Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Rrad
Zg
Vg
IA
jX A
Zc
RL
Generator Transmission
Line
Antenna
Vg
Zg
Rrad
Prad = I A2 Rrad )
RL
- loss resistance (related to conduction and dielectric losses);
jX A - antenna reactance.
Antenna impedance: Z A = ( Rrad + RL ) + jX A
VA
Zc
Receiver Transmission
Line
Antenna
The beginning of 20th century (until WW2) marks the boom in wireantenna technology (dipoles and loops) and in wireless technology as a
whole, which is largely due to the invention of the DeForest triode tube,
used as radio-frequency generator. Radio links are possible up to UHF
(about 500 MHz) and over thousands of kilometers.
WW2 marks a new era in wireless communications and antenna
technology. The invention of new microwave generators (magnetron and
klystron) leads to the development of the microwave antennas such as
waveguide apertures, horns, reflectors, etc.
straight-wire elements
(dipoles/monopoles)
loops
helices
C. Printed antennas
PRINTED PATCH RADIATORS
Modern
integrated
antennas often use
multi-layer
designs
with a feed coupled to
the radiator electromagnetically
(no
galvanic contact).
or
(b) Circular patch
director
driver
dielectric substrate
quarter-wave
transformer
top layer
reflector
bottom layer
microstrip
2.56
0.64
x2
x3
0.64
1.92
x1
top layer
x3
0.64
x1
1.92
reflector
bottom layer
(d) double-layer printed Yagi antenna with
electromagnetically-coupled feed
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
Slot
antennas
were
developed in the 1980s and
there is still intensive research
related to new shapes and types
of excitation. They are suited
for integration with slot-line
circuits, which are usually
designed
to
operate
at
frequencies > 10 GHz.
Both patch and slot antennas
share some common features.
They are easy and cheap to
fabricate. They are easy to
mount; they are light and
mechanically robust. They
have low cross-polarization
radiation. Their directivity is
not very high. They have
relatively high conducting and
dielectric
losses.
These
radiators are widely used in
patch/slot arrays, which are
esp. convenient for use in
spacecraft, satellites, missiles,
cars
and
other
mobile
applications.
D. Leaky-wave antennas
These are antennas derived from millimeter-wave (mm-wave) guides,
such as dielectric guides, microstrip lines, coplanar and slot lines. They are
developed for applications at frequencies > 30 GHz, infrared frequencies
included. Periodical discontinuities are introduced at the end of the guide that
lead to substantial radiation leakage (radiation from the dielectric surface).
(a)
(b)
The antennas in the mm-wave band are of big variety and are still a subject of
intensive study.
(g)
(h)
Reflector antennas
E. Lens antennas
Lenses play a similar role to that of reflectors in reflector antennas. They
collimate divergent energy into more or less plane EM wave. Lenses are
often preferred to reflectors at higher frequencies (f > 100 GHz). They are
classified according to their shape and the material they are made of.
home environment
businesses PABX (Private Automatic Branch
Exchange)
PHS (Personal Handyphone System) in Japan
personal satellite
communications
global navigation
systems
Frequency band
3-30 kHz
EM wavelength
100-10 km
Designation
Very Low Frequency
(VLF)
Services
Navigation, sonar, submarine
30-300 kHz
10-1 km
300-3000 kHz
1000-100 m
Medium Frequency
(MF)
3-30 MHz
100-10 m
High Frequency
(HF)
30-300 MHz
10-1 m
300-3000 MHz
100-10 cm
Ultrahigh Frequency
(UHF)
3-30 GHz
10-1 cm
30-300 GHz
10-1 mm
Extremely High
Frequency (EHF)
Radar, experimental
Old
VHF
L
S
S
C
C
X
X
Ku
K
K
Ka
New
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
J
J
K
K
Sonar (an acronym for Sound, Navigation and Ranging) is a system for underwater detection and location of objects by
acoustical echo. The first sonars, invented during World War I by British, American and French scientists, were used to
locate submarines and icebergs. Sonar is an American term dating from World War II.
Antenna Parameters
Maxwells Equations
(Instantaneous and Phasor Forms)
Maxwells Equations (instantaneous form)
s
ds
- instantaneous vectors [ = (x,y,z,t), etc.]
instantaneous
scalar
t
The total instantaneous radiated power rad leaving the surface S is found
by integrating the instantaneous Poynting vector over the surface.
E, H, D, B, J - phasor vectors [E=E(x,y,z), etc.]
- phasor scalar
ds = (
rad
S
) ds
ds = differential surface
s = unit vector normal to ds
ds = s ds
Pavg =
TT
Radiation Intensity
Radiation Intensity - radiated power per solid angle (radiated power
normalized to a unit sphere).
Prad
) dt
Pavg ds
S
In the far field, the radiation electric and magnetic fields vary as 1/r and
the direction of the vector power density (Pavg) is radially outward. If we
assume that the surface S is a sphere of radius r, then the integral for the
total time-average radiated power becomes
= Re{Ee j t}
= Re{He j t}
The instantaneous magnetic field may be rewritten as
= Re{ [ He j t + H*e
j t
]}
time-harmonic
independent of time
(integrates to zero over T )
Re [E
2T
H ] dt
T
where d = sin d d defines the differential solid angle. The units on the
radiation intensity are defined as watts per unit solid angle. The average
radiation intensity is found by dividing the radiation intensity by the area
of the unit sphere (4 ) which gives
H *]
= Re [E
Pavg ds = Re
S
[E
S
H *] ds
The average radiation intensity for a given antenna represents the radiation
intensity of a point source producing the same amount of radiated power
as the antenna.
Directivity
Inserting the expression for Prad into the directivity expression yields
where the term A in the previous equation is defined as the beam solid
angle and is defined by
Beam Solid Angle - the solid angle through which all of the antenna
power would flow if the radiation intensity were [U( , )]max for all
angles in A.
where 1 and 2 are the half-power beamwidths (in radians) which are
perpendicular to each other. The maximum directivity, in this case, is
approximated by
for i=1:100
theta(i)=pi*(i-1)/99;
d(i)=7.5*((cos(theta(i)))^2)*((sin(theta(i)))^2);
end
polar(theta,d)
90
2
120
60
1.5
30
0.5
180
330
210
300
240
270
The approximate radiated power for antennas that are omnidirectional with
respect to [ f( ) = 1] reduces to
The approximate radiated power for antennas that are omnidirectional with
respect to [g( ) = 1] reduces to
Antenna Efficiency
The maximum value of the radiation intensity for a half-wave dipole
occurs at = /2 so that
Zg - source impedance
ZA - antenna impedance
Zo - transmission line characteristic impedance
MATLAB m-file
sum=0.0;
N=input(Enter the number of segments in the theta direction)
for i=1:N
thetai=(pi/N)*(i-0.5);
sum=sum+(cos((pi/2)*cos(thetai)))^2/sin(thetai);
end
D=(2*N)/(pi*sum)
Do
1.6428
10
1.6410
15
1.6409
20
1.6409
Antenna Gain
The definitions of antenna directivity and antenna gain are essentially
the same except for the power terms used in the definitions.
