CHAPTER 1: THE CHILD AND ADOLESCENT LEARNERS

(midterm reviewer)
*CHILDHOOD DEFINITIONs:

- refers to the time or state of being a child.
- the early stage in the existence or development of something.
- connotes a time of innocence where one is free from
responsibility.
- a period where one enjoys closeness with parents and shared
expectations.

A. EARLY CHILDHOOD:

for parents:
- a problem age or a troublesome age
- a toy age

for educators:
- a preschool age

for psychologists:
- a pre-gang age
- exploratory age
- question age
- imitative age
- creative age

B. LATE CHILDHOOD:

for parents:
- a troublesome age
- sloppy age
- quarrelsome age

for educators:
- elementary school age
- a critical period in the achievement drive

for psychologists:
- gang age
- age of conformity

*CHANGING PATTERNS OF CHILDHOOD:

a. 20TH CENTURY:

- the typical child is confronted with more complex forces in the
environment and in particular in a society that offers varied
rules and choices and institutions.

- scientists developed vaccinations for childhood scourges
(small pox, measles) to extend average life expectancy.

b. MID-19TH CENTURY:

- "extension of childhood" (a stretching of adolescence).

- in america, the transition from child to adult could take place
as room as the available formal schooling was completed and
skill was learned.

*1960's :
- lawmakers recognized lengthening of childhood of girls by
raising the age of consent (27 fell to 22)

- attempts to strengthen weak child labor laws.


* ADOLESCENCE:

- latin: adolescentia, from adolescere (to grow up)
- dolor: pain

- it is the period of psychological and social transition between
childhood and adulthood.

-adolescent/teenager

- adolescence is also defined as the transitional stage
(biological, social, psychological) of human development in
which a juvenile matures into an adult.

*WHO: world health organization
- defines adolescence as the period of life between 10 and 19
years of age.

- in the US, it is the period that begins between 12 and 14 and
end at 19 or 20. (children go through stages of puberty)

*TEENAGER OR TEEN:
- a person whose age is a number ending in "teen," someone
from the age of 13 to 19.

CHAPTER 2: LEARNING DISABILITIES & ADHD Child and
Adolescence (midterm reviewer)

Learning disabilities include problems among children related to
disorders in understanding or using spoken/written language.

The learning disabilities could be symptoms of worldwide
problems.
Today, such is called sensory integration or sensory
dysfunction.

*SENSORY INTEGRATION
- refers to the ability of the individual to process information
coming from the environment and make use of the information
in the processes.

The senses are:

1. AUDITORY
2. TACTILE
3. VESTIBULARY
(balance in the inner ear)
4. PROPRIOCEPTIVE
(muscles, joints, tendons)
5. VISUAL

- this definition provides identification of students qualified for
educational services depending on three conditions:

1. NORMAL INTELLIGENCE:
(refers to child's performance at above normal range using non-
verbal measures which include language concepts.)

2. ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT DEFICIT:
(condition where child shows academic achievement deficit in
at least one subject, such as oral expression, listening,
comprehension, mathematical calculation, and spelling)

3. ABSENCE OF OTHER HANDICAPPING CONDITIONS:
(there must be no manifestation of visual or hearing
impairment, mental retardation, severe cases of emotional
disturbance, and cultural neglect)

Learning disability is characterized by poor academic
performance, social and psychological problems, and delayed
physical development.

*The different types of learning disabilities are:

1. DYSLEXIA
(reading)
2. DYSGRAPHIA
(writing)
3. VISUAL AGNOSIA
(sight)
4. MOTOR APHASIA
(speaking)
5. DYSARTHRIA
(stuttering)
6. AUDITORY AGNOSIA
(hearing)
7. OLFACTORY AGNOSIA
(smelling)
8. DYSCALCULIA
(math)

*THERE ARE THREE GENERAL CAUSES OF LEARNING
DISABILITIES:
1. Problematic pregnancies, occuring before, during, and after
delivery causing injury whether minimal or severe to brain and
brain dysfunction.

