and by subj ect (entertai nrncnt, ccol ogy,
, , ' r t s.
hcal t h, ncws, r el i gi on. and r nany nt or c) . I ncl uded ar e or der i ng ad-
, . scs and det ai l s, and i f and how a sar npl e copy r nay bc obt ai ncd.
l ' opul ar and si mpl e l i terature
, r , ' l i r l l y sel ect ed f i ct i on ar r d r r onf l ct i on books can be l i ngui st i cal l y acces-
,l e
to i ntcnnedi ate- and advanccd-l cvcl l carncrs i fthe books arc short and
r . r r ght f br war d i n cont ent and l anguagc. Agai n, br owsi ng and r ccor nt nen-
r r r ( ) n ar e t he best sour cc of good t i t l cs. I 1' no bi bl i ogr aphy i s avai l abl e f br
the l anguage you tcach. you can ask fbr recomnrendati ons through your
l ocal t cachcr ' s r r r agazi ne or newsl et t er .
Young adul t l i terature
There i s nothi ng qui te l i ke young adul t l i terature l br f' ami l i ari zi ng teenagc
students wi th another cul ture. As Li l i an Ronnqvi st and Rogcr Scl l poi nt
out, "A teenage novel can drarnati ze l i f' e i n unfanri l i ar envi ronrnents as
experi enced by charactcrs of tl rc l earner' s own age" (1994,p. 129). Fi cti on
wri tten fbr ycl ung adul ts can bc parl i cul arl y sui tabl e for extensi ve readi ng,
as the books are rel ati vel y short and havc strai gl rtl brward pl ots. The content
i s usual l y t-ami l i ar, parti cul arl y i n the cornrnon thri l l er and sl i ce-of-tsenage-
l i fi : stori cs. Thc l anguage, whi ch tends towarcl the col l oqui al , can be a
probl em, but at the same ti rnc has i ts advantagcs. Ronnqvi st and Sel l
rcpcatcdl y makc the poi nt that "teenage pupi l s posi ti vel y l i ke and want to
undcrstand thcsc books, not l east because they gi ve access to the col l oqui al
l anguagc uscd by nati vc-speaker teenagers"
1p.
| 25).
Teenage and young adul t l i teraturc i s a genrc that produces addi cti vc
scri cs and authors. Engl i sh l anguage seri es such as Hurdv Bo.t' s, Fear
Street, and the Sv'et,t tr'Ltlle)' hyins and Sn'c,tt Ihllev High books that Ste-
phen Krashen has rnacl e farnous i n the ELT wtl rl d sorneti rncs run to morc
than a hundred di fl -erent ti tl es each. Thus, i f a student gets hookcd on a
seri es, you thc tcachgr may, as Davi d Eskey (1995) once sai d, reti re for
a rnarti ni : Your j ob i s done. Authors such as Judy Bl umc, Paul a Danzi ger.
arrd R. L. Sti ne attract a l oyal fol l owi ng of Engl i sh l anguage l earners, and
sol ue students wi l l want to rctrd everythi ng thei r l hvori te author has ever
u' r i t t en. Conl i nual l v bei r r g asked t o pl ease sel somc r nor e Judy Bl ume i s t he
ki nd of pesteri ng thi ,rt fi l l s a teacher' s heart wi th j oy.
Pagcs of srnal l pri nt
-
somethi ng even graded readers are somcti ntes
gui l ty of are oft--putti ng to the novi ce reader. Publ i shers of adol escent
l i terature rarel y rnake that mi stake. The books are more than 100 pages i n
l ength, but the pri nt i s l arge, the rrargi ns generous, and very i mportant
-
the chapters short. In sun.l . young adul t l i tcraturc can be a preci ous and
wel l -l oved resource i n tl re upper reaches of an exl cnsi ve rcadi ng l i brary. It
i s onc that nray appeal to postteen adul ts as wel l .
Comi cs
Comi c books wri tten l i rr nati vc speakcrs woul d seem obvi ous choi ces for
second l anguage extensi ve readi ng becausc the stori es are l argel y carri ed
I
Materials 105
r l l r r st r at i ons. Thei r appar ent si mpl i ci t y r r r l v be dcccpt i ve, however .
' rrr' s
are often drarvn fbr readers fanri l i ar wi l h thc cl raracters and tl rei r
t r r t l vcnt ur es. Advanced l ear ncr s wi l l pr cl babl y havc l i t t l e t r oubl e wi t h
, r r t hc most st yl i zcd comi cs, but begi nncr s shoul d pr obabl y st i ck t o
, r r r r t s
dr awn l br younger r eader s.
\ \ i l l i am Gr abe r el at es hi s own cxper i r nent r eadi ng Ar ner i can comi c
, , ' Ls
t r ansl at cd i nt o a sccond l anguage:
l , t rttun was far abovc my hcad. It actual l y rvas bori ng . . . and i t was i nrpos-
, ,
r o undcr st and. And what I deci dcd was r cal l y l not i vat i ng t o nt c. . was
" 1,,' \' Mousc and Donul d Du<.k. l t real l y works. l t' s got an casy story Ii ne. i t' s
r r.. hrrd to ti rl l ow. It has sonre cl c' cr twi sts to i t and I brought back a ni ce
' ,k o| Mi tke.t' h4ouse and Donal d Drl .ft fi orrr Brazi l . (1995)
l ransl ati ons
r l rrtrl . often overl ooked, but excel l ent source of extensi ve readi ng mate-
rl i s Ii terature tl rat has been transl ated frorrr the students' fi rst l anguage
r r , { hs ssgsr d l anguage. A good exampl e of t hi s, f br Fr cnch speaker s
rrrtl ri ri g
Engl i sh as a second l anguagc. i s Lc Pcl i t Pri nt' e transl ated i ntc)
r.rl i sl r as The Li ttl e Pri nc' e. The advantages of usi ng such transl atecl
, , r l cr i al s ar e sever al . St udent s have t hc necessar y backgr ound and cul t ur al
,
r.r l s6l g. to undcrstand the story. An Engl i sh-speaki ng col l eague study-
,,' .l apanesc, fbr exampl e, says that shc reads Japanese transl ati ons of
' l
ttl cqui n Romunc' e novel s and Robert Parker dctecti ve stori es because
l rr' \' uro rcl ati vel y casy fbr her to understancl . Another advantage of trans-
r t . t l books i s t hat t hc char act er s, t he pl ot , and nr uch of t he vocabul ar y wi l l
, ,
l i r r ni l i ar t o t he st udent s i f t hcy have r ead t he or i gi nal .
Concl usi on
I rrsuage l earner l i terature i s the fl rst choi ce of readi ng materi al fbr stu-
l , rrts at the begi nni ng and i ntennedi ate stages of thei r readi ng devel opment
,' ( i i l .rse i t i s i nteresti ng and attracti ve and i s desi gned to faci l i tate l adderi ng
' 1, l ' uri sts who conrpl ai n about adaptati ons from l i terature fbr l angua-ee
' r r r r er s pr obabl y shoul d not . I f t he l anguage you t each does not l r ave
rr!l uage l earner l i terature, chi l dren' s ti rst l anguage books and rnagazi nes
, ' r r l r l be an accept abl e subst i t ut e. Teacher s can al so hel p st udent s wr i t e
l r r ' l l ' owf l mat er i al f or t hei r cl assmat es t o r ead.
l nl ennedi ate students can read, i n addi ti on to l anguage l earner l i terature,
,r. l r rnateri al s as newspapers, magazi nes. careful l y scl ected popul ar and
si mpl e l i terature, young adul t l i tcraturc, corr.ri cs, and transl ati ons of books
frorn thei r fi rst l anguage.
Fami l i ari ty wi th thc types and sources of rnatcri al s for extensi ve readi ng
makes possi bl e thc pl anni ng of a l i brary, whi ch i s the next step i n real i zi ng
an extensi vc rcadi ng program and the subj cct of the next chapter.
Further readi ng
A fbw bi bl i ographi es of Engl i sh l anguage popul ar and si mpl e l i terature
have been publ i shed wi th sccond l anguage l earners i n mi nd. One of the
most wel l known i s Dorothy Brown' s A Worl d o/ Books: An Annotated
Reudi ng Li st
./br
ESL/EFL Stucl ents (1988), whi ch i ntroduces about 120
worthwhi l e ti tl es. Not al l of these are sui tabl e fbr out-o1' -cl ass readi ng, but
about fbrty of tl rc books are descri bed as parti cul arl y short and easy. An-
other uscful l i st of books and authors can bc fbund i n Beatri ce Mi kul ccky' s
A Short C'ourse in Teuching Reading SAi//^s ( 1990). This list of scvcnty titles
i s di vi dcd i nto books sui tabl e for l ow-i nterrnedi ate- and hi gh-i ntcrmcdi ate-
l evel students. For youngcr l earners, there i s Dorothy Brown' s Books
fbr
a
Smull Plunet (1994).
For Engl i sh as a second l anguagc tcachcrs who wi sh tcl cxpl orc further
afi el d fbr sui tabl c books, the Internati onal Readi ng Associ ati on publ i shes
Teen.s' Favorite Books: Young Adults' Choic'es 1987 1992 anrJ More
ken.s' Favori te Books: Ytung Adul ts' Choi c' es 1993 1995. Both descri be
rnore than 100 ti tl es chosen by tccns thernsel ves, and di vi ded i nto subj ects
such as adventure, farni l y l i fc, fantasy and the supernatural , hi story, mys-
tery and cri rnc, nature, rorl ance, sci encc fi cti on, and sports. The second of
the two publ i cati ons al so contai ns hel pful arti cl es on ways to promote
readi ng. The l i sts on whi ch these publ i cati ons arc bascd fi rst appeared i n
the Journal o/ Reutling (now renarned the Journul o/ Adolest'ent uncl Aclult
Li terac.t). In addi ti on to the annual "bcst of" l i st chosen by teens and
appcari ng i n the November i ssuc, the j ournal has monthl y book rcvi ews.
Good Engl i sh l anguage books for chi l drcn aged 4 l 3 are si mi l arl y
i ntroduced i n the Internati onal Readi ng Associ ati on' s Ki ds' Fuwtri te
Books: Chilclren'.s Choic'e.s l9B9 1991, and the journal The Reading
Teuc' her, whi ch has bccn publ i shi ng such l i sts si nce 1975. The annual
Chi l dr en' s Choi cc l i st i s di vi ded by age ( begi nni ng, 5 8, 8 I 0, l 0
-
I 3) and
appcars i n the October i ssue; and the monthl y book revi ews i ncl ude a
regul ar secti on ti tl cd "Books Too Good to Mi ss." Thc Internati onal Read-
i ng Associ at i on can be cont act ed at P. O. Box 8139, Newar k, DE 197 14
8139. USA.
I 0 The extensive reading library
[Teachers]
have fi rst to ensure that attracti vc books
arc avai l abl e and sccond to use evcry tri ck thcy
know to persuadc studcnts to "gct hookcd on
books".
- . Chr i st i ne
Nut t al l ( 1996, p. 127\
I hc purpose of thi s chapter i s to:
. Ofl -er a range of suggesti ons and opti ons for cstabl i shi ng a l i brary of
cxtensi vc readi ng rnatcri al s.
I nl i ke other approaches to thc teachi ng of second l anguage readi ng, whi ch
rrsual l y i nvol ve sel ecti ng a tcxtbook on whi ch the l essons are based, an
erl cnsi ve readi ng program requi res no l css than a l i brary of appropri ate
rcadi ng materi al s. Sctti ng up such a l i brary i s a fonni dabl e undertaki ng.
\ l aj or t asks i ncl ude:
.
cl cci di ng the si zc of the program
. rnaki ng a budget
.
determi ni ng the students' readi ng l evel s
.
di scoveri ng student i nterests
. purchasi ng the readi ng materi al s
.
catal ogi ng and organi zi ng the rnateri al s
.
deci di ng wherc to pl ace the materi al s
. setti ng up a checkout system
.
di spl ayi ng the rnateri al s
\\ri th so much to do bcfore the fl rst cl ass meets, i t i s obvi ous that the
pl anni ng l br an extensi ve readi ng program shoul d be done as far i n advance
rrl ' the begi nni ng of the prograrn as possi bl e. A l i brary norrnal l y cannot be
sct up i n I or 2 months; i t can take 6 months or more. Wc l ook now at thc
etl rnponent tasks i n turn.
Deci di ng the si ze of the program
\s wi th any fi rst-ti me endeavor, i t i s usual l y wi sc- to start an cxtensl ve
rcadi ng progral n smal l . How smal l to starl depends on the numbcr of
107
students that the teacher(s) can casi l y ntanage; thc amount of money avai l -
abl e to cover thc i ni ti al cost of a l i brary of books; and the amount of ti me
that can be dcvoted to maki ng thc materi al s ready. When a new program
has been up and runni ng a year, i t can be cxpanded to i ncl ude addi ti onal
students. By then, teachers or admi ni strators wi l l have found out exactl y
what i s i nvol ved, and can pl an accordi ngl y.
Maki ng a budget
The school l i brary and stafTroom may al ready have sorne sui tabl e materi al s
for cxtensi ve readi ng books, newspapers, magazi nes
-
and pcrhaps ar-
rangements can bc made fbr them to be made avai l abl e to students. It i s
unl i kcl y, however, that the school l i brary al rcady has the type, range, and
quanti ty of readi ng materi al s necessary to get an extensi ve readi ng program
ofi the ground. Establ i shi ng a budget i s thcrefbre fundamental . How rnany
books and othcr readi ng materi al s are necessary to begi n the program' / How
much moncy i s avai l abl e to mect these needs' J
Morc funds are needed duri ng the fi rst year of operati on than subse-
quentl y, because most of the books purchased i n thc fi rst ycar can be used
agai n i n thc fbl l owi ng years. Afl cr the fi rst year, a smal l cr amount of rnoney
wi l l bc needed annual l y to rcpl ace books that arc l ost, worn out, unpopul ar,
or out of date, to purchase new ti tl es, and fbr any conti nui ng subscri pti ons
to newspapers or magazi nes. Expansi on of a program wi l l al so, of course,
requi re a l arger i ni ti al budget.
If the school budget i s i nsutfi ci ent, there are probabl y ways i n whi ch
money can be rai sed outsi de the school system, i ncl udi ng fund-rai si ng
events wi th the hel p of students and/or parents. Col i n Davi s rel ates from
experi ence that "evcn i n devel opi ng countri es Parent/Teacher Associ ati ons
have ways of col l ecti ng money i f they are convi nced of the educati onal
benef i t t o t hei r chi l dr en of suppor t i ng such i ni t i at i ves" ( 1995, p. 334) .
Another possi bi l i ty i s to ask students to contri bute the cost of one or two
books i n the fonn of a l i brary f-ee. In rcturn fbr thi s smal l i ndi vi dual outl ay,
the students are abl e to read a whol e l i brary of books. At the end of the year,
thc cl ass can be asked to donate the books to the l i brary. Whenever books
are contri buted by groups or i ndi vi dual s, thc names of the donors can be
pl aced i nsi de t he books.
The cost of books i s a basi c i tem of i nfbrmati on i n establ i shi ng a budget.
Local l y produced books rnay be cheapcr than i mported ones. The most
sui tabl e books shoul d al ways be purchased, however, even i f thi s means
buyi ng fewer books overal l .
The mi ni mum nurl bcr of books to begi n an extensi ve readi ng l i brary i s
'f
I The extensive reading library 109
, , nc book of sui t abl c l cvel per st udent , wi t h pcr l ur ps t cn cxt r a books i n
r , l di t i on t o t hi s. I n or der t o al l ow pl cnt y ol ' cl r oi cc. l t owcvcr , i t i s i deal t o
l rrvc two, three, or four di fferent books tbr cach stucl cnt i n i r cl ass. Begi n-
rrrrrrr wi th doubl e the number of books as thcrc arc stucl ents i s rcal i sti c. Wi th
rl ri s sol i d begi nni ng, the l i brary can gradual l y grow as the years go by.
Determi ni ng the students' readi ng l evel s
\rry group of students wi l l di spl ay a rangc of l evel s of l anguagc abi l i ty and
rcadi ng fl uency, even though they rnay havc al l studi ed the sccond l an-
r r r r age f br an equal amount of t i me. l n an ext cnsi vc r eadi ng pr ogr am, i t i s
e rrsy to accommodate everyone bccausc readi ng rnatcri al s appropri ate fbr a
rr i de vari cty of l evel s can and shoul d bc ordcrcd.
Unl ess students are advanccd, obtai n rnateri al s of al l l i ngui sti c l cvcl s,
l rcui nni ng wi th thc si mpl est l anguagc l carner l i terature. But thc bul k of thc
l rooks shoul d be a l i ttl e bel ow the l cvcl of the l anguagc thc students are
,l eal i ng wi th i n cl ass so that they n-ray be rcad wi thoLrt the hel p of teacher or
, l i ct i onar y.
l rxperi enccd teachers wi l l al rcady have an i ntui ti vc f-cel fbr the l anguage
tl rci r students are abl c to handl e. Those who do not can exanti nc the texts
l l rat studcnts use i n cl ass. Thi s shoul d gi ve a l -ai rl y good f' eel fbr the
r tl cabul ary studcnts have encountcrcd and the structurcs they have studi ed.
Publ i shers usual l y rnark thei r l anguage l earner l i teraturc as sui tabl e fbr a
l rarti cul ar
l evel of l eamcr begi nner or i ntcrmcdi ate, fbr exampl c and thi s
ean hel p teachers l ocate books that are of approxi matel y the ri ght l cvcl for
thci r students. Tcachers can then gi ve students sarnpl es of readi ng
rrrateri al si ngl e reproduccd pages fi orn di fl -ercnt books and ask students
to rnark the words on the page they do not know. From thi s i nfbnnati on i t i s
possi bl e to gauge accuratel y how appropri ate parti cul ar books are fbr par-
ti cul ar students. If several students rcad the same pagc and mark no un-
krrown words, or j ust one or two. then that materi al i s of approxi matel y the
ri ght l evel for cxtensi ve readi ng. If there are rnany morc unknown words,
rcadi ng the book wi l l probabl y be fi ustrati ng, demoti vati ng, and l ess than
rrscful fbr devel opi ng rcadi ng fl uency.
Discovering student interests
l cachers are someti mes kcon fbr stuci ents tcl rcad cl assi cal l i teraturc or
ot her books of l i t er ar y val uc r at hcr t han anyt hi ng st udcnt s woul d be l i kcl y
I o r cad on t hei r own. Wi t hout want i ng t o cl i snr i ss such cducat i onal goal s,
sccofl d l anguage extensi ve rcadi ng rl tay l tot bc the best contcxt l or such
1 10 The practice of extensive reading
endcavors. The purpose, after al l , i s to get students to read as much, as
often. and as wi l l i ngl y as possi bl e. Thc casi est way to do thi s i s to fbl l ow
thc cxampl e of popul ar cul ture and appcal to students on thei r own terms.
For students to l earn to read, they must, as f-ar as possi bl e, want to read. As
John Kl appcr waffl s, "i f we move too f' ar from our l earners' natural sphere
of i ntercst we run the ri sk of maki ng extcnded readi ng a meani ngl ess
chor c" ( 1992, p. 54) .
Many tcachers are wel l cnough i n tune wi th thei r students to know what
thosc students wi l l and wi l l not fi nd i ntercsti ng to read. Teachers who arc
not sure can observc or ask what
-
i f anythi ng thei r students read i n thei r
fi rst l anguagc. They can al so pay attenti on to what thci r students tal k about
and do i n thci r fi ee ti rne.
I f i nt ui t i on, obser vat i on, and i nf br mal qucst i oni ng ar e not enough t o
deterrni ne studsnt i nterests. thcn more fbrrnal l reans can be used. Teachers
can rnakc a questi onnai re to bc answered by the students who are to be i n
the extcnsi ve readi ng program, or a si mi l ar group of students.
I nte rests q uesti on nai re
The questi onnai rc can be ei ther i n the students' own l anguage or i n the
second l anguage.
Questi ons
shoul d be not onl y about what studcnts want to
read i n the second l anguage, but al so about the students' fi rst l anguage
readi ng, and thci r hobbi es, cl ubs, and free-ti me acti vi ti cs. Thi s avoi ds any
probl em of students reporti ng about what they thi nk they ought to read (or
what thcy thi nk the tcachcr wants to hear) rather than about what they
actual l y do enj oy rcadi ng. One group of adul t students i n Japan unan-
i rnousl y chose "nonfi cti on" i n a questi onnai rc aski ng them what they
wi shed to read. When asked what they read i n thei r own l anguage, however,
they answered corni c books and general fi cti on. Thi s rel ates perhaps to the
notori ous rnacho rnaxi rn of second l anguage readi ng i nstructi on: no readi ng
Jtai n,
no rcudi ng gui rt Studcnts ntust real i ze that when i t comes to l eami ng
to rcad, i t i s what i s easy and enj oyabl e that i s benefi ci al .
There arc two broad typcs of questi onnai re. A ranki ng questi onnai re
prcsents students wi th a seri es of choi ces and asks then-r to i ndi cate thei r
prcfbrences. For exampl c:
l . I enj oy movi cs whi ch are about
a. - sci encc fl cti on
b. - rcl mance or l ove
c. _ sports
d. - chi l dr cn
e. - ani mal s
rl
The extensive reading library 11 1
\ l u( l cnt s ar e t ol d t o put " l " besi de t hci r l ' avor i t c choi cc. and so on unt i l al l
rtr' t)rs are ranked. Al ternati vel y, they si rnpl y chcck l hosc i l cms that i nterest
rl rcnr. Ranki ng questi onnai res are si rr-rpl c to anal yzc: It i s j ust a matter of
, ( )ul l ti ng. Data are concrete and numeri cal . so trcnds and patterns can easi l y
l ,t' scen. The di sadvantage of thi s type of questi onnai re, however, i s that the
r\' i rcher must al ready have some i dea of what thc students l i kc i n order to
,l t' si sn questi ons that are comprehensi vc. Ranki ng questi onnai res yi el d
,' rrl y rel ati ve ranki ngs of the i nformati on they contai n. One way to get
rround thi s probl ern i s to i nvol vc the students themsel ves i n desi gni ng the
,
l r r cst i onnai r c.
An open-ended questi onnai re asks students to l i st thei r f' avori te choi ces.
I or exampl e:
I What ki nd of movi es do you enj oy?
'
What do you l i ke to do i n your sparc ti rne?
i
What do you and your fri ends tal k about when you are havi ng l unch?
I What sorts of books do you read (i n your own l anguage)' l
It i s casi er to prcpare such a questi onnai re as there i s no danger ofl eavi ng
, ' rrt i rnpoftant answer choi ces. Answers, however, rnay be so di verse that i t
r. hard to categori ze and i ntcrprct tl rcm. A rccornmended opti on, therefore,
r. l o combi nc thc two types of questi onnai re i nto a si ngl e i nstrument con-
r , r i ni ng quest i ons of bot h t ypes.
' l ' he
appeal of readi ng rnateri al has to do not onl y wi th thc subj ects bei ng
rr r.i tl en about, however. Many books arc popul ar si mpl y because the stori es
.rrc compcl l i ng and hard to put down. A bi bl i ography of recornmended
rrtl cs, such as the Appendi x to thi s book, can hel p you sel ect books that your
,trrcl cnts wi l l probabl y enj oy regardl ess of thei r parti cul ar i nterests. Local
l ,rrbl i shcrs'
representati ves may al so be abl e to recommend books that are
t)()pul ar
wi th the type of students you teach.
Purchasi ng the readi ng materi al s
\l i cr dcci di ng what topi cs and ki nds of books wi l l probabl y i nterest the
,trrdcnts, the next step i s to sel ect and buy the materi al . For school books,
nr r r l t i pl e copi es of t he same book ( cl ass set s) ar e usual l y or der ed. An
, rtcnsi ve readi ng l i brary, on the other hand, requi res as many di fl ' erent
t r l l cs as possi bl e i n or der t o gi ve st udent s as much choi ce as possi bl e. I t i s
rl rcrcfbre a good i dea to purchase onl y one copy of cach book or magazi ne
r r i t i al l y .
Il ' the materi al i s to be obtai ned fi om outsi de the country i n whi ch the
program i s l ocated, advance pl anni ng i s cssenti al . It can take as l ong as 6
months fbr materi al s to ari ve fi om abroad.
Catal ogi ng and organi zi ng the materi al s
As soon as they atri vc, books and other materi al s must be l i sted i n a master
i nventory. Thi s al l ows you to check the col l ecti on rcgul arl y for l oss or
darnage.
Next comes the task of organi zi ng the col l ecti on by l anguage l evel .
Newspapcrs and n.ragazi nes do not nccd to be so categori zed, but i t i s
essenti al that students have a way of knowi ng whi ch books are l i n-
gui sti cal l y sui tabl c for them. Teachers may havc to do a l ot of readi ng i n
ordcr to deci de the l evel s to assi gn the books i n the l i brary. Agai n, teachers
can copy a pagc frorn a book and ask studcnts to underl i ne the unknown
words as an ai d i n dctcrmi ni ng di ffi cul ty l evcl . Ordi nary books fbr nati ve
spcakers can be categori zed as "easy," "average," and "hard" wi th an
appropri ate i denti fyi ng rnark.
l f you are abl e to use l anguagc l carner l i terature, the publ i shcrs have
taken a l ot of the burdcn out of organi zi ng a l i brary. Books wi l l al ready be
assi gned a di fti cul ty l evel . Thc probl ern i s that each publ i shcr has i ts own
system of determi ni ng l evel s. If you usc books fi orn di fl -erent publ i shers,
you need to make your own master systern of l cvcl s, fbr exarnpl e, begi nner,
l ow-i ntennedi ate, hi gh-i ntcrmedi ate, and advanccd. Al ternati vel y, adopt
the l evel system of a maj or scri es and work out wherc books ti onr other
seri es fi t i nto i t.
Choose a nurnber or col or for each l evel i n your l i brary and attach a
sti ckcr on the cover of each book i ndi cati ng i ts l evel . Books shoul d be
di vi ded and shcl vcd accordi ng to these l evcl s.
The Appendi x off-ers a rnaster system of l cvcl s devel oped by the Edi n-
burgh Proj ect on E,xtcnsi vc Readi ng fbr l anguagc l earner l i terature pub-
l i shed i n Engl i sh. Books fbr nati vc speakers can be fl tted i n at the top of thi s
systcm, wi th "easy" books at l evel B, "average" at l cvcl A, and "hard" at
l evcl X.
Deci di ng where to pl ace the materi al s
Wherc shoul d the readi ng materi al s be l ocated' / How shoul d they be rnonr-
tored' J The conf' l i cti ng concerns here are securi ty and access. Readi ng
materi al s are expensi ve, and prcci ous funds shoul d not bc wasted i n repl ac-
i ng l ost or stol en materi al s. On the other hand, overl y restri cti ng access to
l
tl rc rl ateri al s rnakes i t hard for students to browsc and scl cct readi ng matter
tl rl t i nterests them a key aspect of an extcr.tsi vc rcadi ng program.
A maj or ai m of an extensi ve readi ng progranr i s to create an envi ronment
l hcre readi ng i s encouraged. At the same ti rne, you need to be real i sti c.
(
l n newspapcrs and rnagazi nes be pl aced i n a l ounge area wherc students
l rrthcr and rel ax? Can books be on open shel ves or shoul d they be l ocked up
rr l rcn a teacher i s not present' / Can students be trusted to check out books
1' roperl y
by themsel ves (by fi l l i ng out a l i brary card or notebook, fbr
( \i urpl e), or do they need to be supervi sed by stafF or student moni tors?
You must answer thesc questi ons as best you can before the program
l rcsi ns, or di scover the answers by tri al and (possi bl y cxpensi ve) error
. r l t cr war d.
One basi c questi on i s where to shel vc the books. There are three al terna-
trrcs wi thi n a school , each wi th advantages and di sadvantages: the school
l rbrary, a cl assroorn l i brary, and a dcl i very system.
The school library
l hc school l i brary i s the obvi ous pl ace to keep most of the materi al s. One
rrra.j or advantage i s that securi ty and checkout bccomc thc rcsponsi bi l i ty of
tl rc l i brary. Pl anni ng and organi zati on become strai ghtforward because the
tol l ecti on i s subj cct to the sarne rul es and regul ati ons that appl y to al l
l rbrary rnatcri al . l f your school has a l i brary, you may consi der aski ng for
rts cooperati on. There i s a severe l i rni t to the extra work that al ready busy
tcuchers can take on. And, bcl i cve us, runni ng a l i brary i s a l ot of extra
ri ork. The school l i brary i s an opti on, however, onl y i f they agree to shel ve
tl rc extensi ve readi ng materi al s i n a separate secti on. l f the rnateri al s are
\cattered al l over the l i brary by subj ect, the students wi l l never fi nd them.
One probl em wi th usi ng the school l i brary i s that the materi al s may be
l css acccssi bl e than the teacher wants them to bc, cspeci al l y duri ng readi ng
. l l ss. Another drawback i s that students tend to use the l i brary i ndi vi dual l y.
l hi s rnakes i t di ffi cul t fbr them to suggest books to each other, and the
! \ci tcment and sti mul ati on of hands-on recommendati on are l ost. It al so
rrrakcs i t harder fbr teachers to observc i ndi vi dual students engaged i n the
L nrci al acti vi ti es of browsi ng and choosi ng books. When books di sappear
rnto a central l i brary, so do i mportant aspects of a readi ng program.
A classroom library
\orre effbcti vc extensi ve readi ng prograrns pl ace the materi al s i n thei r
, l assrooms. A cl assroom l i brary al l ows studcnts i mrnedi ate access to the
rrrateri al s, especi al l y duri ng thc ti nrc whcn the readi ng cl ass i s mceti ng.
Books can be fi eel y obtai ned or changed duri ng sustai ned si l ent readi ng
peri ods. A cl assroom l i brary al so makes i t easi er fbr students to share
reacti ons and recommendati ons. and tbr teachers to note any probl ems that
students may have i n sel ecti ng books.
The books in a classroorn library can be locked up saf-ely or be on open
di spl ay i n a l i brary corner. If rnagazi nes, newspapers, or attracti ve scrap-
books of l i ght readi ng materi al are avai l abl e, they are l i kel y to be pi cked up
and browsed befbre and after cl ass.
A delivery system
If more than one cl ass use the same books, a del i very system shoul d be
consi dered. Thi s i nvol ves pl aci ng thc materi al s i n a box or cart that can be
moved casi l y fi orn room to room. When not needed i n a parti cul ar cl ass-
room, thi s rnovabl e t' east of readi ng matter can be strategi cal l y l ocatcd. for
exarnpl e. i n a l out.rgc or tcachcrs' room, dependi ng on securi ty
consi der at i ons.
These three opti ons school l i brary, cl assroom l i brary. and del i very
system are for scltool-based programs. Teachers who work on a l.nore
i ndependcnt basi s wi l l probabl y deal wi th books i n a di fterent way.
A teacher's private library
Teachers who work on a f i eel ance basi s may deci de t o use cxt cnsi ve
readi ng i n one or rnore cl asses, perhaps i n di f f erent school s. Such t cachers
may purcl rase and carry books t o t hei r cl asses, di spl ayi ng t hem by spread-
i ng t hem out on a desk. Robert a Wel ch, t eachi ng Engl i sh i n Tokyo, Japan,
shares such an experi ence.
I deci ded t o st an a l i brary f or nry sn. ral l cl asscs of worki ng adul t s. . . . I st art ed
wi t h one cl ass of company mcrr and onc womcn' s cl ass of govcmment cmpl oy-
ecs. Tryi ng t o consi dcr rny st udcnt s' i nt crcst s. I bought somc of t hc most hi ghl y
l ccornmcndcd books f i onr
[ a
bi bl i ography of books l br l anguagc l carncrs] .
Because the books arc small and light, it is not burdcnsomc for rnc to carry
t henr around t o my vari ous cl asses. . . . By now I havc about 35 books whi ch I
am ci rcul at i ng i n several cl asses. i ncl udi ng a houscwi vcs' cl ass and a smal l uni -
vcrsi t y cl ass. Some st udcnt s havc real l y gol t cn t hc "rcadi ng bug" and cvcn buy
t hei r own books, whi ch t hcy arc wi l l i ng t o sharc wi t h ot hcr cl ass rncmbcrs. (Oc-
t ober I 9t 16. pcrsonal comt runi cat i on)
Wel ch' s comment s, i nci dent al l y, ar e an exampl e of t he pr i nci pl e of st ar t i ng
smal l when set t i ng rrp a l i brary or an ext ensi ve readi ng program.
Setting up a checkout system
( l nl css
books are shel ved i n a central l i brary. tcuchers rrccd t<l nrake si nrpl e
r r r l es about t he l engt h of t i me a book can bc chcckcd out , t hc number of
t i t l es a st udent can check out at one t i mc. and any pcnal t i es t br l at e or l ost
l rrl oks. Sonte programs successful l y use students to assi st i rt rnoni tori ng
nrateri al . For cxampl e, one student or a
-qroup
of students can be desi gnated
rrs l i brari ans fbr a sct peri od of ti me. Wi th the teacher' s assi stance and pri or
trai ni ng, they are responsi bl e fbr rnaki ng surc nrateri al s are checkcd out
properl y and returneci on ti nre. Student rl oni tors can bc very good at thi s. l n
i r paper ti tl ed
"How
to Set Up a Cl ass Readi ng Li brary," Shei l a Cl i fI' e notcs
tl tat "students who woul d i gnore thei r teacher' s pl eas to bri ng back the
l r ooks t end t o r cspond t o pcer pr essur e" ( 1990, p. 29) . Si mi l ar l y, Cl i r i st i ne
\uttal l advi ses teachers, "Students often know who has borrowed a
' rni ss-
r ng' book and can r ccover i t r nor e easi l y t han you" ( 1996, p. 139) .