Directivity [D( , )] - ratio of the antenna radiated power density at a
distant point to the total antenna radiated power (Prad) radiated
isotropically.
Gain [G( , )] - ratio of the antenna radiated power density at a distant
point to the total antenna input power (Pin) radiated isotropically.
Thus, the antenna gain, being dependent on the total power delivered to the
antenna input terminals, accounts for the ohmic losses in the antenna while
the antenna directivity, being dependent on the total radiated power, does
not include the effect of ohmic losses.
Antenna Impedance
The complex antenna impedance is defined in terms of resistive (real)
and reactive (imaginary) components.
RA - Antenna resistance
[(dissipation ) ohmic losses + radiation]
The relationship between the directivity and gain of an antenna may be
found using the definition of the radiation efficiency of the antenna.
XA - Antenna reactance
[(energy storage) antenna near field]
We may define the antenna resistance as the sum of two resistances which
separately represent the ohmic losses and the radiation.
The complex power associated with any element in the equivalent circuit
is given by
where the * denotes the complex conjugate. We will assume peak values
for all voltages and currents in expressing the radiated power, the power
associated with ohmic losses, and the reactive power in terms of specific
components of the antenna impedance. The peak current for the simple
series circuit shown above is
From the equivalent circuit for the generator/antenna system, we see that
maximum power transfer occurs when
Power delivered to
the receiver [P/2]
Power dissipated by the
antenna [(1 ecd)(P/2)]
Power captured by
the antenna [P]
Power delivered to
the antenna [P/2]
The total ohmic losses for the antenna are those dissipated in the antenna
loss resistance (RL).
Inserting the equivalent circuit results for Prad and Pohmic into the equation
for the antenna radiation efficiency yields
Thus, the antenna radiation efficiency may be found directly from the
antenna equivalent circuit parameters.
where
For the RHF equation to be accurate, the skin depth should be a small
fraction of the conductor maximum cross-sectional dimension. In the case
of a cylindrical conductor (dp 2 a), the HF resistance is
f
0
= 4 10 7 H/m) may
RDC = 0.818 m
1 kHz
2.09 mm
10 kHz
0.661 mm
RHF = 1.60 m
100 kHz
0.209 mm
RHF = 5.07 m
1 MHz
0.0661
mm
RHF = 16.0 m
The high frequency resistance formula assumes that the current through the
conductor is sinusoidal in time and independent of position along the
conductor [Iz(z,t) = Io cos( t)]. On most antennas, the current is not
necessarily independent of position. However, given the actual current
distribution on the antenna, an equivalent RL can be calculated.
Example (Problem 2.44) [Loss resistance calculation]
A dipole antenna consists of a circular wire of length l. Assuming the
current distribution on the wire is cosinusoidal, i.e.,
~~~~~~~
+z directed
waves
~~~~~~~
z directed
waves
The current and voltage at the transmission line input terminals are
The unknown coefficient Vo+ may be determined from either V(0) or I(0)
which were found in the input equivalent circuit. Using V(0) gives
where
Given the coefficient Vo+, the current and voltage at the load, from the
transmission line equations are
Zo
ZL
Zin
100
75
96+j28
100
100
100
P(l)
0.1429
0.25
1.3333
0.1224
100
0.25
0.125
125
98 j22
0.1111
0.25
1.25
0.1235
75
100
72 j21
0.1429
0.2864
1.3333
0.1199
100
100
100
0.25
0.125
125
100
122+j27
0.1111
0.2219
1.25
0.1219
(0) =
(l)
Antenna Polarization
The polarization of an plane wave is defined by the figure traced by
the instantaneous electric field at a fixed observation point. The following
are the most commonly encountered polarizations assuming the wave is
approaching.
Antenna polarization
PLF in dB
(z,t)
(z,t)
The vector electric field associated with a +z-directed plane wave can
be written in general phasor form as
(z,t)
(z,t)
Circular Polarization
then
x
(z,t)
(z,t)
where S is the power density of the incident wave (magnitude of the
Poynting vector) defined by
then
x
(z,t)
(z,t)
Eyo,
Eyo,
= (2n+)
= (2n+)
which gives
which gives
which gives
or
which gives
If we assume that the total power transmitted by the transmit antenna is Pt,
the power density at the receive antenna (Wr) is
Therefore, the equivalent aperture of a lossless antenna may be defined in
terms of the maximum directivity as
where Pt is the input power at the terminals of the transmit antenna and
where the transmit antenna gain and directivity for the system performance
are related by the overall efficiency
where ecdt is the radiation efficiency of the transmit antenna and t is the
reflection coefficient at the transmit antenna terminals. Notice that this
definition of the transmit antenna gain includes the mismatch losses for the
transmit system in addition to the conduction and dielectric losses. A
manufacturers specification for the antenna gain will not include the
mismatch losses.
The total received power delivered to the terminals of the receiving
antenna (Pr) is
where the effective aperture of the receiving antenna (Aer) must take into
According to the definition of the target RCS, the relationship between the
incident power density at the target and the scattered power density at the
receive antenna is
The limit is usually included since we must be in the far-field of the target
for the radar cross section to yield an accurate result.
where (Ei, Hi) are the incident electric and magnetic fields at the target and
(Es, Hs) are the scattered electric and magnetic fields at the receiver. The
incident power density at the target generated by the transmitting antenna
(Pt, Gt, Dt, eot, t, at ) is given by
where
The total power captured by the target (Pc) is
Example
Problem 2.65 A radar antenna, used for both transmitting and
receiving, has a gain of 150 at its operating frequency of 5 GHz. It
transmits 100 kW, and is aligned for maximum directional radiation and
reception to a target 1 km away having a cross section of 3 m2. The
received signal matches the polarization of the transmitted signal. Find the
received power.
Wire Antennas
Electrical Size of an Antenna - the physical dimensions of the antenna
defined relative to wavelength.
Infinitesimal Dipole
/50, a << )
( l
f = 3 MHz
( = 100m)
Electrically small
f = 30 GHz
( = 0.01m)
Electrically large
The infinitesimal dipole with a constant current along its length is a nonphysical antenna. However, the infinitesimal dipole approximates several
physically realizable antennas.