2. Biochemical imbalance caused by intake of done with
artificial done colorings and flavorings.

3. Environmental factors caused by emotional disturbance, poor
quality of instruction and lack of motivation.


*ADHD: ATTENTION DEFICIT HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER

- interferes with an individual's ability to focus (inattention),
regulate activity level (hyperactivity), and inhibit behavior
(impulsivity).

- one of the most common learning disorders among children
and adolescents.

- the young with ages 9 to 17 are affected for at least six
months and are more common in boys than girls.

*ADHD CLASSIFICATION:

1. Predominantly inattentive
2. Predominantly hyperactive-impulsive
3. Combined type


*ADD : ATTENTION DEFICIT DISORDER

- in the absence of hyperactivity;
- refers to children with inhibited behavior, inattentive, and
without focus tend to be withdrawn, polite.

CAUSES:
- nuerogically based medical problem caused by a number of
factors. Exact causes are however unknown.

- according to research studies, the disorder results from an
imbalance in certain nuerotransmitters (most likely DOPAMINE
and SEROTONIN). These substances help the brain to achieve
focus and regulate behavior.

CHAPTER 2: SENSORY IMPAIRMENTS: VISUAL Child &
Adolescent (midterm reviewer)

Sensory impairment encompasses visual loss (including
blindness and partial sight), hearing loss (including the whole
range) and multisensory impairment (which means having a
diagnosed visual and hearing impairment with at least a mild
loss in each modality or deaf blindness).

*VISUAL IMPAIRMENT (partially sighted)
*BLINDNESS (inability to see anything)

COMMON VISUAL PROBLEMS:
1. Reduced visual acuity (poor sight)
2. Amblyopia (lazy eye)
3. Hyperopia (farsightedness)
4. Myopia (nearsightedness)
5. Astigmatism (imperfect vision)

OTHER VISUAL IMPAIRMENTS:
1. Albinism (involuntary side movement of eyeball)
2. Cataracts (eye lens are cloudy or opaque)
3. Macular Degeneration (macula of retina is affected; can see
large objects and colors but not to read)
4. Diabetic Retinopathy (vision is blurred or distorted due to
hemorrhaging of tiny vessels of retina)
5. Glaucoma ( increased pressure within the eye, gradual loss
of vision, beggining with the peripheral vision)
6. Retinitis Pigmentosa (loss of night vision; dark pigment of
retina is lost; inherited condition)

7. Retinophathy of Prematurity (deterioration of retina due to
high level of oxygen)

CHAPTER 2: SENSORY IMPAIRMENTS: HEARING Child &
Adolescent (midterm reviewer)

DEAFNESS is a partial or total inability to hear.

*PRELINGUAL
- deafness is present at birth or occuring before language
development

*POSTLINGUAL
- occurs after language development

*SENSORY
- physical impairment of the inner ear

CAUSES OF DEAFNESS:

1. PRE-NATAL:
a. Toxic conditions
b. Viral diseases (mumps, influenza, rubella)
c. Congenital defects

2. PERINATAL:
a. Injury sustained during delivery
b. Anoxia
c. Heavy sedation due to overdose of anesthesia
d. Blockage of infant's respiratory passage

3. POST-NATAL:
a. Diseases, ailments (*external otitis - inflamed outer ear
*otitis media - infection of middle ear)
b. Accidents, traumatic falls, head bumps, over-exposure to
high frequency sounds

4. OTHER CAUSES:
a. Heredity
b. Prematurity
c. Malnutrition
d. Rh factor
e. Overdosage of medicine


CLASSIFICATION OF HEARING IMPAIRED CHILDREN:
1. ACCORDING TO AGE AT ONSET OF DEAFNESS:

*congenitally deaf (born deaf)
*adventitously deaf (born with normal hearing but became
deaf)
(PRESBYACUSIS - hearing loss that occurs in older people as
they age.)