The standard systern for checki ng out books i s to pastc a pockct i n the
rrrsi de back cover of each book. l nsi de tl re pocket. a l i brary card i s pl aced
on whi ch i s wri tten the ti tl e of thc book. Thc card has spaces for students to
l ri te thci r names. school nurnbers, and the datc the book rvas borrowcd.
When a book i s checked out, tl rc card i s rcrtl ovcd and kcpt i n an i ndex box.
Scts of l i brary cards and sel f-adhcsi ve pockets can bc purchascd, or thcy
eun be fashi oned l i om used cnvel opes ancl card stcl ck. An al ternati vc i s a
r r ot ebook i n whi ch each st udcnt has onc or t wo bl ank pagcs t br wr i t i ng t he
ti tl es of books borrowed, date borrowed, and date returned.
If magazi nes or ncwspapers can be borrowed ovemi ght or fbr l onger
pcri ods. thc si rnpl est nrethod i s a one-notebook chcckout systcnl . Sturl crrts
ri ri tc thei r l rames. the namc of the i terrr. and the date borrowed on one l i nc
ol ' the notebook. Wl rcn thev rcturn the i tcm. thev check a col urnn. or cross
, ' l f t hei r name.
Di spl ayi ng the materi al s
I t i s an axi or n of t he r et ai l busi ness t hat at t r act i vcl y di spl ayed goods dr aw
( ustorrers. Thi nk about an eye-catchi ng di spl ay of fi ui t or vegctabl es. It i s
r r r uch mor e appeal i ng t han boxes of pr ocl ucc si t t i ng on shel vcs. [ t i s no
,l i l l ' erent i n a l i brary. Students are drawn to rnateri al s that arc wcl l di spl ayecl
; r r r d accessi bl e.
The books are best cl i spl ayed so that thei r fi ont covers are vi si bl c. Thi s i s
| i rrti cul arl y
i rl portarrt fbr l anguage l carrer l i terature as thc books are thi n
r r nd may not evcn have a t i t l e pr i nt cd on t hc spi ne. Chr i st i ne Nut t al l , i n
(' l rapter
8 of her Teat' hi ng Reutl i ng Ski l l .s i n u Forei gn Inngrrugt,(1996).
1 16 The practice of extensive reading
of-fcrs scveral al ternati ves fbr di spl ayi ng books rnost i nvol vi ng hammcr.
nai l s, and wood. You do not have to go to those l engths, however, to creatc
an attracti ve di spl ay. Books can be stood i nsi de sturdy cardboard or pl asti c
cartons of appropri atc si zc. the fi ont covers faci ng fotward. The books may
then be fl i ppcd through as one used to fl i p through al bunrs i n a record storc.
In l argcr l i brari es, i n addi ti on to shel vi ng the books by l evel , you may
al so want to di vi cl e books i nto other categori es. Fi cti on and non{l cti on arc
obvi ous choi ces. Another favori te i s to keep popul ar books i n a speci al
sccti ot.t.
Concl usi on
Good l i brari es arc not rnatl e overni ght, but yotl must start somewhere. In
sul t l :
o St ar t smal l .
e Start preparati ons carl y.
o More money i s ncodcd i n the trrst year than i n l ater years because, once
bougl rt, most books can be usecl agai n.
. Buy r nat er i al s at al l l evcl s of di f l i cul t y, but basi cal l y a l i t t l e bel ow t hc
st ucl ent s' l i ngui st i c l evel .
. Buy onc of cach book, not rnul ti pl c copi es, so tl rat the l i brary i s as vari ed
as possi bl e.
o If you do not kncl w what your students woul cl enj oy readi ng, ask them.
o To create an crrvi ronnrent that encouragcs rcadi ng, newspapers, naga-
zi nes, and books shoul d be as accessi bl e as possi bl e whi l e r cmai ni ng
secure fi onr l oss or thcfi .
. Mar k al l books by l i ngui st i c l evel .
o Dcci dc whether the books wi l l bc pl aced i n the school l i brary (l css work
but l css accessi bl e) or i n a cl assrootn l i brary (more work but nl ore
accessi bl e) .
o Di spl i ry tl te matcri al s as attracti vel y as possi bl c.
A l i brary i s an cnvi ronrnent of possi bi l i ti es that spri ngs to l i f-e onl y when
used. Hor.v to i ntroduce studcnts to rcadi ng materi al and readi ng i n general
i s the subj ect of thc ncxt chapter.
Further readi ng
( ' ol i n
Davi s i l l ust r at es how a l i br ar y can be est abl i shed i n even t he most
di sadvant ageous condi t i ons i n a 1995 ar t i cl e, " Ext ensi ve Readi ng: An Ex-
The extensive reading libra4r 117
pcnsi ve Ext r avagance' / " ( He answer s hi s own qucst i on wi t h a r esoundi ng
' Nol " )
" l n
Car ner oon, one book basket has t o cal cr t o a whol e ycar , and so
rt i s passed fi om cl ass to cl ass, wi th no opportuni ty l br pri vate readi ng at
l r ( ) nr c" ( p. 332) .
Roger Cunni ngham detai l s other constrai nts and how to work around
tl rcrrr i n hi s arti cl e "The Zanzl bar Engl i sh Readi ng Programme":
\l ost cl assroonrs arc bui l t wi th hal f-wal l s to al l ow l i ght and vcnti l ati on, and
l nvc no doors or wi ndows. Thi s opcnncss prccl udcs shcl vcs or di spl ay racks.
rnl ki ng any pcrnranent prescncc ofbooks i rnpossi bl e. Therc arc no sccure cup-
l roards to accol nmodatc books, so "l i brary corncrs" arc l tot possi bl e. CL
[cl ass-
r,rorr library] boxcs have to be brought fronr the storc, staflioorn or officc to thc
, l ussroorr.r for each C' L l csson. arrd di spl aycd on tabl es. (199 l . p. 672)
In thc frrst edi ti on of Chri sti nc Nuttal l ' s book Teuc' hi ng Reucl i ng Ski l l s i n
,r F-rtrei gn Latrguage, (1982), Chaptcr 12,
"An
E,xtensi ve Readi ng Pro-
r r . ar nnr c" ( pp. 167 l 9l ) , i s par t i cul ar l y st r ong on t he det ai l s of set t i ng up a
l r br ar y. That t he chapt er i s al most unchanged i n t he 1996 edi t i on of t hc
l , ook ( now Chapt er 8, pp. 127 148) r nay bc i ni t i al l y di sappoi nt i ng, but i t
,l ocs show how the practi cal suggcsti ons have stood the test of ti rne. Nuttal l
,' rrthusi asts wi l l ai so be pl eased to note that thc fi ogs-i n-tl re-l i brary anec-
, l ol e r cmai ns i nt act on page 134.
I ] Sndent orientation
I t i s i mport ant t o convi nce st Lt dcnt s of t hc val ue of
ext ensi vc rcadi ng.
Beat ri cc Dupuy. Lucy Tsc,
and Tonr Cook 1 1996. p. l 0)
. St r ess t he i r npor t ancc of or i ent i ng st udcnt s t o an ext cnsi ve r cadi ng
approach.
o Ot-i l r suggesti ons l br an ori entati on to an cxtensi vc rcadi ng progral n.
"Brorvsi ng newspapcrs, l ooki ng at socccr and fi rshi on rnagazi nes, and rcad-
i ng nrystery stol i cs' l l sn' t thi s.j ust gool i rrg off/ What has i t got to do wi th
scl r ool ' l I want t o bc t aught ! "
Thi s woul d bc a natural rcacti on fi onr seri ous students who havc not
been tol d why thcy are doi ng what they are doi ng. Thi nk about your
students and how they havc been prcvi ousl y taught second l anguagcs i n
gencral . and sccond l anguage readi ng i n parti cul ar. How are they l i kel y to
react to any charrges you rnake i n thei r rcadi ng cl asscs and horncwork
assi gnrnents' / Innovati ons i n teachi ng nrust bc cxpl ai ned l o students, and
ext ensi vc r eadi ng i s no cxccpt i on.
An cxtensi vc readi ng program may be a chal l cnge for students to under-
stand fbr a number of rcasons. Some of these rel ate to the students' bel i efs
about readi ng deri vi ng tl ' orrr thci r fi rst l angLraee cul turc, whi l c others are
l i nked to the studcnts' previ ous experi cnces l earni ng sc-cond l anguage
r cadi ng.
Mi smatches betwcen cul tural l y deri vcd atti tudcs toward rcadi ng and
ext ensi vc r eadi ng can be ser i ous, begi nni ng wi t h a basi c unwi l l i ngness t o
read. Catheri ne Wal l ace poi nts out that "the whol c i dea of rcadi ng si l entl y
and al one fbr pl easure rnay be a cul tural l y al i cn one tbr nrany groups"
( 1992. p. 20) . For cxampl e.
" st udent s
who cor ne f r or n cor . nr r uni t i es wi t h
l i rni ted l i teracy among the popul ati on uray downpl ay the i mportance of
l i t er acy ski l l s and do l i t t l e ext ensi ve r eadi ng" ( Gr abe, 1991. p. 3t l 9) . I n
addi ti on, students fi om cul tures i n whi ch wri tten tcxts reprcsent "truth" wi l l
118
Student orientation 1 19
l rrrtl i t hard to cmbrace a ntethodol ogy thi rl ul unl s thc rcader as much
. r r r t hor i t y as t he t ext or t eacl r er . Such st ucl cnt s wi l l l i kcl y be uncor nf or t abl e
,l cci di ng whi ch texts to read and thei r purposcs l i rr rcadi ng them. They wi l l
,rl so resi st the fi eedom to make of the texts what thcy wi l l , i ncl udi ng the
, ' pt i on of st oppi ng r eadi ng.
Irven students from soci eti es i n whi ch l i tcracy i ncl udes extensi ve read-
nrs rnay not be abl e to extend such i deas to the readi ng of forei gn l anguage
l c\ts. Mary Lee Fi el d, i n a 1985 report, found that Chi nese teachers of
I ngl i sh when rcadi ng Chi nese "use rcadi ng strategi es and ski l l s
j ust l i ke
tl rc ones uscd by nati ve Engl i sh speakers when readi ng i n thei r own l an-
suagc" ( p. 175) . However . whcn Fi el d asked t hem whet her i t was possi bl e
to transfer these fi rst l anguage ski l l s to rcadi ng i n Engl i sh, they rcported
t hat " i t
was not possi bl e. not even t hi nkabl e" ( p. 175) . For such st udent s,
rrrci dental l y, extensi ve readi ng can be j ust what i s needed to hel p them sce
l i rrei gn l anguagc rcadi ng as "readi ng," that i s, somethi ng that they do i n
tl rei r own l anguage and not as an exoti c pursui t or an academi c exerci se.
For othcr students, pri or experi cnce ofl earni ng second l anguage readi ng
rrray predi spose them agai nst extensi ve readi ng. Students who have been
trrught transl ati on or rcadi ng ski l l s wi l l probabl y be condi ti oned to take as
rrrucl r ti me as nccessary to understand cvcry word of a text. Tradi ti onal
rncthods of teachi ng rcadi ng al so l i nk progress and success wi th effort and
l rard work, wi th the resul t that studcnts may not be abl e to accept the
rcadi ng of a great deal of rel ati vel y casy materi al as a l egi ti mate academi c
rrcti vi ty. Readi ng "wi th no sl avi ng over a hot di cti onary . . . may appear
l i i vol ous and a waste of ti rne" (Barnford, 1984. p. 223). More spcci fi cal l y,
\ t u( l enl s i n a second l anguage uni ver si t y pr epar at i on pr ogr ar n r nay r ebel
rrgai nst wl rat seerns to therrr to be a waste of val uabl e ti me. They rrray see no
l i rrk between readi ng l arge quanti ti es of easy materi al and equi ppi ng them-
' cl ves wi th the ski l l s to succeed acadcmi cal l y. Fi nal l y, students used to
tradi ti onal rol es of both teachcrs and students may be confused and i l l at
cr.rsc i n a program where tcachers do not so much teach as gui de, and
' l ucl cnts rnake many of thei r own deci si ons, such as what, when, and where
I o r cad.
Al l these reasons poi nt to the necessi ty of a sensi ti ve, careful ori entati on
Io the goal s and methodol ogy of extensi ve readi ng at the start of a
l )rogram
-
what Beatri ce Dupuy, Lucy Tse, ancl Tom Cook cal l "l ayi ng the
groundwork" for extensi ve readi ng (1996, p. l 0). Experi ence has al so
' hown that thi s ori entati on pl ocess needs to be conti nued i n vari ous ways at
rrppropri ate i nterval s throughout the course unti l the students havc trul y
rnadc the pri nci pl es and goal s of extensi ve rcadi ng thei r own. At the same
ti rnc. parti cul arl y i n heterogeneous second l anguage cl assroorns, certai n
students wi l l have a harder ti mc than others i nternal i zi ng an extensl vc
readi ng approach, and teachers may have to work harder to hel p thesc
students get the most out of the program.
An ori entati on tel l s students what they wi l l do and why they wi l l bc
doi ng i t. Topi cs covsred shoul d i ncl ude the goal s and proccdures of thc
program and the pri nci pl es that underl i e them, as wel l as an i ntroducti on to
the readi ng materi al s and thei r avai l abi l i ty. Lct us l ook at the topi cs of thc
ori entati on i n morc detai l .
The goal s of the program
It i s a good i dea to gi ve the students an ovcrvi ew of the goal s of thc
extensi ve readi ng program, as many of these are di fferent fi om goal s ol '
other approaches to the teachi ng of second l anguage readi ng. One of thc
pri mary goal s of an extensi ve readi ng program i s for students to become
fl uent readers through bui l di ng thci r si ght vocabul ary. No matter what ki nd
of readi ng students aspi re to be abl e to do techni cal or acaderni c readi ng,
fbr exampl e a l arge si ght vocabul ary i s a necessary fbundati on fbr readi ng
as nati vc speakers do. Thi s basi c abi l i ty underpi ns al l readi ng, but because
i t i s an autornati c process, i t may be a somewhat abstract noti on to try to
expl ai n to students. Instead, i t can be sai d, i n more concrete and exact
tenns, that the cxtensi ve rcadi ng program wi l l provi de practi ce i n
e maki ng meani ng di rectl y from a text wi thout transl ati on
o knowi ng the purpose for whi ch onc i s readi ng, because di fl erent pur-
poses requi re di fl -ercnt ways of readi ng
o "goi ng for meani ng," that i s, remai ni ng focused on the ovcral l meani ng
of what i s bei ng read wi thout getti ng si detracked by unfarni l i ar l anguage
or i deas
o guessi ng at or i gnori ng unfami l i ar l anguage or di fl l cul t i deas
. readi ng at an appropri ate speed for one' s purpose
r bci ng sati sfi cd, whcn appropri ate, wi th l ess tl .ran total comprehensi on
Students can be tol d that thcy wi l l practi ce al l these thi ngs and, as a resul t,
wi l l grow to have i ncreased confi dence and abi l i ty to read i n the second
l anguage. For some students, i t wi l l be enough to say that the goal s of the
program are fbr them to become fl uent readers and to enj oy readi ng i n the
second l anguage.
li l
Studentorientation 121
The procedures of the program
\l u(l cnts shoul d be rnade fami l i ar wi th anothcr rtutj or cl i fl ' erencc bctwccn an
, \tcnsi ve readi ng program and other second l anguagc rcadi ng approaches:
rt\ procedure of requi ri ng students to read a l argc cl uanti ty of easy texts. It
r r r i sl r t be hel pf ul t o expl ai n t hat t he pr i nci pl c bchi nd t hi s i s t hat you gct
l rt' ttcr at what you practi ce, or "you l eam to read by rcadi ng." Advi se
,trrrl cnts that struggl i ng through a second l anguage text, mental l y transl at-
rrg i t i nto one' s own l anguage i n order to understand i t, i s not truc rcadi ng.
' l ' el l
students that, i n ordsr to practi ce readi ng, sccond l anguaee texts
rrrLrst be read i n the samc way as fi rst l anguage texts. Studcnts need to know
t l r at t l r i s can onl y bc accor npl i shecl by r eadi ng casy mat er i al because t hci r
, econd l anguage abi l i t y i s l ess t han t hci r f i r st l anguage abi l i t y. At t hi s poi nt .
tl rc nracho maxi m of sccond l anguage readi ng i nstructi on no t' t' udi ng
t,tti rt,
no reudi ng gai n mi ght be expl ai ned and dcbunked and the rrrotto of
! \tcnsi ve readi ng substi tuted: reudi ng gui n w' i thout reudi ng pui n.
Self-selection of materials
\rrother procedurc to bc addressed i s the mattcr of students sel ecti ng thei r
, , r ' , ' n r cadi ng r nat er i al . The r esponsi bi l i t y t hi s ent ai l s can bc unsct t l i ng t o
.l Lrcl cnts who have al ways bcen tol d by teachers what, whcn. where, and
l row to read. Other students may not have basi c t-arni l i ari ty wi th second
l rrrruuage readi ng materi al s and rnay have to bc i ntroduced to thei r featurcs,
l i rr exampl e, thc back-cover bl urb that surnmari zes a book, thc l i st of
, haptcr ti tl es at the fi ont that can gi vc the reader a general i dca of what to
t \pect, and, i n some books, the gl ossary at the back.
Students shoul d be aware that thcy shoul d choose rnateri al that can be
rcad wi th ease and cornfbrt. Thcy rni ght be tol J that you wi l l be hel pi ng
tl rcrn i n the begi nni ng to scl ect materi al that matches thei r readi ng abi l i ti es
l rLrt that i n the end they are the ones who dctcrmi ne what they read.
Part of thi s i ni ti al ori entati on to sel f-scl ecti on can be phrased i n ten.ns of
r ocabul ary. Just as there are f' ew words that thc students do not know whcn
tl rcy rcad i n thei r own l anguage, i n order fbr thern to be abl c to read
ni rtural l y there shoul d be no more than a f' ew words that thcy do not know
* hen they read i n thc second l anguage. Students need a qui ck strategy to
l rcl p them determi ne i f a book i s wi thi n thci r comfi l rt zone for extcnsi vc
rcadi ng. Onc way i s to open the book at rancl orl and read a pagc, counti ng
tl re words that are not known. The book can be read cornfortabl y i f thcre arc
no Inore than a certai n number of unknown words on the pagc. For begi n-
ncrs. one unknown word per pagc i s rnorc than enough. Othcr students can
l
I
use thc rul e o/ hond
-
no rnore than fl ve unknown words on the sampl e page
(one word l br cach di gi t).
No dictionaries
Di rectl y rcl ated to the i ssue of unknown words i s the rol c ol ' the ubi qui tous
cl i cti onary. As strange as i t may secm to studcnts, tl rey shoul d be aware that,
i n tcms of rcadi ng, i l i s unnatural to be l ooki ng up words constantl y i n the
cl i cti onary.
But st udcnt s t hi nk of cl i ct i onar i es as a l i ngui st i c l i f el i ne. They wi l l won-
der how thcy can survi ve wi thout them. And why woul d they want to try' l
You can remi nd thcr-n that i t i s no fun to be l ooki ng up wrl rds constantl y
whi l c readi ng and. besi dcs, i t breaks the reader' s concentrati on. In addi ti on,
constant di cti onary usc rreans tl .rat studcnts read l css: You coul d rnenti on
that a study fbund that a group of students usi ng di cti onari es took al most
twi cc as l ong to read a short story as di d another group that di d not use
cJi ct i onar i es ( Luppcscu & Day. 1993) .
Of equal i mportance, studcnts shoul d understand that they must l earn the
techni ques of fl ucnt readi ng. Thi s i nvol ves guessi ng the rneani ng of, or
i gnori ng, the unkrrown words they i nevi tabl y cncountcr when readi ng i n a
second l anguage. l f they arc cver to become fl ucnt readers, they must trai n
themscl ves to bc conrfortabl e wi th arnbi gui ty. Remi nd students of what
thcy do whcn they mcct an untarni l i al nvord rvhen rcadi ng i n thei r own
l anguage. Most ti rnes, they are sati sfi ed ci ther to gucss at or to i gnore the
word, and to l ook i t up i n a di cti onary onl y as a rare l ast re' sort. Lcarni ng
second l anguagc vocabul ary i s i rnportant, but i t cannot bc al l owed to get i n
the way of l earni ng to read. Students must real i zc that they are practi ci ng
readi ng. not l earni ng ' ,,ocabul ary. Whcn the two are i ncompati bl e i n readi ng
cl ass. r eadi ns I nust t akc pr i or i t y.
A si rnpl e and graphi c way of cxpl ai ni ng the di l l crcnces bctween exten-
si ve readi ng and other approaches to thc teachi ng ofreadi ng i s to bui l d up a
chart on the chal kboard as i n Fi gLrre I (based on Roberta Wel ch, 1997). The
chart can bc rn thc sccond l arrguage, or i n the student' s nati ve l anguage.
Wi thout deval ui ng i ntensi ve fbrrns of teachi ng readi ng, the goal s and f' ea-
tures of extensi ve reacl i ng are i ntroducecl and cornparcd wi th the ki nds of
readi ng i nstructi on that the students may bc used to.
Fi nal l y, t he i nt ensi ve col umn i s er ased and i t i s cxpl ai ned t hat ext ensi ve
reacl i ng i s what i s goi ng to be practi ccd. As Wcl ch expl ai ns:
Wi th thi s bl i cl i ntrocl ucti on thc students comc to undcrstand that the cl ass wi l l
be conducted di fl ' crcntl y fi om thcj r othcr rcadi ng cl asses. Thcy shoul d rcal i ze
Student orientation 123
Intenstve Type of reading Extensive
Read accurately
f ransl at e
Answer quest i ons
Words and pronunci at i on
Often difficult
Teacher chooses
Not much
Sl ower
Must f i ni sh
Use di ct i onary
Cl ass goal
Readi ng purpose
Focus
Material
Amount
Speed
Method
Read f l uent l y
Get information
Enjoy
Meanang
Easy
You choose
A l ot
Faster
Stop if you don' t like it
No di ct i onary
l : i , qure I C' hurt conl rusl i n, q i nt ensi vt : und e. rt ensi ve reudi ng.
t hat al t hough cxt cnsi vc rcadi ng i s not a rnct hod t hat t hey arc uscd t o, i t i s i n-
cri dcd t o hcl p t hcnr t l cvcl op i nl o l rorc i l ucnt t brci gn l anguagc rcaders. (1997, p.
) 3)
Readi ng requi rements
l l ' there are any rcqui rcments, tel l thc students rvhat they are: how many
books or pagcs tl rey must read and what reports thcy t.nust wri tc, and how
l i rl fi l l i ng the requi rernents rcl ates to grades. Retnember, you wi l l be aski ng
thcrrr to rcad more than thcy have probabl y cver done before i n the second
l anguage. A book a wcek may seem i mpossi bl e fbr students whose onl y
pri or cxperi ence ofreadi ng the target l anguagc i s transl ati on, or the readi ng
of short passages fol l owed by answcri ng cornprehensi on questi ons and
t l oi ng exer ci ses.
Reassure muti rrous students that the requi remcnts yor.r l .rave set are i n-
dced achi cvabl e. Make thi s cl ear by stati ng exactl y how much ti me students
sl roul d spend on horrrcwork every day or week. Add that they wi l l not need
t o spend any mor e t i me t han t hi s on r eadi ng or wr i t i ng. Thi s, of cot r r se, wi l l
bc an amtl unt of homework that they are used to.
Expl ai rr what wi l l be done i n cl ass. Make sure that students understand
l r ow any unusual cl ass act i vi t i es r el at e t o t he goal s of t he pr ogr am. The
rcason for i n-cl ass sustai ned si l ent readi ng, for exampl e, i s the vi ew
-
rvi del y hel d by experts that one l earns to read by readi ng. Readi ng si l entl y
; r nd i ndi vi dual l y i n cl ass i s t hcr cl br e one of t l t c r nost appr opr i at e act i vi t i cs
t l r at coul d be done i n a r eadi ng cl ass.
It
Readi ng materi al s
Introduce the newspapers. magazi ncs. and books that arc avai l abl e for
readi ng. Expl ai n the systenr of di fl i cul ty l evel s i n whi ch the books arc
arranged, and how to i denti fy the di fl ' erent l evcl s. cl ari fy where the mate-
ri al s wi l l be kept and whi ch can be checkecJ out, i ncl Lrdi ng how l ong they
can be kept and any penal ti es for l atc rcturn.
The ori entati on can concl ude wi th sorne hel pful hi nts:
.
Readi ng casi cr materi al i s bcttcr than readi ng hardcr rnateri al .
.
Readi ng a l ot i s bet t er t han r eadi ng a l i t t l e.
.
Readi ng rvhat you enj oy i s better than readi ng what you thi nk you ought
to read.
o
To stop readi ng a book you do not l i ke i s better than pl owi ng on.
Concl usi on
An ori cntati on to an extcnsi ve readi ng program fbr students can i ncl ude the
f ol l owi ng el er ncr r l s as appr opr i ut c:
o Pri nci pl cs and theory
We l earn to rcad bv readi ns
-
Research rcsul ts
r
Goal s
To devel op a l argc si ght vocabul ary
-
To i ncrease gencral vocabul ary knowl cdge
*
To cnj oy readi ng
o Procedure
Readi ng l al gc quanti ti es of sel f--scl cctcd, easy texts
Readi ng tl r"rcntl y wi thout a di cti onary
-
Cl ass acti vi ti es (e.g., sustai ned si l ent readi ng, oral book reports)
o
Rcqui rernents
-
Spcci fi c arnount to be rcad
Records and reports to be wri tten
e
Materi al s
The systcm of l evel s (grades)
-
Avai l abi l i ty arrd checkout procedures
Based on past experi ences of second l anguage readi ng, many studcnts
wi l l not be expecti ng pl easure, ease, or success whcn doi ng extensi ve
reacl i ng. They wi l l have to takc your word for i t at fi rst that what you are
Student orientation 125
rrski ng i s not onl y possi bl e but strai ghtl i rrwurtl .rrl *cn enj oyabl c. wi th
proper i ni ti al ori entati on and orrgoi ng gui tl ance, howcvcr. students wi l l
s()oner rather than l ater, i t i s hopcd l carn l i orn cxpcri cnce.
you
wi l l know
thcy havc done so when they say, as Rebccca constanti no' s student di d.
" ' You
know, i t ' s l i ke you sai d, I know how t o r cai l , I j ust have t o r ead i n
l : ngl i sh l i ke I nonnal l y r ead and I wi l l be OK" ' ( 1995, p. 69) .
I2 Building a communie of
,
reaaers
Teachcrs rnust crcat e wi t l ri n each cl assroonr a
posi t i vc at rnosphcre, a way of l i t ' c conduci vc t o
promot i ng readi ng t hrough posi t i vc af f ect .
-. Edward
Dwyer and
Evel yn Dwyer ( l t ) 94. p. 72)
Thc purpose of thi s chapter i s to:
. OtTcr suggcsti ons fbr cl assroorrr acti vi ti cs i n support of cxtensi vc
readi ng.
o Expl ai n how the teacher can begi n to transform the rcadi ng cl assroom
i nl o r r cadi ng cor nmuni l y.
Thi s chapter fbcuses on thc cvol uti on of thc cxtensi vc readi ng cl assroom
i nto a readi ng corl muni ty whose me-mbers val ue and engagc i n reacl i ng.
The chapter opens wi th a di scussi on of thc need fbr conti nui ng gui dance
and counsel i ng. Then a nurnber of cl assroom acti vi ti es that can bc used to
hel p create an envi ronment supporti ve of readi ng are prcsentecl . The chap-
ter cl oses wi th a di scussi on of the i mportancc of the tcacher scrvi ng as a
rol e model .
Ongoi ng cl ass gui dance
The apparentl y rcl axed atrrosphere of an extensi ve readi ng program does
not mean that l earners are si rnpl y l eft to thei r own devi ccs. Wi thout encour-
agcrnent ofone sort or anothcr to read i n the sccond l anguage, students nray
gradual l y l ose i ntcrest. Apparent l ack of concern on the part of the teacher
about what and how much studcnts are readi ng i s a sure reci pe for the
derni se of a progranr, and fbr good books to go to waste unread on l i brary
shel ves.
Cui dance. thcrefore. shoul d not end wi th the i ni ti al ori entati on of stu-
dents to extensi ve readi ng. Ol d habi ts di c hard and ol d prcj udi ces arc hard
to break. Pi cter Nel son' s experi ence, al though not whi l e teachi ng extensi ve
126
Building a community of readers 127
r el di ng, i s i ndi cat i ve of what second l angt r l gc t ' cr t r l i t t s l cacl t cr s can be up
,rrl rri nst. In spi te of hi s best ef1brts, Ncl son l ti ttl to ctl ttccde tl tat
rery l i ttl c progress has bccn nrade i n cncouragi ng tl tc studcnts to adopt a l rorc
,.rsual atti tudc towards tcxt. Thcy rcnrai n vcry cl i ssati sl i ctl i l ' a tcxt i s abancl oned
l rel i rrc thcy havc undcrstood cvery rvord. f-ccl i rtg that thc tcachcr has che-atcd
tl rcnr i n some way by not fi ni shi ng thc j ob. If thc tcxt i s not anal yscd cx-
l r;rusti vcl y i n thc cl assroom, thc kccne-r studcnts takc i t hornc and subj cct i t to
rl rc stantl ard di cti onary{r' arrsl ati on approach. Onc scnrcstcr sccnrs too shon a
I' cri od
to brcak therr of thi s habi t, l i rrnl y establ i shcd duri ng thci r school ci l rccrs.
r l el t 4. p. 195)
The fbrm of an cxtensi ve rcadi ng progral x
--
readi ng easi cr tcxts fbr
rtcneral undcrstandi ng i n quanti ti es too great to make transl ati on an
( ) pt i on -
r nay hel p br eak such habi t s i n behavi or al t er ms. But as t he cxat n-
pl c j ust ci ted makes cl ear, dcdi cated studcnts rnay need reassurance that
t' rtcnsi ve rcadi ng i s i ndced the path fbr thern to becotne f' l ucnt, efl ccti vc
rcucl ers. Teachers rnust ke' ep a cl osc eye on students' rcadi ng habi ts ancl
,' nrergi ng atti tudes, parti cul arl y carl y i n a progranr. and ol l ' er gui dance as
ncccssary. In Wayne Otto' s vi cw,
"The
csscnti al poi nt i s that teachers need
t() si ve expl i ci t, systema(i c. and pcrsi stent attcnti orr to hel pi ng nttvi cc
rcaders rnai nl y by setti ng asi dc suffl ci ent ti tne and provi cl i ng gui dance i n
' e l ccti on of appropri ate matcri al s to attai n f' l ucncy/autornati ci ty" ( 199 I,
1r
97) .
In more general tenns, no mattcr how thoroughl y a teacher has expl ai ned
,rn cxtensi ve readi ng program to students, there are al ways thi ngs that need
to be emphasi zcd or adcl ed fi onr ti rne to ti rl e i n thc fbl l owi ng weeks bascd
()n
observi ng students read, and l i steni ng to and readi ng thei r reports. Sucl r
gui dance can occasi onal l y be ofI' ered to the whol c cl ass. Tcachers sl toul d
kccp a record of what rs sai d, i n order to arnend the i ni ti al ori entati on as
nccessary for next year' s students.
I ndi vi dual counsel i ng
\tudcnts vary grcatl y i n thei r reacti ons to extensi vc rcadi ng. and so benefi t
l i om i ndi vi dual attenti on. Counsel i ng can be donc i nfbrmal l y through thc
teacher' s wri tten or spoken response to a studcnt' s bcl ok rcports or rcadi ng
Iogs, i f these are used. It can al so be done fbrrnal l y by sctti ng asi dc ti me fbr
thc teacher to mect bri el l y wi th each student i ndi vi dual l y on a rotati ng
l l r si s.
Counsel i ng i s a chance for teachers to ask students about thci r readi ng
cxperi ences and to deal wi th any probl cms that sl udcnts mi ght be havi ng. It
rI
I
rnay al so be an opportuni ty to recornmcnd spcci fi c books to students. Tri ci a
Hedgc sums up the rol e of the tcacher-as-counsel or: "to advi sc, assi st.
remcdy, rvi den the student' s i ntercsts and encourage hi m to anal ysc hi s own
r eadi ng expcr i cnce by t al ki ng about t he l ' r ooks he has r ead" ( 198- 5, p. 95) .
l f l bnral and rcgul ar counsel i ng i s dcci ded on, a checkl i st of questi ons
rni ght be useful .
Questi ons
that teachers can ask studcnts i ncl ude thc
f bl l owi ng:
. Do you cnj oy readi ng' /
o What ki nd of books do you l i ke?
o What books have you enj oyed reccntl y' ?
.
f)o you have arry probl enrs wi th or worri cs aboLrt readi ng' i
o About how l ong docs i t usual l y take you to fi ni sh rcadi ng a l i brary book' l
Il -notes are kept, i t i s i nteresti ng to compare the answers of a student at thc
begi nni ng, duri ng, ancl at the encl of an extensi ve readi ng program. Such
notcs rxay al so be usetul when eval uati ng an extensi ve readi ng program.
In-cl ass acti vi ti es
Vari ous cl assroorn acti vi ti cs can furthcr extensi vc readi ng and hel p students
bcgi n to scc readi ng as a val uabl c, exci ti ng, pl easurabl e, and worthwhi l e
act i vi t y. Al l t he f bl l owi ng act i vi t i es ar e sui t abl e f br any l evel of l i ngui st i c or
r eadi ng abi l i t y.
Sustained silent reading (SSB)
Students and teacher si l entl y rcad books or other materi al of thei r choi ce.