Inverted-L antenna
If we assume that L
/4, then the current along the antenna resembles
that of a half-wave dipole.
Based on the current distributions on these antennas, the far fields of the
capacitor plate antenna, the transmission line loaded antenna and the
inverted-L antenna can all be approximated by the far fields of the
infinitesimal dipole.
The total magnetic vector potential may then be written in vector form as
Note that electric field expression in terms of potentials requires two levels
of differentiation while the Maxwells equations equation requires only one
level of differentiation. Thus, using Maxwells equations, we find
kr << 1
kr > 1
kr >> 1
5
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0
fields radiated by an
infinitesimal dipole
10
12
Considering the bracketed terms [ ] in the radiated field expressions for the
infinitesimal dipole ...
Reactive near field (kr << 1)
Radiating near field (kr > 1)
Far field (kr >> 1)
The vector form of the near electric field is the same as that for an
electrostatic dipole (charges +q and q separated by a distance l).
Infinitesimal dipole
near fields
Note the 90o phase difference between the electric field components and
the magnetic field component (these components are in phase quadrature)
which indicates reactive power (stored energy, not radiation). If we
investigate the Poynting vector of the dominant near field terms, we find
The Poynting vector (complex vector power density) for the infinitesimal
dipole near field is purely imaginary. An imaginary Poynting vector
corresponds to standing waves or stored energy (reactive power).
If we replace the term (Io /k) by in the near electric field terms by its
charge equivalent expression, we find
1 or r
/2 ]
The dominant terms for the radiating near field of the infinitesimal
dipole are the terms which are constant with respect to kr for E and H
and the term proportional to (kr)-1 for Er.
Infinitesimal dipole
radiating near field
Note that E and H are now in phase which yields a Poynting vector for
these two components which is purely real (radiation). The direction of
this component of the Poynting vector is outward radially denoting the
outward radiating real power.
Far field [ kr >> 1 or r >> /2 ]
The dominant terms for the far field of the infinitesimal dipole are the
terms which are constant with respect to kr.
Infinitesimal dipole
far field
Note that the far field components of E and H are the same two
components which produced the radially-directed real-valued Poynting
vector (radiated power) for the radiating near field. Also note that there is
no radial component of E or H so that the propagating wave is a transverse
electromagnetic (TEM) wave. For very large values of r, this TEM wave
approaches a plane wave. The ratio of the far electric field to the far
magnetic field for the infinitesimal dipole yields the intrinsic impedance
of the medium.
If we rotate the antenna by some arbitrary angle and define the new
direction of the current flow by the unit vector a , the resulting far fields
are simply a rotated version of the original equations above. In the rotated
coordinate system, we must define new angles ( , ) that correspond to the
spherical coordinate angles ( , ) in the original coordinate system. The
angle is shown below referenced to the x-axis (as is defined) but can
be referenced to any convenient axis that could represent a rotation in the
-direction.
Note that the infinitesimal far fields in the original coordinate system
depend on the spherical coordinates r and . The value of r is identical in
the two coordinates systems since it represents the distance from the
coordinate origin. However, we must determine the transformation from
to . The transformations of the far fields in the original coordinate
system to those in the rotated coordinate system can be written as
According to the
we may write
Based on the definition of the dot product, the cos term may be written
as
so that
Example
Determine the far fields of an infinitesimal dipole oriented along the
y-axis.
If we insert the Poynting vector (S = E H*) in the left hand side of the
above identity, we find
such that
Integrating both sides of this equation over any volume V and applying the
divergence theorem to the left hand side gives
The current density in the equation above consists of two components: the
impressed (source) current (Ji) and the conduction current (Jc).
Inserting the current expression and dividing both sides of the equation by
2 yields Poyntings theorem.
The total complex power passing through the spherical surface of radius
r is found by integrating the normal component of the Poynting vector over
the surface.
The terms We and Wm represent the radial electric and magnetic energy
flow through the spherical surface S.
Infinitesimal dipole
radiation resistance
The total power through the sphere is
Infinitesimal dipole
effective aperture
The beam solid angle for the infinitesimal dipole can be found from the
maximum directivity,
Infinitesimal dipole
directivity function
Infinitesimal dipole
Maximum directivity
Infinitesimal dipole
beam solid angle
( /50
Short Dipole
l
/10, a << )
Note that the magnetic vector potential of the short dipole (length = l, peak
current = Io) is one half that of the equivalent infinitesimal dipole (length
l = l, current = Io).
The average current on the short dipole is one half that of the equivalent
infinitesimal dipole. Therefore, the fields produced by the short dipole are
exactly one half those produced by the equivalent infinitesimal dipole.
Short dipole
radiated fields
Short dipole
far field
Since the fields produced by the short dipole are one half those of the
equivalent infinitesimal dipole, the real power radiated by the short dipole
is one fourth that of the infinitesimal dipole. Thus, Prad for the short dipole
is
Short dipole
radiation resistance
The directivity function, the maximum directivity, effective area and beam
solid angle of the short dipole are all identical to the corresponding value
for the infinitesimal dipole.
Short dipole
radiating near field
We use the previously defined approximations for the far field magnetic
vector potential to determine the far fields of the center-fed dipole.
The time-average complex Poynting vector in the far field of the center-fed
dipole is
l = /10
l = /2
l=
l = 3 /2
In general, we see that the directivity of the antenna increases as the length
goes from a short dipole (a fraction of a wavelength) to a full wavelength.
As the length increases above a wavelength, more lobes are introduced into
the radiation pattern.
l = /10
1
0.9
0.8
0.8
0.7
0.7
0.6
0.6
I(z) / Io
I(z) / Io
1
0.9
0.5
0.5
0.4
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.1
0
-0.05
0.1
-0.04
-0.03
-0.02
-0.01
0
z/
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0
-0.25
0.05
-0.2
-0.15
-0.1
-0.05
0
z/
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
l = 3 /2
l=
0.8
0.6
0.7
0.4
0.6
0.2
I(z) / Io
1
0.8
I(z) / Io
1
0.9
0.5
-0.2
0.3
-0.4
0.2
-0.6
0.1
0.25
0.4
0
-0.5
l = /2
-0.8
-1
-0.4
-0.3
-0.2
-0.1
0
z/
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
z/
0.2
0.4
0.6
Center-fed dipole
effective aperture
Center-fed dipole
Solid beam angle
Half-Wave Dipole
Center-fed
half-wave dipole
far fields
Center-fed
half-wave dipole
radiation intensity
function
Center-fed
half-wave dipole
directivity
function
The real and reactive time-average power delivered to the terminals of the
antenna may be written as
or
The current Iin is the current at the feed point of the dipole (z = 0) so that
The input resistance and reactance of the antenna are then related to the
equivalent circuit values of radiation resistance and the antenna reactance
by
Image Theory
In the far field, the lines defining r, r1 and r2 become almost parallel so that
The previous expressions for r1 and r2 are necessary for the phase terms in
the dipole electric field expressions. But, for amplitude terms, we may
assume that r1 r2 r. The total field becomes
h = 0.5
The normalized power pattern for the vertical infinitesimal dipole over a
PEC ground is
h=2
h = 0.1
h = 0.25
h=
h = 10
Since the radiated fields of the infinitesimal dipole over ground are
different from those of the isolated antenna, the basic parameters of the
antenna are also different. The far fields of the infinitesimal dipole are
= /2) is given by
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
Do
Rr ()
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
First, we note the relationship between Umax for the isolated dipole and the
dipole over ground.