2. ACCORDING TO LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT:

*prelingual deafness
*postlingual deafness

3. ACCORDING TO PLACE OF DEVELOPMENT:

*conductive hearing loss (impaired hearing due to interference
in sound transmission particularly in outer and middle ear)

*sensory neural hearing loss (impaired due to abnormal inner
ear)

*mixed hearing loss/flat loss (combination of conductive and
sensory)

4. ACCORDING TO DEGREE OF HEARING LOSS:

a. Slight
b. Mild
c. Moderate
d. Severe
e. Profound


*OTOLARYNGOLOGISTS
- problems of ears, nose, throat

*OTOLOGISTS
- ear specialists

*OTORHYNOLARYNGOLOGISTS
- diagnoses and treats nasal disorders

*AUDIOLOGISTS
- hearing expert

*OTOSCOPE
- instrument used

*COCHLEAR IMPLANT
- surgically implanted electronic device that provides sound.

*Types of newborn hearing screening test:
- AABR (automated auditory brainstem response)
- OAE (otoacoustic emissions)





CHAPTER 2: FACTORS AFFECTING HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT Child & Adolescent (midterm reviewer)

III. THREE FACTORS AFFECTING HUMAN DEVELOPMENT:

1. MATERNAL NUTRITION
- mother supplies all the nutrients to the fetus.

2. CHILD NUTRITION
- adequate nutrition for brain development.

3. EARLY SENSORY STIMULATION
- sensory deprivation leads to disabilities

SIX FACTORS AFFECTING GROWTH:
1. Genetic History
- genes

2. Nutrition
- food

3. Medical Conditions
- abnormalities

4. Exercise
- strenghten bones and muscles

5. Sleep
- 70% to 80% of growth hormone is secreted during sleep

6. Emotional Well-Being(psychosocial)
- nurtured with love, patience and understanding.


IV. EXCEPTIONAL DEVELOPMENT.
A. Physical disabilities
B. Sensory Impairments
C. Learning disabilities
D. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

* PHYSICAL DISABILITIES (crippling):
a.) impairment of the bone and muscle systems (amputees)
b.) impairment of the nerve and muscle systems (cerebral
palsy)
c.) deformities or absence of body organs and systems
(paraplegics)

CAUSES OF HANDICAPS:
1. PRE-NATAL:
a. GENETIC OR CHROMOSOMAL ABERRATIONS (RH-factor
- blood incompatibility)

b. PREMATURITY (earlier birth of fetus)

c. INFECTION (bacteria or virus)

d. MALNUTRITION (insufficient intake of food nutrients)

e. IRRADIATION (exposure to x-rays)

f. METABOLIC DISTURBANCES (inability to use food intake)

g. Drug abuse


2. PERI-NATAL:
a. BIRTH INJURIES (suffered by newborn baby;
KERNICTERUS: injury to spine)

b. DIFFICULT LABOR (ANOXIA - hard and prolonged labor
interrupts oxygen intake from mother to fetus.)

c. HEMORRHAGE (profuse bleeding of the mother due to
damage uterus)


3. POST-NATAL:
a. INFECTIONS (caused by illness: typhoid, meningitis,
diptheria, encephalomyelitis)

b. TUMOR AND ABCESS IN THE BRAIN (destroys brain cells
causing imobility)

c. FRACTURES AND DISLOCATIONS (destruction of mobility
organs)

d. TUBERCULOSIS OF THE BONES (TB germs)

e. CEREBROVASCULAR INJURIES (injuries in the head)

f. POST SEIZURES OR POST SURGICAL COMPLICATIONS
(convulsions of baby)

g. ARTHRITIS, RHEUMATISM (diseases affecting spinal
coloumn)

CHAPTER 2: PHYSICAL, MOTOR AND BRAIN
DEVELOPMENT CHILD & ADOLESCENCE (midterm
reviewer)

1. EARLY CHILDHOOD

A. PHYSICAL & MOTOR DEVELOPMENT:

-overall growth is clearly in height and weight measures.

-between ages 6-12, children grow 2-3 inches high and adds 6
lbs each year.

-fine motor coordination(writing, etc.)

*CEPHALOCAUDAL - upper to lower (brain and neck develops
earlier than legs and trunks).
*PROXIMODISTAL - center to extremities (internal organs
develop earlier than arms and hands).

B. BRAIN DEVELOPMENT:

-brain continuos to develop after birth and doubles in weight
after 6 months.

1ST SPURT (6-8):
-sensory and motor areas
-improvements in fine motor skills and hand-eye coordination.