Everyonc i n the rootn i s readi ng somethi ng di fl erent. Gi vi ng students val u-
abl e cl i tss ti rne i n whi ch to rcad i s one of the thi ngs that teachcrs can do to
der nonst r at e t he val ue of r cadi ng and t o est abl i sh a r eadi ng communi t y. As
Pat r i ci a C' nnni nghar n and Jar nes Cunni ngham expr ess i t :
Sustai ncd si l cnt rcadi ng was a grcat i dca bccause i t rrrade i t possi bl c to havc real
readi ng goi ng on i n rcal cl assroonrs. Sustai ncd si l ent rcadi ng has as i ts cri ti cal
conrponcnts thc noti ons of rcadcr choi cc of rnatcri al . ti nre to rcad. no repofts or
othcr "extri rrsi c" nroti vati on for rcadi ng. and the nccd for any adul ts prcscnt to
dcrronstratc thc i rnporl ancc of rcadi ng by rcadi ng al so. (1991, p.46)
Ri chard Robi nson and Joycel i n Hul ett vi cw sustai ncd si l ent readi ng as
"hi ghl y uroti vati onal because i t c' ncourascs readi ng that i s rneani ngful to
t he i ndi vi dual as opposed t o r cadi ng as an academi c subj ect " ( | 991, p. 106) .
I l r c t i me set asi de f or sust ai ned si l ent r cacl i ng, al so cal l cd DEAR ( Dr op
I vcrythi ng And Rcad) and USSR (Uni ntcrruptcrl Sustai ned Si l ent Read-
rnu), can be anywhere fi om l 5 or 20 mi nutcs to thc wl rol e cl ass peri od.
Whi l e students are engaged i n si l ent rcadi ng, teachers havc vari ous
opti ons for how to spend thi s ti me. Therc i s much to be gai ned i f teachers
can spend hal f or al l of the si l ent readi ng peri od rcadi ng j ust as thei r
:tucl ents are. As Beatri ce Dupuy. Tom Cook, and Lr"rcy Tse expl ai ned i n a
l l l SOL 1995 rvorkshop,
"Tumi ng
ESL Students i nto Fl uent Readers": "l t
rs . . . important that students who are not accustomed to pleasure reading
sce other peopl c enj oyi ng i t, especi al l y an authori ty fi gure l i ke the teacher"
11995, p. 3) . Nonnat i ve second l anguage t cacher s can r ead t hc same ki nds
ol ' books that thei r studcnts are readi ng. Nati ve-speaki ng tcachers can al so
tl o thi s, or read i n a forei gn l anguage they are l earni ng or al reacl y know.
Si l cnt readi ng i n cl ass can al so gi ve teachers a chance to observe i ndi vi d-
rral students readi ng. Who seerns to be concentrati ng? Who i s sl eepy' ? Who
cannot settl e down and keeps changi ng books' / Who i s a l ast reader' l A sl ow
rcader? Gathered over ti me, thi s ki nd of i nforrnati on i s i nval uabl e i n hel p-
i ng teachers counsel and gui de students i n overcomi ng whatever barri ers
tl rey tacc i n order to get thc most out of rcadi ng.
Teachers l nay want to be avai l abl c to answcr questi ons fi onr i ndi vi dual
students duri ng part of the si l cnt readi ng peri od. If students ask the meani ng
ofa word, the teacher can ei ther answer or suggest that thc student guess or
rgnore the word. The questi ons a student asks can tel l the teacher about that
sl udent' s way of readi ng, and how wel l rnatched the student i s wi th the
r cadi ng mat er i al .
Some teachers use the si l ent readi ng peri od for i ndi vi dual student coun-
scl i ng. Thi s i s possi bl e i f the si l ent readi ng peri od i s l onger rather than
shorter, and i f tl re qui et teacher-student conversati ons do not di sturb the
other students who are readi ng.
What teachers shoul d defi ni tel y nol use the si l ent readi ng peri od fbr i s
ol fl ce. wi th the possi bl e excepti on of checki ng students' book reports or
rcadi ng notebooks. As Dupuy, Cook, and Tse expl ai n:
l hc students nced to know that the teacher takcs thi s ti mc scri ousl y, and i f wc
rrsc thc ti rnc to grade papcrs or prepare our l cssons, thc studcnts wi l l gct thc
scnse that SSR i s busywork and are l ess l i kcl y to see i ts val uc. (1995. p. l )
(' orrversel y,
what students shoul d not do i s use si l ent readi ng ti me to catch
rrp wi th thei r homework from other cl asses that i nvol ves rcadi ng i n the
\ccond l anguage. The teacher can rnake thi s cl ear, at the same ti me encour-
rrui ng students to bri ng to cl ass other appropri ate second l anguage readi ng
rnateri al they mi ght wi sh to read.
Browsing and choosing
If books are shel ved i n the cl assroom. ti me can be set asi de for students to
browse and sel ect books to check out. Agai n, thi s offers a chance for
teachers to mi ngl e and observe the modus operandi of i ndi vi dual students.
On what basi s do they seem to be choosi ng books? Is there heal thy coopera-
ti on, wi th students recommendi ng books to each other and hel pi ng each
other choose? Who seems to be havi ng troubl e? Some students rnay not
know how to go about choosi ng a book, and may need assi stance from the
teacher or other students.
Teachers read aloud to students
"Students," cl ai m Nancy Lee and Judi th Neal , "do not outgrow havi ng
t eacher s r ead al oud t o t hem dai l y" ( 1992 1993, p. 28l ) . Al t hough Lee and
Neal were referri ng to mi ddl e-school students, students of al l ages adul ts
i ncl uded-enj oy l i steni ng to stori es. For begi nners, especi al l y those l earni ng
a l anuuage wi th a di fferent scri pt, bei ng regul arl y read al oud to at the same
ti me as si l entl y readi ng the wri tten text hc' l ps bui l d sound/synrbol correspon-
dences and hel ps students fbel courfortabl e i n thc al i en pri nt envi ronment.
Thcrc are also more general benefits. Tiey Huay Yong and Saraswarthy
Idamban (1991) report that readi ng al oud to thei r pri mary students i n Si n-
gapore resul ted i n an i ncrease i n overal l l anguage profi ci ency, i ncl udi ng
l i steni ng comprehensi on. Catheri ne Pegol o found evi dence to suggest that
readi ng al oud to Ameri can uni versi ty students l earni ng French hel ped them
acqr.ri re a "feel " for the rhythrn of the target l anguage ( | 985, p.323). Pegol o
bel i eves that thi s can hel p the students l earn how to read i n chunks or
rneani ngful sense groups, i n contrast to the typi cal word-fbr-word strategy.
Readi ng al oud can be an i ni ti al strategy i n promoti ng extensi ve readi ng,
as Robi n Smi th reports i n a tbsci nati ng arti cl e about a secondary school i n
Brunei ( | 997). In part because the students came from a nonreadi ng cul -
ture, i t was deci ded to use readi ng al oud as a way of i ntroduci ng students to
readi ng. Moreover, readi ng al oud fi t i n we l l wi th the oral tradi ti on of the
str-rdents' cul ture.
In any readi ng prograrn, read-al ouds can be a way of i ntroduci ng stu-
dents to gcnres, authors, and worthwhi l e books that they ntay not i ni ti al l y
be attracted to. l t can al so al l ow students to appreci ate nrore di ttcul t prose
and poetry.
The procedure i s strai ghtforward. Teachers read al oud to students whi l e
the students fol l ow al ong, si l entl y readi ng transparenci es on an overhead
proj ector or thei r own copi es of the text. Thi s l atter requi res a cl ass set of
l rooks or photocopi cd text, at l east one copy pe I tu o sl url crrts. The l ength of
t i r ne f br r eadi ng al oud depends on t hc asc ol ' t hc sl udcnl s, t hci r l i n- el l i st i c
l cvel , and the i ntercst of the materi al . Teachcrs qui ckl y l earn to be sensi ti ve
to the attenti on span of thei r students. Nevcr bc ati ai d to abandon a readi ng
t hat j ust i s not wor ki ng.
Read-al oud materi al shoul d usual l y bc at the sarne l i ngui sti c l evel at
rvhi ch most of the students are readi ng. Other cri teri a i ncl ude the i nterests
of students as wel l as of the teacher. The materi al can be as short as a poem
or as l ong as a short story or bri efchapter ofa book. Ifa teacher copi es onl y
i r srnal l part of a book and hands out and reads thi s to the cl ass, there may be
ru starnpedc afierward to borrow that book by str.rdents whose appetites have
been whetted.
If a whol e book i s read i n i nstal l ments, a good choi ce of materi al i s a
fi cti on story wi th a dramati c or exci ti ng progressi on of events a thri l l er or
rorrance, fbr exampl c. Such books ofl en have bui l t-i n suspense at the end
of cach chapter, whi ch mcans that students wi l l l ook forward to the con-
ti nuati on of the story i n the next cl ass. (Be sure to col l ect al l copi es of the
book at the cnd of the readi ng so suspense i s nrai ntai ned!)
It i s a good i dea to prepare a very short, three- or four-sentence
"the
story
so t-ar" sumrnary befbre each new part of a seri al story i s rcad al oud. Thi s
rcvi ews the key topi c vocabul ary of the story. and those i tems can be l i sted
on the chal kboard. Thc summary al so ensures that students absent fi om the
prcvi ous cl ass are up to speed. Fi nal l y, the teacher' s summary can act as a
rnodel fbr students who themsel ves have to summari ze stori es for wri tten or
oral reports. An opti on after l i steni ng to a segment of the story i s for
students to wri te answers to one or two cornprchensi on questi ons.
Teachers who are not nati ve speakers of the second l anguage may be
rcl uctant to read al oud to tl rei r students. In such si tuati ons. teachers can use
professi onal audi o rccordi ngs or ask col l eagues who are nati ve speakers of
the second l anguage to record some appropri ate materi al , whi ch can be
pl ayed i n cl ass fbr students. Even nati ve speakers may someti mcs pref-er to
avai l themsel ves of professi onal readers on audi ocassette. The students
rcad al ong si l cntl y as usual as they l i sten to the tape.
A l ess than perfect command of the second l anguage or a l ess than
ski l l ed abi l i ty to read al oud shoul d not deter teachers, however. Teachers
pcrhaps especi al l y norrnati ve-speaki ng teachers who get i nto the habi t of
rcadi ng al oud to thei r cl ass act as rol e model s for thei r students by sharrng
thei r l ove of readi ng. Whether the matcri al read i s a book, an arti cl e, a
poern, or a paragraph, when read al oud thc tbcus i s on the materi al and the
tcacher' s appreci ati on of i t, not on thc rcadcr' s shortcomi ngs. The message
bei ng gi ven to students i s: Readi ng i s i mportant enough to do and share.
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Repeated timed readings
For thi s exerci se ai med at devel opi ng si ght vocabul ary, each student uses a
book she or he i s readi ng. If a student i s between books, any book or
materi al at an appropri ate l evel wi l l do.
Studcnts make a l i ght penci l mark at the poi nt they want to begi n
readi ng. At the teacher' s si gnal , students read si l entl y at a comfbrtabl e pacc
unti l the teacher tel l s thern to stop, after 2 or 3 mi nutes. The students mark
thei r books, thi s ti me whcre they stopped readi ng. They then return to thc
begi nni ng mark and the teacher announces the start of another i denti cal
ti me peri od. The students read the same paft of the book for a second ti me
unti l the teacher cal l s ti me. Students, who general l y have read wel l beyond
the poi nt at whi ch they fi rst stopped, agai n mark thei r stoppi ng pl ace. Thc
process i s done a thi rd ti me. Agai n, at the end of the ti me peri od, students
wi l l probabl y have read even further.
To be effecti ve i n bui l di ng both automati ci ty and confi dence, thi s ex-
erci se shoul d be done c,n a regul ar basi s. Students shoul d be tol d not to ski m
but to read fbr meani ng each of the three ti mcs they read. In contrast to most
acti vi ti es that have as thei r goal the devel opment of si ght vocabul ary, thi s
exerci sc i s i ndi vi dual i zed and noncompeti ti ve. Students rcad at thei r own
pace, not agai nst the rest of the cl ass but onl y chal l engi ng thernsel ves to
becomc more fl uent readers.
Rcpeated ti rncd readi ngs can be an i deal way of openi ng a peri od of
sustai ned si l ent readi ng. At the cnd of the thi rd ti med peri od, students
si mpl y conti nue readi ng.
Rereading the same material
An acti vi ty si mi l ar to repeated ti med readi ng i s repeated nonti med readi ng,
or, i n more everyday terms, the rereadi ng of books or other materi al . Not
every book deserves a second or thi rd read, of course, but i f i t does. thc
rereadi ng i s of great val ue to students, for i t hel ps them i n devel opi ng thei r
si ght vocabul ary and therefore readi ng fl uency (Samuel s, 1979). Teachers
shoul d therefbre promote rereadi ng, and i f any soft of readi ng requi rements
are empl oyed, credi t shoul d be gi ven fbr i t.
Readi ng i s al ways easi er the second and thi rd ti me around. Repeated
readi ng of the same book i s common i n chi l dhood, i n part because chi l -
dren' s l i terature encourages i t through brevi ty, wi t, and beauty. But adul ts
reread books too, a phenomenon that partl y accounts fbr the enduri ng
popularity of books such as The Little Princ'e and The Prophet.
So useful and sati sfyi ng can rereadi ng be that teachers shoul d be on thc
l ookout f or books t hat i nvi t e i t . Bi bl i ogr aphi cs t hi r t l i st books wr i t t en or
sui tabl e l ' or l anguage l earners shoul d i ncl ucl c a sl rcci ul sccti on on ti tl es that
i nvi tc rereadi ng.
Class reader
A cl ass reader i s a book that cvery student i n the cl ass reads si mul taneousl y.
Al though cl ass readers may bc uscd for vari ous purposes i n sccond l an-
guage educati on, they can al so bc used to support l i brary rcadi ng. There are
i rnmedi atc drawbacks to thei r use, however. Each student needs a copy of
l l re samc book, and, fbr extensi ve readi ng purposes, the sarne book shoul d
not be used fbr too l ong. Wi th a new sct of books needed fi cquentl y
(perhaps monthl y), the fi nanci al cost of cl ass reader sets may be greater
than many prograrxs or school s can afford. Cl ass readers arc al so onl y
sui tabl e for cl asses wi th students of approxi rnatel y the samc l evel s of
l anguage and readi ng abi l i ty.
If a school rnust make a choi ce between buyi ng a set or sets of cl ass
rcaders or an cqual number of di l ferent books, thcre shoul d be no di scus-
si on. A l i brary of di fferent books i s a far more val uabl e and fl exi bl e re-
sourcc. Cl ass rcaders are a usefl l addi ti on, but no extensi ve readi ng pro-
gram shoul d f-eel depri ved i f i t does not havc thern.
When they support l i brary rcadi ng, cl ass readers are uscd duri ng cl ass
l br readi ng-rel atcd acti vi ti es, wi th rnost actual rcadi ng bei ng done for
hornework. Lcssons usi ng a cl ass reader are a way fbr teachers to gui de and
sti rnul ate readi ng. to teach cul ture, and to cor.nbi ne readi ng wi th other ski l l s
such as spcaki ng and wri ti ng. Cl ass readers thus takc on utore i rnportancc
i n programs where students are not used to rcadi ng, or when i t i s desi rabl c
to i ntegrate readi ng wi th otl rcr aspccts of the curri cul um.
A cl ass reader shoul d bc si rni l ar i n l evel and content to the books the
students are checki ng out of the l i brary to read on thei r own. Sorne books
l rr: morc sui tabl e as cl ass readers than others. A cl ass reacl er shoul d bc a
book of some substance, rai si ng i ssucs worl h di scussi n-{ and wri ti ng about.
David Hilt, in The EPER Guicle to Orgunising Pntgromntes of Exten.sive
l l cudi ng. outl i nes how to devel op l csson pl ans fbr a cl ass readcr ( 1992. pp.
144 150) . For l anguage l ear ncr l i t er at ur e t i t l es of up t o 100 pages, he
i rcl vi ses di vi di ng the book i nto three parts, and usi ng thc book over fbur
cl ass sessi ons. The fl rst l esson i ncl udes the tcacher bri efl y i ntroduci ng thc
background ofthe book to the students and perhaps readi ng a short extract
out l oud. Studcnts then begi n readi ng the fi rst one thi rd of the book and
cornpl cte the readi ng fbr homework. In the second and thi rd cl asses, the
tcacher checks the students' undcrstandi ng of what they havc read, and
134 The practice
of extensive readina
cl ari fi es any poi nts as ncccssary.
' fhc
tcacher then prepares the students for
readi ng the ncxt secti on of the book. whi ch the students begi n to read i n
cl ass. In the fl nal cl ass, thc whol e book i s di scussed and thc teacher hel ns
the students prepare to wri te a report on the book.
Typi cal acti vi ti cs i n a cl ass reader l esson i ncl ude aski ng students to
predi ct what wi l l come next, and di scussi on of cul tural aspects of a story or
the moti vati on of charactcrs. Teachers can i ntroduce useful readtng ski l l s
such as predi cti ng from chapter ti tl es, i gnori ng unnecessary dctai l , and
gctti ng the mai n i dea. Teachers can al so deepen students' appreci ati on of
wri ti ng by di scussi ng conventi ons such as descri pti ve i ntroductory para-
graphs that set the mood, or counterpoi nt betwcen the acti ons of two
charactcrs. In Hi l l ' s words, "Afl er each Cl ass Reader your students shoul d
fl cel encouraged to read rnore Li brary Readcrs and shoul d be more ski l l ed at
r eadi ng t hcr n" ( 1992, p. 145) .
For teachers ofEngl i sh, the Edi nburgh Proj ect on Extensi ve Readi ng has
sel ected and wri ttcn l esson pl ans fbr several sui tabl e books at each
di fl i cul ty l evcl of l anguage l earner l i terature. See the Appendi x for i nfor-
mati on on how to contact the EPER.
Reading laboratory
In some languages, boxes of reading cards called, reuding luboratorie.s have
been prepared fbr students l earni ng to read thei r fi rst l anguage. In Engl i sh,
perhaps the bcst known are the Sci ence Research Associ ates (SRA) Read-
i ng Labs. These and si mi l ar materi al s are someti mes marketed for and used
i n second l anguagc teachi ng, and they may be a useful addi ti on to the
second l anguage extensi ve readi ng cl assroom.
Readi ng l aboratori es typi cal l y consi st of short readi ng passages on
cards, fol l owed by comprehensi on questi ons. The cards are arranged i n
groups at ascendi ng l evel s ofdi ffi cul ty. Students are fi ee to sel ect and read
onl y those cards that i nterest them at a gi ven l evel of di ffi cul ty. The com-
prehensi on questi ons are sel f' -checki ng, and, havi ng demonstrated a certai n
l cvel of profi ci ency at a gi ven l evel , students may move to the ncxt l evel .
Each card usual l y contai ns several cxerci ses fbr vocabul ary bui l di ng and
readi ng ski l l practi ce. Teachers can advi se students to do onl y those ex-
erci ses that seern useful , or none at al l .
If cl ass ti me i s set asi de fbr i ndi vi dual i zed, sel f' -access work wi th readi ng
l ab cards, the teacher can observe students readi ng, and work wi th those
students who rnay be havi ng probl ems. Because l ab cards are wri tten for
fi rst l anguage rcaders, even the easi cr readi ng passages are ful l ofvocabu-
l ary i terns that second l anguage readers fl nd di ffi cul t. Many of these can be
rgnored; the meani ng of others becomes cl car l i orrr conl cxl . Students may
nccd to bc counsel ed i n techni ques fbr getti ng rncani ns whcn the number of
trnfhmi l i ar words i s hi gher than i s comfbrtabl c l br l l ucnt readi ng. It i s
cssenti al to keep readi ng speed up. Students n.rust practi cc not getti ng
bogged down or reverti ng to word-by-word dcci pheri ng.
Free time
I' hi s i s exactl y what i t suggests
-
students and the teacher are frcc to do
anythi ng they want to do, wi th the sol e provi so that the acti vi ty be con-
nected to extensi ve readi ng. Thi s type of unstructured acti vi ty i s a powerful
way of dcvel opi ng a sense of l eamer autonomy, as i t gi ves students the
authori ty and responsi bi l i ty to do what they thi nk they need to do i n the
process of l earni ng to read.
Free ti me i s the ul ti mate real i zati on of the extensi ve readi ng cl assroom
i rnd communi ty. How free the free ti me can be i ndeed, whcthcr i t can be
rused at al l
-
depends on how far students have i ntcrnal i zed the goal s and
processes of extensi vc readi ng. It may not be sui tabl e for students who do
rrot parti cul arl y wi sh to be i n the cl assroom. For students who need some
gui dancc, thc tcachcr rni ght rcstri ct thc rangc of acti vi ti cs to such thi ngs as
si l ent rcadi ng, browsi ng and choosi ng, record keepi ng, or wri ti ng reports.
For studcnts, free ti me i s the chance to engage i n readi ng or readi ng-
rcl ated acti vi ti es wi thi n a communi ty of other i ndi vi dual s doi ng the same
thi ng. In mul ti l evel cl assrooms. some students may take the rol e of teacher
when hel pi ng students of l esser abi l i ty. For the teacher, free ti me offers the
l i cedom to do anythi ng to support students i n thei r readi ng: rol e model i ng,
l ussi sti ng, obscrvi ng, counsel i ng, checki ng homework, or readi ng l ogs. Just
as the teacher, in oflering the freedom, trusts the students to do what they
need to do, the students trust that the teacher, whatever shc or he mi ght be
doi ng, i s doi ng the best for them.
Free ti me, by defi ni ti on, has no set fbrm, but the fbl l owi ng descri pti on
by Carl os Yori o of a cl assroom i n an Arneri can uni versi ty i ntensi ve Engl i sh
l anguage program can gi ve a fl avor of the atmosphere free ti me can
cngender:
Students appcar to bc havi ng a great ti mc. The cl assroom does not l ook l i kc a
cl ass; i n fi rct. thcrc i s a si gn on the door that says: "Rcsourcc Ccntrc/Acti vi ty
l{oom." Two or thrcc students are reading today's newspapers, othcrs arc rcad-
rng rnagazincs
-
Sports lllustroted, Wtgue. Nev'srt,eek, People. Thc tcachcr is
l l so readi ng a ncwspaper. Other studcnts are wri ti ng l etters, or pl ayi ng Scrabbl e.
Afl er a whi l e, about twenty mi nutcs, thc tcacher moves around and asks the stu-
dcnts "What are you reading'?" She also makes comments about the topic and
ll
occasi onal l y answers quest i ons about words st udent s do not know. (l 9f i 5, p.
r 53)
The teacher as role model
There i s l i ttl e questi on of the i mportance of the readi ng i nstructor' s need to
serve as a rol e model . As Barbara Tayl or wri tes, a readi ng teacher has to
"be a person who personal l y reads for enj oyment and l br l earni ng" ( 1991 ,
p. 123). As J. A. Bri ght and G. P. McGregor, i n thei r book kuchi ng Engl i sh
as a Second Lunguage, cxpl ai n, "The teacher' s own enj oyment of books.
. . . pl easure i n shari ng i t wi th pupi l s and dai l y i nterest are of the greatest
i mportance. A teacher who does not read can hardl y i nspi re others to do so"
( 1e70. p. 6e) .
Bei ng rol e model s al so means that teachcrs parti ci pate i n the extensi ve
readi ng program wi th thei r students. Bri ght and McGregor don' t mi nce
words:
It i s a gencral pri nci pl e of. . . tnanagcrncnt that onc shoul d not ask anybody to
do anythi ng one i s not preparcd to do oncscl f. If wc cxpcct pupi l s to rcad the
books i n thei r l i brary, rve have an obl i gati on to read thenr ourscl vcs. (p.70)
Teachers, nati ve and nonnati ve al i ke, can read some ofthe books i n the
cl assroom l i brary books that seern of i ntercst, of course, fbr i t shoul d not
be more of a chore than i t i s for the students themsel ves. Teachcrs can then
i ntroduce and genui nel y recommend the best of the books to thei r students.
By shari ng thei r cnj oyrncnt wi th students, and by answeri ng as best they
can thei r students' questi ons ("Di d the bcar di e' /"
"l s
i t common for young
gi rl s to travel al one on tl re trai n i n Bri tai n' l "), teachers are servi ng as
powerful reader rol e model s.
Teachers who tel l thei r students how i rnportant and useful and enj oyabl e
readi ng i s, and yct are nver seen readi ng, nray be undermi ni ng themsel ves.
As Chr i st i nc Nut t al l cxpl ai ns:
Studcnts fol l ow the exanrpl e ofpcopl e they respect, and above al l that ofthci r
teacher. If the teacher i s seen to rcad wi th conccntrati on. to cnj oy rcadi ng and to
rnake use of books, newspapers and so on, the studcnts arc morc likely to take
noti ce ofher when she urges them to do thc samc. (1996. p. 229)
Keepi ng i n mi nd that they are rol c model s may change teachers' percep-
ti ons of the cl assroom and tl rei r rol e as teachers. Are there natural oppor-
tuni ti es for the teacher to be seen as a reader' l If not, how mi ght such
opportuni ti es be rnade' ?
It may not be strai ghtfbrward, of course. One teacher, an avi d reader and
consci ous of hi s rol e. came to cl ass earl y and read the newspaper before and
rvhi l e students arri vecl . He woul d someti nrcs sutrscc;ucntl y read oLrt or
tl i scuss an i tern of news wi th the studcnts. Thcn onc day as hc ate l unch at
Iri s desk i n the staff room whi l e readi ng a novcl . a student happened to
come i n. "l ' ve ncver seen you readi ng a book." cornnrcnted the student,
addi ng, " What a sur pr i se! "
Book talks by the teacher
fcachers can gi ve l -mi nute book reports to the wl rol e cl ass. They shoul d
consi der hol di ng t he act ual book and showi ng t he cover t o t l r e cl ass as t hey
tal k. The tcachcr rnay want to read the covcr hl r"rrb, or a paragraph or two of
the book, to whct thc students' appeti tes.
Teacher book tal ks achi eve at l east four thi ngs. Ovcr ti me, the teacher' s
tal ks can act as modcl s to studcnts for how to gi ve thei r own oral book
repofts. Second, cach tal k i ntroduces students to another book i n the
Ii brary
-
perhaps a ncrv one. In addi ti on, the tal ks al l ow thc teacher to be
scen by students as a rcadcr. There i s no better way l br tcachers to demon-
strate to students how err.j oyabl c readi ng can be than by comrnuni cati ng
t hci r own enj oyment of paf i i cul ar books. Fi nal l y. i f t eacher s handl e t he
books as thcy tal k, tl rey can sl row studc-nts how to browse a book to gct a
scnse of i t s cont ent s.
Hel p for struggl i ng readers
Sornc students may be behi nd thei r cl assmates i n second l anguage readi ng
l )ucncy. There can be vari ous reasons fbrthi s: i nabi l i ty to read i n thei r fi rst
l anguage, weak second l anguage ski l l s, a fi rst l anguage wi th no tradi ti on of
l cadi ng, or a fi rst l anguerge rvi th a di fferent scri pt fi onr that of the sccond
l anguage (i n a heterogeneous cl assroorn). Because i t i s i ndi vi dual i zcd,
cxtensi ve rcadi ng al l ows such students to bc rcadi ng books at a l evel that i s
l ower than that of thei r cl assmates and more appropri atc for thern.
But even more assi stance may be needed. l t can hel p to pai r a struggl i ng
student wi th a more fl uent readi ng buddy who can spend ti me readi ng al oud
to the student as thc studcnt fol l ows al ong readi ng the samc book si l entl y. l n
rrcl di ti on or al ternati vcl y. publ i shers often sel l audi otapes of books of l an-
guage l earner l i terature, and l i steni ng to these wl ri l e readi ng si l entl y can
l rcl p students i ncrease tl rei r readi ng fl ucncy and uroti vati on to read.
Teachers can al so gi ve struggl i ng students the satl e ki nd ofassi stance.
Out of cl ass. orduri ng an i n-cl ass f-rec ti rne peri od. teachers can read al oud
scvcral paragraphs fi om a book that thc student i s readi ng. Then the student
can j oi n i n, as ancl when he or she fbel s comfbrtabl e doi ng so, readi ng al oud
wi th the teacher. When the teacher bcl i cves the student i s getti ng a good
f-eel for the materi al , the student gocs back and rereads si l entl y from thc
poi nt at whi ch the tcacher began readi ng al oud, and conti nues readi ng.
Concl usi on
A successful and efTecti ve extensi ve readi ng program does notj ust happen;
gui dance, counsel i ng, and the creati on ofacti vi ti es to encourage and al l ow
students to read as much as possi bl e requi re careful thought and prepara-
ti on. The cxtensi ve readi ng l esson i s a chance to support and enhance thc
mai n acti vi ty of the program, readi ng, and to create a communi ty o1'
readers.
The stage i s now set fbr an exami nati on of the readi ng communi ty i n
acti on. Thi s i s the subj ect of the next chapter.
Further readi ng
One of the f-ew book-length trcatments of extensivc rcading. Suc't'essful
Strategie.s./ttr Extensive Reuding, cdited by George Jacobs, Colin Davis,
and Wi l l y Renandya ( I 997), i s chock ful l of fasci nati ng accounts of practi -
cal acti vi ti es i n a wi de vari ety of extensi ve readi ng programs. Thi s i s a
vol ume that bel ongs on every second l anguage readi ng teacher' s bookshel f.
Another book bursti ng wi th i deas for organi zi ng an extensi ve readi ng pro-
gram is Tricia Hedge's 1985 Using Readers in Lunguage Tbuching.
Thc i dea of sustai ned si l ent readi ng i n fi rst l anguage readi ng i nstructi on
can be traced back at l east to Lyman Hunt. Hi s serni nal arti cl e on the
subj ect, "The Effect of Sel f-sel ecti on, Interest, and Moti vati on upon Inde-
pendent, Instructi onal , and Frustrati on Level s" ( I 970). i s an i nspi ri ng i ntro-
ducti on to thi s essenti al cl assroom practi ce. It was repri nted i n The Readi ng
Teucher i n 1996 1997.
Nevu Wa.ts i n Teat' hi ng Readi ng (1993, edi ted by Ri chard Day) has
thi rteen acti vi ti es for the extensi ve readi ng cl assroom, i ncl udi ng i deas for
students' oral and wri tten book reports. Therc i s al so an i nnovati ve sccti on
by Marc Hel gesen wi th ni ne i deas for how students can read al oud i n cl ass
i n ways that are fun and val uabl e.
Teachers of hi gh-i ntermedi ate and advanced l earners of Engl i sh wi l l
want to look at Reacling on Ytur Ovvn: An Extensive Reading Course (1992)
by Mary El l en Barrett and Maryanne Kcarny Datesman. Thi s i s a textbook
wi th readi nss and exerci ses. but desi sncd to l ead students i nto extensi ve
rcadi ng: In essence, i t i s a cl ass readsr l i rr stutl cnts prcpari ng to tackl e
tungradcd matcri al .
fn Chri sti ne Nuttal l ' s Teachi ng Reudi ng Ski l l :; i tt u I' -orei gn Lunguuge
( 1996) , Chapt er l 4, " The Teacher as Rcadcr " ( pp. 22c) 231) , st r esses t he
i rnportance of teachers bei ng rol e rnodel s of readi ng fbr thci r studcnts. Thi s
i s fbl l owcd by exccl l ent suggesti ons on how teachers can become better
rcaders themsel ves. Onc sccti on, for exampl e, i s ti tl ecl "l f you don' t read
much i n the target l anguagc."
In thei r 199 I book Teat' hi ng Li l eratLtt' e, Ronal d Carter and Mi chael
Long gi ve bri ef but val uabl e hi nts to teachers who wi sh to rcad al oud to
t hci r cl asscs, but ar e per haps hesi t ant t o do so ( pp. 8l 83) .
For a bookf ul of t hi ngs t o do wi t h cl ass r eader s, see. l ean Gr eenwood' s
1988 teacher' s handbook C/a.s^s Readers. Most of the acti vi ti es are
dcsi gned, as Al an Mal cy wri tcs i n the Foreword, "as a spri ngboard to
propel the l eamer i nto rnani fol d l anguage l carni ng acti vi ti es" (p. 3). More
readi ng-ori ented i s Hedge' s useful chaptcr on cl ass readers i n Usi ng
Reader.s i n Lunguage Teac' hi ng (pp. 109 l l 9). For Engl i sh toachcrs, thc
chaptcr i ncl udcs l csson pl ans for Carol Chri sti an' s wonderful Johnm, Ri ng.
a book of l ansuaqc l carncr l i tcraturc at l ow-i ntermedi ate l evel .
I3
Wc shoul d t ry t o cncouragc
t hcy rcad t o t hci r own worl d
cxpcncncc.
Henr y Wi ddowson ( 1979, p. l t t O)
The purpose 0f thi s chapter i s to:
o Present sorl e opti ons fbr fol l ow-up acti vi ti es to readi ng.
o Di scuss how the extensi ve readi ns cl assroom can functi on as a
rcadi ng comrnuni ty.
Thi s chapter exami nes how teachers can structure the extensi ve readi ng
cl assroorn i n ways that arc compati bl c wi th a comr.nuni ty of rcaders. Spe-
ci fi cal l y, the fbcus i s what students do afl er readi ng. Because postreadi ng
acti vi ti es are many and vari ous, teachers have a l ot of choi ce i n what they
rni ght ask students to do.
When pl anni ng postrcadi ng acti vi ti cs, a basi c consi derati on i s why the
students read what they di d. The purposc of readi ng for i nfbrrnati on or
enj oyment i s j ust that: the i nsi ghts deri ved ti om the i nformati on contai ned
i n thc rcadi ng, thc cntcrtai nmcnt val ue of readi ng i tscl f-, or the thoughts
provoked by the rcadi ng materi al . l f readers are thcn requi red to do ex-
erci ses to dernonstrate comprehensi on, or to practi ce vocabul ary or readi ng
ski l l s, i t confuses or di stracts fi om these readi ng purposes. Further, i f
studcnts feel that thcy arc requi red to remember thi ngs or that they wi l l be
tested, such expectati ons can even undenni ne the process offl uent readi ng
i tscl f.
