Chapter 22 The FEM Applied To Dynamic Analyses

Chapter 22 The FEM Applied to Dynamic Analyses_______________________________
214
CHAPTER 22

THE FEM APPLIED TO DYNAMIC ANALYSES

In civil engineering design the dynamic parameters of structures are very
important. The natural frequencies are directly related to the overall
stiffness, as well as with the stiffness of each structural component. The
main dynamic loads are earthquakes, wind, vibrating machineries or moving
loads (convoys). For structures located in seismic regions the limitation of
lateral displacement due to earthquakes (or the flexibility limitation) is
sometimes expressed as dynamic stiffness, in terms of the basic natural
frequencies.

In order to avoid the amplification effect due to dynamic loads (phenomenon
known as resonance), the natural frequency of a civil engineering structure
should be as far as possible from the frequency of the applied load. The
resonance between civil engineering structures and their foundation ground
should be avoided. Thus, for regions with soft soils (i.e. with low natural
frequencies) stiff structures (with high natural frequencies) are
recommended. By contrary, in regions with hard rock foundation layers,
flexible structures are more appropriate. Long-span bridge structures are
very sensible to dynamic loads due to traffic and wind. Their natural
frequencies and vibration shapes are of utmost importance in the design
process. Sometimes, the criterion for limiting the thinness of a concrete
floor (or slab) can be its natural frequency. Excessive thin floors are usually
uncomfortable.

Regarding the dynamic response of a structure, in most cases the stress and
strain level is higher during the dynamic load. Some regions may exhibit
nonlinear material behavior due to incursions in plastic state, as well as
geometric nonlinearities.

22.1 THE MODAL ANALYSIS

The first step in assessing the vibration characteristics of a structure and
highlighting its dynamic response is the modal analysis. It is also the
starting point for other dynamic analysis, such as transient dynamic
analysis, harmonic response analysis or spectrum analysis.

______________________Basics of the Finite Element Method Applied in Civil Engineering

215
The vibration characteristics are the natural frequencies f [Hz] and the
associated mode shapes. They are intrinsic characteristics of the systems
free vibrations. The number of natural frequencies and mode shapes equals
the number of dynamic degrees of freedom of the vibrating system.
Alternative parameters are the natural vibration period T [sec] and the
natural circular frequency [rad/sec]. The natural frequencies of the
vibrating system are called the eigenvalues, while the mode shapes are
building up the eigenvectors.

In the following figure, a simple cantilever is meshed in four 2D beam
elements. Next to the finite element model, the first 3 vibration modes and
the corresponding displacement vectors are represented.

Fig. 22.1 First three vibration modes of a cantilever

22.1.1 Model requirements and method limitations

During a modal analysis only a linear behavior of the model is taken into
account. Nonlinear material properties are neglected. Elements with usual
nonlinear behavior (as contact elements) are treated as linear. It is also
essential to define the mass properties of the model, either by declaring the
material density the elements are made off, or by using concentrated mass
1
2
3
4
5

1,1
1,3
1,4
1,2
2,3
2,1
2,2
2,4
3,1
3,4
3,3
3,2
E1
m1
E2
m2
E3
m3
E4
m4
mode 2
f2
mode 1
f1
mode 3
f3


216
elements. The Youngs modulus value E
d
should reflect the dynamic
behavior of the structure*.

The natural frequencies and the mode shapes are determined out of the free
vibration-motion equations of the structure, in which the damping term is
neglected due to its insignificant value:

0 K M = +
& &
(22.1)

The linear system is verified by free harmonic vibrations of the form:

t
i i i
cos = (22.2)

where:
i
- is the eigenvector representing the mode shape of the i
th

natural frequency**;

i
- is the i
th
circular frequency (radians/second);
t - is time (seconds).

Thus, the equation system yields:

( ) 0 M K =
i
2
(22.3)

This equality is satisfied if either
i
= 0 or if the determinant of
( ) M K
2
is zero. Discarding the trivial solution, the second option
represents an n order equation in
2
called the characteristic equation or the
eigenvalues equation:

0 M K =
2
(22.4)

The solutions of this equation are the n eigenvalues (the natural circular
frequencies
i
) of the vibrating system and the n eigenvectors
i
. The
natural frequencies yield:

* Usually, different values are assigned for the Youngs modulus in static and
dynamic analyses. The difference is justified by the velocity of load appliance.
** Because the solution of (22.2) cannot determine the values of displacements
, the n vectors
i
give the proportions of the various terms.


217
2
i
i
f = (cycles per time unit)

To enhance the numerical precision each eigenvector is normalized
according to the largest component such that

1 =
i
T
i
M (22.5)

and the larges component becomes 1 (unity). The eigenvectors are
orthogonal relative to the mass matrix and to the stiffness matrix:

0 =
n
T
m
M , m n
(22.6)
0 =
n
T
m
K , m n

22.1.2 The mass matrix

Now it is appropriate to discuss about the mass matrix, which was
disregarded on purpose during the chapters dedicated to static analyses (in
order to avoid making matters worse). The details regarding the mass matrix
formulation where postponed because dynamic analyses are based on the
inertia loads evaluation, meaning forces that are proportional with the mass.
Such inertia loads, when applied on certain directions, may be much more
effective then the usual gravity loads. It is obvious that the mass property
is used also in static analyses, when the structures own weight is taken into
account.