2ND SPURT (6-12):
-development shifts to the frontal lobes of the cerebral cortex.

*there are 100 billion neurons present at birth which is
nourished by GLIAL CELLS, these cells are responsible for
increasing brain size.

*MYELIN is a fatty substance produced by glial cells; forms the
covering of the axon of the neuron that conducts impulses at
higher speeds transmitting neural messages.

2. MIDDLE CHILDHOOD

A. PHYSICAL & MOTOR DEVELOPMENT:

-growth occurs in spurts:
*6-1/2, 8-1/2 & 10 in girls
*7, 9, & 10 in boys)

-improvement of gross motor skills and hand-eye coordination
(ex: first grade can print all letters in cursive writing).

B. BRAIN DEVELOPMENT:

-ability to identify and act a relationship between objects in
space (spatial perception) at age 6

-95% of brain growth is reached at age 9 characterized by
interrelated process namely:
* CELL PROLIFERATION -over production of neurons and
interconnections.
* CELL PRUNING - selective elimination of excess cells and
cutting back of connections.


3. ADOLESCENCE

A. PHYSICAL & MOTOR DEVELOPMENT:

-sharp increase in height and weight:
*9-1/2 & 14-1/2 in girls
*10-1/2 & 16 in boys

-adult height is attained at:
*14 or 15 in girls
*18 in boys

*PUBERTY -is the process of physical changes by which a
child's body matures into an adult body capable of sexual
reproduction to enable fertilization. It is initiated by hormonal
signals from the brain to the gonads: the ovaries in a girl, the
testes in a boy.

*SPERMARCHE -first ejaculation of semen.

*MENARCHE -beggining of menstrual cycle.

B. BRAIN DEVELOPMENT:

1ST SPURT (13-15):
-occurs in the spatial perception and motor functions in the
brain.
-cerebral cortex becomes thicker.
-neuron pathways becomes more efficient.
-more energy is produce and consumed by the brain.
-teens think abstractly and reflect on their cognitive processes.

2ND SPURT:
-development focus is on the frontal lobes of the cerebral
cortex.

LATERALIZATION -functional specialization of the left and
right hemispheres of the cerebral cortex is achieved.

SENSORY INTEGRATION - ability of the individual to process
information coming from the environment and makes use of the
info in the process.

CHAPTER 3: THEORIES OF MOTIVATION (midterm
reviewer)

Motives originated from various variables-biological,
physiological or from the environment.

*FIVE MAJOR THEORIES:

1. INSTINCT THEORY:

-an individual acts the way he does because of his instinct.

Instinct :

- a descriptive term for complex, unlearned adaptive response
- an unlearned pattern of reflexes
- genetically predetermined disposition to adjust in a particular
situation when confronted with certain stimuli.

2. PSYCHO-ANALYTIC/
DRIVE THEORY:

- an organism is motivated to eliminate or reduce bodily
tensions.

- drive refers to any physiological condition which hopelp the
organism to become active.

3. INCENTIVE THEORY:

- if a certain desirable goal can be anticipated following the
completion of a particular action, in effect, the organism likely to
be motivated to perform that action.

- the anticipation of undesirable goal- something aversive or
unpleasant will naturally motivate the organism not to perform
the action.

4. AROUSAL THEORY:

- an alternative to drive theory which stipulates a moderate level
of stimulation is reinforcing.

- arousal is an increase in the degree of excitement or tension
of the organism.

- this theory presupposes that the moderate level of stimulation
is the most pleasant and that both higher and lower levels of
stimulation are relatively unpleasant.

5. SOLOMON'S OPPONENT PROCESS THEORY:

- explains that a state of positive feeling is followed by a
contrasting negative feeling, and vice versa.

- the basic assumption is that any feeling, whether positive or
negative, that is experienced in succession by the organism
has the tendency to loose some degree of intensity.

6. WHITING AND CHILD BEHAVIOR THEORY:

- few basic motives acquired in early infancy tend to grow
excessively and rapidly into behavior systems in later life and
consequently, various kinds of observable responses are
influenced by this common motive.
- involves attachment with other people and situations where
there is a motive to inflict harm on another or turn it against him.