Note that Umax for the antenna over ground is independent of the height of
the antenna over ground.
0
0
0.5
h/
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
large
h/
Monopole
Infinitesimal dipole
[length = l < /50]
Using image theory, the monopole antenna over a PEC ground plane
may be shown to be equivalent to a dipole antenna in a homogeneous
region. The equivalent dipole is twice the length of the monopole and is
driven with twice the antenna source voltage. These equivalent antennas
generate the same fields in the region above the ground plane.
Infinitesimal monopole
[length = l < /100]
Short dipole
[length = l, ( /50
Short monopole
[length = l, ( /100
/10)]
/20)]
The total power radiated by the monopole is one-half that of the equivalent
dipole. But, the monopole radiates into one-half the volume of the dipole
yielding equivalent fields and power densities in the upper half space.
Infinitesimal dipole
[length = l < /50]
Infinitesimal monopole
[length = l < /100]
Lossless half-wave dipole
[length = l = /2]
Lossless quarter-wave monopole
[length = l = /4]
~~~~~~~~~
direct wave
~~~~~~~~~~
reflected wave
If we plot the radiation pattern of the vertical dipole over ground for
cases of a PEC ground and a lossy ground, we find that the elevation plane
pattern for the lossy ground case is tilted upward such that the radiation
maximum does not occur on the ground plane but at some angle tilted
upward from the ground plane (see Figure 4.28, p. 183). This alignment
of the radiation maximum may or may not cause a problem depending on
the application. However, if both the transmit and receive antennas are
located close to a lossy ground, then a very inefficient system will result.
The antenna over lossy ground can be made to behave more like an
antenna over perfect ground by constructing a ground plane beneath the
antenna. At low frequencies, a solid conducting sheet is impractical
because of its size. However, a system of wires known as a radial ground
system can significantly enhance the performance of the antenna over lossy
ground.
ground system with 120 quarter wavelength radial wires (3o spacing).
The reflection coefficient scheme can also be applied to horizontal
antennas above a lossy ground plane. The proper reflection coefficient
must be used based on the orientation of the electric field (parallel or
perpendicular polarization).
The Effect of Earth Curvature
Antennas on spacecraft and aircraft in flight see the same effect that
antennas located close to the ground experience except that the height of
the antenna over the conducting ground means that the shape of the ground
(curvature of the earth) can have a significant effect on the scattered field.
In cases like these, the curvature of the reflecting ground must be
accounted for to yield accurate values for the reflected waves.
Antennas in Wireless Communications
Wire antennas such as dipoles and monopoles are used extensively
in wireless communications applications. The base stations in wireless
communications are most often arrays (Ch. 6) of dipoles. Hand-held units
such as cell phones typically use monopoles. Monopoles are simple, small,
cheap, efficient, easy to match, omnidirectional (according to their
orientation) and relatively broadband antennas. The equations for the
performance of a monopole antenna presented in this chapter have
assumed that the antenna is located over an infinite ground plane. The
monopole on the hand-held unit is not driven relative to the earth ground
but rather (a.) the conducting case of the unit or (b.) the circuit board of the
unit. The resonant frequency and input impedance of the hand-held
monopole are not greatly different than that of the monopole over a infinite
ground plane. The pattern of the hand-held unit monopole is different than
that of the monopole over an infinite ground plane due to the different
distribution of currents. Other antennas used on hand-held units are loops
(Ch. 5), microstrip (patch) antennas (Ch. 14) and the planar inverted F
antenna (PIFA). In wireless applications, the antenna can be designed to
Antenna Arrays
Antennas with a given radiation pattern may be arranged in a pattern
(line, circle, plane, etc.) to yield a different radiation pattern.
The far field of this two element array was found using image theory to be
element pattern
array factor
Inserting this linear phase progression into the formula for the general Nelement array gives
Below are plots of the array factor AF vs. the array phase function R as the
number of elements in the array is increased. Note that these are not
plots of AF vs. the elevation angle 2.
The complex exponential term in the last expression of the above equation
represents the phase shift of the array phase center relative to the origin.
If the position of the array is shifted so that the center of the array is
located at the origin, this phase term goes away.
The array factor may be normalized so that the maximum value for any
value of N is unity. The normalized array factor is
The nulls of the array function are found by determining the zeros of the
numerator term where the denominator is not simultaneously zero.
The maximum of the array factor occurs when the array phase function is
zero.
For a broadside array, in order for the above equation to be satisfied with
2 = 90o, the phase angle " must be zero. In other words, all elements of the
array must be driven with the same phase. With " = 0o, the normalized
array factor reduces to
The peaks of the array function are found by determining the zeros of the
numerator term where the denominator is simultaneously zero.
Normalized array function
Broadside array, " = 0o
The m = 0 term,
90
90
120
60
120
60
0.8
0.6
150
30
0.4
0.5
150
30
0.2
180
180
element pattern
330
240
300
270
array factor
210
210
330
240
300
270
If we consider the same array with horizontal (x-directed) short dipoles, the
resulting normalized element field pattern is
Since the element pattern depends on the angle N, we must choose a value
of N to plot the pattern. If we choose N = 0o, the element pattern becomes
If we plot the array pattern for N = 90o, we find that the element
pattern is unity and the array pattern is the same as the array factor. Thus,
the main beam of the array of x-directed short dipoles lies along the y-axis.
The nulls of the array element pattern along the x-axis prevent the array
from radiating efficiently in that broadside direction. End-fire arrays
may be designed to focus the main beam of the array factor along the array
axis in either the 2=0o or 2=180o directions. Given that the maximum of
the array factor occurs when
in order for the above equation to be satisfied with 2 = 0o, the phase angle
" must be
For 2 = 180o, the phase angle " must be
which gives
If the corresponding positive phase angles are chosen, the array factor plots
are mirror images of the above plots (about 2 = 90o ). Note that the endfire array grating lobes are introduced for element spacings of d $ 0.58.