Idcal l y, thcrcforc, no postrcadi ng work shor,rl d be requi red, the act of
readi ng bei ng i ts own reward. Students read and that i s al l . Or thcy merel y
answer a si mpl e questi on such as, "What di d you thi nk of i t' l " or "Woul d
you recornmend thi s book to others' /" The best answer to the questi on
"What shoul d be done afi er readi ng' ?" i s, therefore, "More rcadi ng."
There are reasons, however, fbr consi deri ng postreadi ng acti vi ti es.
These i ncl ude the need to rnoni tor and eval uate students' readi ns. Teachers
140
The reading community in action 141
rnay have to determi ne i f the readi ng was actual l y tkrne, and thcy may al so
want to fi nd out what the students got out of i t. Arrothcr rcAson fbr consi der-
i ng postreadi ng acti vi ti es i s that wel l -choscn ones can turn the i ndi vi dual
sol i tary act of readi ng i nto a cornmul ri ty cvcnt. t3y gi vi ng access to the
pri vate worl d of others, postreadi ng acti vi ti es al l ow students to support and
rnoti vate one another, and they al l ow teachers to gui de and counscl
students.
As readi ng usual l y tri es to evoke a response i n thc reader, fol l ow-up
acti vi ti es that tap i nto the l earners' personal responscs to the materi al are
the most natural . Henry Wi ddowson suggests that teachers "encourage
l carners to rel ate what they read to thei r own worl d of knowl edge and
cxperi cnce. . . .
[thus]
al l owi ng them the same l ati tude of i nterpretati on
t hat we as pr act i sed r eader s per mi t our sel ves" ( 1979, pp. 180 l 8l ) . I n
short, the best fol l ow-up gi ves students a chance to express thei r opi ni ons,
thei r feel i ngs, and what the readi ng meant to them.
Four possi bl e fbrms of student response to readi ng arc:
. answeri ng questi ons
o wri ti ng summari es
r wri ti nB rcacti on rcporl s
o gi vi ng oral reports
' fhese
are not al l equal i n ei ther natural ness or potenti al fbr decpeni ng a
sense of communi ty. Nei ther are thcy mutual l y excl usi ve, and i t i s corrmon
tbr an extensi ve readi ng program to empl oy a combi nati on of them. Let us
l ook at each i n turn.
Answeri ng questi ons
Answeri ng questi ons about a book i s a standard fol l ow-up opti on, and most
books of l anguage l earner l i terature have a page of comprehensi on and
other questi ons at the end. Correct answers to comprehcnsi on questi ons tel l
both the teacher and the student that the i mportant poi nts of a text were
understood. Answeri ng such questi ons may al so be a useful exami nati on
: kr l l f or st udent s t o pr acl i ce.
The worst comprehensi on questi ons are those that send students back to
a text to search out i rrel evant detai l (e.g., "Forrest began to pl ay the har-
rnoni ca wi th Jenny' s group. What was the name of the group?" asked at the
crrd of the Pengui n Readers versi on of Forrest GumpfEscott, 1996, p.43]).
But even questi ons that fbcus on i mportant poi nts of thc story can set back
The reading communiQ in
action
l carncrs t o rcl at e whal
of knowl cdge and
rf
students' progress toward bccotni ng i ndcpendent, sel f' -rnoti vated readers.
In Henry Wi ddowson' s words:
Cornprehensi on questi ons . . . cotnnronl y rcqui rc thc l earner to rummage around
i n thc text for i nformati on i n a total l y i ndi scri mi natc rvay. wi thout regard to
what purpose might be served in so doing. . . . Rcading is thus represented as
an cnd i n i tscl f, an acti vi ty that has no rel cvancc to rcal knowl edge and experi -
cncc and thcrcforc no real meani ng. (1979, p. l ti O)
l f questi ons are to be used. then, i t i s better fbr thern to combi ne thc
check cl f comprehensi on wi th a probe of the students' responses to the story
(c.g.. "Whi ch parts of the story do you fi nd sad' l E,xpl ai n why i n about 100
words" also from Penguin's Forrest Gump
[p.
44]\.
A l ess routi ne, morc personal , and more moti vati ng al temati vc can be
for students to wri te sucl r cl ucsti ons for themsel ves or thei r cl assmates to
answer. Such questi ons wi l l al so reveal what the book meant to the student.
Wri t i ng summari es
The rnost common fon.rr of fbl l ow-up i s to ask studertts to wri tc, i n ei ther
the fi rst or the target l anguage, a short summary of the book or paft of the
book that they have read. l t i s i mportant to say, however, that summari es
are not necessary i n order to fi nd out i f a student read a book. And sum-
mari es have seri ous drawbacks. Li ke answeri ng comprehensi on questi ons,
wri ti ng a summary of what you have read i s a l ess than natural form of
rcsponsc to readi ng: As Beatri ce Dupuy, Lucy Tse, and Tom Cook remi nd
us,
"l n
the real worl d, peopl e do gi ve thei r fri ends recomrnendati ons on
books. but t hey do not gener al l y do book sut nmar i es" ( 1996, p. l 4) . And,
l i ke comprehensi on cl uesti ons. summari es can subtl y communi cate the
message that readi ng, as Wi ddowson says, "has no rel evance to real knowl -
edge and experi ence and therefore no real meani ng" (1979, p. 180).
Summari es are not parti cul arl y i nteresti ng for the student to wri te, and
they are definitely not interesting for the teacher to read. They are o1'
absol utel y no hel p i n devel opi ng a readi ng communi ty: l f a summary i s al l
that students are requi red to wri te, a val uabl e opportuni ty for student-
teacher communi cati on wi l l have been l ost. In addi ti on. there i s the prob-
l enr of students i n l arge prograrns copyi ng cl andesti rrel y ci rcul ated sunr-
mari es i nstead of wri ti ng thei r own. Try as we may, we l l nd i t di ffi cul t to
bl ame them. After al l , as Dupuy, Tse, and Cook poi nt out,
"Studcnts
know
that i n the real worl d, peopl e who read for pl easure do not do worksheets or
wr i t e summar i es of what t hey r ead" ( 1996, p. l 4) .
The readrng community in action
'143
Writing reaction reports
Irnagi ne tl rat you have seen a movi c or rcad a book and tal k to someone
about i t afterward. It woul d be i mpossi bl c- to havc nruch of a conversati on i f
one of you had not read the whol e book, or had fi rl l en asl eep mrdway
through the movi e. Si mi l arl y, i t i s al most al ways cl ear, parti cul arl y i f the
tcacher has read the book i n questi on, whcthcr students have read the books
thcy are wri ti ng a reacti on report about. It i s al so cl ear how careful l y they
have rcad the book. A reacti on report can therefbre serve the basi c purpose
of checki ng whether readi ng was done. The usefi rl ness of aski ng students to
wri te reacti t' rn reports onl y begi ns here. however.
For students, reacti on reports are a chancc both to refl ect on thei r readi ng
l und to engage i n genui ne communi cati on wrth the teacher. For thc teacher,
i t i s fasci nati ng to di scover how students respond to what they read. Reac-
ti on reports al l ow teachers to move from outsi de observer to acti ve parti ci -
pant i n thei r students' readi ng expcri ences. Through thi s rel ati onshi p wi th
the student as a reacl er. the teacher may di scuss i deas, answer questi ons. and
rccornmend other books that the student mi ght enj oy.
When students arc fl rst asked to wri te a reacti on report. they may have
rro i dea of l row to go about i t. Fi rst, they rrray nccd to be taught the basi cs of
rvri ti ng a short rcport. (l n Engl i sh, thi s woul d i ncl ude paragraphi rrg, and
di vi di ng thc rcport i nto an i ntroducti on, the body, and a concl usi on.) In
l ddi ti on, i t i s hel pful to provi de a fai rl y l ong l i st (perhaps i n the student' s
own l anguage) of possi bl c subj ects to wri te about, bei ng careful to expl ai n
that, i n any one rr' port, students need choose j ust one or two i tems to
l ddrcss. A l i st of possi bl c subj ects fbr students to wri te about when reacl i ng
l i ct i on mi ght i ncl udc:
r
characters they i denti l y wi th
o poi nts of the story or behavi or that i nterest them
e poi nts of the story or behavi or that puzzl e them
. personal experi enccs or thoughts rel ated to the book
.
favorite parts
. parts they di sl i ke
r how they woul d change the story
o how they woul d act di ft' erentl y from the characters
. l arger i ssucs deal t wi th or rai sed by the story (e.g., war, sexi sm)
.
cxperi ences wl ri l e readi ng (meeti ng I' anri l i ar words, sl eepi ness, etc.)
l {cqui re that, whenever students tal k of thei r pcrsonal experi cnces or
tl roughts, they menti on the speci fi c poi nts i n the book that i nspi red them.
Students can wri te thei r reacti on reports as homcwork. Reports can be
TI
I
wri tten on one si dc of a shcct ol ' papcr, and, i n the case of begi nners, can bc
as shoft as a paragraph. Ifa book takcs ntore than a week to read, teachers
can ask fbr a reacti on to thc pagcs rcad so fbr, or wai t unti l the book i s
fi ni shed. when readi ng the reports. tcachers can choose to correct mi stakes
of fornrat (e.g., nonindented paragraphs) or lonn (granrrrrar. vocabulary), or
si mpl y respond to the content of the reports.
From ti me to ti me, i t may not be cl ear fronr the reacti on report whether
the studcnt di d i rr fact read the book. l n these cases, when a student appears
to be waffl i ng or has wri tten about thi ngs unrel ated to the book, a personal
i ntervi ew wi th the student can qui ckl y ti nd the soLtrce of the probl em.
Whatever wri tten fol l ow-up i s requi red, i t i s hi ghl y recommended that
students add how l ong i t took them to both read the book (perhaps usi ng the
abbrevi ati on Rr tbr "readi ng trrne") and wri te the report (usi ng the abbrevi -
ation I|tT). Teachers need to know that students are not spending too much
ti me on ei ther aspect of thci r homework.
Before handing the report back to the students, teachers can adtl a
wri tten reacti on. A teacher' s response can range frorn a si nrpl e..t' nr gl ad
you enj oyed i t" to the teacher' s reacti on to the same book.
In what l anguage shor"rl d the reports be wri tten? Kci th Morrow and
Mari ta Schocker make the poi nt tl rat
a pcrsonal rcsponsc to a tcxt i n. . .
[a]
forc-i gn l anguagc i s l i kel y to bc
.t' cl t' i n
the nati vc l anguagc. Attcrnpti ng ro mcdi ate the response through the fbrci gn l an-
guage wi l l mcrcl y l cad to fi ustrati on (as i t i s real i zed that the forci gn-l anguage
resources are not adcquatc to cxprcss the reacti ons) or to tri vi al i zati on (i fthc re-
spcrnse i s brought down to thc l cvcl that can be cxpressed). (19U7, p.2551
Fl erc, much wi l l depend on whether thc tcachcr carr understand the stu-
dents' fi rst l anguage, and share thei r responses i n i t. Another factor i s the
overal l second l anguage progratn. Extensi ve readi ng can provi de content
tbr speaki ng and wri ti ng, and i t n-ray be desi rabl e fbr students to practi cc
these i n the second l anguage.
Fi gurc I i ntroduces some sampl e reacti on reports fi orn begi nni ng-l evel
students studyi ng Engl i sh as a l brei gn l anguage . The fl rst i s for Foul
pl ay,
a
darkl y humorous story by Loui s Al exander that concerns Mai si e. a woman
kept awake ni ght aftcr ni ght by her nei ghbor Angus' s rooster Henry. The
others are wri tten about Carol i ne Lai dl aw' s thri l l er Counttl own to Mi d-
night, Elizabeth Laird's The House on the Hill, Mlke Esplen's Murc,o, and
Betsy Pcnnink's nonfiction Thi:; Is L[/oshington.
Bri ef as they are, these rcporl s i ndi cate frrst that tl re books were read,
and second that they were read wi th cornprehensi on and i nvol vement. Notc
tro uL
t +' 1+ Dt l v
/ & / Lnt
LG. A/ er nr / " , , / Lnvc/ / / / v
I +h; nl
y' / r s.
Mn; sr t , t ' s
ennr y'
2a, p7nan1 l ul
' JrJp c4n' t brrrn
pr' rry' r
,ro,r/.rl o raa/r/
not l e/V
/ r , / / , oO Hpn, y, t i s i ur r , l / n . / / r , , / 1 nqr t / , / i t
k nor t ' y ' l a, s , L3
pa; n / , nt , / s l e t o/ / #e l , - . He
Sy' ou /d horo l L, ?r,rqf,,/ r, l nu/
y' /rs,
L/a i ste, ,' f
She ) t ' as t r aub/ e wt t l Henr y' r a/ dt y' ar / r o/ ,
I
. t h, r k
; t 1'
l oor /
f uu7' pat c h / ? a
?uor r e/ .
f l e, / mu s r t l r , , , ' / Hent r ' r l r n
pt t a: f
/ /
'
A. I +! s, a, j e hr , ,
C ouyTDow// To
tl
iD/vrc+rr
HEtil(HA/lt/ /y;// MyE RAtrrpS
7Lt ;' retT # zzttelprliU s/o/7. /3aL
7L,,e
two ,1,47' I /-.1 u-no/tts/an/
Al
,rrt -,//
Vlofessor
Gt*r
ffi
tatoy'e J-oz/z /L conT ule/
ccrle-s .
fnt
/r,,/rr1 s'o Ir ,rrs
2.,jualah/ee l/e/ Li
/nn,
/y z.ele ra/e
If I z,*e /; . / -orr(/ z,{..lle2t o4,u"n //"
a,tctsr cc/es
,eror
"1
,
ilo/" */e sa/e//rer/sr(
t
con o^./ co) s hu
4/r,t
l"/" re^y'teu^L< on l/en . ,Jon',
/o*'//.r-ele t&,fe
zt,et/tze
,
L, ô//el s,wtl suol ds
t
ltlal.
aa arnez,,5r
st ct T ' / '
A
Hut
inteleslecl
-@
rlo
,,,
ft;sr't saz/ rur,/ * 4.?/ u;u{
lk sntT t't ety la /ea',1, or.1
,f *
zi 1,,0i /n
I
e*ti h' y sto/r ./
nf
rTHE
HOUSE
ON
' IT{E
HILL 1
EIIZABEIH I-AIAP
/ HEI$EMANN
This stors feels t
"
so,J This ts love stot! .
B,rf sqd. I' o sense , Pou[ 4ind {he &ct thdt
he toved Moria's bo,rlv but not Maria, hqsetf. ot
\rst, that is va\u.b\e Sr him onJ his heatt,s
Brc,\
rth I
-tlî.L
,
however, ttts too sad stbrJ
Wlrct's a t'"o'ey ? lt's ingcr.tont , r-oybe .
But Hore lr-rortrrf T['i.gs theve ove ih the world .
Wetl, oGouvse, I dprrrt \.vrow vcvy vich eeoPle
thinl.ing. Ar' yway, qt tast Paul {t"A +hat, I tt
velieved +o read that.
Ifs a tewibte love Stotl < e
r Mor . o
I Ml kE ESPLFN /
HE| NEMAi l N
This stor.lt is flat one. Marco' s Adventrrre
ehd up i^ failuve, ov' b a &y . He' s a. eounttt boy
Nothtng arc wpunJ fiia,
He is
-1oo
pu>e 1o lrve
i6 Cilr. I was bozr arr Tokya and hale lived In,
w I don,t knour Morco's fteli"3 {hat he wont to
go to a Big Crt/ s r.rch , uavbe . But, pr"bo.bly
I
thi"\. he flxd a countr! fit hi*s"tf at last G""J .
By tte woy, Lr^ interesteJ in *he affer +hc{
His fother
rs onghy or ... ? Mo>co goes to crfy o'6oia ?
Mcybe I
'11n1r\.
his
fa-ther
is not uSrJ anJ ,p wo*es
jn
a $'yr^ ,
it/g
OlwayS
.the
sor+re , a ho?e SO
Vo.r"o
is too g*ve
(
A )
.=.--
THt S t S WASI I I NGToN
Bet sy
Den, , i nk
H. E. B.
t kur^l rna+5 t{v,rgs o,(lrer I ha^x
nrsl.ql
renrting tlns bolt. lL ulas not rr.-{-,ll
Gnshed.
raJ-i^3 t th".t I kr\l$ LincoLn ha.dbcn.trkiU{l .
I ur^s st4rpr(ed a.t tl,.is'rncrfuJ.
I a.rrn in"kerested L U^c. Smi{nsonra^
lnstrtr^bon. I nra..,t b go A'{drci4-
il rs{un^s
b,c-c.alfr
-ld\or<-
a-r<- Va.f,tqrî U^4s o tt.rgS. FoC
exqra+[L, Vtc-rt- rs a precr- oroclr +rE ^ thl-
nr.t.rs,n .
lf t ca..\ {<lr^cl^ i.t
,
I'U.tli^k Alr,: Sr.tas{i".
I
{-s, Â tJost.i qLon ts o.3ood-ptaca{or
tourist bn-.a,.rse- there- o,re wondsr{-t^J.- build;4f
and norurno.rts, and rnost o( thp-vrn af,e trPet\ fo
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@:y@
Figtrre I Sumple reac'tion reporlr; (c'ontinuecl).
Book Report : Fi l l t hi s out even i f you onl y read one page of t he book
Your name:
Title of book:
Cl ass
Aut hor:
Publ i sher
I read all/- pages of the book. (circle "all" or indicate the number of pages read)
How di d you l i ke t he book? (ci rcl e one)
(a) Great! (l loved it)
(b) Good (l l i ked i t )
(c) OK (l di dn' t mi nd readi ng i t )
(d) Boring/Stupid (l wish I hadn' t read il)
Wri t e your f eel i ngs about t he book bel ow:
(cont rnue on t he back)
liisure 2 Book reprt.fbrm (basetl on Burnfbrd, 1984, p. 220).
('ttpt,right
@ Cumbridge LJniversih' Pre,s.
thc vari ety ofthe responses, as the students set down thoughts and ques-
l i ons aroused by the readi ng, and what each book meant personal l y to them.
Fi nal l y. do not fbrget pi ctures. Younger readers and the arti sti cal l y i n-
el i ned can enj oy the opporl uni ty to ei ther copy thei r f-avori te i l l ustrati on
Ii orn a book or draw an ori gi nal one i n response to a story. Teachers can
rnake cl ear that they wel come drawi ngs i nstead of or i n addi ti on to rcacti on
UI
reports. Some of these can be used to decorate the cl assroom or l i brary, and
on occasi on (i f reduced i n si ze on a copy machi ne and recol ored by thc
arti st) even pasted i nto the books themsel ves.
Book reports can be wri tten i n notebooks (as l ong as teachers read and
hand back the notebooks i n ti me fbr students to wri te thei r next report), on
separate sheets ofpaper, or on speci al prepri nted book report forms such as
Fi gure 2 on page 147.
Mixed summary/reaction reports
It i s not uncofi l mon fbr teachers to combi ne a summary wi th a reacti on
report, requi ri ng students to wri te a sul nmary wi th personal responses
addcd afterward.
Book reviews
Another vari ety of wri tten report, one that can be enj oyabl c and moti vati ng,
i s the book revi ew. Book revi ews a fol r of wri ti ng a l i ttl e di fl -erent from a
pl ai n summary or a reacti on report
-
can be wri tten as a speci al assi gnment,
or for the school newspaper. Teachers can encourage school s, school
di stri cts, or publ i shers to have annual book revi ew competi ti ons such as the
one organi zcd annual l y by a publ i sher of Engl i sh l anguage l earner l i tera-
ture, Oxford Uni versi ty Press, i n Japan. Oxford i nvi tes teachers to submi t
thei r students' work. The wi nners recei ve books, and the sati sf' acti on of
seei ng thei r work publ i shed i n a teacher' s newsl etter.
Because they are wri tten fbr publ i c consurnpti on, book revi ews move
the written report from the realm of teacher-student interaction into the
readi ng communi ty i tsel f. Thi s i s al so true of the fi nal maj or fbl l ow-up
acti vi ti es
-
student-studcnt oral reports.
Gi vi ng oral reports
Unl i ke answeri ng questi ons or wri ti ng reports, oral reports requi re some
cl ass ti me. Pri or to cl ass, i ndi vi dual students prepare thei r own 2-l ni nute
oral report on a book recentl y read. In cl ass, the students, i n groups ofthree
or fbur, gi ve thei r reports to thei r group, one at a ti me, i n turn. Someone i n
the group can keep ti me, tel l i ng the student when the 2 mi nutes i s up. Al l
groups work si mul taneousl y. The teacher may ci rcul ate among the groups,
l i steni ng here and there. An opti on fbr ensuri ng that students real l y l i sten to
tho othcr repofts i s to requi re each l i stcni ng sturl cnt to ask thc speaker one
cl ucsti on after each report.
Dependi ng on whether there are thrcc or l bur studcnts i n the group (and
i rl l groups i n the cl ass do not need to be the sarnc si zc) the whol e process,
i ncl udi ng f ol l ow- up quest i ons, wi l l t ake anywher e l i or n l 0 t o l 5 mi nut es.
Oral reports are best done i n addi ti on to some fbrm of wri tten homework,
such as questi ons, sumrnari es, or reacti on rcports.
Unl i ke reacti on reports, whi ch are wri tten for the teacher. who may have
rcad the book, oral rcports arc presentcd to cl assrnates who may not have
cl one so. A story summary of the pl ot i n a sentence or two i s therefbre an
cssenti al part of the oral report, but the summary shoul d not gi ve away the
story' s concl usi on. Students coul d use the bl urb on the back cover of the
book (i f any) as thi s may al ready encapsul atc thc story i n a tantal i zi ng way.
If students can pi que the i nterest of thei r cl assmates and make them want to
rcad the book, so much the better. "Sel l i ng the book" shoul d i ndeed be the
purpose of the oral reports. wi th stude nts prepari ng them wi th j ust that ai m.
Begi nni ng students may need a skel eton report to hel p them, such as the
fbl l owi ng, adapted fi om Bamfbrd ( 1984, p. 222). Students si mpl y pl ug i n
the i nfbrmati on about the parti cul ar book they have read.
r (l ntroducti on) "Last wcck I rcad (ti tl c). It i s a (type of book), and I
(enj oyed/di dn' t enj oy) i t."
o
l
Body) ( Bri ef summary of the book or one of i ts short stori es, preferabl y
tol d wi th a cl i ff-hangi ng endi ng.) "l f you want to fl nd out what happens,
you' l l have t o r ead t he book! "
. (Concl usi on) "l (recommend/don' t recomrnend) thi s book."
Some students may begi n by wri ti ng thei r oral reports out i n ful l and
readi ng them out l oud. Afl er a whi l e, as they gai n confi dence, they can be
cncouraged to pay more attenti on to eye contact and i nteracti on wi th thei r
audi ence. At hi gher l evel s, of course, studcnts wi l l i mprovi se fi cel y as they
rcl ate what struck thcm about the book.
l f possi bl e, students shoul d not return a book to the l i brary unti l they
have gi ven thei r oral rcport. They can then have the actual book i n thei r
l rands whi l e gi vi ng the report. [t i s not very i nteresti ng to l i sten to a book
rcport i f you do not know the book that i s bei ng tal ked about. l f the
audi ence can see the actual book, however, the spccch comr;s al i ve and i s
nruch more i nteresti ng to l i sten to. The cover and i l l ustrati ons can be used
to focus the attenti on of the audi ence whi l e the speech i s i n progress.
(' l assmates
wi l l al so know exactl y what thc book l ooks l i ke i n case they
t hcmsel ves want t o bor r ow i t .
Book revi ews and oral repofts are onl y thc begi nni ng of the possi bi l i ti es
i l T
for stucl ents to access cl assmates' opi ni ons of the books they reacl . Therc
are other powerful activities and program t'eatures that have student-student
i nteracti on as thei r fbcus, and thus epi tomi ze the readi ng cornmuni ty i rl
acti on. Several of these are exami ned bel ow: the popul ar books secti on; i n-
book opi ni on fbrms; rave revi ews; a rcadi ng fai r; and wal l di spl ays'
Popul ar books secti on
whatever form of wri tten fol l ow-up i s used, students can be asked to add a
l etter code or numeri cal score fbr the book they read. For exampl e, I or 2
points would be a poor book' 3 an average book' 4 a good book' 5 an
tutstandi ng one. Al ternati vel y, students coul d use the l etters "P" (poor).
..A"
(average),
..G"
(good), ancl "O" (outstandi ng). Letter or number scores
can thcn bcaveraged and uscd to fl nd the most popul ar books i n the l i brary'
Teachers or student l i brari ans can rnake a speci al secti on to di spl ay the
top-scori ng books at each l evel of l anguage di fl i cul ty. If the fi ont covers
can be di spl ayed, a photocopy of the book cover can be used to hol d the
space whcn thc book i s bci ng borrowed. Thi s al so hel ps teachers to see
i mmedi at el ywhi chpopul ar booksar esel cl omont heshe| f . Theymaywant
to order more copi es of these ti tl es.
Popul ar books secti ons arc cxci ti ng fbr a cl ass because they are a vi sual
embodi ment of the col l ecti ve opi ni on of i ts members. They encourage
more rel uctant readers wi th the promi se of good readi ng cxperi ences' And
they tel l stucl ents about thei r preferences as readers by compari ng what
ttrey ti ke wi th u' hat the cl ass l i kcs, students can sce to what extcnt thei r
vi ewsar eshar ecl byot her s. I t i sal waysi nt er est i ngt onot ehowot her scan
have a di fferent i nterpretati on of or reacti on to the same book'
In-book opi ni on forms
Thi s next suggesti on i s useful i n any l i brary, but parti cul arl y so when a
central l i brary i s used l or keepi ng the books. when books are i n a central
l i brary, the nunrber of books may be l arge and several cl asses may use tl re
same books. In si tuati ons l i ke thi s, i t rrray bc hard fbr students to know what
other students thought of a book. one way to sol ve thi s probl em i s to paste a
prepri nted form i nsi cl e the front or back cover of each book (i f the school
i i U*ry wi l l al l ow i t). Fi gures 3(a) antl 3(b) show what such a fonn mi ght
l ook l i ke. Atter stucl ents have read a book, they wri te a l etter or number
code of qual i ty. antl a bri ef comment on the l bnn. Students browsi ng i n the
Your Comment and Your Name
t"igure 3(u) Irt-book opinion fttrtrr
P res,s.
C opvt'i ght @ C u mlfi d gc U n i ve rs it.t'
Rating Your Comment and Your Name
5
I'm afraid earthquake happena
to u6'
ihoko
5
Great!
Gabrielis nice. He is cool,
TOMOKO
4
"Who
ie really takinq care of me,"
I think after readin4 thio book.
YOKO
4
I had a chance to think what'a the
moet important thinq bY readinq
thia book. Hiaako
Fi gurc 3(b) In-book opi ni on.fi trm 0i l l ed
ttut).l i tr The Eartl rquake b1'
Eli:ubeth Luinl.
l i brary on thci r own i nvari abl y tLrrn to thcsc corrrrrrcrrts ancl use thcrn as a
gui dc for whi ch books to borrow. It rni ght bc appropri rrtc i n sonte programs
to omi t "Your Narne" cl n the forrn and rnakc thc opi ni ons anonyl nous. or to
usc " Your I ni t i al s. "
Opi ni on l bnrrs i ndi rectl y serve to mark l i brary books as the property of a
communi ty of rcaders. A student pi cki ng up a book i s al so pi cki ng up a
record of how others rcacted to the book. Readi ng the opi ni ons of pri or
readers. regardl ess of whcther thc student chooscs to read the book. i s at
oncc an ackncl wl edgnrcnt of merrrbershi p i n the conl l uni ty and an i nterac-
t i on wi t h i t s mer nbcr s.
Rave reviews
Students who enj oy a parti cul ar book can usual l y be pcrsuaded to wri te a
short tcn- to thi rty-word "come-on"
fbr thc book, cxpl ai ni ng why others
wi l l probabl y enj oy i t as much as they di d. Standard-si zed (a l i ttl e srnal l er
t han t hc page si ze of a nor mal paper back) pi eces of col or cd paper can be
kept fbr tl rcsc "rave rcvi ervs," whi ch can then be attached to the books i n
quest i on. Even nr or c t han opi ni on f br r ns, t hesc dazzl i ng and di r cct expr es-
si ons of opi ni on transl brr.n books i nto i cons of a corrtrnuni ty.
A readi ng fai r
Another acti vi ty tl rat al l ows studerrts to share thernsel vcs as readers i s a
readi rr-e fai r. Thi s i s essenti al l y a poster sessi on. Students, i ndi vi dual l y or i n
pai rs, prepare a poster of a book that they parti cul arl y enj oyed. What i s put
on a post er i s l i mi t ed onl y by t he st ucl ent s' i magi nat i ons, and can i ncl udc
quotati ons. i l l ustrati ons. or photocopi cs of a book' s front and back covers.
Posters shoul d i ncl ude sol ne personal statcments by the studcnts. Students
rni ght vi ew thei r posters the way they thi nk about oral reports
-
as adver-
ti semcnts that atternpt to convi nce thei r cl assmatcs to read thei r tavori te
books.
Gi vcn the amount of work i nvol ved i n prepari ng a postcr, a readi ng tai r
nri ght be hel d onl y oncc a semester. Tl re posters coul d be di spl ayed i l r somc
prorni nent publ i c pl ace, such as the school l i brary, to attract the attenti on of
students outsi de the cl ass. The tai r coul d bc hel d i n conj uncti on wi th a
school t-csti val . i f the school hol ds such an cvent. It coul d al so be uscd as
par t of a l i br ar y f und- r ai si ng, cvent .
Li ke t he best f bl l ow- up act i vi t i es. post cr s conncct r eadi ng wi t h ot her
aspect s of st udent s' l i ves. And i n a si nr i l ar way t o a popul ar books sect t on,
154 The practice
of extensive readino
posters syrnbol i ze a reacl i ng comnruni ty i n vi sual tenns through the sel l ' -
cxpressi on of i ts rnerrrbers.
Wal l di spl ays
Younger stutl ents often enj oy vi si bl e progrcss. A chart can bc posted on thc
cl assroorrr rval l , wi th each student' s name, and spaces to wri te the names ol '
the books that the studcnts rcad. l f thc l i brary of books i s srnal l . the charl
can be a gri d, wi th thc names of the books on one axi s, and the names of thc
students on the other. when a stucl ent l l ni shes a parti cul ar book, the date i t
was compl eted and perhaps the student' s personal rati ng of the book arc
wri tten rvhere the gri ds i ntersect.
Such i nccnti vcs work as l ong as the whore cl ass i s rnaki ng si mi l ar
progress. l f one or two students are l aggi ng behi nd tl rei r cl assrnates, how-
ever, such publ i c di spl ays can onl y hurri l i ate. l t nray bc prcl brabl c, there-
fore, to i nstcad combi ne the students' readi ng i nto one publ i cl y di spl ayed
cl ass total . Thi s coul d l ake the fom of. fbr exampre, a l arge drarvi ng of a
thcrmorneter, the temperature of whi ch cl i rnbs as the cl ass reads rnore
books. In fact, cl asses of arry age enj oy watchi rrg tl remsel ves gradual l y
achi cvc i f a thcrrnorl eter i s used boi l i ng poi nt.
Publ i c di spl ays such as these have the aci vantage of servi ng other pur-
poses besi des keepi ng the mernbers of a cl ass i ntbnned of thci r own
achi evement s. Thi s i s wel l i l l ust r at ccl by Col i n Davi s, who r cpor l s on
succcssf ul wal l di spl ays and i nt er cl ass conr pct i t i on i n sccondar y school s i n
Si ngapore:
Engl i sh tcachcrs uscd a I' ari e ty of rnoti vati onal stratcgi cs to cncouragc thc rnax_
l mum amount of readi ng. Thc rnost succcssful of thcsc was fi rund to bc the
wal l -di spl ay cornpcti ti on i n whi ch cach cl ass pr.rt up a curnul ati vc pi ctori al
di spl ay, to bc j udgcd
at thc cnd of thc ycar. Thcsc di spl ays sl rowcd. i n somc
i magi nati ve rvay, whi ch books had bccn rcad by thc cl ass. and gavc i nfonrati on
about thcrn. Il rrmcnsc cntl rusi asr.n and cornpcti ti vc spi r-i t wcnt i nto creati ng
di spl ays, whi ch ofi cn showcd truc arti sti c fl ai r, ancr cngcndcrcci consi dcrabl c
cl ass co-opcrati on. as pupi l s who wcre avi d rcacl crs cncouraqcd othcrs to keep
up wi th them. Typi cal di spl ays rni sht shorv a rcadi ng aqr"rari urn. a rcadi ng gravc-
yard, a readi ng trai n. and thc tradi ti onal bookworm anri d a gardcn of fl owcrs,
butterfl i cs, and othcr creatures. ( I 995, pp. 33 I l l 2)
It i s not cl car fi ' orn Davi s' s account i f a book rraci to have becn rcarJ by
cvcryonc i n the cl ass to be el i gi bl e fbr di spl ay. If the nurnber of books i n the
l i brary i s srnal l , i t i s tbasi bl e fbr a book to ci rcul atc around thc cl ass.
Al tcrnati vcl y, i f thc l i brary i s l arser, perhaps ten peopl e readi ng the same
book i n a cl ass coul d render that book el i gi bl e fbr i ncl usi on i n the cl i spl ay.
The reading community in action
j
55
Katl rl een Muzevi ch descri bes a fi rst l anguauc rcadi ns prograrn i n an
Arneri can el crnentary school i n whi ch conrpcl i ti orr anl ol rs homerooms fbr
pr i zes bot h symbol i c ( a f l ag) and act ual ( gi l i ccr r i l i car cs) saw 1. 000 st u-
dcnts i ncrease thei r yearl y total of books rcacl l i onr 600 to 4,300. The
horncroom whose students read the most books c-ach nronth "captured the
f1ag" whi ch they coul d then keep i n thei r cl assroom fbr a month. Muzevi ch
cl escri bes the atmosphcre the fol l owi ng year:
As the ycar progrcsscd, thc conrpeti ti on betwecn homcrooms bccamc fl crce.