7. ASSOCIATION THEORY (THORNDIKE):

- deprivation of need will cause the individual to act to satisfy
the need.

8. HUMANISTIC OR NEED GRATIFICATION (MASLOW'S
HIERARCHY OF NEEDS):

- individual does something to satisfy efficiency needs



9. COGNITIVE THEORY (HUNT):

- man is rational and conciously decides what he will and will
not do. Motives, curiosity, intention, motive to achieve success
and goals activate and direct the individual to action.

10. SELF-EFFICACY THEORY (BANDURA):

- the key to individual achievement lies with the individual's own
belief in his ability to organize and execute actions required for
successful performance,

11. SELF-DETERMINATION THEORY:

- an attitude of determination is the foundation for motivated
behavior

CHAPTER 3: MOTIVATION: definition, components, kinds
and classifications. Child & Adolescence (midterm
reviewer)

*MOTIVATION DEFINITION:

-refers to the internal state or condition that influences behavior
and gives it direction in relation to physiological conditions,
interests, attitudes and aspirations.

- it is a concept that stands for the underlying force impelling
behavior toward a particular goal.

-involves a complex interaction within the individual and the
environment and the intervening variables in which he lives.

*COMPONENTS OF MOTIVATION:

1. NEED - self explanatory
2. DRIVE - a strong natural need or desire

*THREE IMPORTANT FUNCTIONS OF MOTIVES:

( a motive incites an organism to action and gives direction and
sustains once it is aroused).

1. ACTIVATES OR ENERGIZES THE INDIVIDUAL:
(the moment a motive is aroused, a state of restlessness is
evidently felt. Motives activate the organism into a state of
readiness for behavior)

2. LEADS, DIRECTS, AND REGULATES BEHAVIOR:

(the directional and regulatory function is geared to the
achievement of a goal, reward or incentive. Once goal is
achieved, the sustained activity eases and behavior changes)

3. SELECTING MECHANISM:

(- Motives determine which responses will be appropriate to
satisfy the odds and lead to the incentive.

- Responses will be selectively regulated so that only those that
are important and will satisfy will be reinforced)

*KINDS OF MOTIVATION:

1. INTRINSIC:

- an individual's internal desire to perform a particular task
- arise from within the individual

2. EXTRINSIC:

- promoted by factors external to the individual and unrelated to
the task being performed such as recognition or award.


* CLASSIFICATION OF MOTIVES:

A. Physiological
B. Psychological


* PHYSIOLOGICAL MOTIVATION:
(primary motives that keeps an organism alive and are
necessary for survival)

1. NEED FOR FOOD:

- hunger is believed to arise when there is a rhythmic
contraction of the empty stomach. (hunger is regulated by two
systems:

a. Feeding system that initiates eating when food is needed

b. Stops eating when enough food has been satiated with)


2. NEED FOR WATER:

- people cannot survive without water. The need for water can
be a powerful factor in controlling the direction of behavior.

3. NEED FOR SLEEP AND REST:

- the need for sleep and rest has to be considered in relation to
muscle movement for it gradually become fatigue.

- sleep motive is related to rest need, but it is not the same with
it.
(an individual may rest but not sleeping)



4. NEED FOR PROPER TEMPERATURE:

- organisms respond to stimulation in the environment by way
of striving to maintain the amount of temperature at a
satisfactory level. This is regulated within the limits by the
physiological mechanisms of homeostasis.


5. SEX NEED:

- hormones secreted by the gonads or sex glands are basically
responsible for sexual motivation

- sex need stems from physiological processes and renders the
organism's behavior selective and directional

6. PAIN DRIVES:

- withdrawal reflex:
the moment the pain is experienced, the tendency is a quick
reaction to move away from the stimulus.
(experiences that bring pain makes the organism avoid pain)

7. MATERNAL MOTIVATION:

- attachment and protection characterized by unconditional love
and care of our mother.

* PSYCHOLOGICAL MOTIVES:
(not directed to the survival of the organism)

1. NEED FOR AFFECTION:

- man is a social being, he needs to belong and enjoys the
company of friends who are warm and affectionate

2. NEED FOR ACHIEVEMENT:

- man needs to experience a certain degree of achievement
necessary for himself for self-esteem and social approval.