7-element array end-fire array, vertical short dipoles (d = 0.258, " = !90o)
90
90
120
60
60
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.6
150
30
150
30
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.2
180
180
0
array factor
element pattern
330
210
240
120
330
210
300
240
300
270
270
90
0.5
60
120
0.4
0.3
30
150
0.2
0.1
180
0
array pattern
210
330
240
300
270
" = kd
" = (kd + *)
In order to increase the directivity in a closely-spaced electrically long endfire array, Hansen and Woodyard analyzed the patterns and found that a
additional phase shift of
90
90
120
60
60
increased the directivity of the array over that of the ordinary end-fire array
given an element spacing of
0.8
0.6
150
0.6
30
150
0.4
30
0.4
0.2
0.2
180
180
0
array factor
element pattern
210
330
240
120
0.8
330
210
300
240
300
270
90
270
1
120
60
0.8
For very long arrays (N - large), the element spacing in the HansenWoodyard end-fire array approaches one-quarter wavelength. The HansenWoodyard design shown here does not necessarily produce the maximum
directivity for a given linear array but does produce a directivity larger than
that of the ordinary end-fire array [by a factor of approximately 1.79 (2.5
dB)]. The Hansen-Woodyard end-fire array design can be summarized as
0.6
150
30
0.4
0.2
180
array pattern
210
330
240
300
270
where the upper sign produces a maximum in the 2 = 0o direction and the
lower sign produces a maximum in the 2 = 180o direction. The HansenWoodyard end-fire design increases the directivity of the array at the
expense of higher sidelobe levels.
The excitation coefficients for the binomial array are given by Pascals
triangle.
For a broadside array (" = 0o) with element spacing d less than one-half
wavelength, the array factor has no sidelobes. An array formed by taking
the product of two arrays of this type gives
This array factor, being the square of an array factor with no sidelobes, also
has no sidelobes. Mathematically, the array factor above represents a 3element equally-spaced array driven by current amplitudes with ratios of
1:2:1. In a similar fashion, equivalent arrays with more elements may be
formed.
The binomial array has the special property that the array factor has no
sidelobes for element spacings of 8/2 or less. Sidelobes are introduced for
element spacings larger than 8/2.
N = 5, d = 0.58
The current coefficients of the resulting N-element array take the form of
a binomial series. The array is known as a binomial array.
Binomial
array
N = 10, d = 0.58
P = 2M (Even)
P = 2M + 1 (Odd)
P = 2M (Even)
P = 2M + 1 (Odd)
where
P = 2M (Even)
Note that the array factors are coefficients multiplied by cosines with
arguments that are integer multiples of u. Using trigonometric identities,
these cosine functions can be written as powers of u.
Chebyshev Polynomials
(2.) Replace each cos(mu) term in the array factor by its expansion in
terms of powers of cos(u).
(3.) For the required main lobe to side lobe ratio (Ro), find xo such that
(4.) Substitute cos(u) = x/xo into the array factor of step 2. This
substitution normalizes the array factor sidelobes to a peak of unity.
(5.) Equate the array factor of step 4 to TP-1(x) and determine the array
coefficients.
Example
Design a 5-element Dolph-Chebyshev array with d = 0.58 and
sidelobes which are 20 dB below the main beam.
(1.) P = 5, M = 2
(2.)
(3.)
(4.)
(5.) Equate coefficients and solve for a1, a2, and a3.
Equation Section 1
MICROSTRIP ANTENNAS PART I
(Introduction, Construction and geometry, Feeding techniques, Substrate
properties, Loss calculation)
1. Introduction
Microstrip Antenna (MSA) received considerable attention in the 1970s,
although the first designs and theoretical models appeared in the 1950s.
They are suitable for aircraft, satellite and missile applications where size,
weight, ease of installation, mechanical reliability and cost are important. The
MSA are low profile, mechanically robust, inexpensive to manufacture,
compatible with MMIC designs and relatively light and compact.
With respect to radiation properties they are versatile in terms of resonant
frequencies, polarization, pattern and impedance. They allow the use of
additional tuning elements like pins or varactor diodes between the patch and
the ground plane.
Disadvantages:
relatively low efficiency (due to dielectric and conductor losses)
low power
spurious feed radiation (surface waves, strips, etc)
narrow frequency bandwidth (at most a couple of percent)
relatively high level of cross polarization radiation
MSA are applicable in the GHz range (f > 0.5 GHz) for lower
frequencies their dimensions are too large.
The dimensions of the patch are usually in the range from o/3 to o/2. The
dielectric constant of the substrate r is usually in the range from 2.2 to 12.
The most common designs use relatively thick substrates with lower r
because they provide better efficiency and larger bandwidth. On the other
hand, this implies larger dimensions of the antennas. The choice of the
substrate is very much limited by the microwave circuit coupled to the
antenna, which has to be built on the same board. The microwave circuit
together with the antenna is usually manufactured by photo-etching
technology.
The open end of the long TEM line is terminated in a matched resistive
load
The feeding microstrip line is beneath (etched on the other side of the
substrate) see dash-line
3
3. Feeding Methods
1) Microstrip feed easy to fabricate, simple to match by controlling the
inset position and relatively simple to model. However, as the substrate
thickness increases, surface waves and spurious feed radiation increase.
STRIP FEEDS
COAX FEEDS
4. Surface Waves
Surface waves can be excited at the dielectric-to-air interface. Surface
waves give rise to end-fire radiation. In addition they can lead to unwanted
coupling between array elements
The phase velocity of the surface waves is strongly dependent on the
dielectric constant r and thickness h of the substrate.
The excitation of surface waves in a dielectric slab backed by a ground
plane has been well studied (Collin, Field Theory of Guided Waves). The
lowest-order TM mode, TM0, has no cut-off frequency. The cut-off
frequency for the higher-order modes (TMn and TEn) are given by
nc
, n = 1, 2,!,
fc( n ) =
(1)
4h r 1
where c is the speed of light. The cut-off frequencies for the TEn modes are
given by the odd n = 1, 3, 5,, and the cut-off frequencies for the TMn
modes are given by even n. For the TE1 mode the calculated values of h / c(1)
The TM0 mode has no cut-off frequency and is always present to some
extent. The surface TM0 wave excitation becomes appreciable when h/ >
0.09 (r 2.3) and when W/ > 0.03 (r 10). Generally, to suppress the TM0
mode, the dielectric constant should be lower and the substrate height should
be smaller. Unfortunately, decreasing r increases the antenna size, while
decreasing h leads to lower antenna efficiency and frequency band.