Each rnonth, thc rcsults fbr cach homeroom were postcd on a char-t in thc
cal -cteri a. By thc end of thc thi l d month. the book toral s werL- off the chart. and
we had to cxtcnd i t. In somc hornerooms, students kept thci r own tal l y on thc
conrputer so that thcy coul d i nstantl y conrpare thei r progrcss wi th nci gl rbori ng
hor ner ooms. ( 1995 1996, p. l 6)
Tl rat year, 8,713 books were read by rhc 1,000 students.
Intcrcl ass competi ti on can be taken to such extrenres. however. that
en-i oyrnent of readi ng takes a back seat to accumul ati ng ever-i ncreasi ng
total s of books read. Thcsc and si tni l ar rnoti vati onal strategi es shoul d thcre-
fbre be empl oyed wi th cauti on. Use them spari ngl y and do not al l ow them
to become ends i n thernsel vcs.
Concl usi on
The acti vi ti es descri bed i n thi s chapter arej ust a few ofthose that creati ve
students and tcachcrs rni ght dcvcl op. In consi dcri ns the effects of an ac-
ti vi ty or fol l ow-up to readi ng, three questi ons may be useful :
o
Does thi s rel ate readi ng to the student' s own l i f' e and experi ences.?
e
Does thi s support the student i n becomi ng an i ndependent reader?
e
Does thi s al l ow the reader to support and bc supported by other readers?
If the answers arc posi ti ve, then that acti vi ty i s al most certai nl y a heal thy
anc' l natural outgrowth of the readi ng experi cncc as expressed i n a com-
rnuni ty of readcrs.
As attracti ve and moti vati ng as these acti vi ti es may be, however. i t i s
appropri ate to end wi th a notc of cauti on. Ri chard Barnberger puts i t thi s
way
"Forget
the c' ontmuni t' uti on aspe(' t. Students shoul d tal k l ess about
what t hey have r ead and i nst ead use t he t i me f br r eadi ng mor e" ( 199 I . p.
35). Poi nt taken. Teachers must keep i n rni nd that ul ti rnatel y the rnost
appropri ate acti vi ty for the nrembers of a readi ng conrmuni ty i n acti on i s
readi ng.
I4 Program evaluation
Thc purpose of an cval uat i on st udy i s t o assess t hc
qual i t y, ef ' f ect i veness, or general val uc of a
program.
Donna Johnson ( 1992, p. 192)
Thi s i s where you ask how wel l t he programrnc i s
achi evi ng
[ i t s]
ai r ns.
Da v i d Hi l l ( 1 9 9 2 . p . l l St
o
Suggest ways i n whi ch an extensi ve readi ng program can be
cval uated.
Let us say that you havc i ntroduced some extensi vc rcadi ng i n onc ofyour
cl asses. Because you havc been observi ng your students' parti ci pati on i n
thc program, you have a good i dea of how thi ngs are goi ng. By readi ng the
studcnts' reacti on rcports to books and by tal ki ng to the students about thei r
readi ng, you have a scnse ol ' thei r dcepeni ng engagsment wi th tcxts. From
the students' readi ng notebooks, you know the gai ns i n how much students
are readi ng, i n how fast they are readi ng, and i n the l anguage l evel s at
whi ch they read. You see students returni ng to texts tl rat they once fbund
di fl l cul t to read, and norv can read more fl uentl y.
You al so have a sensc of the extent to whi ch second l anguage rcadi ng i s
becomi ng part of the studcnts' l i ves how they are growi ng i nto readers, as
i t were. As a tcacher, you f-eel parl of a cl assroom readi ng communi ty, and
you can see how that communi ty i s growi ng stronger as students cooperate,
hel p each other, and are i nspi red by each other' s and your exampl e. You
know whi ch readi ng mal eri al s are popul ar, whi ch are succcssful , and whi ch
are not. You know what rnateri al s shoul d be added to the l i brary. You al so
knorv to what extent the physi cal detai l s of the program avai l abi l i ty of
readi ng materi al s, checkout, and securi ty
-
are worki ng.
Such subj ecti ve, ongoi ng assessment of an extensi ve readi ng prograt.n,
based on cl ose parti ci pati on. i s suffi ci ent for most teachers. As a di rect
resul t of such assessmcnt, rnodi fl cati on of the program i s conti nual , i n ways
both l argc and smal l .
156
Program evaluation 157
Someti rnes, however, i t i s necessary l o i rtl cnrl )t 1o cval uats a progran.r
rurore forrnal l y. You may, tbr exampl e, u,al rl l () gcl a l norc cor.rrpl ete pi cturc
of a progranr about whi ch you know onl y i l part. You may neecl to fl nd out
about an ongoi ng extensi ve readi ng cl ass or ceurse that you are taki ng over.
You may need resul ts that can be shown to others, fbr exarnpl e, admi ni stra-
tors or a fundi ng source. Or you may si mpl y wi sh to confi rl n your more
i nfbrmal observati ons.
There are three central i ssues i n a formal eval uati on: purpose. audi ence,
and method. The l ast deoends on the fi rst two.
Purpose
Three common reasons fbr eval uati ng an extensi ve readi ng progral n are:
. to see whether a program has achi eved i ts goal s.
. to see what othcr resul ts a progral x rni ght have had, apart fi orn thc
i ntended ones.
o to i denti fy aspects of a program that mi ght need change or i mprovement.
These ar e not nl ut ual l y excl usi ve, and r nany eval uat i ons i ncl ude al l t hr cc
purposes.
Audi ence
The audi ence for an eval uati on mi ght be tcachers, students, adn-ri ni strators,
or fundi ng agenci es. The eval uati on shoul d match the i ntended audi cncc:
Di stri buti ng to school adnri ni strators the resul t of an eval uati on dorrc tc' r
di scover weak pcl i nts of a program rni ght have a negati ve i mpact. Maki ng
school admi ni strators aware of the prograrn' s achi evements as wel l as i ts
weaknesses mi ght have a more desi red resul t.
Method
' f he
met hod of eval uat i on wi l l nor mal l y be a t est or a qucst i onnai r e or bot h.
dependi ng on the purpose ol the eval uati on. If you want to know the c' ff-ect
of the prograrn on students' readi ng abi l i ty. tbr exampl e, then the cval ua-
ti on i nstrument coul d be a test that purports to measure readi ng abi l i ty (such
as Beni ko Mason and Tom Pendergast' s cl oze test i ntroduced i n Chapter 8
i n the secti on Readi ng Tests). Such an i nstrument can be gi ven as a pretest
and pc' rsttest, wi th the resul ts ot' al l students averaged i n order to refl ecl
prograrn-wi de. rtot i ndi vi dual studcnt. gai r.rs.
Many of the goal s of an extensi ve rcadi ng prograrn are concerned wi th
at t i t ude and behur i or . howcver . end a qucst i onnai r e i s a mor e appr opr i at e
i nstrunrent for attempti ng to measLl re growth i n these areas. As wi th a test, a
questi onnai re shoul d be admi ni stered to stucl ents at the begi nni ng, and then
agai n at the cnd. of a program. wi th the resul ts of each adnti ni strati ott
averaged i n order to compare thern on a cl ass or program-wi de basi s. Extra
i tems can be added to the postprogram questi onnai re to probe the students'
rsacti orrs to thc progranr i tsel f.
Next we l ook i n turn at the threc purposes fbr eval uati ng a program
rrenti oned above, and the qucsti onnai re types and i tems appropri ate to
c-ach.
Seei ng i f a program has achi eved i ts goal s
In Chaptcr 5, some cornmon goal s fbr an extensi ve readi ng program were
l i stcd. Aftcr conrpl eti ng the extensi ve readi ng program, the students wi l l
l . Have a posi ti vc atti tudc toward readi ng i n the second l anguage.
2. Have confi dence i n tl rei r readi ng.
3. Have rnoti vati on to read i n the sccond l an-euage .
4. Read wi thout constarrtl y stoppi ng to l ook up unknown or cl i ffl cul t rvords
i n the di cti onary.
5. Have i ncreased thei r word recogni ti on abi l i ty.
6. Know for what purpose thcy are readi ng when they read.
7. Read at an appropri atc rate for thei r purpose i n readi ng.
8. Know how l o choose appropri ate readi ng materi al s fbr thei r i nterests
and l anguage abi l i ty.
For eval uati on purposes, these goal s can be recast as statements to whi ch
thc studcrrts can be i nvi ted to respond. A l i st of staternents based on these
goal s rni ght read, fbr exarnpl e;
l . I l i ke r cadi ng i n t he second l anguage.
2. Bci ng abl c to read i n a seconcl l anguage i s useful .
3. When I read, I expect that I wi l l usual l y understand what I am readi ng.
4. I rcad i n a second l an-uuage because I want to.
5. When l r ead, I l ook up al l or most of t he wor ds I don' t know i n a
di cti onary.
6. Whcn I read, I al ways have a reason, fbr exarnpl e. to fi nd somethi ng out,
or to cnj oy rnysel f.
7. Sotneti nrcs I read fa.ster and somcti l ncs I rcl rrl sl or' ,' e r' . cl cpcndi ng on
' ,vhy
I arn readi ng.
8. I know how to fi nd readi ng materi al that sui rs nre and that I want to read.
Thcr e i s not necessar i l y a one- t o- onc r el at i or r shi p bct wcen t hc goal s and
the staterl ents. In some cases, such as, stateutcnt 5. a eoal i s nrost easi l y
stated i n tenns opposi te fi orn the actual goal of the prourarn. A negati ve
answer by the studcnt, therefbre. i ndi cates posi ti ve achi evenrent. Somc
goal s, such as goal 5 ("Students wi l l have i ncrcascd thei r word recogni ti on
abi l i ty"), concern automati c processes that readcrs are usual l y not aware of
when they rcad. Progress toward such goal s urust be evi denced i ndi rectl y,
through hi gher scores on a readi ng test, or by usi ng a questi onnai re state-
tl cnt such as "l can read fastcr than befbre."
Three ways tcl fi arne a qucsti onnai re i tern are as l i l l l ows (see Fi gure l ).
o
scal e
.
r nul t i pl e- choi cc answer s
.
mul t i pl e- choi cc st at er nent s
When possi bl e, a questi onnai re shoul d be i n the studcnts' fi rst l anguage.
Si nce ansr . vel i ng t he cl ucst i onnai r e i s not a t est of st udent s' r eadi ng abi l i t y,
i t shoul d be easy t o under st and. Usi ng t he st udent s' f r r st l anguage al so
mcans that the i nfbrrnati on you rccei ve has more chancc of bei ng accurate
and compl et e.
once the questi onnai re has been prepared. i t i s usetul to pi l ot-tcst i t on a
srnal l er group of the students to see i f thc questi ons are cl ear and i f they are
pr ovi di ng usef ul i nf br mat i on. St udcnt s can cor r r nent on whi ch quest i ons
they fbund easy to i l nswer and whi ch hard to i l nswer. and why. l f pi l oti ng i s
not practi cal , gi ve the i nstrurnent and revi se i t as necessarv befbre si vi nc i t
agai n t he next year .
Seei ng what other resul ts a program mi ght have had
' fo
fl nd out possi bl c rcsul ts of a program bcyond those envi si onecl i n the
goal s, ope' n-cnded questi ons are useful . Ask students to wri te what they
l l ri rrk aro the best poi nts of tl re prograrn, the worst poi nts, and wl rat they
thi nk they gai ned by parti ci pati ng i n i t. The ' aguer and more generar the
questi ons, the better fbr cxampl e, aski ng studcnts i f they thi nk they have
changed si nce enl eri ng the prograrn. and i f so. how. If you are i nterested i n
speci fi c topi cs, by al l rneans addrcss these di rectl y wi th questi ons such as:
.
Do you thi nk readi ng has hel ped your gcncral second l anguage abi l i ty?
e
Has readi ng hel ped ycl u know rnorc about the second l anguaee cul ture' J
Scal e
Ci rcl e t he number t hat best ref l ect s your f eel i ngs (1 = st rong no; 5 = st rong yes)
I enj oy readi ng i n a second l anguage.
1 2 3 4 5
Multiple-choice answers
How much do you enj oy readi ng i n a second l anguage?
a. not at al l
b. not very much
c. somewhat
d. qui t e a l ot
e. very mucn
Mul t i pl e-choi ce st at ement s
Choose the statement that best reflects your feelings.
a. When I read i n t he second l anguage, I don' t enj oy i t at al l .
b. When I read i n t he second l anguage, I don' t enj oy i t very much
c. When I read i n t he second l anguage, I qui t e enj oy i t
d. When I read i n t he second l anguage, I enj oy i t .
e. When I read i n t he second l anguage, I enj oy i t very much.
Figure I Three w,u.t's to.fi'urne u questionnuirc itcm.
Wi th open-ended qucsti ons, rather than al ternati ves fi om whi ch to choose,
space i s provi ded fbr students to wri te i n thei r responses.
l denti fyi ng aspects of a program needi ng
i mprovement
To gather i nfi rrrnati on fbr thi s ki nd of eval uati on, ask students to cornment
on vari ous aspccts of the prograrn. Thi s can be done usi ng a scal e l i ke the
one suggcstccl i n Fi gurc 2. Note that i n thi s cxarnpl e, the opti mum answer
di fTers fbr cl i fl ' crcnt aspccts of the program. The opti mum answer fbr the
Mat er i al s and chcckout ancl t he Cl ass act i vi t i es
( opi ni on) scal es i s 5,
Homework assi gnment s (1 = not enough; 3 = about ri ght ; 5 = t oo much)
Theamount of r eadi ng 1 2 3 4 5
Theamount o{ wr i t i ng 1 2 3 4 5
Cl ass act i vi t i es (opi ni on) (1 = don' t l i ke; 3 = al l ri ght ; 5 = real l y l i ke)
Sust ai nedsi l ent r eadi ng( SSR) 1 2 3 4 5
Teacher read-alouds
Oral report s i n groups
Readi ng l ab
Free time
Mat eri al s and checkout (1
The variety of books
The number ot books
The quality of books
The condi t i on of books
The checkout system
The number of newspapers
The number of magazi nes
The variety of magazines
The condi t i on of magazi nes
= poor; 3 = accept abl e; 5 - excel l ent )
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
Cl ass act i vi t i es (l engt h) (1
Sust ai ned si l ent readi ng
Teacher read-alouds
Oral report s i n groups
Readi ng l ab
Free t i me
= t oo short ; 3 = j ust ri ght ; 5 = t oo l ong)
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
Figure 2 Sample queslionnuire lo identift, ospe('ts of'u program
needing impntvemenl.
T
whereas i n the Homework assi gnrncnts and Cl ass acti vi ti es (l ength) scal es,
3 i ndi cates opti mum sati sfacti on.
Questi onnai res
can ei ther have the students' names on them (useful i f
you want to cl ari fy or pursue a response) or be anonymous, but you mi ght
get a better qual i ty of response when i nvi ti ng cri ti ci sm i f questi onnai res are
anonymous.
A si mpl er but more unpredi ctabl e way of i denti fyi ng weaknesses i n the
program i s to use open-ended questi ons rather than scal es. Students are
asked what they woul d change i n the program i f they coul d, and how they
woul d change i t. Answers wi l l be l ess random and more thorough i f spe-
ci fi c categori es to address are suggested: materi al s; homework; cl ass ac-
ti vi ti es (wi th subheadi ngs such as "sustai ned si l ent readi ng," "read-al oud,"
"oral reports," "readi ng l ab," as appl i cabl e); fol l ow-up acti vi ti es (wri tten
reports; oral reports); and so on.
Certai n practi cal aspects of a program are properl y eval uated based on
record keepi ng and i nspecti on of matcri al s. How often do students return
books l ate? How many books and other materi al s are mi ssi ng or damaged?
How l ons i s i t before a book needs to be repl aced because i t i s worn out?
Resul ts
Once the questi onnai re has been admi ni stered, the answers from open
questi ons must bc asscmbl cd and organi zed. The vol ume of wri tten re-
sponses may be l arge and random, and you may need to deci de how to
categori ze the vari ous types of answers i n order to make better sense of
them. Dependi ng on who i t i s prepared for, a fi nal report, whi l e acknowl -
edgi ng al l answers, wi l l probabl y quote from a sel ecti on of the responses
percei ved to be most perti nent and useful .
Some i nfbrmati on provi ded by an eval uati on i s l i kel y to be posi ti ve, and
some negati ve. Ncgati ve i nfbrmati on may i ndi cate that change i s neces-
sary, but i t does not necessari l y mean that a program shoul d be rnodi fi ed or
di sconti nued. Perhaps thc i nstrument was faul ty or di d not measure what i t
was supposcd to. Perhaps the wrong questi ons were asked, and you ob-
tai ned i nfbrrnati on on areas that the program di d not teach.
On the other hand. even posi ti ve resul ts can be used to rcexami ne a
program. Perhaps posi ti ve resul ts can be bui l t upon to achi eve even greater
resul ts. Perhaps an aspcct of a program that recei ves an overwhel mi ngl y
posi ti ve responsc can bc cxpanded.
Concl usi on
The met hod of eval uat i on
-
t est , qucst i or t nai r c. or ot hcr means
-
wi l l
depend on the purpose of the eval uati on ancl the aucl i encc fbr whorn i t i s
i ntended. A fbrmal eval uati on can provi cl c cvi dence of the state ol ' an
cxtensi ve readi ng program and thc resul ts i t has achi eved. Let us once more
end on a note of cauti on, however. Lest cnthusi asm for quanti fi abl e data
and a thi rst to prove somethi ng wi th numbers and stati sti cs cal ry one away,
heed John Mcl nness, who makes a poi nt that appl i es as much to readi ng i n
the second l anguage as i t does to fi rst l anguage readi ng:
It i s i mpossi bl e to dcscri bc nurneri cal l y the chi l d' s apprcci ati on of what
[i s
read], the i ntensi ty of. . . i ntcrcst i n readi ng, the succcss
[cxpcri cnccd]
i n usi ng
readi ng as a way of cxtcndi ng. . . real and i magi ned worl ds. or. . . growi ng
tastc i n l i terature. What can be rcduccd to stati sti cal descri pti on has oftcn bccn
gi vcn prcccdence over these more cl usi vc aspccts ofgrowth i n readi ng. (1973,
p. 103)
Tests and questi onnai res cannot repl ace observi ng, shari ng, tal ki ng wi th,
questi oni ng, l i steni ng . . . It i s through such i nteracti on tl ,at the sensi ti ve
teacher can come to know what rni ght otherwi se rcmai n unnoti ced: that a
student i s becorni ng a reader. Ul ti matel y, an extensi ve readi ng prograrn
must be eval uated i n terrns of how successful l v i t
provi des
the envi ronment
fbr thi s to happen.
Further readi ng
Charl es Al derson provi des a good general exami nati on of program eval ua-
ti on i n the secti on "Gui del i nes for the Eval uati on of Language Educati on"
i n hi s and Al an Beretta' s edi ted vol ume Evul uati ng Seconcl Lunguuge
Edttcation
(1992\.
Bnef, cl ear gui del i nes for eval uati ng an extensi ve readi ng progranl can
be f ound at t he end of t he pr ogr al n management sect i on ( pp. l l t 3- 120) of
Davi d Hi l l ' s 1992 vol ume The EPER Gui de to Organi .si ng Programmes of
Extensive Reuding.
I 5 Taking the approach less
traveled
Thc pri mary consi derat i on i n al l rcadi ng i nst ruct i on
shoul d be f or st udcnt s t o experi encc readi ng as
pl casurabl e and usef ' ul . Onl y t hcn wi l l t hey be
clrawn to do thc rcading they rnust do to becorrc
f l uent rcaders. And onl y t hen wi l l t hey dcvel op an
cagerncss t o l earn new ski l l s t o hcl p t hem becomc
better rcaders.
Jul i an Bar nf br d & Ri char d Dav ( 1997, p. 7)
. Revi ew the condi ti ons necessary for extensi ve readi ng to fl ouri sh.
. Summari ze thc rnaj or thernes of the book.
Through a l andscape of acadcmi c rcadi ng ski l l s, cornprehcnsi on. transl a-
ti on, test-taki ng ski l l s, and, as Mary Daane puts i t, "vocabul ary l i sts, pre-
l l xes, suffi xes, root words, statcd and i mpl i ed mai n i dcas, maj or and tni nor
suppofti ng detai l s, transi ti onal words, and i nfbrenti al thi nki ng" (1996' p.
235), there runs the rcl ati vcl y l i ttl e-travel ed byway that i s extcnsi ve read-
i ng. Can that byway bccomc the route of choi ce, a veri tabl c superhi ghway
that students travel to becorne cff' ecti ve, effl ci ent, and i ndependent second
l anguagc readers' l In ordcr fbr that to happen, several condi ti ons have to be
rnct. Therc rnust be:
o A broatlet'
/itc'us /br
,secrtnd lunguage reuding inslruc'tion.
Thi s requi res wi deni ng the l ens that tcnds to be so fi nnl y focused on the
i ntrredi atc pul poscs of a readi ng coursc (e.g., passi ng cxami nati ons, trans-
l ati ng, l earni ng rcadi ng ski l l s) to i ncl ude the students as i ndi vi dual s. The
goal s of second l anguage readi ng i nstructi on may be, for exampl e. for
students to have thc ski l l s to deal cffi ci entl y wi th academi c readi ng, or to
pass the rcadi ng secti cl n of an cxami nati on. But there shoul d al so be the
goal of stucl ents bccomi ng fl uent, i ndependent, and confi dent readers.
In i ts zeal 1br efl i ci cncy. rcadi ng i nstructi on has arguabl y strayed too l br
from thc purposes and contexts of real -worl d readi ng. There arc exal l l na-
164
Taking the approach /ess traveled 165
ti ons to pass and ski l l s to master, of courss, bul tcachcrs rnust be cl ear about
the di fference between these and becotl i ng a rcadcr. They must al so bc
cl ear about the val ue of bei ng a reader. l f thcy are not, "real readi ng does
not stand a chance under the enorrnous prcssurc to teach students how to do
wel l on
' r eadi ng'
t est s" ( Hcnr y, 1995, pp. l 3t t 139) .
Teachcrs must real i ze that bei ng a reader gi vcs students a context wi thi n
whi ch to experi ence the val ue of worki ng toward the speci fi c goal s of a
readi ng course. Thus, paradoxi cal l y, rather than di l uti ng readi ng i nstructi on
or di vefti ng attenti on away from i rnmedi ate goal s, ti me spent on real read-
i ng can make readi ng i nstructi on more effi ci ent and mcani ngful .
And so, as much as endeavori ng to rrol d students i nto a ti dy concept of
what a good reader i s one who can fi nd the mai n i dea of a text, or who
can corrcctl y rnatch a pronoun to i ts rcferent, for exampl e tcachers shoul d
be i nvol ved i n the l ess prcdi ctabl e busi ness of encouragi ng students to
di scover how second l anguage readi ng mi ght fi t i nto thei r l i vcs. Thi s broad-
eni ng of the overal l goal of readi ng i nstructi on sees tcachers ai mi ng to
produce not .skilled readers, but skilled readers.
o A more precise understuncling o/ the <'ognitive needs o.f'lectners at all
levels.
A cogni ti vc vi ew of tl rc readi ng process makcs cl ear that rcadi ng depcnds
on a l arge si ght vocabul ary and background knowl edge, and that students
acqui re thesc through readi ng l arge amounts of easy and i ntercsti ng mate-
ri al . The more preci se an understandi ng teachers have of the readi ng pro-
cess, the more apparent i t i s that students must read i n quanti ty and wi th
engagement. Such quanti ty and qual i ty of readi ng wi l l then bccome a
pri ori ty i n second l anguage readi ng i nstructi on.
o A cleeper Lrnderslunding o/'the primon, role o/'a//et't in the tleci.sion to
reatl.
Onl y whcn teachers know the pri mary rol e that affbct pl ays i n the deci si on
to read can they take proper account ofcul ture-based and past expcri ence-
based atti tudes toward readi ng that students hol d. Teachers wi l l real i ze that
studcnts who do not val ue readi ng and do not expect to succeed at readi ng
wi l l onl y read wi th rel uctancc. Consequentl y, student afl ect wi l l become an
i rrrportant consi derati on i n second l anguage rcadi ng i nstructi on.
o
A realizution o/'lhe naed
fbr
t,u.slom-v,ri!ten .set.ond lunguuge reucling
malerials.
Teachers r.nust broaden thci r uncl erstandi ng of authenti ci ty to i ncl ude mate-
ri al s wri ttcn and adaptcd fbr l anguagc l earners. They must al so appreci ate
166 The practice
of extensive readinq
the csscnti al rol e pl ayed i n l earni ng to rcad and bccomi ng a reader by
materi al that i ndi vi dual students fi nd easy, i nteresti ng, and rel evant.
For teachers to be abl e to provi de students wi th the appropri ate mate-
ri al s, l anguage l carner l i terature must devel op as a genre i n i ts own ri ght.
Readi ng matcri al must advance i n stages, paral l el wi th thc students' i n-
creasi ng knowl edge ofthe second l anguagc and the second l anguage cul -
ture. Books must contai n appropri ate support for comprehensi on and l an-
guage l earni ng. In thi s way, l anguage l earner l i terature can l ead readers to a
poi nt where thc ful l spectrum of second l anguage wri tten materi al i s avai l -
abl e t o t hem.
o A broader consideration ol'the e//ects of-t'la,ssntom ac.tivities und reading
materials.
Teachcrs must takc i nto account the effect of a cl ass acti vi ty and thc readi ng
materi al not j ust on students' abi l i ty to rcad, but on the students' sel f-
i magcs as readers. and on thci r f' eel i ngs toward rcadi ng i tsel f. The best
concci ved, rnost cf1l ci ent, most effecti vc readi ng acti vi ty may have a hi d-
den, fatal undertow i f i t makes studcnts l ess sure of thernscl ves. and l ess
i nterested i n readi ng. Teachers must thereforc broaden thci r consi dcrati on
of cl assroom acti vi ti cs and rnatcri al s to i ncl ude thei r potcnti al for creuti ng
engaged, avi d, i ndepcndent readcrs.
o
A broader viev, o/ the roles and responsibilities of',student.s.
Bei ng a readcr i nvol ves an el ement of autonomy. Teacl .rers must therefbre
step back and al l ow i ndi vi dual students greatcrauthori ty and i ndependence.
Students must l earn to l ook as much to themsel ves as to the teacher. fbr
devel opi ng ski l l s i n sccond l anguage r eadi ng i s an i ndi vi dual pr ocess. I n
metaphori cal tenns, students must gradual l y see thernsel ves not as sponges
or empty vesscl s wai ti ng to be fi l l ed, but as expl orers, perhaps, or as
i nformati on-scckers and pl casure-seckcrs. In thi s way, they can eventual l y
come to sce themsel vcs as readers.
o
A broacler view of'the roles antl responsibilities of'teut'hers.
In order fbr students to become rcaders, teachers must bc, fbr exampl e,
"advocates who prornote atti tudss" and "promoters who fi nd ti me ofl en to
encourage l i teracy and cel ebrate the accompl i shments of thei r students"
(Heathi ngton, 1994, p. 201). Thi s requi res teachers to see themsel ves i n
new ways. Instead of fbuntai ns of knowl edge, trai ners, or eval uators,
teachers nrust consi dcr themsel vcs more i n tcrms of bei ng gui des, advo-
cates, and rcsource persons.
Al ways. ancl rnost of al l , teachers must see thernsel ves as readers i n the
target l anguage. Teachers must understand that what thcy do as readcrs and
who they are as rcaders i s as i mportant as what they say and tcach about
Taking the approach /ess traveled 167
readi ng. Students can become readers onl y i l ' thcy know what i t mcans to be
a reader and the rneani ng readi ng can havc i n a person' s l i fb thi ngs that
second l anguage readi ng teachers may bc al onc i n cl cr.nonstrati ng to thcm.
. A brouder view of reading instruc'tiort on lhc purt o/ utlministralors.
Adrni ni strators (and parents of younger students) must share a vi ew of
second l anguage readi ng i nstructi on that i ncl udes students becomi ng
readers. If so, they wi l l do what they can to provi de the necessary resources,
and they wi l l understand the di fferent rol es and responsi bi l i ti es of teachers
and students. Thcy must appreci ate. for exampl e, why i t i s i mportant fbr
teachers to read wi th students, and why students arc readi ng l i ght, easy
materi al s wi th few postreadi ng acti vi ti es and no exarni nati ons.
o A broadet' reseurc'h agenda.
Research must conti nue on the i rnpact of second l anguagc rcadi ng i nstruc-
ti on on such vari abl es as readi ng profi ci ency, vocabul ary knowl edgc, l an-
guagc profi ci ency, and wri ti ng. In addi ti on, greater attenti on must be pai d
to thc i nf' l uencc of rcadi ng i nstructi on on sel f-confi dence, atti tude toward
readi ng, dcsi re to read, and thc habi t ofsecond l anguage readi ng outsi de the
cl assroom.
Perhaps most pressi ng of al l i s thc need fbr l ongi tudi nal studi es to
strengthen the anecdotal evi dcncc, such as thc report by Mei Fung E,l sa
Shek at the begi nni ng of Chapter 4. There must be qual i tati ve and quanti ta-
ti vc studi es to di scover what happens to graduates of readi ng programs, and
why i t happcns. Do studcnts read i n the sccond l anguage 3 or 5 or l 0 years
after the end of a reading program? What aspects of the reading program
can be associ atcd wi th a rcadi ne habi t and a sense of the val ue of readi ns. or
a l ack of these?
Extensive reading and the teacher
But the most essenti al prerequi si te frl r devel opi ng eff' ecti ve, effi ci ent, and
i ndependent second l anguagc rcaders through cxtensi ve readi ng has al ways
been the i ndi vi dual , commi tted teacher. In thc process of wri ti ng thi s book,
we have read reports of second l anguage extensi ve readi ng programs, and
coresponded wi th school s around the worl d. Cutti ng across al l of the
di ffcrences thc programs had i n resources, student age, cul tural back-
ground, purpose of study, and prograrn organi zati on there was one i nevi -
tabl e si mi l ari ty. In school s where l arge numbers of books were read, one or
more teachers were al ways behi nd the di ftbrence. There i s no doubt, there-
fore, that the essenti al condi ti ons fbr extensi ve readi ng are a teacher' s
enthusi asrr for readi ng and encouragement of students to read.
Our i nterrti on i n wri ti ng thi s vol ttme has been to ki ndl e enthusi asm for
extensi ve readi ng al nong teachers, teachers-to-be, and others concerned
wi th second l anguage r"udi ng. we have al so ai med to support that enthusi -
asrn wi th theory and wi th practi cal suggesti ons. as wel l as (i f one teaches
Engl i sh as a second l anguage) access to resources i n the Appendi x'
The teacher one teacher
-
makes the di fference. Ifyou have enthusi -
asrn for extensive reading, do not wait fbr others. The time to begin is now.
Appundix
lbiUtiography
of language
learner
literature
in English
I was bor n i n t he year 1632. i n t hc ci t y of Yor k. of a good
t ami l y. At a vcry carl y age I want cd t o go t o sea'
' --
Openi ng l i nes of Mi chael West ' s 193 I
adapt at i on t l f Dani cl Def be' s l 7l 9 novel
Robi nsot r
(' ru. st rc.
The purposc of thi s APPendi x i s to:
. Vi cw l anguage l earner l i terature i n a way thi tt ettcourages i ts fi ttttte
dcvel oprrrent.
o Present an E.PER (Edi nburgh Proj ect on Extensi ve Readi ng)
bi bl i ography of hi gh-qual i ty l anguage l earncr l i terl ture i n Engl i sh'
o Introduce EPER as a rcsourcc for tcachers organi zi ng extensi vc
readi ng programs.
Thi s Appencl i x ai ms both to provi de a practi cal resource and to consi der
l anguage l earner l i terature i n a way that wi l l forward i ts devel opmel l t as a
g"n.". l t consi sts of a bi bl i ography of hi gh-qual i ty l anguage l earncr l i tera-
Iure i n Engl i sh publ i shed for a worl d market. The books are arranged i n
order of di ffi cul ty. progressi ng l i om easi er to more di ffi cul t, fbr gradi ng i s
the most sal i ent f' eature of l anguage l earner l i terature. Books are then l i sted
by name and author, to focus attenti ou on tl te i ndi vi dual works rather than
the seri es i n whi ch they are publ i shed.
Unl i ke thei r fi rst l anguage counterpafi s, teachcrs' nl agazi nes and j our-
nal s conccrned wtth seconcl l anguage readi ng rarel y i ncl ude regul ar revi cws
of new l anguage l earner l i terature ti tl es. By i ncl ucl i ng onl y the best of books
i n thi s bi bl i ography, we hope to encourage such a rcvi ew process, i n whi cl t
opi ni orr i s gi vel as to whi cl r i ndi yi dual ti tl es arc l l l ore or l ess sttccessful '
The research presented here i s the work of Davi d Hi l l and thc Edi nburgh
Proj ect on E,xtensi ve Readi ng
(EPER). EPER i s a non-prol -tt-maki ng trrri t
,vi tl i n the l nsti tutc tbr Appl i ecl Language Str,rdi cs of the Uni vcrsi ty of
Edi l bur . gh. l t s pur pose i s t p pr ot t r ol c ext ensi vc r cadi ng i t s i r nt aj or el emenl
i n the teachi ng of fbrei gn l anguages. rvi th a speci al fbcus on the teachi ng of
169
170 Appendix
Engl i sh as a fbrci gn or second l anguage. Apart fi om rnai ntai ni ng thc
database fi ' orn whi ch the prcscnt bi bl i ography i s drawn, EpER cl evel ops
and pLrbl i shes support materi al s fbr teachers of extensi ve readi ng, and trai ns
teachers i n wri ti ng fi cti on fbr l anguagc l earners. Furl her i nfbrmati on about
EPER and cont act det ai l s can be f ound at t he end of t hi s Appendi x.