3. NEED FOR INDEPENDENCE:

- man is endowed with superior intelligence and the desire to
assert himself and seek freedom from restricting stimulus.

4. NEED FOR STATUS:

- status is a prestige dimension which is the distinction or
reputation arising from success, achievement, rank, power or
wealth.

5. NEED FOR SECURITY:

- people seek freedom from physical threat, risk and deprivation
and of dear of losing a job or shelter. They are motivated to
strive for something that secures or makes them safe.




CHAPTER 4: LEARNING, definition. Child & Adolescence
(midterm reviewer)

Learning the process of having ones behavior modified more
or less permanently.

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING procedure established by
russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov.
-involves the substitution of a new stimulus

Conditioned learning occurred when the sound of the bell
alone

Conditioned stimulus Bell
Condition Response Salivation in response to the bell

FUNDAMENTAL STAGES OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
1. Acquisition repeated pairings of the conditioned
stimulus and unconditioned stimulus
2. Stimulus Generalization The individuals ability to
react to new stimuli
3. Stimulus Discrimination responding differently
4. Extinction eliminating a learned response by
arousing

OPERANT CONDITIONING learning where the organism
must do something to environment

Positive reinforcers stimuli that strengthen response
Negative reinforcers Strengthen behavior / unpleasant
stimuli

Stimulus discrimination stimulus that signals

FOUR TYPES OF OPERANT CONDITIONING
1. Primary reward conditioning response is
instrumental in obtaining a biologically significant
reward
2. Escape conditioning the organism learns response
that is in instrumental
3. Avoidance conditioning response to a cue
4. Secondary reward conditioning - instrumental
berhavior

Reinforcement - is any stimulus that maintains and
increase the strength of a response

COGNITION Knowledge or understanding

Perceptual learning organism learns to make a
certain responses to specific stimuli

Sign learning organism permanently attaches
meaning t the stimuli

Program learning carefully prepared sequence of
study materials.

Multiple response learning involves the acquisition
of patterns of responses in mastering a task

Associative learning (Habit formation) behavior
learn tru habit formaion

OTHER TYPES OF LEARNING

Social learning - ones learn with other people

Vicarious learning by way of see directly

Observational learning by watching other peoples
behavior

FOUR LEARNING MECHANISM
1. Attention pays attention to what is happening
around him
2. Retention Attend closely
3. Ability to resproduce the behavior capable of
doing act
4. Motivation initiate those he see
5. Reinforcement association of stimulus

THEORIES OF LEARNING
1. S-R Bond Theory Directly linked
2. Behaviorism building condition reflexes
3. Gestalt theory emphasize use of insight
4. Functionalism adjust to a changing environment

LAWS OF LEARNING
1. Law of Readiness adequate motivation and
preparation
2. Law of Exercise repetition of correct responses
3. Law of Effect Followed by satisfying
4. Law of Association connection and functional
relationship
5. Law of Belongingness easily formed if belong
6. Law of Intensity Corresponding relation

JOHN DEWEY STEPS IN PROBLEM SOLVING
1. Awareness of the problem personal felt need
2. Clarification of the problem define nature of
problem
3. Evaluation of hypothesis hypothesis evaluated
4. Testing the hypothesis involvement of various
degrees trial and error
5. Generalization forming idea

REWARD PUNISHEMENT

Reward shaping/altering behavior
Punishment Declining

Thinking manipulating world internally

Creative Thinking productive thinking

FOUR ASPECTS IMPORTANT IN CREATIVE PROCESS
1. Preparation relates facts
2. Incubation absence of over activity
3. Illumination occur anytime
4. Verification proof must be given to the solution

TYPES OF REMENBERING
1. Recall bringing conscious memory
2. Recognition Recognizing someone
3. Relearning retooling of modes
4. Reintegration recalling whole experience

Memory ability to store facts/information

COMMON TYPES OF MEMORY

1.Episodic memory Specific event
2. Semantic memory generalized knowledge
3. Procedural memory acquisition of skill