5. Criteria for Substrate Selection
a) Possibility for surface-wave excitation
b) Effects of dispersion on the dielectric constant and low tangent of the
substrate
c) Magnitude of copper loss and dielectric loss
d) Anisotropy in the substrate
e) Effects of temperature, humidity, and aging
f) Mechanical
requirements:
conformability,
machinability,
solderability, weight, elasticity, etc.
g) Cost
The first 3 factors are of special concern in the millimeter-wave range (f > 30
GHz).
Dielectric
Constant
2.1
2.20 (1.5%)
3.78
9.40 (5%)
9.80 (5%)
9.4, 1.6
12.9
Loss
Tangent
0.0004
0.0009
0.0001
0.0010
0.0001
0.0001
0.0020
10
-55 260
< +1100
< +1600
-24 370
-55 260
thermal
conductivity
(W/cmK)
0.0026
0.017
0.35 to
0.37
0.42
0.46
0.55
6.30 to
6.40
6.00
5.70
+350.0 to
temperature
coefficient of +480.0
dielectric
constant
(ppm/K)
+13.0
+136.0
+110 to
+140
Very
poor
Good
Very
poor
Good
Poor
Poor
Good
Good
minimum
thickness
(mil)
Machinability Good
Solderability
Good
Dimensional
Stability
Good
Poor for
unreinforced,
very good for
others
Excellent Good
Good
Estimated
Cost
(US $/cm2)
1.1
36
3000
560
a) Dielectric loss (in dB per unit length, length measured in the units used
for 0 )
z ( f ) 1
r
eff
tan
(4)
d = 27.3
( r 1)
0
r ( f )
eff
32
W
h ,
1.38 Rs
1
for
2
hZ 0
h
W
32 +
c =
s Z 0 reff ( f ) W 0.667
R
h , for W 1
6.1 105
+
W
h
h
h
+ 1.444
11
(5)
12
reff
+
1
12
,
for W / h > 1
W
2
2
(6)
(0) =
1/ 2
2
W
W
r + 1 + r 1 1 + 12 h
+ 0.04 1 , for
1
2
W
h
h
2
(8)
f n2 +1
0 reff (0)
Finally,
reff ( f ) = (c / v p ) 2
(9)
120 reff
W
, for
1
W
W
h
+
1.393
+
0.667ln
+
1.444
Z0 = h
(10)
h
60
W
W
8h
ln + 0.25 ,
for
1
h
h
W
reff
h 1.25t 1.25 4 W
W
1
+
ln
1 + 1 +
, for
W
h 2
t
W
=
1 + h 1 1.25t + 1.25 ln 2t , for W 1
W W
h 2
t
+
, for
h
h 2
t
W' h
=
h W ' 1.25t
W' 1
2h
+
1 + ln t , for h 2
h
(11)
(12)
(13)
14
Finally, the total loss is the sum of the conduction and dielectric losses:
t = d + c
(15)
Metal
Silver
Copper
Gold
Aluminum
Ag
Cu
Au
Al
2.5
2.6
3.0
3.3
=6.1x10 S/m
= 5.8x10-7S/m
=4.1x10-7S/m
=3.5 x10-7S/m
-7
1.4
1.5
1.7
1.9
15
16
on Leff , not L. A sketch of the E-field distribution for the first (dominant)
resonant mode, n =1, is shown in the figure below.
Leff > L
x
ground
(
L
= 0.412
h
(
+ 0.3 + 0.264
h
.
W
+ 0.8
reff 0.258
h
reff
(21.1)
Leff = L + 2L
(21.2)
0
2
v
2 f (001)
c
c
=
f r(001) =
(001)
2 r f
2 Leff r
(21.3)
The field of the TM001 mode does not depend on the x and y coordinates but it
strongly depends on the z coordinate, along which a standing wave is formed.
The figure below shows the field distribution along z when the patch is in
resonance.
Ex cos
z
Leff
2
c
2
=
(21.5)
2 f r 0 0 r + 1 2 f r r + 1
Expression (21.5) makes the width W equal to half-wavelength resonant
mode along z. It leads to good radiation efficiencies and acceptable
dimensions. Thus, the patch can be viewed as a continuous planar source
consisting of infinite number of infinitesimally thin half-wavelength dipoles.
W=
2 h
W
h
1
1 0.636ln
B=
< .
(21.7)
, for
1200
10
0
0
x
y
z = Leff / 2
z = Leff
1
t#
o
sl
G
E (001)
2
t#
o
sl W
constant (see Lecture 20). For each slot, G represents the radiation loss
and B = C represents the capacitance associated with the fringe effect.
E. Resonant input resistance
When the patch is resonant, the susceptances of both slots cancel out at
the feed point regardless of the position of the feed along the patch. Thus, the
input admittance is always purely real. This real value, however, strongly
depends on the feed position along z. This is easily shown through the Smith
chart for the admittance transformation through a transmission line.
At the feed point, the impedance of each slot is transformed by the
respective transmission line representing a portion of the patch:
Leff g / 2
G
k0W
sin 2 cos
sin 3 d = 2 + cos X + X S ( X ) + sin X , (21.9)
I =
i
X
cos
L1
L2
Yin
Y1 Y2
sin y
dy .
y
0
The equivalent circuit representing the whole patch in the TM001 mode
includes the two radiating slots as parallel R-C circuits and the patch
connecting them as a transmission line whose characteristics are computed in
the same way as those of a microstrip transmission line.
and X = k0W, k0 = 0 0 . Si denotes the sine integral, Si ( x) =
Z c , g = 0 0 reff
Leff g / 2
Yin = Y1 + Y2
(21.10)
The admittance transformation is given by
YL + jY0 tan( g L)
Yin =Yc
=YL L= , Yc = Z c1
(21.11)
g
Yc + jYL tan( g L)
if the line is loss-free. Below, the Smith charts illustrate the slot-impedance
transformations and their addition, which produces a real normalized
admittance, in three cases: (1) the patch is fed at one edge ( L1 = 0 , L2 = L ),
(2) the patch is fed at the center ( L1 = L2 = L / 2 ), and (3) the patch is fed at a
distance (feed inset) z0 = 0.165 .
Y2
slot #2
Y2
slot #1 Y
1
Y1
feed-point at the middle of cavity
Y2
L1 = L2 = L / 2 0.23
L 0.46
slot #2 Y
2
slot #1 Y1
L 0.46
line to slot #2
L2 = L 0.46
The edge feed and the inset feed are illustrated below.
L1 = z0 0.165
Y1
feed-point at inset z 0
Y2
line to slot #2
L 0.46
slot #2
z0
Yin
slot #2 Y
2
slot #1 Y1
line to slot #1
slot #1
Yin
In reality, there is some mutual influence between the two slots, described by
a mutual conductance and it should be included for more accurate
calculations:
1
,
(21.13)
Rin =
2(G1 G12 )
where the + sign relates to the odd modes, while the sign relates to the
even modes. Normally, G12 G1 .