In contrast to thei r fi rst l an-uuage counterparts, authors who r-ewri tc,
rctel l , or adapt an cxi sti ng work as l arrguage l earner Ii terature are l argel y
Ll nsung. Publ i shers pl ace on the cover ofthc adaptati on onl y thc nanre ofthc
author of thc ori gi nal work on whi ch the adaptati on was bascd, ancl l ri de the
adapt er ' s name i nsi de
I n t hi s bi bl i ogr aphy, r vl r cn a book r ct cl l s an cxi st i ng wor k, t hc name ot '
the author of thc ori gi nal rvork has been moved i ntcl parenthescs after the
ti tl c, and the nar.ne of thc adapter i s credi tcd as the author. l t i s true that. as
books arc adaptcd for nrorc advanced l anuuagc l earners, retel l i ng shades
i nto abri dgnrerrt, arrd thc rvork of thc ori gi nal author takcs orr rnore i rnpor-
t ancc i n r el at i cl n t o t hat of t he adapt cr . l n t hcsc cases, t he or i gi nal aut hor ' s
nanrc shoul d rnore properl y sharc the author' s spacc i n the bi bl i ography.
Thc poi ' t wc are maki ng i s orrl y that books shoul d properry recogni ze the
r cspect i vc cont r i but i ons of t hc aut hor of t he or i gi nal wor k and t he aLr t hor of
the adaptccl versi or.r, wi th crcdi t gi ven accordi ngl y.
ci vi ng authors who adapt books the rccogni ti on they cl cserve i nvi tes
pri de and accountabi l i ty. Thesc are not facel ess hacks provi di ng a product,
bul aul hor' .t tel l i ng a story thei r own or sorncone el sc' s to l anguage
l earncrs. The authors l i stcd i n thi s bi bl i ography havc wri tten books that
EPER consi cl crs abovo .verage. when names appcar agai n and agai n,
thcrefbre, i t i s not thc resul t of nrcre i ndustry, but represents extraordi nary
achi evcment.
' rhcse
are thc nanres of thc' best wri ters of l anguage l earner
l i t cr at r - r r e i n Engl i sh.
As t hi s bi bl i ogr aphy r eveal s, l anguage l car ner l i t cr at ur e i n Engl i sh f or a
wor l d nr ar kct i s publ i shed al r nost excl usi vel y i n t hc Uni t ed Ki ngdom. The
rcasons fbr thi s are i n part hi stori cal . Mi chael west' s ori gi nal suppl ementary
readers l br l ncl i a began to be publ i shed i n thc l ate 1920s by Longnrans,
Gr cen ancl f ' or npany i n London, and Br i t i sh publ i sher s have cont i nucd t he
t r adi t i on cver si ncc. The ot hcr r eason f br U. K. domi nat i on i s i n par t eco-
nonri c. Davi d Hi l l notes that graded rcaders are "greatl y pri ze<l by forei gn
t eachcr s and l car ner s of Engl i sh" and l ess so by appl i ed l i ngui st s and nat i ve-
spcaki ng t cachcr s ( 1991. p. , 57) . The Br i t i sh ELT publ i shi ng busi ness' s
sphcre of i nl ' l uencc i n Europc and the forrner col oni es has ensurecl the
ncccssary nrarkctpl acc tbr the genrc to bl ossom.
At t he samc t i me, l anguage l ear ner l i t er at ur e i n Engr i sh i s al so publ i shed
l ocal l y fbr a mai nl y l ocal rrrarkct. Seri es of books are procl uced i n such
pl aces as Aust r al i a. I t al y, Mal aysi a and Hong Kong. and speci f i cal l y f br
A bibliography of language learner literature 171
3. Thcsc two gcndcmcn erc Mr.
L,onqman rnd Mr. Gtecn.
Thcf hevc
iust
peid th&
printcr's bill. $rhet rrc thcy
irow waiting for thc pdntcr
to producc ? His eccount ?
Hit- bill ? His rcceiPt ?
Mi chuel Wcsl ' .s.skt' l ch tl ' hi s publ i shers (fi rtttt Wasl ' .; Nax' Methotl Reuder
Itr/ Rati si on E.rarci st' .s) (19-16, p. 109).
Spani sh-speaki ng rnarkets. Books by Afi i can authors publ i shed for an Afi i -
can r l ar kct ar e par t i cul ar l y not eu' of i hy. Davi cl I l i l l cal l s t hese " out st andi n- u
f t r r t hci r cor nbi nat i on ot ' r cal i snr and hunr our " ( 1997, p. 62) . The hundr cds
of qual i t y books i n t hese scr i es ar e not i ncl uded i n t hc bi bl i ogr aphy i n t hr s
appendi x fbr space rcasons, and because the books are someti rnes hard to
obt ai n out si dc t hei r l ocal mar kct .
l n i ts databasc. EP[rR records the gencl cr of thc mai n character of cach
book. Thi s i nf bmr at i on i s not i ncl uded i n t he bi bl i ogr aphy i n t hi s appendi x
because of space, and becausc t he domi nancc of nt al e char act er s i s l essen-
i ng. Pr i or t o 1980. 80 per cent of t he books wer e r nai nl y about men, vcr sus
l 0 perccnt f-eaturi ng f-ernal e l ead charactcrs (the other l 0 percent of the
bocl ks bei ng abt l Lr t bot h sexcs equal l y, ani r r r al s, et c. ) . Thc bal ance i s st ead-
i l y i rnprovi ng, and tocl ay fbwe' r than 50 perccnt of books f' eaturc men, 25
pcrccnt havc both nral e and fcrnal e l ead charactcrs, and ovcr 20 percent of
books ar e mai nl y about wor nen.
Fi nat l y, t he bi bl i ogr aphy r ccogni zcs out st at r di ng i t r di vi dual books. Oncc
morc i n contrast to l l rst l anguage equi val ents chi l drert' s and young adul t
l i terature thcrc are no awards for outstandi ng l anguage l earner l i terature.
And so, i n a l i st whi ch al r eady i ncl udcs onl y hi gh- qual i t y t i t l es
-
t he
nomi necs, so to speak the vety l ' rcst books are i ndi cated by pri nti ng the
t i t l e and aut hor ' s name i n bol d. I n a sense, t hese car t r cpr esent t he f l r st
awards for E,ngl i sh l anguage l earncr l i terature . The outstandi ng books i ndi -
cated herc can bc consi dored to have recci vcd thc (cnti rel y unofl l ci al ,
unsancti oncd, but neverthel css cl e fhcto)
"l j PER Award ttrr Exccl l ence i n
Language Lcarner Li terature."
' \
172 Appendix
We hope tl rat thi s speci al sel ecti otr wi l l encourage l i rrrher recogni ti on ol '
ercel l ence i n l anguage l ezrmer l i tcraturc. Awarcl s shoLrl cl be establ i shc-d to
honor the best books both tl cti on and nonfl cti on publ i shed i n a gi ven
l anguage i n a gi ven year. These awards coul d be i ntemati onal or regi onal .
sponsored by l earned soci eti es, teachers' organi zati ons. prof' essi onal j our-
nal s, publ i shcr s' gr oups anyonc, i n f act , wi t h a vest ed i nt er est i n r ai si ng
the standards of second l anguagc rcadi ng educati on. Oncc won, an award
woul d [ ' r c an achi cvcment t hat publ i sher s woul d obvi ousl y di spl ay on t he
book i t sel l - . Such r ccogni t i on of i ndi vi dual t i t l es and aut hor s r voul d i n t ur n
r ai se st andi r r ds and cxpcct at i ons f br ol hcr wor ks.
By recogni zi ng authors ancl by cel ebrati ng outstandi ng works, wc hope
t l t i s pr esent at i on of EPER' s r esear ch wi l l st i mul at e t he cont i nui ng devel op-
nrent of l anguage l earner l i terature and be a nrodel tbr si nri l ar bi bl i ogra-
phi es i n other l anguages.
An EPER bi bl i ography of hi gh-qual i t y l anguage
l earner l i terature
Criteria for inclusion
The EPER database of Engl i sh graded readers hol cl s records of 4.225 ti tl es,
of whi ch 1, 265 ar e i n pr i nt . The bi bl i ogr aphy gi ven her e ( st ar t i ng on page
174) contai ns thc approxi rnatcl y 550 ti tl cs publ i shcd for a worl d n-rarket that
EPER consi ders thc best i n pri nt. that i s, thosc that scorcd 4 or 5 out of5 on a
qual i ty rati ng based on gl obal assessment of the f-eatures that contri butc to
rnaki n-{ a book a good read. Tl re f' eatures i ncl ude the cl ari ty of the pl ot, the
support o1' the i l l r.rstrati ons, the appu.arancc of thc pri ntccl pagc, and, n.rost
i nrportarrt. the i nterest of the story or book i tsc-l f-. Thc ti tl c ancl author of
books t hat achi eved t he hi ghest qual i t y r at i ng ( 5 out of - 5; ar e pr i nt cd i n bol cl .
Readability levels (EPER levels)
The l i st of t i t l es i s di vi ded i nt o ni ne l evel s of r eadabi l i t y. whi ch have becn
devel oped by EPER to provi de a cornrl on scal c on whi ch to pl ace books
fronr vari ous seri es and vari ous publ i shers, and to pernri t the l carncr to
nrake easy progress fi onr l evel ttl l evel . The EPER l evel s rel ' l ect use i n thc
cl assr oonr l at her t han st r i ct anal ysi s of t he l i ngur st i c pr opef i i es of t he t ext .
l ndced. nontextual fhctcl rs such as the number of i l l r-rstrati ons and si ze of
pri nt are ofl en deci si vc fhctors i n fi xi ng thc l cvcl fbr a parti cul ar ti tl e.
Teachcrs shoul d be ready to al ter l evel s i f thei r students tl nd sorre ti tl es
mLtch rnore di ffl cul t or much casi er than the l evel gi ven i ni ti al l y.
The fbl l owi ng tabl e sets out thc EPER l evel s and the correspondi ng
l evel s wi thi n the IELTS, C' arnbri dge, TOEFL (computcr and paper ver-
A bibliography of language learner literature 173
si ons) , and TOEI C' syst cn' r s. l t al so i ncl i cat cs t hc age and l cvcl at whi ch
pri nrary and sccondary students can rnakc tl rc l l arrsi l i on to ungraded books
wri tten fbr thei r agc group.
EPER l evel s for l arrguage l earner l i terature i n Engl i sh
l l l ' El l . l t t , t rrgL Srul t ' nl
l Lv, l *t t t t l t rt l t t rr l c*' l I t : l , TS
T()t].L 71)t,t- t.
l crt nt P"l "' -
"' ""' ' -
Ti urt t i t i rt t t
( uuhridgc lasLd) hu.til) TOIII( to Ll hx,k:
( r
I
t .
t )
_l ( x)
5( X)
l { ( x)
l . l 0( l
I . 6( X)
I 90o
\ l r rl cr
I l cgi nncr
l : l cDr cnl l r r r ( unr l cr J. 5 )
l . r r r r ( u n d c f - 1 . 5 )
I l rl cf l re(l i l l e
l nt cf l r cdi r t c 4
I l r gh . 1. 5 t r ( t l *
I nt cf l l l c(l t i l l c
. \ , l r . r r r t . t l s i ( ^ l ^
l l r i J g c { ' ( I ' l
'
. \ 5{ )
.l (x)
I 5 0
.r {){) \ r c r l l ) I l
.150 .150
1t t 0 5- 10 Ascs I I 15
6. 1
t )i
| 9( ) 510
( ) 50
2l l 550 7_. ] 0
1. 2( x)
3. ( XX)
(
I J
\
I -1-l
1 5 7
* l j ( l : =l i i r \ 1 ( c i l i l l c r t c i nl : r gl i s h: ( Al : =( c ni l i c r l e i nAdr anc c dF. r r c l i s h: ( l ' l l =( ! ' r t i l l c r t c oJ ' Pr ol i r i ur r ur i n
l ' i n gl i sh.
Age
Wi thi n each l cvcl of the bi bl i ography. the books are groupcd for parti cul ar
age gr oups: pr i nr ar y ( agcs 8- I I
) ;
secondar y ( I I l 6) ; adul t ( ovcr l 6) : or a
combi nati on of these. Thcsc appl y di rectl y to European l earners and nray
need rnodi fi cati on fbr l earners i n othcr cul tures.
Genre
If a book has a cl ear gcnre or subj ect, thi s i s i ndi cated by a codc i n squarc-
brackets ati er the ti tl e of the book. as fbl l ol vs:
[Adv]
Adventurc
[ Ani ]
Ani mal
IBi o]
Bi ography or autobi ography
IFab]
Fabl e
IFan]
Fantasy
I Hi s]
Hi st or y
[Hor]
Honor or ghost
f Hunr ]
Humor
[Nfi c]
General nonfi cti on
IRom]
Romance
I SF]
Sci ence- f i ct i on
[Thr]
Thri l l er or cri me
Publisher and series
A codc fbr the narrre of the pLrbl i sher and thc scri es i n whi ch the book
appears fol l ows each entry. The numbcr that fol l ows thc code i ndi cates the
seri es l evel assi gncd to the book by the publ i sher. A l i st ofcodes, seri es, and
publ i sher s f bl l ows t hc bi bl i ogr aphy ( st ar t i nu on page 199) .
l i u'
174 Appendix Bibliography: EPER levels H/G 175
EPER LEVEL H Publisher/
Scrlcs Title 4ut ht l '
Title
Puhlisher/
Seri es Author
Books most sui tabl e for pri mary-aged students (8-l I years ol d)
The Ghost House
IHor]
The Best Chri strnas
Li ttl e Red Ri di ng Hood
[Fab]
My Home
[ Nt i c]
The Sel f i sh Gi ant ( Wi l de)
IFab]
The Hundr ed and One
Dal mat i ans ( Smi t h)
[ Ani ]
Jack and the Beanstal k
IFab]
Peter Pan (Barri e)
[Fab]
The Pri ncess and the Frog
IFab]
Si nbad the Sai l or ( Dawood)
I Fab]
The Ugl y Duckl i ng
I Fab]
Pi nocchi o
I Fab]
The Toy Sol di er
IFab]
John Escott
Anni c Hugl rcs
Audr ey Mcl l vai n
Margaret Lo
Mari e Crook
Mari e Crook
Coral yn Bradshaw
Mar i e Cr ook
Mar i e Cr ook
Cherry Gi l chri st
Cameron Fox
Ni col e Tayl or
Georgi na Swi nburne
PYR l ( S)
PYR2( M)
PYR2( M)
PYR2( M)
PYR2( S)
PYR3( L)
PYR3( L)
PYR3( L)
PYR3( L)
PYR3( L)
PYR3( L)
PYR4( L)
PYR4( L)
Col ors
[Nfi c]
Gol di l ocks and the Three
Bears
IFab]
Poppet (Ki ng-Smi th)
[Ani ]
Puss-i n-Boots
IFab]
Scasons
INfi c]
Story Shop
-
The Prcsent
Tom Thunrb
IFab]
Margaret Lcl
Anni e Hughes
Mari e Crook
Mari e Crook
Audr ey Mcl l vai n
.l ohn Escott et al .
Mari e Crook
PYRI ( L)
PYRI ( L)
PYR2( L)
PYR2( L)
PYR2( L)
PYR2( L)
PYR2( L)
Nl at er i al sui t abl e f or al l ages
Starter Clards (40)
Readi ng Car ds ( 30)
Wendy Bal l et al .
Chr i st i ne Nut t al l et al .
EPER
EPER
EPER LEVEL C
Jasper
A Present for Ann
Ti rn' s Magi c Pai ntbrush
IFan]
Where' s Rose' l
The Crazy Sandwi ch Bar
Jack and Hi s Comput er
Meet the Spooki es
IHum]
Speedy the Fl yi ng Camel
IFan]
The Enor mous Tur ni p
I Fab]
Three Bi l l y-Goats
IFab]
The Gi ngerbread Man
IFab]
The Town Mouse and the
Country Mouse
IFab]
Fami l i es
[Nfi c]
The El ves and the Shoernaker
IFab]
C.J. Moore
C. J. Moor e
Kat e Mel l i ss
Judy West
C. J. Moor e
C.J. Moore
Arr.randa Cant
F.H. Corni sh
Sue Arengo
Sue Arengo
Sue Arengo
Sue Arengo
Georgi na Creti gny
Mari e Crook
Bi l l y and t he
Qucen [ Adv]
Di no' s Day i n London
I Adv]
The Fi reboy
Fl yi ng Home
[ Ani ]
Mai si e and f he Dol phi n
I Ani ]
Marcel and the Mona Li sa
tThrl
Marcel and the Whi te Star
IThr]
Si rnon and the Spy
[Thr]
Stephen Rabl ey
Stephen Rabl ey
Stephen Rabl ey
Stephen Rabl ey
Stephen Rabl ey
Stephen Rabl ey
Stephen Rabl ey
El i zabeth Lai rd
MHCRI
MHCRI
MHCRI
MHC] RI
MHCR2
MHCR2
MHCR2
MHCR2
ocTl - l
ocTl - l
ocrr-2
ocTt - 2
PYRr ( M)
PYRI ( S)
Books most sui tabl e for pri mary and secondary-aged students
( 8- 16 year s ol d)
PRE
PRE
PRE
PRE
PRE
PRE
PRE
PRE
Books most sui tabl e l br secondary-aged students (l l -16 years ol d)
Al i ssa
The Arcade
IHor]
C. J. Moor e
Stephen Col bourn
MGRI
MGRI
t \
176 Appendix
Bibliography: EPER levels G/F 177
Publisher/
Seri es
Titlc I t t l l t or
Publisher/
Seri es Title 4 ut hrt r
Bl uc Fi ns
[ Ani ]
The Bri cfcase
IHurn]
Sara Says No!
Sugar and Candy
Thc Umbr el l a
I Ror n]
Bookshop 1' ri ck
IThr]
Br i l l i ant !
Fi r c!
Star Pi cture
Sarah Axten
Stephcn Col bourn
Norman Whi tney
El i zabcth Lai rcl
Cl are Harri s
John Escot t
Al an C. Mcl ean
Kar cn E. Spi l l er
John Escott
Lucky Break
Newspaper Chase
IThr]
Ti nkers Farm
IHi s]
Ti nkers l sl and
The Troy Stone
IHi s]
John [rscott
John Escot t
Stephen Rabl ey
Stephen Rabl ey
Stephen Rabl ey
MGRI
MGRI
MGRI
MGRI
MGRI
MHNW I
MHNWI
MHNWI
MHNW I
PRE
PRE
PRE
PRE
PRE
EPER LEVEL F
Books most sui tabl e for pri mary-aged students (8-l l years ol d)
Books most sui tabl e for secondary-aged and adul t students (l I and ol der)
L. A. Det cct i ve
[ Thr ]
The Lost Shi p
[ Thr ]
Lucky Nunr bcr
The Magi c Bar ber
I t t ur n]
Par adi sc I sl and
Photo Fi ni sh
[Thr]
Escapc
[Thr]
Ki ng Ar t hur
I Fab]
Taxi ofTerror
[Thr]
Var.npi l e Ki l l er
[-l or]
Apr i l i n Moscow
I Rom]
Bctwcen Two Worl ds
Thc Bi g Bag Mi st akc
[ Thr ]
Bl ue Moon Val l cy
[ Rom]
Dead Man' s Ri ver
I Hi s]
Hannah and thc Hurri cane
I Adv]
The Last Photo
[Thr]
The Leopard and the
Li ght house
I Ani ]
The Long Road
IBi o]
Phi l i p Pr owse MGRI
St ephcn Col bour n MGR I
. l ohn Mi l nc MGRI
John Mi l nc MGRI
Nor r nan Whr t ney MGRI
Pol l y Sweet nam MCi RI
Phi l l i p Bur r ows & Mar k Fost er OBS I
Janet Hardy-Goul d OBS I
Phi l l i p Bur r ows & Mar k OBS I
Foster
Paul Shi pton
Stephen Rabl cy
Stcphcn Rabl ey
.l ohn Escott
Stephen Rabl ey
El i zabcth Lai rd
.l ohn Escott
Bernard Srri th
Anne Col l i ns
Rod Srni th
Hatnran' s Hol i day
The Magni fi cent Mango
Mi ss El cctra' s Fri ends
The Unhappy Ghost
The Fastest Trol l ey i n the
World
Fi r st t o Fl y
I Bi o]
Sal ty to the Rescue
IFan]
Gol di l ocks and the Three
Bears
IFab]
Li ttl e Red Ri di ng Hood
IFab]
Ci nderel l a
IFab]
Sl eepi ng Beauty
IFab]
Beauty and the Beast
[Fab]
Snow Whi te and the Seven
Dwarfs
IFab]
Charl i e and the Chocol ate
Factory (Dahl )
[Fan]
Hansel and Gretel
IFab]
The New Adventures ofTom
Thumb
IFab]
Peter and the Wol f
IFab]
Shapes
[Nfi c]
Si t t i ng Ducks: Bi l l Hat ches
the Egg (Gi l l i es)
[Fan]
C. J. Moor e
Judy West
Carol i ne Heams
C.J. Moore
C.J. Moore
Kieran Mc(iovern
Carol i ne Lai dl aw
Sue Arengo
Sue Arengo
Sue Arengo
Sue Arengo
Sue Arengo
Sue Arengo
Cameron Fox
Lynne D. Hemdon
Lynne D. Her ndon
Col een Degnan-Veness
MHCR3
MHCR3
MHCR3
MHCR3
MHC]R4
MHC]R4
MHCR4
ocr2-r
ocT2-l
ocr2-2
ocr2-2
oc12-3
oc12-3
PYR3( M)
PYR3( M)
PYR3( M)
PYR3( M)
PYR3( M)
PYR3( M)
OBSI
PRE
PRE
PRE
PRE
PRE
PRE
PRE
PRE
PRE
t \
178 Appendix
Bibliography: EPER level F 179
I I I I E Aul hot '
Publisher/
Series
I I I I T Aut hot
Publisher/
Seri es
Story Shop
-
Wi nners and
Losers
Beauty and the Beast
IFab]
Woody Woodpecker: Beech
Nut s ( Lant z)
[ Hum]
The Pi ed Pi per of Hamel i n
I Fab]
Rapunzel
IFab]
Coral yn Bradshaw et al .
Fi ona Kal i nowski
Ni col e Tayl or
Georgi na Swi nburne
Thc House on the Moors
IHor]
Karateka
Kate' s Revenge
[Adv]
Zargon Zoo
[Hum]
Danci ng Shoes
One Pai r of Eyes
Sheel a and the Robbers
The Smi l i ng Buddha
[Thr]
The Col l ector
[SF]
The Locked Room
[Thr]
A Song for Ben
[Thr]
The Watchers
IHi s]
Al i and Hi s Camer a
[ Adv]
Li sa i n London
IRom]
Mi ke' s Lucky Day
IRom]
The Phone Ri ngs
IRom]
Paul Shi pton
Sue Leather & Marge Brash
Phi l i p Prowse
Paul Shi pton
Col i n Granger
John E,scott
Mi chael Pal mer
Peter Vi ney
Peter Vi ney
Sandra Sl ater
Jenni fer Bassett
Raymond Pi zante
Paul Vi ctor
Lesl i e Dunkl i ng
Andrew Matthews
PYR3( M)
PYR3( S)
PYR3( S)
PYR4( M)
PYR4( M)
MHNW2
MHNW2
MHNW2
MHNW2
MHNW3
MHNW3
MHNW3
MHNW3
OSLI
OSLI
OSLI
OSLI
PRI
PRI
PRI
PRI
( 8- 16 year s ol d)
Around the Worl d i n Ei ghty
Days (Verne)
[Adv]
Ri p Van Wi nkl e & The
Legend of Sl eepy Hol l ow
(Irvi ng)
[Fan]
Wi l l i am Tcl l & ot her st or i cs
Marcel Goes to Hol l ywood
tThrl
Tcen Stori es
-
Love on the Ice
IRom]
Teen Stori cs
-
Smi l e, Pl ease
lThrl
Teen Stori es
-
The Purse
[Thr]
Happy Granny and The Wood
Cl i rcl e
Stori es from the Odyssey
IAdv]
The Waters of Lif-e
[Fab
Bi l l Bowl er
Al an Hi nes
John Escott
Stephen Rabl ey
Anne Col l i ns et al .
Anne Col l i ns et al .
Joanna Strange et al .
Antoi nette Moses
Fi ona Beddal l
Cherry Gi l chri st
Dangerous Journey
IAdv]
Dear Jan
-
Love Ruth
IRom]
The Garden
IRom]
The House on t he Hi l l
[ Rom]
L. A. Rai d
[ Thr ]
The Long Tunnel
[Thr]
Marco
The Ni ght Vi si tor
IHor]
Pi cture Puzzl e
[Thr]
Ri ch Man, Poor Man
The Sky' s the Li mi t
The Wal l
[Fan]
Wi nni ng and Losi ng
Al wyn Cox
Ni ck Mcl ver
El i zabeth Lai rd
El i zabeth Lai rd
Phi l i p Prowse
John Mi l ne
Mi ke Espl en
Ri chard MacAndrew &
Cathy Lawday
John Escott
T.C. Jupp
Norman Whi tney
Stephen Col bourn
T. C. Jupp
ODS
ODS
ODS
PRI
PRI
PRI
PRI
PYR3( S)
PYR3( S)
PYR3( S)
PYR4( M)
PYR4( M)
Books most sui tabl e for secondary-aged and adul t students (1 I and ol der)
The Amazi ng Uni ver se
[ Nf i c]
Paul Shi pt on
Anci ent Egypt
IHi s]
MGR2
MGR2
MGR2
MGR2
MCR2
MGR2
MGR2
MGR2
MGR2
MGR2
MGR2
MGR2
MGR2
Books most sui tabl e for secondary-aged students (l l -16 years ol d)
Doubl e Danger
[Thr]
Escape fi om Castl e Czarka
IAdv]
Torry Hopwood
Al an C. McLean
MHNW2
MHNW2
l r
180 Appendix Bibliography: EPER level F/E 181
Prrltli.shat' /
5clit's Title Title ,4utltor
Publisher/
Series Aul l t or'
Dri ve i nto Danger
[Thr]
The Fi fi eenth Character
[Thr]
Gi rl on a Motorcycl e
[Thr]
New York Caf6
[Thr]
Pol i ce TV
[Thr]
Amazon Ral l y
[ Thr ]
The Bar cel ona Game
I Adv]
Brazi l 500 Years
-
The Voyage
to Terra Papagal i s
IHi s]
The Crown (James)
[Hor]
Gi rl Meets Boy
[Rom]
l sl and for Sal e
IHum]
Kar en and t he Ar t i st
I Rom]
Thc M i ssi ng Coi ns
[ Thr ]
The Streets of London
IRorn]
Surf' er!
Rosemary Border
Rosenrary Border
John Escott
Mi chael Dean
f irn Vicary
Fl duardo Arnos & El i sabeth
Prescher
Stephen Rabl ey
Franci sco Li ma
Paul Shi pton
Derek Strange
Anne Col l i ns
El i zabeth Lai rd
.l ohn Escott
Cherry Gi l chri st
Paul Harvey
Thc Last of t he Mohi cans
( Coopcr ) [ Adr , ]
Li t t l c Wour en ( Al cot t )
Northanger Abbey (Austen
)
IRorn]
A Tal c of Two
( ' i t i es ( Di ckens)
I Hi s]
Al adcl i n ancl the E.nchantcd
Lar np
I Fab]
The Bl ue Di amond ( Do1. ' l e)
IThd
The Cur se of t hc Mummy
I Hor ]
The Wi l d West
I t { i s]
A Cl . r r i st nr as
( ' ar ol ( Di ckcns)
I t l or ]
The Cr ane' s Gi f t
I Fab]
The Enrpcror and the
Ni ght i ngal c
I Fabl
The Snow
Quecn IFab]
A Thi ef i n t he \ / i l l age &
other stori es
.l ohn Escol l
Anne C' ol l i ns
Fl or cnce Bel l
Stcphen
(' ol bourn
. l udi t h Dean
Bi l l Borvl er
Joycc l l annanr
John E,sctl tt
Dav i c l A. Hi l l
St eve & Megumi Bi ddl e
Mar i c Cr ook
Audr cy Mcl l vai n
James Ber r y
OBS2
OBS2
OBS2
OB52
OBS2
PRI
PRI
PRI
PRI
PRI
PRI
PRI
PRI
PRI
PRI
MGR2( L)
MGR2( L)
MGR2( L)
MGR2( L)
OBLI
oDr
ODI
oDl
PYR- 1( S)
PYR, I ( S)
PYR4( S)
PYR4( S)
PYR4( S)
EPER LEVEL E
Axl e Tom
Buttorr Soup
Sumnrer i n thc Ci ty
A Li ttl e Pri ncess (Burnett)
The Wi zard of Oz (Baum)
I Fan]
The Swi ss Far ni l y Robi nson
( Wyss) [ Adv]
Car ol i ne Lai dl aw
C..1. Moore
Maureen Banrett
Jenni fer Bassett
Rosemary Border
Mari e Crook
MHCR5
MHCR5
MHCR5
OBLI
OBLI
PYR4( S)
El i zabet h Lai r d
El eanor O' Rci l l y
Li z Dr i scol l
Peter Vi ney
MHNWl
Mt t Nw4
MHNWl
OSL2
Books most sui t abl e f or secondar y- aged st udent s ( l l - 16 year s ol d)
Cl ar a
Poor Li ttl e Ri ch Ci i rl
[Thr]
The Si ngcr Not t he Song
IRorn]
Casual ty!
[Thr]
Books most sui t abl e l br secondar v- aged and adul t st udent s ( I I and ol der )
The Adventures ofTom
Sawyer (Twai n)
[Adv]
Bad l -orc
[Thr]
The Bi g Pi ct ur e
I Thr ]
Hel p! [ Hum]
I nspect or Logan
[ Thr ]
Suc Leat her
Sue l . eat her
Phi l i p Pmr vsc
Ri char d MacAndr ew
( 8- l 6 year s ol d)
C' ER I
CERI
CERI
C' ER I
F. H. Cor ni sh MGR2( L)
182 Appendix Bibliography: EPER levels E/D 183
I l t l L' At rt l t ot '
PLrblisher/
Serlc.s Title Aut hor
Publ i .sher/
Series
John Doe
[ Thr ]
Just Li ke a Movi e
[Thr]
Bi l l y Budd ( Mel vi l l e)
[ Adv]
The Bl ack Tul i p ( Dumas)
I Adv]
The House i n the Pi cture &
Abbot Thomas' Treasure
( Janr es)
[ Hor ]
Jane Eyr e ( Br ont e)
[ Rom]
The Man i n the l ron Mask
(Durnas)
!-ti sl
The Phantom of the Opera
( Ler oux)
[ Hor ]
Di ana. Pri ncess o1' Wal es
IBi o]
Ki ngs r r r d
Quccns
o1' Br i t ai n
I Hi s]
Scotl and
[Nfi c]
Ti t ani c
I Hi s]
Chr i st mas i n Pr ague
[ Adv]
The Col dest Pl ace on Earth
INfi c]
Thc El ephant Man
INfi c]
Goodbye, Mr. Hol l ywood
IThr]
The Lottery Wi nner
Love or Moncy' ?