For most patch antennas fed at the edge, Rin is greater than the
characteristic impedance Zc of the microstrip feed line (typically Zc = 50 to
75 ). That is why, the inset-feed technique is widely used to achieve
impedance match.
10
The figure below illustrates the normalized input impedance of a 1-D (along
the y axis) loss-free open-ended transmission-line, whose behavior is very
close to that of the dominant mode of the patch.
1
L = 0 2L or L =
2L .
(21.16)
2
2 f r reff 0 0
L
Notice that the inset feeding technique for impedance match of the microstrip
antennas is essentially identical to the off-center or asymmetrical feeding
techniques for dipoles. In both cases, a position is sought along a resonant
structure, where the current magnitude has the desired value.
11
12
1 2 X 1 2Y 1 2 Z
+
+
= k 2
X x 2 Y y 2 Z z 2
2X
2Y
2Z
2
2
+
=
0,
+
=
0,
+ k z2 Z = 0
k
X
k
Y
x
y
2
2
2
x
y
z
The characteristic equation is
k x2 + k y2 + k z2 = k 2 .
The solutions of (21.22) are harmonic functions:
X ( x)= Anc cos(k xn x)+ Ans sin(k xn x)
(21.21)
(21.22)
(21.23)
(21.24)
When the functions in (21.24) are substituted in (21.20), they give the
general solution of (21.18). The particular solution of (21.18) depends on the
boundary conditions.
In our case, there are electric walls at x = 0 and x = h . There, the
. Having in
tangential E-field components must vanish, i.e., E y = Ez = 0
x = 0, h
The TMx modes are fully described by a single scalar function Ax the xcomponent of the magnetic vector potential:
G
A = Ax x .
(21.17)
In a homogeneous source-free medium, Ax satisfies the wave equation:
2 Ax + k 2 Ax = 0 .
(21.18)
For regular shapes (like the rectangular cavity), it is advantageous to use the
separation of variables:
2 Ax 2 Ax 2 Ax
+
+
+ k 2 Ax = 0
(21.19)
2
2
2
x
y
z
Ax = X ( x)Y ( y ) Z ( z )
(21.20)
X
Y
Z
+ XZ 2 + XY 2 = k 2 XYZ
2
x
x
x
2
YZ
13
mind that
1 2 Ax
1 2 Ax
1 2 Az
2
Ex =
2 + k Ax , E y =
, Ez =
,(21.25)
j x
j xy
j xz
= 0,
z = 0, L
Ax
y
= 0.
(21.27)
y = 0,W
1 Ax
1 Ax
.
(21.28)
, Hx =
z
y
It is obvious now that the solution must appear in terms of the functions
H x = 0, H y =
Y ( y ) = Bnc cos(k yn y ), k yn = n
n
Z ( z ) = Cnc cos(k zn z ), k zn = n
(21.29)
L
The spectrum of the eigenmodes in the cavity is discrete. The frequencies of
those modes (the resonant frequencies) can be calculated from (21.23) as
2
2
2
m n p
( mnp ) 2
,
(21.30)
+
+
= r
h W L
n
f r( mnp ) =
1
2
m n p
+
+
.
h W L
(21.31)
The mode with the lowest resonant frequency is the dominant mode. Since
x
usually L > W, the lowest-frequency mode is the TM 001
mode, for which
1
c
f r(001) =
=
.
(21.32)
L
2
2L r
x
The dominant TM 001
mode is exactly the mode considered by the
transmission-line model (see previous sections). The field distribution of
some low-order modes is given in the following figure:
The general solution for the Ax( mnp ) (see (21.20) and (21.24)) is
Ax( mnp ) = Axc cos m x Bxc cos n y C xc cos p z ,
h
W
L
or
Ax( mnp ) = Amnp cos m x cos n y cos p z .
h
L
W
The respective solution for field vectors of the (m,n,p) mode is
k 2 k x2
Ex = j
Amnp cos(k x x) cos( k y y ) cos(k z z ) ,
kx k y
Ey = j
Ez = j
kx kz
Hy =
Hz =
kz
ky
(21.33)
(21.34)
(21.35)
(21.36)
(21.37)
Hx = 0,
Amnp cos(k x x) cos(k y y ) sin(k z z ) ,
(21.38)
(21.39)
(21.40)
x
For the dominant TM 001
mode,
16
G G
Js , M s
G
Ms
G
Js = 0
G
G
M s = 2n E
G
Ms
The influence of the infinite ground plane
G is accounted for by the image
theory, according to which the currents M s in the presence of the infinite
plane radiate as if magnetic currents
G of double
G strength radiate in free space:
M s = 2n E .
(21.45)
G
Note that an Ex field at the slots corresponds to M s density vector, which is
tangential to the ground plane. Thus, its image is of the same direction. The
x
equivalent magnetic current densities for the dominant TM 001
mode are
sketched below.
G
G
J s = n H
G
G
M s = n E
G G
Js , M s
Because of the very small height (h) of the substrate, the field is concentrated
beneath the patch. There is some actual electrical current at the top metallic
plate, however, its contribution to radiation is negligible. That is because (1)
it is backed by a conductor, and (2) it is very weak compared to the
equivalent currents at the slots. The actual electrical current density of the top
patch is maximum at the edges of the patch, but still its values are negligible
in comparison with the radiation effect from the slots.
In the cavity model, the side walls
employ magnetic-wall boundary
G
condition, which sets the tangential H components at the slots equal to zero.
Therefore,
G
G
J s = n H = 0 .
(21.43)
Only the equivalent magnetic current
G densityG
M s = n E
(21.44)
has substantial contribution to the radiated field.
17
L
x
#1
t
G
lo
s
M
s
z
G
E (001)
#2
t
slo G
Ms
G
At slots #1 and #2, the equivalent M s currents are co-directed and with
equal amplitudes. They are constant along x and y.
18
P ( x, y , z )
G
rPQ
G
r
Q ( x, z )
G
G r
Ms
G
The radiation from an (x-y) slot of constant M s currents is found using
G
G
the electric vector potential F . Since M s has only a y component, so does
G G
F : F = Fy y .
Fy (r , , ) =
h/2 W /2
My
r
h / 2 W / 2 PQ
jkrPQ
dxdz .
(21.46)
e jkr
4 r
h/2
W /2
h / 2
W / 2
2 r
X
Y
(21.48)
where
kh
sin cos ,
2
kW
Y=
sin sin .