[Thr]
Mar y
Queen
of Scot s
I Hi s]
The Monkey' s Paw ( Jacobs)
I Hor ]
The Omega Fi l es
[Thr]
One-Way Ti cket
Pocahontas
IBi o]
The Presi dcnt' s Murdel er
tTh' l
Antoi nette Moses
Sue Leat her
Margaret Tarner
Fl orence Bel l
F. H. Cor ni sh
Fl orence Bel l
John [,scott
Stephen Col bourn
Ti m Vi cary
Ti m Vi cary
Stevc Fl i nders
Ti m Vi cary
Joyce Hannam
Ti m Vi cary
Tim Vicary
John Escot t
Rosemary Border
Rowena Aki nyemi
Ti m Vi cary
Di ane Mowat
Jenni fer Bassett
Jenni fer Bassett
Ti m Vi cary
Jenni fer Bassett
CERI
CERI
MGR2( L)
MCR2( L)
MGR2( L)
MGR2( L)
MGR2( L)
MGR2( L)
OBFI
OBFI
OBFI
OBFI
OBLI
OBLI
OBL I
OBLI
OBLI
OBLI
OBLI
OBLI
OBLI
OBLI
OBLI
OBLI
Remembcr Mi randa
[Thr]
The Wi tches of Pendl e
[Hor]
The Gi ft of the Magi & other
st or i es ( Henr y)
Rowena Aki nyemi
Rowena Aki nyemi
Nancy Tayl or
OBLI
OBLI
PR l ( L)
EPER LEVEL D
Books most suitable
"l;jiffi:l;""1jfconoa' v-aged
students
Al i ce' s Adventures i n
Wonderland (Carrol |
) [
Fan]
The Chi l dren of the New
Forest (Marryat)
[Adv]
The Jungl e Book ( Ki pl i ng)
I Ani ]
A Stranger at Green Knowe
( Bost on)
Anne of Green Gabl es
(Montgomery)
Babe
-
The Sheep Pi g (Ki ng-
Smi th)
[Ani ]
Fl y Away Home (Hermes)
I Ani ]
Freckl es ( Matthews)
[Rom]
Hei di ( Spyr i )
[ Adv]
Money to Burn
[Thr]
Moonfl eet (Fal kner)
[Adv]
Jenni fer Bassett
Rowena Aki nyerni
Ral ph Mowat
Di ane Mowat
Anne Col l i ns
Chr i s Gr ant - Bear
Karen Hol mes
John Escott
John Escott
John Escott
.loanna Strange
OBL2
OBL2
OBL2
OBL2
PR2
PR2
PR2
PR2
PR2
PR2
PR2
Adventure i n Ri o
[Thr]
The Boy who was Afrai d
(Sperry)
The Phant om Ai r man
(Jones)
[Hor]
The Runaways (C' anni ng)
Unqui et Gr aves ( Joncs)
[ Hor ]
John Mi l ne
Stephen Col bourn
Margaret Tarner
F. Pecrs
Margaret Tamer
MGR3
MGR3
MGR3
MGR3
MGR3
184 Appendix
Bibliography: EPER level D 185
Title
Title Author
Publisher/
Series Author
Publisher/
Series
Away Match
[Rom]
Lost i n London
Mystery on Mal l orca
[Thr]
Wish at Corroborec Rock
Matty Dool i n (Cookson)
Robi nson Crusoe ( Defoe)
IAdv]
Li fe Li nes
Mi l o
[ SF]
Sunnyvi st a Ci t y
I SF]
Ci t y of Li ght s
I SF]
The Hi tch-Hi ker
IHor]
Space Affai r
ISF]
A Ti dy Ghost
IHum]
The Cal l of t he Wi l d ( London)
IAdv]
The Mysteri ous l sl and (Verne)
I SF]
The Pri nce and the Pauper
( Twai n)
[ Adv]
Robi n Hood
[Adv]
Round the Worl d i n Ei ghty
Days (Verne)
[Adv]
The Secret Garden (Burnett)
St eal i ng t he Hi l l s
Tal es from the Arabi an
Ni ghts
IFab]
The Voyages ofSi nbad the
Sai l or
I Fab]
Susan Axbey
Col i n Granger
Al an C. McLean
Stel l a Mafti n
Di ane Mowat
Di ane Mowat
Peter Vi ney
Jenni fer Bassett
Peter Vi ney
Ti m Vi cary
Tim Vicary
Peter Vi ney
Peter Vi ney
Tani a l veson
Jane Rol l ason
Jane Rol l ason
Li z Aust i n
Mi chael Dean
Anne Col l i ns
Josephi ne Feeney
Anne Col l i ns
Paul i nc Franci s
Logan' s Choi ce
[Thr]
The Man fron.r Nowhere
[Adv]
A Pi cture to Remember
[Thr]
The Fl ower Sel l er
[Thr]
The Gift from the Gods &
other stori es (l ngram)
[Fab]
The Goal keeper' s Revenge
( Naught on)
The Hound of the Baskervi l l es
(Doyl e)
[Thr]
Lady Porti a' s Revenge
The Land of Morni ng Cal m &
other stori es ( Ingram)
[Fab]
The Legends ofSl eepy
Hol l ow and Ri p Van Wi nkl e
( l r vi ng)
[ Fan]
The Lord of Obama' s
Messe nger & other stori es
( Si ek)
[ Fab]
The Lost Worl d (Doyl e)
[Adv]
Love Conquers Death & other
st or i es ( Khoo & Si ek)
[ Fab]
The Narrow Path (Sel onney)
I Bi o]
The Pi cture of Dori an Gray
( Wi l de)
[ Hor ]
The Promi se
A Ri ver Ran Out of Eden
( Mar shal l )
Road to Nowhere
Room l J & ot her ghost st or i cs
( James) [ Hor ]
Si l vcr Bl aze & ol her st or i es
(Doyl e)
[Thr]
Ri chard MacAncl rew
Bernard Srri th
Anne Scott-Mal den
Richard Prescott
John Escott
Peter Hodson
Stephen Col boum
Davi d Evans
Katheri ne Mattock
Anne Col l i ns
F. H. Comi sh
Anne Col l i ns
F. H. Comi sh
John Mi l ne
F.H. Corni sh
R. L. Scot t - Buccl euch
Peter Hodson
John Mi l ne
Stephen Col bourn
Anne Col l i ns
MHNW5
MHNW5
MHNW5
MHNW5
OBL2
OBL2
OSL3
OSL3
OSL3
OSL4
OSL4
OSL4
OSL4
PR2
PR2
PR2
CER2
CER2
CER2
MCR3
MGR3
MGR3
MGR3
MGR3
MGR3
MGR3
MCR3
MGR3
MGR3
MGR3
MGR3
MGR3
MGR3
MGR3
MGR3
MGR3
PR2
PR2
PR2
PR2
PR2
PR2
Books most sui tabl e for secondary-aged and adul t students (1 I and ol der)
Apol l o' s Gol d
[ Thr ]
Joj o' s Story
Antoi nette Moses
Antoi nette Moses
CER2
CER2
rI
1BO Appendix Bibliography. EPER levelD 187
Title I I TI E Aul hor
Publisher/
Series 4ul hot
Pultlisher/
.Seri(,.i
The Stone Li on & other stori es
(Breckon)
[Fab]
The Stranger
IHor]
Tal es of Horror (Stoker)
[Hor]
Tal cs of Ten Worl ds (Cl arkc)
t SF]
The Verger & othcr stori es
(Maugharn)
Why Ducks Sl ecp on One Leg
& other stori es (l ngrarn)
[Fab]
The Woman i n Bl ack ( Hi l l )
IHor]
Zfor Zachari ah (O' Bri en)
[SF]
Irel and
INfi c]
Oxford
[Nfi c]
Pol l ut i on
I Nt i c]
Seasons and Cel ebrati ons
[Nfi c]
U. F. O. s
[ Nf i c]
The Cantervi l l e Ghost
( Wi l de)
[ Hum]
Death i n the Freezer
fTl rr]
The Death of Karen Si l kwood
[ Nf i c]
Ear-rings tiorn Frankfurt
[Thr]
Gr ace Dar l i ng
[ Adv]
Henr y Vl I l and hi s Si x Wi ves
I Hi s]
The Mur der s i n t he Rue
Morgue (Poe)
[Thr]
New Yorkers (Henry)
The Pi ano
Stephen Col bourn
Norntan Whi tney
John Davey
Hel en Rei d Thomas
John Mi l ne
John Escott
Margaret Tarner
Peter Hodson
Ti m Vi cary
Andy Hopki ns & .l ocel yn
Potter
Rosemary Borcler
Jacki c Magui re
Hel en Brooke
John Escot t
Ti m Vi cary
Joyce Hannatn
Reg Wri ght
Ti m Vi cary
Janet Hardy-Coul d
Jenni fer Bassett
Di ane Mowat
Rosemary Border
Rcturn to Earth (Chri stopher)
t SF]
Stori es from the fi ve towns
( Bennet t )
Voodoo l sl and
[Thr]
Wi l l i am Shakespear e
I Bi o]
Whi t e Fang ( London)
[ Adv]
Arrrcri can Li f-e
IRonr]
Anot her Wor l d
I SF]
The Cay ( Tayl or )
[ Adv]
Dant e' s Peak ( Ci r am)
[ Adr ]
The Ear t hquake
I Rom]
Fi r st Wave: Subj ect I l 7
( Br ancat o)
[ SF]
The Fox ( Lai vr ence
) [ Ror n]
Gandhi
I Bi o]
Lost Love & other stori cs
[Thr]
Mr . Bean ( Cur t i s & Dr i scol l )
I Hum]
Of Mi ce and Men
(Stei nbeck)
Proj ect Omega
[Thr]
Thc Roonr i n the Tower &
ot her st or i es ( Ki pl i ng et al . )
I Hor ]
Si mpl y Suspense ( St ockt on et
al . )
[ Hor ]
The Storm
IRonr]
Stranger than F i cti on (Hcal cy
& Cl anvi l l e)
[ Hum]
Wanted: Anna Marker
[Thr]
Washi ngtorr Squarc ( Ji l ntcs )
The Wavc ( Rhue
)
Susan Bi ncl u-r
Ni ck Bul l ar d
Mi chael Duckwor t h
Jenni f er Basset t
.l ohn Escott
Vi cky Shi pton
El eanor O' Rei l l y'
Derek Strangc
Robi n Watertl el d
El i zabeth Lai rd
Karen Hol mes
Phi l i p Pr or vse
. l ane Rol l ason
.l an Carew
Joanna Strange
Kevi n Hi nkl e
E, l eanor O' Rci l l y
Car ol yn. l ones & Der ek
Strangc
J. Y. K. Ker r
El i zabeth Lai rd
Patty Key & Stephen Ki rby
Kri s Anderson
.fane Rol l ascl n
Ki cran McGovern
MGR3
MGR3
MGR3
MGR3
MGR3
MGR3
MGR3
MGR3
OBF2
OBF2
OBF2
OBF2
OBF2
OBL2
OBL2
OBL2
OBL2
OBL2
OBL2
OBL2
OBL2
OBL2
OBL2
OBL2
OBL2
OBL2
oD2
PR2
PR2
PR2
PR2
PR2
PR2
PR2
PR2
PR2
PR2
PR2
PR2
PR2
PR2
PR2
PR2
PR2
PR2
PR2
,[\
1BB Appendix Bibliography: EPER levelC 1Bg
Title Author
Publi.sher/
Series
Books most sui tatrl e l br secondary-aged and adul t students ( I I and ol der)
EPER LEVEL C
Title Aut hor
Publi.sher/
5'erie.r
The Rai l way Chi l dr en
( Nesbi t )
[ Adv]
The Wi nd i n t hc Wi l l ows
( Gr ahame) [ Ani ]
Emi l and the Detecti ves
(Kastner)
[Thr]
Mat i l da ( Dahl )
[ Hum]
The Swi ss Fanr i l y Robi nson
( Wyss)
[ Adv]
John Escott
Jenni fer Bassett
Rod Smi t h
John Escott
Madel ei ne du Vi vi er
The Beast
IHor]
The House by the Sea
[Thr]
How I Met Mysel f
[Thr]
The Ironi ng Man
IHum]
.l ust Good Fri ends
IRom]
The Lahti Fi l e
[Thr]
APuzzle for Logan
[Thr]
Two Li ves
IRorn]
Banker (Franci s)
[Thr]
The Bonetti Inheri tance
tThrl
Bri stol Murder
[Thr]
Dracul a (Stoker)
[Hor]
The Franchi se Affai r (Tey)
tThrl
The Good Earth (Buck)
The Hai rl ess Mexi can & The
Trai tor (Maugham
) [Thr]
A Ki ss before Dyi ng (Levi n)
tThrl
A Marri age of Conveni ence &
other stori es ( Maugham)
Ol d Mal i and the Boy
(Shennan)
Ol i ver Twi st (Di ckens)
The Perfect Storrn (Junger)
IAdv]
The
Queen
ofSpades & other
stori es (Pushki n)
Ri ver God ( Sr ni t h)
[ Hi s]
Ci arol yn Wal ker
Tri ci a Aspi nal l
Davi d A. Hi l l
Col i n Campbel l
Penny l l ancock
Ri chard MacAndrew
Ri chard MacAndrew
Hel en Nayl or
Stephen Col bourn
Ri chard Prescott
Phi l i p Prowse
Margaret Tarner
Margaret Tarner
Stephen Col bourn
Mi chael Pai ne
F.H. Corni sh
D, R. Hi I I
John Mi l ne
Margaret Tarner
Anne Cl ol l i ns
Stephen Col bourn
Stephen Col bourn
(8-16
vears ol d)
CER 3
CER3
CER3
CER3
CER3
CER3
CER3
CER3
MGR4
MGR4
MGR4
MCJR4
MGR4
MGR4
MGR4
MGR4
MGR4
MGR4
MGR4
MGR4
MGR4
MGR4
OBL3
OBL3
PR3
PR3
PR3
Eye of the Storm
IAdv]
The Ci rl Who Loved Tom
Gor don ( Ki ng)
[ Adv]
Into the Future
[SF]
The Cal l of t hc Wi l d ( London)
I Adv]
The Crown of Vi ol et (Trease)
I Hi s]
Ki dnapped ( Stevcnson)
[Adv]
On the Edge (Cross)
[Thr]
Who, Si r ? Me, Si r ? ( Peyt on)
Ghost i n t he Gui t ar
I Hor ]
Goggl e- Eyes ( Fi r r e)
The I ncr edi bl e Jour ney
( Bur nf or d)
[ Ani ]
Madame Doubtfi re (Fi nc)
I Hum]
The Whi t e Mount ai ns
( Chr i st opher )
[ SF]
Mandy Loader
John Escott
John Mi l ne
Ni ck Bul l ar d
John Escott
Cl are West
Clare West
Di ane Mowat
Paul Shi pton
Mi chael Nat i on
Joanna Strange
.l .Y.K. Kcn
A.G. Eyre
CER3
MGR4
MGR4
OBL3
OBL3
OBL3
OBL3
OBL3
PR3
PR3
PR3
PR3
PR3
\
190 Appendix Bibliography: EPER level C 191
Title Aul hor
Publi.sher/
Series
Titlc Author
Publisher/
Series
The Seventh Scrol l (Smi th)
I Hi s]
The Si gn of Four (Doyl e)
[Thr]
Si l as Mar ner ( El i ot )
The Smuggl er
[Thr]
The Speckl ed Band & other
stori es (Doyl e)
[Thr]
Tal es of Goha
IHum]
Thi ngs Fal l Apart (Achebe)
The Three Strangers & other
stori es (Hardy)
[Hor]
A Town Li ke Al i ce ( Shut e)
IAdv]
Used i n Evi dence (Forsyth)
tThrl
Wal kabout ( Mar shal l )
When Rai n Cl ouds Gather
( Head)
The Woman Who Di sappeared
IThr]
Australia ancl New T.ealand
INfi c]
The USA
[ Nf i c]
As the Inspector Sai d and other
stori es (Hare et al .)
[Thr]
The Bronte Story
IBi o]
The Car d ( Bennet t )
[ Hum]
Chemi cal Secret
[Thr]
A Chri stmas Carol (Di ckens)
IHor]
Ethan Frome (Wharton)
Go, Lovel y Rose (Bates)
Justi ce
[Thr]
Love Story (Segal )
[Rom]
Stephen Col bourn
Anne Col l i ns
Margaret Tarner
Pi ers Pl owri ght
Anne Col l i ns
Lesl i e Capl an
John Davey
Margaret Tamer
D. R. Hi l l
Stephen Col bourn
Ji m Al derson
Margaret Tarner
Phi l i p Prowse
Chri sti ne Li ndop
Al i son Baxter
John Escott
Ti m Vi cary
Ni ck Bul l ar d
Ti m Vi cary
Cl are West
Susan Ki nsl ey
Rosemary Border
Ti m Vi cary
Rosemary Border
A Pai r of Ghostl y Hands and
other stori es (James et al .)
I Hor ]
Skyj ackl
[Thr]
Tal es of Mystery and
l magi nat i on ( Poe)
[ Hor ]
Through the Looki ng Gl ass
( Car ol l )
[ Fan]
Tooth and Cl aw (Saki )
[Hum]
Wyatt' s Huri cane (Bagl ey)
IAdv]
The Acci dental Touri st (Tyl er)
IRorn]
Arni stad ( Barnes)
[Bi o]
Thc Bl ack
( ' at
& ot her st or i cs
( Poe) [ Hor ]
Bri ti sh Li fe
[Nfi c]
Chance of a Li fcti me
[Adv]
The Chrysal i ds (Wyndham)
t SF]
The Cl i mb
[ Adv]
Forrest Gump (Groorn)
Frankenstei n (Shel l ey)
[Hor]
The Great Di scovery
[Adv]
Grey Owl
IBi o]
The Hunchback of Not r e-
Dame ( Hugo)
l sl and of t he Bl ue Dol phi ns
(O' Del l )
[Adv]
K' s Fi rst Case
[Thr]
The Pearl (Stei nbeck)
Photo of the Tal l Man
[Thr]
Di ane Mowat
Tim Vicary
Margaret Naudi
Jenni fer Bassett
Rosemary Border
Jenni fer Bassett
Susan Mai ngay
D' Arcy & Evadne Adri an-
Val l ance
David Wharry
Anne Col l i ns
Margaret l ggul den
Sue Harmes
John Escott
John Escott
Deborah Tempest
Mandy Loader
Vi cky Shi pton
Nancy Tayl or
Rol and John
Loui s Al exander
Gregory McEl wai n
Stephen Rabl ey
MGR4
MGR4
MGR4
MGR4
MGR4
MGR4
MGR4
MGR4
MCR4
MGR4
MGR4
MGR4
MGR4
OBF3
OBF3
OBL3
OBL3
OBL3
OBL3
OBL3
OBL3
OBL3
OBL3
OBL3
The Horse Whi sperer (Evans) Andy Hopki ns & Jocel yn
[Rom] Potter
OBL3
OBL3
OBL3
OBL3
OBL3
OBL3
PR3
PR3
PR3
PR3
PR3
PR3
PR3
PR3
PR3
PR3
PR3
PR3
PR3
PR3
PR3
PR3
PR3
l\
192 Appendix Bibliography. EPER levels C/B 193
4t rt l rot '
Pultlis lter/
5t'r'ic,.i
Books most sui t abl e f or secondar y- aged and adul t st udent s ( l I and ol der )
Title At t t hor'
Puhlisher/
Series Tirle
Psycho ( Bl och) [ Hor ]
Ri ng of Bri ght Wate r
( Maxwel l ) [ Ani ]
The Ri ng
[Thr]
Rogue Trader (Leeson)
[Bi o]
A Scandal i n Bohemi a & other
stori es (Doyl e)
[Thr]
St Agnes' St and ( Ei dson)
IAdv]
Ti t ani c!
[ Hi s]
The Turn of the Screw (James)
IHor]
Vani ty Fai r (Thackeray)
Chr i s Ri ce
.l .Y.K. Kerr
Bernard Smi th
Susan Fearn
Ronal d Hol t
John Escott
Paul Shi pton
Cherry Gi l chri st
Paul i ne Franci s
PR3
PR3
PR3
PR3
PR3
PR3
PR3
PR3
PR3
Tl re Arnstercl anr Connecti on Sue Lcathcr'
IThr]
Hi gh Li f' e, Low t-i f-e
[Thr]
Al an Battersby
A Mat t er of Chance
[ Thr ]
Davi d A. Hi l l
St ayi ng Toget hcr
I Ror r r ]
Judi t h Wi l son
The Uni ver si t y Mur cl er s
[ Thr ]
Ri char d MacAndr ew
When Sumr ncr
( ' or nes
I Rom]
Hel cn Nayl or
Jur assi c Par k ( Cr i cht on)
[ SF]
F. H. C' or ni sh
Rendezvous wi t h Rama El i zabet h Wal ker
( Cl ar ke)
[ SF]
The Si l cnt Wor l d of Ni chol as Annc
( ' ol l i ns
Qui nn
( Dcxt er ) l Thr l
F. H.
( ' or ni sh
.l ohn Davcy
Phi l i p Pr owse
Margaret Tarner
Rod Nesbi tt
Anne Col l i ns
Ri chard Prescott
Margaret Tanrer
Kate Mattock
Sue Leather
Rosemary Border
Rosal i e Ker r '
C' l are West
.l ohrr l i scott
Rosenrarv Border
CER4
CER4
CER4
CER4
CER. I
CER4
MGR4( L)
MGR4( L)
M( 1R. 1( L)
MGR4( L)
M( JR5
MGR5
MGR5
MGR5
IVIGR5
MGR5
MGR5
OBL4
OBL4
OBL.I
OBL.l
OBL4
OBL4
OBL4
EPER LEVEL B
Books most sui tabl e l br secondary-aged students (l l -16 years ol d)
Wut her i ng Hci ght s ( Br ont e)
I Ronr ]
Thc'
( i r cat
Por r ds (
Ar nl r di l
L. A. Movi e
[ Thr ]
The Man of Property
(Gal sworthy)
Mi ne Boy ( Abr ahams)
The Mi stress of Spi ces
( Di vakar uni )
! t or nl
Offi ci al l y Dcad
[Thr]
Weep Not . Chi l d ( Ngugi )
Cr anf br d ( Gaskel l )
Desert. Mountai n, Sea
[Advl
Dr. Jekyl l and Ntr. Hvde
( St evenson)
[ Hor ' ]
A Dubi ous Le' gacy l Wcsl cy)
Lord Ji nr l Conrad)
A Morbi d Taste frl r Bortcs
(Peters)
[Thr]
Mr . Mi dshi pman
Hor nbl ower ( For est e r )
[ Adr ' |
Bl ack Beaut y ( Sewel l )
[ Ani ]
The Eagl e of t he Ni nt h
(Sutcl i ff)
[Adv]
Gul l i ver' s' fravel s (Swi ft)
I Fan]
Li ttl e Women (Al cott)
Lorna Doone ( Bl ackmore)
IAdv]
The Si l ver Sword
(Serrai l l i er)
[Adv]
Treasure l sl and (Stevenson)
I Adv]
We Di dn' t Mean t o Go t o Sea
( Ransome)
[ Adv]
The Whi speri ng Kni ghts
( Li vel y)
[ Hor ]
The Di ary of a Young Ci rl
( Fr ank)
[ Bi o]
John Escott
John Escott
Cl are West
Ral ph Mowat
Davi d Penn
John Escott
John Escott
Ral ph Mowat
Cl arc West
Cherry Gi l chri st
OBL4
OBL4
OBL4
OBL4
OBL4
OBL4
OBL4
OBL4
OBL4
PR4
194 Appendix
Bibliography: EPER levels B/A 195
Titlt' Aut hor
Ptrbli.;her/
,5erie.r
Title Author
Ptitli.sher/
Series
Refl ex (Franci s)
[Thr]
The Scarl et Letter
(Hawthorne)
The Songs of Di st ant Ear t h
( Cl ar ke)
[ SF]
The Thi rtl ' -Ni ne Steps
( Buchan)
[ Adv]
The Unqui et Gr ave ( James)
I Hor ]
Washi ngt on Squar e ( James)
Cri me Sto11, Col l ecti on
(Paretsky et al .)
[Thr]
The Day of t he Jackal
(Forsyth)
[Thr]
The Ful l Mont v ( Hol den)
Gl adi at or ( Gr am)
[ Adv]
Ki ng Sol orrron' s Mi nes
l Haggar d) [ Adv]
Macbct h ( Shakespear e)
Management Gur us
I Bi o]
Ni chol as Ni ckl eby ( Di ckens;
On t he Beach ( Shut e
) [ SF]
The Red Pony (Stei nbeck)
Shakespeare: Hi s Li f-e and
Pl ays
I Bi o]
The Street Lar.vyer (
Gri sharn )
tThrl
Three Adve ntures of
Sher l ock Hol mes ( Doyl e)
tThrl
Women i n Busi ncss
I Bi o]
Rowena Aki nyemi
John Escott
Jenni fer Bassett
Ni ck Bul l ar d
Peter Hawki ns
Ki er an McGover n
John & Cel i a Turvey
John Escot t
Anne Col l i ns
Annet t e Keen
Davi d Maul e
Anne Cl ol l i ns
Davi d Evans
Chr i s Ri cc
G. C. Thor nl ey
Nancy Tayl or
Wi l l Fowl er
Mi chael Dean
Davi d Maul e
Davi d Evans
Death i n the Doj o
[Thr]
Dol phi n Musi c
[ Thr ]
East 43rd Street
[Thr]
In the Shadorv of the Mountai n
Jungl c Love
I Rom]
Rebecca ( Du Mauri er)
[Thr]
Brat Farrar (Tey)
[Thr]
The Bri de Pri ce (Emecheta)
Davi d Copperfi el d (Di ckens)
Far from the Maddi ng
Crowd (Hardy)
The Garden Party
( Mansl i el d)
Gr eat Expect at i ons
( Di ckens)
Heat and Dust ( Jhabval a)
l . Robot ( Asi r nov)
[ SF]
Jeeves and Fri ends
(Wodehouse)
[Hum]
Ki ng' s Ransom ( McBai n)
IThr]
The Ri ddl e of the Sands
(Chi l ders)
[Thr]
Sense and Sensi bi l i ty
( Aust en)
[ Rom]
2001: A Space Odyssey
( Cl ar ke)
[ SF]
Bri ti sh and Ameri can Short
St or i es
( Bal es
et al . )
Col d Mount ai n ( Fr azi er )
I Adv]
The Great Gatsby (Fi tzgeral d)
Jamai ca I nn ( Du Maur i er )
IRom]
Sue Leather
Antoi nette Moses
Al an Battersby
Hel en Nayl or
Margaret .lclhnson
Margaret Tarner
Ral ph Mowat
Rosemary Border
Clare West
Clare West
Rosal i e Kerr
Cl are West
Cl are West
Rowena Aki nyemi
Cl are West
Rosal i e Ken'
Peter Hawki ns
Clare West
Davi d Maul e
G. C. Thor nl ey
Mary Tomal i n
Cel i a Turvey
A. S. M. Ronal dson
OBL4
OBL4
OBL4
OBL4
OBL4
OBL4
PR4
PR4
PR4
PR4
PR4
PR4
PR4
PR4
PR4
PR4
PR4
PR4
PR,t
PR4
CER5
C]ER5
CER5
(-ER5
CER5
MGR5( L)
OBL5
OBL5
OBL,5
OBL5
OBL5
OBL5
OBL5
OBL5
OBL5
OBL5
OBL5
OBL5
PR5
PR5
PR5
PR5
PR5
EPER LEVEL A
Al l I Want
[ Rom]
Margarct Johnson CER5
rit
196 Appendix
Bibliography: EPER levels NX 197
Publisher/
Serie.s
Title .4uthor
Publisher/
5'elie.s
Title l t r t hor
The Nl oneymaker (Gl eeson)
I Bi o]
The Partner (Gri shanr)
[Thr]
The Phantom of the Opera
(Leroux)
[Thr]
The Pri soner of Zencl a (Hope)
I Adv]
The Rai nrnaker ( Gri sham )
trh4
Sherl ock Hol mes Short Stori es
( Doyl e) [ Thr ]
Sons and Lovers (Lawrence)
Stori es of Detecti on and
Mystery (Chri sti e et al .)
[Thr]
The Story of the Internet
[Nfi c]
The Surgeon of Crorvthorne
( Wi nchest er )
[ Bi o]
Taste and other tal es (Dahl )
The Warden (Trol l ope)
Web (Wyndham)
[SF]
Eryl Gri ffi ths
Jacquel i ne Kehl
Ceorge F. Wear
Ci ndy Leaney
Anthony Laude
J.Y.K. Kerr
E. J. H. Mor r i s & D. J.
Morti mer
Stephen Bryant
Mi chael Dean
Mi chael Cal don
J.Y.K. Kerr
Andy Hopki ns & Jocel yn
Potter
The Fl y & other stori es (Dahl
et al . )
[ Hor ]
Jane Eyre (Bronte)
[Rom]
Tl re Joy Luck Cl ub (Tan)
Met eor ( Wyndham)
[ SF]
Ni ght Wi t hout End
( Macl ean)
[ Adv]
Ol i ver Twi st ( Di ckens)
Pri de and Prej udi ce (Austen)
I Rom]
Tess of t he D' Ur ber vi l l es
( Har dy)
Ai rport (Hai l ey)
[Thr]
The Ci t adel
( Cr oni n)
Brave' New Worl d ( Huxl ey)
I SF]
Captai n Corel l i ' s Mandol i n
(De Berni eres)
[Rorn]
Cry, the Bel oved Country
( Pat on)
Mi ser l ' ( Ki ng)
[ Hor ]
The Runawa.' * Jury
(Gri sham)
[Thr]
Savi ng Pr i vat e Ryan ( Col l i ns)
Si r Ri chard Branson, the
A u tobi ograph.v" ( Bra nson)
I Bi o]
Snow Fal l i ng on Cedar s
( Gut er son)
[ Thr ]
The Testament (G ri sham)
IThr]
The Thor n Bi r ds
( McCul l ough)
Tonr Jones ( Fi el di ng)
[ Adv]
John Escott
Clare West
Cl are West
Patri ck Nobes
Margaret Naudi
Ri chard Rogers
Cl are West
Cl are West
Rosal i e Kerr
Nor man Wymer
H.A. Cafi l edge
Mary Tomal i n
Robi n Waterfi el d
H i l ar.' * M axwel l -H ysl op
Jacquel i ne Kehl
Kar en Hol mes
Chri stopher Tri bbl e
Kar en Hol mes
Ann Ward
Janet McAl pi n
G.F. Wear & R.H. Durham PR6
PR-5
PR5
PR5
PR5
PR-5
PR5
PR5
PR5
PR5
PR5
PR5
PR5
PR5
OBL6
OBL6
OBL6
OBL6
OBL6
OBL6
OBL6
OBL6
PRs( L)
PR5( L)
PR6
PR6
EPER LEVEL X
PR6
PR6
PR6
PR6
PR6
PR6
PR6
PR6
Dcadl y Harvest
[Thr]
Frctzen Pizza
He Knows Too Much
A Love for Li fe
[Rom]
Trunrpet Vol untary
[Thr]
Ameri can Cri me Stori es
(Bl ock et al .)
[Thr]
Cry Freedom (Bri l el ' )
[Nfi c]
The Enc-my (Bagl ey)
[Thr]
Carol yn Wal ker
Ant oi net l e Moses
Al an Mal ey
Penny Hancock
Jeremy Hanl er
John Escott
Rowena Aki nyemi
Ral ph Mowat
CER6
CER6
C]ER6
CER6
CER6
OBL6
OBL6
OBL6
W
198 Appendix
Bibliography Seres description 199
Descri pti on of the seri es
Thc scri es ti cl ur whi ch the books i n thi s [ri bl i ograpl ry urc drar.vn arc l i sted
bel ow. Thc name of t he ser i es i s f ol l ou' ccl by t hc ugc ur or r p f i r r whi ch i t i s i n-
t ended. ar r cl a br i ef descr i pt i on. i n r nost cascs t r usccl or r Davi d Hi l l ' s r el i ews
of t hese ser i es ( 1997; 200l ) . The nar nc ol ' t hc publ i shi ng company i s gi ven
i n parentheses. Contact i nformati on l br thcsc publ i shcrs fbl l orvs the l i st.
Fur t her i nf br nr at i or r about each scr i cs ( t he nur nbcr ol - books i n pr i nt and t he
E, PER r eadabi l i t y l evel s t hat t he scr i cs spans) i s gi ven i n a t abl e on p. 201.
C'ER Cuntbridge Engli.sh Reudar.s (secondary-adult)
are original sto-
ri es. "Thc
story l i nes are strong and cl ear and thc rarrge of i ssues
andcont cxt s. . . ver ywi de. . . . What di st i ngui shest hcscr i es. . .
i s t he zest and l i eshness of t l r e t cr t " ( t { i 11. 2001, p. 314) . ( ( ' ar n-
br i dgc Uni ver si t y Pr css)
Tirle Aut hor
Publisher/
Series
The Woman i n Whi te (Cl ol l i ns) Anne Col l i ns
IThr]
PR6
Books most sui tabl e for adul t students
( l 6 and ol der)
Col d Conrfort Farrrr (Gi bbons)
I Hum]
Deadheads ( Hi l l )
[ Thd
Dubl i n Peopl e l Bi nchy)
Anna Kareni na (Tol stoy)
I Rom]
The Chambcr (Gri shanr)
[Thr]
East of Eden (Stei nbeck)
I Know Why the Cagcd Bi rd
Si ngs ( Angel ou)
[ Bi o]
Les Mi scr abl es ( Hugo)
Madame Bovar y ( Fl auber t )
Memoi rs of a Gei sha
( Gol den)
The Remai ns of t he Dav
( l shi gur o)
Scarl et and Bl ack (Stendhal )
Clare West
Rosal i e Ker r
Jenni f-er Bassett
Anne Col l i ns
Sue Harmes
Mar y Gl adwi n
. l acquel i ne Kehl
Chr i s Ri ce
Chr i st opher Tr i bbl e
Mi chael Dean
Chr i s Ri ce
Duncan Campbel l - Smi t h
Thi s bi bl i ography reproduced by permi ssi on of O t.,rl s (enEn), Uni versi ty of
Edi nburgh.
See Furtltar infitt'trrutiort ufurut EPER at the end of thc appenclir.
Mucnti I Iun Gui dcd Reudcrs (secorrdary-acfi "rl t), tbnl crl y Il ci nc-
n.rann Gui ded Readers, are books of outstandi ng cl ual i ty and
appeal . A parl i cul ar f' cature ttf the seri es arc l l re notes and gl oss-
ar i es t hat cxpl ai n t he backgr ound and any speci al i st t cnns Ll scd
i n the story. (Sonre books. l onger than others at the sante l cvcl ,
ar e- r r ar ked ( L) i n t he bi bl i ogr aphy) . ( Macr ni l l an Educat i on)
Mucnri IIutr Hei trenrunn C-| ri Idran' s Reuders (pri rnary) use speech
bubbl cs i n the earl y stagcs and then ntove on to cxtencl ed tert
wi th i rr' l work on every pagc. "Thc
strengths of thesc books l i e i n
thc i l l Lrstrated gl ossari cs and the vari ety of gcnrcs" ( l l i l l . 1 997 . p.