2
X=
19
According to the relation between the far-zone E-field and the vector
potential,
Er 0, E = j F , E = j F ,
(21.49)
where = / , F = Fy cos sin , and F = Fy cos .
WhE0 jkr
sin X sin Y
E = j
e
cos sin
(21.50)
2 r
X
Y
WhE0 jkr
sin X sin Y
E = j
e
cos
(21.51)
2 r
X
Y
Since = k ,
V
sin X sin Y
V
sin X sin Y
Here V0 = hE0 is the voltage between the patch edge and the ground plane.
Slots #1 and #2 form an array of two elements with excitation of equal
phase and magnitude, separated by a distance L. Their AF is
kLeff
AF12 = 2cos
cos .
(21.54)
2
Here Leff = L + 2L is the effective patch length. Thus, the total radiation
field is
kWV0 jkr
sin X sin Y kLeff
cos , (21.55)
Et = j
e
cos sin
cos
X
Y 2
r
kL
eff
kWV0 jkr
sin X sin Y
cos . (21.56)
Et = j
e
cos
cos
X
Y 2
r
kLeff
cos , the pattern of the patch is obtained as
Introducing Z =
2
sin X sin Y
f ( , ) = E2 + E2 = 1 sin 2 sin 2
cos Z . (21.57)
X
Y
20
180)
kh
sin sin
2
cos kLeff cos .
f E ( ) =
kh
2
sin
2
(21.58)
kW
f H ( ) = cos
kh
kW
cos
sin
2
2
360)
(21.59)
90
30
60
330
1
120
0.8
60
30
300
0.6
150
0.4
90
270
0.2
0.4
0.6
r = 2.2
180
90
0.8
0.2
30
60
330
1
120
0.8
60
30
300
0.6
150
0.4
21
0.4
0.2
270
0.6
r = 4
90
180
0.8
0.2
22
23
24
The circular patch cannot be analyzed using the TL method, but can be
accurately described by the cavity method. It is again assumed that only TMz
modes
are supported in the cavity. They are fully described by the VP
G
2 Az + k 2 Az = 0
which now is solved in cylindrical coordinates:
1 Az 1 2 Az 2 Az
+ 2
+
+ k 2 Az = 0
2
2
z
2
2
Az 1 Az 2 Az
1 Az
+
+
+ k 2 Az = 0
+
2 2 2
z 2
1 Az 2 Az
1 2 Az 2 Az
+
+
+ 2 + k 2 Az = 0
2 2 2
z
Az = R ( ) F ( ) Z ( z )
R
R RZ F
Z
+ FZ 2 + 2
+ RF 2 + k 2 RFZ = 0
2
z
2
FZ
(22.1)
(22.2)
(22.3)
(22.4)
(22.5)
(22.6)
1 R 1 2 R
1 2 F 1 2Z
+
+
+
= k 2
(22.7)
R R 2 2 F 2 Z z 2
The 4th term is independent on and , and is being separated:
1 2Z
= k z 2 .
(22.8)
Z z 2
Then,
1 R 1 2 R
1 2F
+
+
= k 2 k z 2 = const
(22.9)
R R 2 2 F 2
R 2 2 R 1 2 F
+
+
+ k 2 kz2 2 = 0 .
(22.10)
R R 2 F 2
Now, the 3rd term is independent of , and the other terms are independent
of . Thus, (22.10) is separated into two equations:
1 2F
= k2
(22.11)
F 2
and
R 2 2 R
+
+ k 2 k z 2 2 k 2 = 0 .
(22.12)
R R 2
We define
k 2 = k 2 kz 2 .
(22.13)
Thus, equation (22.1) has been separated into three ordinary differential
equations - (22.8), (22.11) and (22.14).
(a) Equation (22.8) is complemented by Neumann BC at the top patch and
the grounded plane (electric walls):
Az
Z
=0
= 0.
(22.15)
z
z
Its solution, therefore, is in the form
Z ( z ) = cn cos n z
(22.16)
h
n
with the eigenvalues k z = n / h .
(b) The solution of (22.11) is also a harmonic function. Since we are
interested in real-valued harmonic functions,
F ( ) = bmc cos km + bms sin km .
(22.17)
m
(22.18)
Equation (22.18) is true only if k are integers. That is why the usual
construction of a general solution for F ( ) for a complete cylindrical region
( = 0 to 2 ) is in the form
F ( ) = bmc cos ( m ) + bms sin ( m ) .
(22.19)
=a
(22.20)
and that the field is finite for = a . The Bessel functions of the first kind
J n (k ) are the suitable choice. The eigenvalues k are determined from
(22.20):
J n (k )
nm
, k
=0
=a
nm
a
(22.21)
h
The characteristic equation (22.13) is finally obtained as
k 2 = 2 = k 2 + k z 2 .
(22.23)
From (22.23), the resonant frequencies of the patch can be obtained:
2
2
2
(22.24)
= nm + p ,
mnp
a h
th
nm
(22.25)
a + p h .
2
Equation (22.25) does not take into account the fringing effect of the circular
patch. The actual radius a should be replaced by
f r ( mnp ) =
1/ 2
2h a
(22.26)
ae = a 1 +
ln
+ 1.7726 .
a r 2h
The first four modes in ascending order are TMz110, TMz210, TMz010,
are
TMz310 where the respective nulls nm
= 1.8412
11
= 3.0542
21
set bns = 0 . The field components are computed from Az according to the
field-potential relations
j 2 Az
z
j 1 2 Az
E =
z
j 2 Az
2
Ez =
2 + k Az
z
E =
1 1 Az
1 Az
H =
Hz = 0
H =
(22.29)
H = j
H = j
E0 1
0
E0
/ a )sin
J1 ( 11
(22.30)
/ a )cos
J1( 11
= 3.8318
01
= 4.2012
31
5
As with the rectangular patch, the field radiated by the circular slot is
determined using the equivalence principle. The circumferential wall of the
cavity is replaced by an equivalent circular sheet of magnetic current density
M = 2 Ez
(22.31)
=a
radiating in free space. The factor of 2 accounts for the ground plane. Since
the height of the slot h is very small and the slot field is independent of z, we
can substitute the surface magnetic current density over the slot with a
filamentary magnetic current I m = M h :
)cos .
I m = 2hE0 J1 ( 11
(22.32)
2V0
W =L
W =L
d
L
(e) CP for square patches with thin slots: c = L / 2.72 = W / 2.72 , d = c /10
B. Circular patch with circularly polarized field
1
L = W 1 +
Qt
(c) Nearly square patch with microstrip-line feed for CP accounting for losses
10
TM110
90
TM210
45
or
135
TM310
30
or
90
TM410
22.5
or
67.5
TM510
TM610
18, 54 15, 45
or
or
90
75
11
12