68) . ( Macnr i l l an Educat i on)
MHNW Mutnri l l un Hai nentunn l "l aw l l hvc Reudet.s (secondary) are ori g-
i nal st or i cs of var yi ng qual i t y. Sont e books ar e cxccl l ent , and
they bri n-q vari ety to a l i brary wi th thei r l arger (A5) l trrmat ancl
l i r l l col or t hr oughout . ( Macmi l l ar r E, ducat i on)
OIIF O.r/ord Booktrot' ttrs Foct/i l es (secondary-adul ty arc the onl y gen-
eral nonfi cti on seri es, ancl hav' c a l arger (A,5
) fbrnrat. Corrtent and
l ayout arc sortreti ures pedcstri an. pe rhaps ret' l ecti ng l ack of conr-
pet i t i on. ( Or l br cl Ll ni ver si t y Pr css)
OBL O-tfi ud Bttokyttt' ttt.t Li l trur.t' (secondary-acl ul t; are an exccl l cnt
scri es rvi th al t adul t f' cel , "contpri si ng
both si rnpl i fi cati ons and
si r r pl c ol i ui nal s o1' a hi gh st andar d r . r , i t h pl ent v of var i ct y" ( t l i l l ,
2{ X) I . p. - l | - s ) . Thc wr i t i ng i s
" f l or vi ng
and r cadabl e" ( Hi l l . 1997.
p. 7l ) . ( ( ) xl i r r r l LJr r i vcr si t y Pr ess)
OBL6
OBL6
OBL6
PR6
PR6
PR6
PR6
PR6
PR6
PR6
PR6
PR6
EPER
MGR
MHCR
f\)
!
o
x
-
r
(n
-1 -
v v
r-1 ^
-
-t
-
a
-
F
'711
1:
!\il
li
'1ai
lirtlEEi lEi
'iil:
i
{l;iitj,g'll.1*{{?{tei=fi724+!
z:ga1iilErzEal'zTtETzEt;??p,,;i
3lg3F
a1eFll
iri
t;til1i
*q
i?llE
ii;'
1a;i;
gFi
e3iEfrisal,
aiEll
Tabl e: Seri es and EPER l evel s
EPER Level s
. \ ' unt her . \ ' unr ber
!r,r' i t,r o/ l i l l e.s ol stuges H G
AX
CER
\ I GR
NI HCR
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202 Appendix
The publ i shers
Canr br i dgc Uni vcr si t y Pr css. Thc Edi r r bur gh Bui l di ng. Shaf t esbur y Road,
Car nbr i dge. C82 2RU. UK
uk.canrbri dgc.org/eI t/readers
Macrl i l l an Educati on. Between Towns Road. Oxfbrd OX4 3PP' UK
wwrv. macrl i I l anecl ucati otr.corn/catal ogue/readers/readi ndex.htm
Oxtbrcl Uni versi ty Press, E,LT Di vi si orr, Great C' l arendon Street. Oxfbrd
OX2 6DP. UK
www.oup.corn/e l t/gl obal l catal cl gr.rc/readers
Pearson E,ducati on, Edrnburgh Gate, Harl ow, Bssex CM20 2JE' UK
rvw' w. pcn g u i n rcadcrs. conr
Further i nformati on about EPER
Thc EPER database of gradcd rcaders can hel p tcacl rcrs and l i brari ans
sel ect the best ti tl es for thei r students. General or cl tstomi zed l i sts are
avai l abl e, gi vi ng t hc EPER l evel and qt r al i t y r at i ng f br each t i t l c.
EPER publ i shes a var i ct y of ai ds desi gned t o assi st t eachcr s i n set t i r r g t t p
extcnsi ve rcadi ng programs. Thesc i ncl udc pl acentent/progress tcsts. exten-
si ve readi ng tests, comprehensi <l n qucsti ons fbr l i brary reacl crs, teachers'
notes and l csson pl ans for cl ass readers. and rcadi ng cards fbr bcgi l tnc-rs.
Sampl es of somc of these nrateri al s arc avai l abl e i n a Resottrce Pack fbr
Organi zi ng Extensi vc Readi ng Prograr.ns.
EPER has bui l t up cxpcr l i se i r r desi - uni ng, i r npl cnr cnt i ng' moni t or i ng.
and cval uati ng readi ng progrants i n ntany countri es, and rnakcs thi s cxper-
t i se avai l abl e t hr ough cor r sul t anci es. I t al so t r ai ns t eachcr s i n wr i t i ng l l ct i on
fbr l anguage l carncrs wi th a vi ew to produci ng l ocal seri cs i n di f-fbrcnt parts
of the worl cl .
Thc Edi nbLrrgh Proj ect op Extcnsi ve Readi ng rvsl cotnes col "l tsct fi ont any-
one i ntercsted i n cxtensi vc readi trg:
EPER. l nst i t ut e f br Appl i cd Languagc St udi cs, Uni ver si t y of Edi nbt r r gh, 2 I
Hi l l Pl ace. Edi nbur gh EH8
gDP
UK.
www. i al s. ed. ac. uk/ epcr . ht ml
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ate and advanced levels with particular rcfercnce lo English. Laneuage
Thistlethwaite, L. ( I 994 ). Litrature for all agcs in the adult education pro- Teu(hing. 2 2i.4). 21 7-228.
L6l
Etajn.
Reu.ling Releaft.h un.l 1nsh1t.ri.,t, .l?(2 ). 1 3 6 1 48.
[99]
Williams. R. ( 1 986). "Top len" princ iples for leachin g rc ding. ELT Joutn l.
Tudor. f.. & Hafiz. F. ( | 989). Extensive reading as a mans of input to L2 40(l l.
42 45.
l29l
leaming. Jour uIo[Resea'ahin Rcd.li'tg, I2l2t.164 118.134,35.37] Yano. Y. Long, M. H.. & Ross, S. (1994). The efcts of simplified and
Vincnt. M. ( 1986). Simple text and reading text. Pa( I: Some generdl issues. elaborated texls on forcign lang',ag rcading comprehension. Languuge
fn C. J. Brumfit& R. A. Cadt (Eds.), Literutue sn.l hnguage t?a.hins Leani'ry. 14121. 189 219.
[59-60,65]
(pp.208 215). Oxford: Oxford University Prcss.
[74]
Yong. T. H.. & Idamba[ S. (1997). Reading aloud to students as pan of
tv^llace.
C.i.1992). Rea.h?g Oxford: Oxtbrd University Press.
[6.
I l8] extensivc rcading. In G. M. Jacobs. C. Davis, & W. A. Renandya (Eds.).
walter.C'(l986).Ge,,',"ali..|as:Au|he,|i|'t1!ulir.|cx|!lb|in|eme.liales|G
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I54l
SEAMEO Regional Language Centre.
ulOl
Welch. R. A. ( I 986. Octobr). Personal comnunication.
I
I 14] Yopp, R.. & Yopp. H. ( I 99 I
).
Tcn besl ideas for reading leachers. In E. Fry
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).
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lbt
t euding teuchets
\pp.
I 3 2- I 34). Reading. M A:
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[ 96]
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[4,9.
135-136]
lbr:isn
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l7l]
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\2nl
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[ 6]
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[67]
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54. 62]
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62. 79]
Index
A f ' cw aut hor s ci t et l i n t hc t cxt ar c l i st cd i n t he I ndcr i f t hc r cl t r encc i s
ei t hr : r det ai l ed or not connecl u- d t o a spr ' cr l i c wor k. For a l i st i ng ol ' l l l
aLtthors and u,orks nrcnl i onctl i n thc book. rcfl ' r to thc Rcl L' rcnccs.
academi c programs. second l anguage. crtcn-
si vc r cat l i ng i n. 44 5
l dr . ni ni st r at or s. at t i t udcs of . l ( r 7
adul t educat i on cour scs, cr t cnsi ve' r eadi ng i n.
14
a l i e c t . l l 3 1 . I 6 5
at t i t udc r n. 22 1. 30 |
i r npact of ' cxt cnsi ve r eadi ng appr oach on.
l -s 6
nr ot i vat i on i n. 27 l 0
and sccond l anguage r cadi ng. 21. 2. 1 7.
2t t 30. 165
at t i t udc. 22 7
acqui si t i on of . 2. 1 5
bookst r ap hypot hesi s f or . . 10 I
changcs i r r . 22
cl assr oonr envi r onmcnt and. 25
def l ncd. 22
cxt ensi ve r cadi ng and. 26- 7. i 0 I
l i rst l anguagc re.rdi ng antl . 23
.t
modcl of. 23
sccond l angr r at c l cr di ng and. 23 5
t owar d cul t ur c and peopl e. 25. 26
aut hent i c i t y
aut hcnt i c t exl . 5. 1 6.
( r 4
conr t nuni cat i un ancl .
( r 0
I
cul t ol , 53 6. 57
dcl l ned. 54. 5l t . 60
si mpl i f i cd t c\ ( \ ' cr sus. 55 6. 59 6( )
aut omat i c wor d r ecogni t i on. l l 14. 15. l 6
1 8 , l 0
Basset t . . l enni l cr . 67.
( r t ' t 9
book reports. l l 7. I.1l 50
book r cvi eu' s. l +l ( . l 5l
i l l ust r at i ons i n. l { 7 l {
b(x)k reports ((?)r/. ):
or al . l . l l i 50
rcacti on rcporl s. 1.1..J l J
sunr r l ar i cs. 142. l ; 18
by t cachcr . 137
hook r er i ews. 1. i 3. l 5. l
books. s<r, l anguagc l ei rnrcr l i tcrattrre: nratc-
r i al s t br cxt cnsi l c r cat l i r r g
brx)kstrap hvpothcsi s. 30 |
btxrtstrappi ng. 30
l ]ti rcl er. Roscnrarv. T0 l . 75
bol t or n- up pr occssi nl . l 2
br or vsi ng. I 30
e hi f cl r en' s l i t cr at ur c. 58, 6l . 6. 1. 77. . st , t , ul ut
ml t cr i ul s l i r r cr t cnsi vc r cadi ng
books. 9l l 9
magazi ncs. 102 . 1
cl ass r cader s. 16. 17 8. l l l l . 139
cl assr oom act i vi t i r - s. 126 55. 166
at t i t ud! - t or var d r cacl i ng and. 25 7. l 0 |
book t al ks by r eachcr . l - 17
cl ass rcl cl ers, l -.1-l ' l
cl assr oom cnvi r onmcnt ant l . 25
cLr r r i cr r l r r nr i ssr r es i n. ! ( r , cr t t Ti cul unt i ssucs
t i cc t i nr c. l - 15 6
hel p l br r vcak r cader s. l J7 X
i ndi vi dLr al counscl i ng i n. l l 7 8
l i br ar v r esour ccs t or . l ( ) 7 17. l 5( l - . 1
nr at cr i al s i n. . r c, c' mat er i al s l i r r cxt cnsi vc
r cadi ng
ongoi ng gui t i l nce and. l 16 7
or i cnt i t t i on of st r r dcnt s t o. I l l t l 5
post r cadi ng act i \ i t i cs. 1. 10- 55
r ead- al oLr ds by t enchcr . l l 0 l . l - 19
readi nu l aboratory. Lj .{ 5
217
218 lndex
cl l ssr uor l . t ct i vi l i cs ( ( . ( , r 1.
) :
r cr ci t di r r g nr at cr i al . l 12 - l
scl cct l nu nr at er i al s. I J0
sust ai necl si l cnt r cadi nq ( SSR) . 7. . l i .
l 2l .
l l t t e
t cacl l cr i l s r ol e nxr dcl f br . 26, 129. l 16 7.
| ] 9. 166 l l
t r med r eut l i ngs. l - 32
cl : t ssr t t or t t l i br ar y' . I l - . 1 14. sct ' a/ . r o l i br ar l
res()urccs
cl ozL- rcsts. l Jl i 90. l -57 l t
cognl l r \ r ' pr ( ) ces\ c\ . l { ) : 0. 165
aut or l r t t i c wor cl r ccour r i t i t : r n. l l 1. 1. 15.
l 6 t 8
i nt er r cl i ve modcl s l i r r . l 2 l 5
knoul ct i gc hvpot hcsi s. l ' 1 15. l S l 9
l cxi cul ucccss. l - . 1 14. 15. l 7 l l {
pl t r r 11q1111. t l eer t l i l r g. l . l . | 5
phonol oui ci r l r epr escnt at i ons. l . l
ti rr sccorrtl l angrri ruc r!-i tdi ng. | 5 | 9
top-do\r n versus btrtt0nt-up proccssi ng,
t 2
(
ohcn. Arrdrcrv. -55
e( ) r nl br l zonc. 92. l 2| :
comi cs. l 0. l 5
conr ncr ci i l l l ar r guauc school s, cxt cr . r si vc r cad-
I nu l n- 4; l
c( ) l I nt t I ) t ci t l t 0D
aut hent i c t cxt and.
( r 0
I
col r t cnt and l anguagc' i n. ( r 5
si nr pl i l i cd t cxt and. ( r 0
|
cor r r nr uni cat i vc l t nqLur gs t cachi ng 1
( ' t _T)
ntovcnl ct.l t. _5:l
conr pr cher r si on
backgr oLr r r d knowl e. t l qc and, 59 ( r 0
knor r ' l ccl gc hypot hcsi s und. l 4 I - 5
l cvcl of di l l l cul t y ar r t l . l 6 17. 59 60, 9l
, 1" t 09
phonokr si cal r cpr csenl i t i ons l r nd. 1. 1
qucsr i ol ' l s t o chcck. 1. 1 I l
schcnr i t t heor y and. l : l l - 5
counscl i ng. i ndi vi dual . 127 b
cr i t i cal t hi nki ng ski l l s. cxt cnsi r c r cudi ng and.
4 + )
cur r i cul l r nr i ssucs. . 10 9. l l 3 95
ar l ot r nl ol r l r t cr i al l o r caci . l J. l ( r .
l 2- l
cl t ssr o( ) r ) l t i nt c l or r cr di ng. 7. 1. 1. . 17. 90
t . [ - r . l ] l t 9
cl i ct i or ur v usc. 9, 1 - 1.
l l l - - l
l i r r er t cnsi vc r cat l i nr i n acadcl ni c pr o-
gnr nr s. . l . l l l
cur f l ci l l unl t ssues ( ( 1r l l .
) :
l i r r cx( ensi vc r cadi ng i n sccond l anguage
pnrumnrs. 40 .1
honr cuor k. 90 I
l ocl ot ' di t } i cLr l t l , . l 6 t 7. 9l - ' 1. 109, I l l .
t 2 t 2 . 1 2 1
r nat er i al s. . \ ( , c, l nal cr i al s l br ext cnsr ve
r cl d i t r g
or i cnt at i on 01' st u( l ent s t o. I I l { 2- 5
pr ogr at ] ] eval uat r un. l 5( r 6J
st udent cval uat i On. 116 90
decot l i ng. phoncnr i c. l - 1. l 5
de l i vcr v syst cm, I l ' 1
di ar i cs. r eat l i ng, 1{ 7
di cl i onur i es. 9l 4. l l 2 . l
di f l i cul t y l cr cl s ol ' nr at cr i al s.
gl
J. 109, I l l ,
t 21. t 72 3
ctrrrrl brt zone, 92. l 2l 2
i n t i n t t s l . l 6 1 7 . l l ( . 9 1 2
l acl t l cr i nu up, 9l 2. 96 7
r r acho l t r ar i r n. 92. I 10. 121
dr op cr cr vt hi ng and r cad ( DEAR) . 129
Edi nbur r h Pr oj ect on l r xt cnsi vc' Reat l i ng
( EI ' t r R) . : 1 1 i . 7 9 . l 1 4 . l ( r 9 7 0 , 2 1 7 l l l
r : l l t hor ; r l et l t c\ 1. 5q h0. 6- 1. 65
t : PI : R, . r <t , t : di nbur gh Pr o. j ccl on l i xt cnsi vc
Rcadi ng
c vS l uat rotl
()1 progrant. 156 6-l
of ' st udcnt s. l i ( r 9( )
cxpecl i t l l cy + val uc r not l el s, 27 l {
cxt cnsi vc r cadi ng appr oach
at t i t udc and. 26 7. 30 |
bcgi nni ng scconci l l nguagc r cadcr s and, I l i
bookst r ap hypot hcsi s l br . 30 I
char act cr i st i cs ol , 7 9
cogni l i r e pr ocL- ss! ' s i n. l 6 19. 165
tl cfl nc' tl , 5
(r
goal s( ) t . 6 7. ' +- s 6, 120, 157. t 5t l 9, 164 5
i r r pacl on al t r : ct . 16 7. 29 30
i nr pi r cl ol l knowl cduc. l l l I 9
i r l r pact on si ght voct hul ar y. I 6 I 7
r mpact on spcl l i ng. 37 l i
i r npacl on vocabul ar y knowl cdgc. l 7 l l i
I nl ensi \ c r eat l i ng vcr sus. 5. 6
nr ( ) t r val t on and. l 9 J0
i r s pl ci r \ ur e r c; r dr r r r . . l 5. 6. 7
scanni ug vcr sus. 6
ski nr nt i nu vcr sus. ( )
cxtcrrsi !' c rcadi ng pR)granrs. ti I l 6l ' i
w,i thi n acadcmi c progranrs.
,{.1
5
char act er i st i cs of . 7 9
cl assroonr practi ccs i n. .rct' cl Assrotrtl
i l ct i \ i ( i cs
cost . 46
cur r i cul um dcci si ons t i r r . st c cur r i cul unr
i ssues
cval ual i on ( ) t . i 56 63
goal s t l l , 6 7. 45 6. 120. 157, l 5l t 9.
164 5
i nrpact orr rl l ' ect. 15 6
i nr pact on I i ngui st i c c( ) nr pct cncc. - 17
i nrpact on sccond l anguagc rcacl i ng. 32 5.
l l t
i r npact on r ocabul ar v. - 16
i nl pact 0n wr i t i ng, - . \ 7
i nst i t ut i onul suppon f i ) r . 4l l 9
l i br ar i cs l br . 107 l 7
nratcri al s l rrr. .ft,t, nral cl i al s l i rr crl crrsi vc
rcadl ng
pr obl cnr s ol ' usi ng. 46 l l
wi t hr n second l anguage pr ogr anr s, 40 4
st udenl L- \ ' ul ui l t i on i n. t { ( ) 90
st udcnt or i cnt at i on t o. I l l { 25
sl udi cs on cl l cct i vcncss ol . 32 9. 167
ti mc al l ol tcd to rcacl i ng i n. 7.
.{1. .17. t{.1.
90 l . l 2- r . l 2l t 9
cxt l acur r i cul ar act i \ i t y. ext ensi vc r cadi ng as.
4 1 . 4 2 4
l ui r s. r cadi ng. I 53
- 1
f i xat i ons. c) , e. l 2 l , l
l krw cxperi cnccs. ,j 0 I
l i e' c t i mc. 135 6
t i cc vol unt ar y r cadi nr . 7. 1. 1. 39
gl ossar i cs, 7l l
uoal s. pr ogr i r t r . 6 7. 45 6. 120. 157. 151' t 9.
l 6. 1 5
( i t xr dman, Kennct h. 20
Ci r abc. Wi l l i ar r . I 7. , 11
gui dancc. ongoi ng, 126 7
l l annar r . Joyce. 69 70
l l cdgc. Tr i ci a. 67
lltintnrunn Guided Rcu<l<'r.:, 66
l l cl gese n. Mar c. 92. l - l l {
hi gh- school l br ei gn l anguage cur r i cul um. cx-
t cnsi vc r cadi ng i n. . 13 . 1
lndex 219
l l i l l . Davi d. 7e. l i - s, 169
honr cwor k. r eadi ng, 90 |
i nt i nt r . s I l c\ ' r . l of di l l l cul t y. l 6 17. 18, 9l 2
i n- book opi ni on l i r nns. I 5( J J
i ndi vi dual cour l sel i ng. 127 l {
i nt cnsi ve l anguagc pr ogr anl s. cxt ensi vs r ead-
i ng i n. . 13
i nt cnsi vc r eadi ng, cr t c' nsi vc r ei r di ng ver sus, - 5.
6
i nt cr est s. st udcnt . 109 I I
r r t t r oJuct ng ct l cnsi r r ' r cl r di r t g. { r 1 ( ) ! i cnl i r l i r t n.
st udcnt
Ker r . Rosal i c, 72 3
knowl cdge'
acqui si t i on of . l 8 l 9
and cogni t i vc pr ocesscs. 1. 1 l 5
hyPot hcsi s. l ' {
and si nr pl i l r cat i on ol ' t cxl . 5( )
t vpcs ol . l l l l 9
Kr ashcr r . St cphcn. 1. 16 11 . 3- - \ , l l J 9. 10. 1
l ubor at or i r ' s. r eacl i ng. l - j 4 5
l acl dcr i ng up. 9l 2. 96 7
l anguage l car ncr l i t cr at ur c. 61. 6l - 79, 169
72, . ; t , t ul : o l i br al y r csour ccs: r nat er i al s
l i r r cxt cnsi vc r cat l i ng
as art. 7.1 (r
a u t h c n l r c t e x t i n , 5 3 6 , 6 0 l , 6 4
aut hor s oJ. | 70
bcst ot Lngl i sh l anguage. 169 72
char act cr i st i cs of , 64 5
dcvel opmcnt o1. 6z1 7. 77. 79. 165 6
di l l l cuf t v l cvcl s o1. 172 3, . r t ' t ' ul . ut
di l l i cul t y l cvel s ot ' nr at cr i al s
I r ngl i sh l anguagc publ i shcr s ol , 2 I 7
t r ngl i sh l anguagc scr i cs o1. 2l - l l 6
gcnt l cr ol ' nr ai n chl l r acl cr s i n. | 7 I
genr cs ol , 77
hi st or y ol . 61, 170 l . sct ' c1. r o West .
M i chacl
i nr por t l r r cr ' ol cor l enl i ' t , l 6 7
reatl cr support and. 77 8
r cvi ews and auar ds, need f br , 169. l 7l 2
sampl cs of' , 68 7' 1
si nr pl i l i cd t cxt i n. 5b u. 64 7. 97 t t
l ear ncr s' own st or i cs. 99 100
l cxi cal access. I - l 1, 1. I 5, I 7 I u
l er i con. sr ' t , si r npl i l i ed t cxt . l i sl s t r l ' wor t l s i n
220 lndex
l i brarv resourccs. 107 I 7. st' t' ul .vt nratcri al s
l i rr crtcnsi r c rcatl i ns
budget l br. l 0l { 9
cat al ogi ng and nr at er i al s f br , I l 2
checkout syst em l br . l l - 1. l l 5
di spl al , i ng nr at cr i al s l i ont . I l 5 l 6
i n- book opi ni on l i r r nr s. 150 l
l ocat i on o1. I l 2 1. 1
popul ar books scct i on. | 50
p u r c h a s i n g . l l l l 2
si ze of pr ogr ar r and. 107 l i
st udcnt i nt cr est s and. 109 I I
st udcnt r cadi ng l cvcl s ant l . 109. I l 2
r nacl r o maxi nr ol ' sr - cont l l anguagc r cadi ng i n-
s t r u c t i o n . 9 2 . I 1 0 . l 2 l
nr agazi nes. 92. 102 - 1. | 12. I l 5
nr at e r i al s l br cxt cnsi vc r cadi ng.
' 17 l t . 5- . 1 79.
96 106. 169 73. . r cr al r o cl t ssr oot t t ac-
t i r i t i cs: l i hr : r r r r c\ ( ) ur ec\
a u t h e n t i c i t y o t . 5 3 6 . 5 1 1 6 1 . 6 4
bi bl i ogr aphi cs ol . I 06. | 31. | 72
chi l dr cn' s books. 76 7. 9l { 9
chi l t l r cn' s r nagi r zi nes. 102 3
conr i cs. 104 5
cor nnr uni cal i on and. 60 I
d i f l i c L r l t y l o c l s o l . l 6 1 7 . 9 l . 1 . 1 0 9 . I 1 2 .
121 7. 12.1. I72 J. .st' t' o/.ro tl i f' tl cul tv
l cvcl s ol ' nr l t cr i al s
l ack o1' l i t er acy t r t cr i t i n.
. +7. 96. 97 l ' t
l anguagc l carncr l i teri tturc. .rce' l attgul tgc
l ear ncr l i t cr at ur c
l ear ncr s' own st or i es. 99 l ( X)
r nagazi nes, 92. 102 l
nr ot i vat i on t o r eat l and. 29, 96 7
newspapcr s. l ( X) |
popul ar ancl si mpl c l i t cl at ur c. l 0- 1
. l
rcatl crs. 6-1.
' 76
1. 169 217
rcadi ng targcts und. l ' i .l 7
sr r npl r ci t l , ol . 56 60.
( r l . 6. 1. 97 l {
si nr pl i l i cd t cxt i n. 56 u. 6. 1. 97 l t
st Lr dent scl cct i on ol . 26. I 2I 2. l - 10. | 50
. l
transl ati txrs, I 05
) , ' ut l !
r ( ht l t l i l cr r t t t r r c. l t t J
Mi kul ccky. f ] cat r i ce. 7
Moor c. I nga. 76 7
nr ot i vat i on. 2T - 10
bookstrap hypothcsrs l br. .10 I
cxpcct ancy + val uc i n. 27 x
cxt cnsi ve r cat l i ng and. 29 30
nr at er i al s and. 29. 96 7
nr ot l Vt t t on ( ( ( / / ?/ .
) :
nr ot l el o1. 28
anti sccond l anguage rcadi ng. 2l l 9
l l r ( ) t t o of cxt ensi vc r cadi r r g. l 2l
movi e acl apt l t i ons. 97 l l
Mor vl t . Ral ph. 7l 2
l l l usi c IIun, Thc. J
ncgot i at cd cVal ual i on. 90
ncwspapcr s. l ( X) l . | 12. I 15
notcbooks. reacl i ng. tl 7
oral rcports. l .1l l 50
or i cnt at i on. st udcnt , I l l i 25
di f l i cul t y l cvcl s of nt r t cr i ul s and. I 2 I l . I l . l
goal s and. 120
nrl tcri al s and. 124. .s<' t' ul .so nratcri i tl s l i tr
cr t cnsi vc r cadi ng
pr occdur esr nd. l 2l 2
r eacl i ng r cqui r enr cnt s and. l 2J
Pal nr cr . l l ar ol cl . 5. 6. 9
phonenr i c cl ccot l i ng. 13. l 5
phonol ogi ci r l r cpf cscnl 0l i ons. l : l
pl casur e r cr di ng. 5.
( r -
7, 3 I
popul ar books sect i on, 150
popul ar l i t cr l t ur c. 77. l 0. l 4
post cr s. l 5. j
' {
post r eadi ng act i vi t i cs. l ; 10 55
ansr vcr i ng t l ucst i ons. l : 11 2
i n- book opi ni on t i r r nr s. 150 - l
oral rcports. l .l l i 5()
popul ar books scct i on. 150
r avc r cvi cr vs. | 5J
reacti on rcpons. l .{3 l {
rcr.rcl i ng tai rs" 153
.l
sur r r nr at i es. l ' +1. I ; l t l
r val l cl i spl ays. l 5' 1 5
prouri tt' t.l cvl l Lrati ttn. I 5(r
(r3
anal l ' si s ol ' r csul t s. I
( r 2
i r ut l i cncc l i r r . 157
uoal s ol ' pr ogr i ul and. 157. l 5l l 9
met l r ot l s of . l t 7 90. 157 62
Ll ucst l onnar r es
i n pr ogr at r cval uat i t t n. 157 62
st ucl ent i nt cr est . I l 0 I I
quest i ons. compr ehensi on. l ; l l 2
Rabl cy. St cphen. 76 7
rcacti on rcports. 143 l ' l
r eadabi l i t y f i r mr ul as. 65 6. l J5 6
r cad- r l out l s. 130 l " 139
r cadcr s. cl ass. , 16. ; 17 t t . l l l
; 1. l - 39
readi ng
al l ' ect i vc aspcct s o1. 21 3l
cogni t i ve aspect s ol . l 0 20
cul t ur al at t i t ucl es i n. 30. I l l t 19. l l 0
dcl i ned. I I l 2
ext ensi r c, . r cr cxt cnsi ve r cadi ng appr oachi
ext ensi vc r cadi ng pr ogr ams
i nt cr act i vc nr odcl s ol . l 2 l 5
nratcri al s fi )r. r(,(' matcri al s fi rr crtensi vc
r eadr ng
i n seconcl l angtragc, st,c, sccorttl l anguage
rcadi ng
r cadi ng abi l r t y
hcl pi ng wcak r cadcr s and. 137 l l
rroti vati or.r to rcatl and. 29
st udcnt vi ews. cor r cl at i on wi t h. 7
r cadi ng ai ds. 77 t l
r cadi ng l ai r s. l 5- i
. 1
r cacl i ng l abor at or i cs. l 3' 1 - 5
r cadi ng r cqui r cnl ent s. I l 3
rcadi ng targcts, t14 7
rccortl kccpi ng. l l 7 9
book rcport i n. l t7 l t
rcadi ng notcbtxrk i n, l i 7
u' cckl y r cadi ng di ar y i n. 87 9
r ccl ui r er ncnt s. r eadi ng. I 23
r er cadi ng nr at er i al . l - 12 3
r ul c ol ' hant l . l 2l l
scanni ng, cxt cnsi vc r cadi ng l cr sus. 6
schcnr a t hcor y. l . l l 5
school l i br ar y. l l . J. . r u' r l . so l i br ar y r c-
sour ces
sccond l anguagc rcadi ng
i r t ; t er t det t l i t
Pr r t gl Jl l l s.
J+ 5
at l f ct i vc r spect s ol . 2l l l . 165
cogni t i vc nspect s of . l 5 l v
cul t ur e at t i t ut l cs i n. - 10. I l t l 19. l l 0
enj oynr cnt ot . 3 5
l i r st l anguagc r eadi ng r cr sus. l 5
i nr pact ol ' cxt cnsi vc r eadi r r g appr oach on.
3 5 . 1 6 7
i mpact of pr cr i ous exper i cnccs r vi t h. 24 - 5
l l 9
r nat er i al s l br . r <r ' r r at cr i r l s l i r r er l ensi vc
rcadi ng
sceoi l d l l l nEUJgc t c: t di t t r i t t . l r uel i 0t t
l i r cus ol . 16. 1 5
l ndex 221
sccor r d l al r gr l r gc l t i r ( l i l ! : i nsl r ucl i ot l ( ( ?r t l .
) :
i i l l cgr i r l l r l t c\ l er ] \ i \ ( r ( i t ( l l l l ! l i l l l i l
l ) 1" ! : l i l t l l s
lbr.
-l
|
-1
n r l c h o r n u r i n r o l . 9 l . | 1 0 . l 2 l
pr obl cnr s ol . . l
- 1. 9. 15
u n r e a l i l y o l . . { . 9
Shck. Mci l "ung l : l sa. 32 . 1. 167
si ght vocabul ar v. l 3 14. l 6 17. l 12
si mpl i l i cd t cx1. 56 8. 64
aut hcnt i c t cxt vcr sus. 55
( r
conr nr uni cat i on and. 60 I
conr pr chensi on l nd. 59 60
cont ent pr obl cr ns ol . 57 l { . 65. 76 7
l anguagc and. 59 60
l i sl s of ' wor cl s i n, - 57. 66 7
l i tcraturc antl . 97 l l
l i om or i gi nal t cr t . 56 7. 97 8
r cadabi l i t y f i r r nr ul as and. 65 6
si mpl e account . 57
si r npl e or i gi nal . 57
si r npl i l i ed vcr si on. 57
ski nr mi ng. cr t cnsi ve r cacl i ng l cr sus. 6
Snr i t h. Fr ank. 20
soci ocul t ur al enl i r onr ncnt , nr ot i vat i on t o r cad
and. - 10. I l t {
"spcech- l i r st " r . i cu' o1' l anguage l cami ng. 47
spel l i ng. i r . npact of ' cxt cnsi ve r cadi ng ap-
proach on. .j 7 8
st r uggl i ng r cacl cr s. hel pi ng. 137 8
st udcnt cvr l uat i on. 116 90
book rcports i n. l t7 l ' i
ncgoti ated. 90
r cadi ng not cbooks i u. l J7
r cadi ng t ar get s i n. l J6 7
rcadi ng l ests i n. ttl t 90
wcekl y r eat l i ng di ar y i n, l l 7
sul nrnari cs. 1.12, l .l l l
sust ai ncd sr l cnt r ci r di ng ( SSt t ) . 7. - { . 1.
l l - 1.
l 2l t 9. l - t l t
targcts. reatl i ng. l {.1 7
tcachers
changcs i n r ol es ol . ' +7. l 16 7. 166 7
cl Assr oor n act i vi t i cs ol . . r c' r ' cl assr t t ot t t
act i Vi t i cs
cl assroonr
grr i ronnrcnt and. l 5
pr i vat e l i br ar i es o1. I l . l
r eadi ng al out l t o st u( l cnt s. l . l 0 l . l . l 9
as r ol c nr ocl cl s, 26. 129. l . l 6 7. 1. 19.
166 l r
r ol es ant l r csponsi bi l i t i cs ol . l ( 16 l i
222 lndex
tests, readi ng. l l l l 90
t i l l l e
cl assr t r or r . l br r eadi ng. 7. 43, 47, 9( ) l .
1 2 3 . l 2 l J 9 , l 3 u
as readi ng targct, l i ,+ 5
t i ne' d r eadi ngs. 132
top-dowD proccssi ng. | 2
t opi cal knowl edgc, l l l l 9
t r ansl at i ons. 1 05
uni nt cr nr pt ed sust ai ned si l cnt r eadi ng
( ussR) . 129
vocabul ary
coml i r r t zone and. 92. I I I 2
der el opr l cnl o1, l 7 l t t
di ct i onar i es i n devel opnr ent of , 93 ' t ,
122 3
i mpact of c\ t cnsi ve r cat l i ng appr oach on.
i l 3. 16
r ocl r br r l ar v ( r zl l .
) :
r t ci t l cnt al l car ni nsof . l 7 l l t
rcutl e' r ai ds l br, 78
l Lr l c of hand and. l 2l 2
i n sel cct i on of nl at cr i al s, l 2l 2
s i g l r t , l 3 l : 1 . l 6 1 7 . 1 3 2
ur l l di spl ays. 154 5
"wei ghtcd pages" formul as. l t5 6, 95
Wcst. Cl are, 73
.1
West . Mi chael . 5 6. 9. 61. 67^ 169,
r 70 I
Wi ddowson. Hcnr y. 57.
( r l
2
wor l d knowl edgc. l l t l 9
wr i t l ng
i nr pact of cxt r ' nsi vc r cadi ng appr oach t r n- 37
i n post r eadi ng act i vi t i cs, l . l 0 f l
voun{ adul t l i t cr t t Lr r e. 58. 61. 6- 1. 7l t . 10. 1.
rt,a al ,ro nral cri l l s l i l l r' rtcnsi ve readi ng

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