In the FEM the mass property can be assigned in two ways: firstly, as the
real mass, computed by multiplying the elements volume V with the
materials density (declared as one of its properties) and secondly, by
using the concentrated mass element, out of the computer codes library.
This element is a dimensionless finite element, defined by a single node (a
local concentrated mass with a prescribed value).

For the first category, the total mass matrix M is assembled by the usual
rule, based on element sub-matrices:


218
=
Ve
T
e
dV N N M (22.7)

where M
e
is known as the element mass matrix. The mass matrix M is a
square table with the same dimension as the stiffness matrix (i.e. depending
on the number of nodal DOF). M can be used in computations as a
consistent mass matrix (with all terms with nonzero values) or as a
lumped, diagonal matrix, even if no concentrated masses exist. For many
computational processes the lumped matrix is more convenient and
economical. However, the lumping methodology is not easy for higher order
elements.

For the triangular, 2D plane stress or plain strain element, with nodes l, m
and n the shape functions matrix N is defined as

| |
n m l e
N N N = I N (22.8)

in which
(
=
1 0
0 1
I and
+ +
=
2
y c x b a
N
i i i
i
, etc, where is the area of the
triangle. The displacement component u of the 2D triangular element can be
expressed in terms of nodal displacements u
l
, u
m
and u
n
as

( ) ( ) ( ) | |
n n n n m m m m l l l l
u y c x b a u y c x b a u y c x b a u + + + + + + + +
=
2
1

(22.9)

in which the coefficients are obtained by circular permutations

m n n m l
y x y x a =
mn n m l
y y y b = = (22.10)

nm m n l
x x x c = =

and
( ) lmn
y x
y x
y x
n n
m m
l l
area 2
1
1
1
det 2 = = (22.11)


219
As the same approximation is available for the other Cartesian direction y,
the displacement vector in terms of the shape functions yields:

| | d I I I d N = =
(
=
n m l
N N N
v
u
(22.12)

If the thickness of the element t is constant over its area, the mass matrix
yields:
= dxdy t
T
e
N N M or
= dxdy N N t
s r e
I M (22.13)

Substituting the shape functions, the value of the integral will be:

( )
( ) s r
s r
dxdy N N
s r
=
when
when
6 / 1
12 / 1
(22.14)

Fig. 22.2 Elemental mass matrix triangular element

With the notation M = t the consistent mass matrix becomes

2
1
0
0
2
1
4
1
0
0
4
1
4
1
0
0
4
1
4
1
0
0
4
1
2
1
0
0
2
1
4
1
0
0
4
1
4
1
0
0
4
1
4
1
0
0
4
1
2
1
0
0
2
1
3
M
e
= M (22.15)
x
y
l
m
n
, t,


220
If the mass would be lumped toward the element nodes in 3 equal parts, the
lumped mass matrix would be:

1 0
0 1
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
1 0
0 1
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
1 0
0 1
3
M
l
e
= M (22.16)

22.1.3 The eigenvectors computation

Many extremely efficient procedures where developed to find the actual
eigenvalues. Most processes are based on the special eigenvalue problem
given by:
x x S
i
= (22.17)

in which S is a symmetric, positive defined matrix (which is the usual case
for K and M in structural analyses). When writing the equation
( ) 0 M K =
i
2
in this form, as

i i i
M K =
1
(22.18)

the computation
1
K and substitution
2
/ 1 = lead generally to the loss of
symmetry.

However, writing the stiffness matrix as

T
L L K = and
1 1
1

=

L L K
T -
(22.19)

in which L is a matrix having only zero coefficients above the diagonal and
then multiplying equation (22.18) with
T
L , yields

i
T
i i
-
L M L =
1
. (22.20)


221
Using the notation
i
T
L x = the special eigenvalue relationship (22.17) is
reached, in which
1
1

=
T
ML L S is a symmetric form.

After determining
i
(usually a few selected values corresponding to the
largest vibration periods T) the x vectors are found and hence the
eigenvectors
i
. If the mass matrix is lumped, the procedure of determining
the eigenvalues is simplified, which is an important advantage of the
diagonalization.

22.1.4 Master and slave DOF

For solving an eigenvalue problem the computer effort is one order of
magnitude higher than for the equivalent static analysis. A technique applied
to simplify the solution is to select only a set of nodes (with the
corresponding DOFs), called master nodes (and master degrees of freedom
respectively), which are significant for the dynamic response of the
structure. The process is similar with sub-structuring, being based on matrix
partitioning. It is assumed that all the other DOF of the structure (called
slave DOFs) depend in some way on the master DOF:

m s
T = (22.21)

where T is the dependence matrix.

The total displacement vector is divided into 2 parts:

m m
T
T
I
s
m *
=
(
=
(
= (22.22)

The dynamic equation of the whole system (disregarding the damping
effect) can be reduced by applying previous assumption

0 K M
* *
= +
m m
& &
(22.23)

where
* * *
KT T K
T
= and
* * *
MT T M
T
= . This is the so called reduced
problem, with a smaller number of unknowns.


222
Although reasonably good eigenvalues are obtained using a lower number
of DOF, for further computations the solution for the slave DOF should also
be known. The T dependency can be assumed so that the general pattern of
displacement should follow the master DOF displacements. The easiest way
is to prescribe the
m
displacements on the unloaded structure in static
conditions:
(
=
(
=
m m
s
mm sm
sm ss
f
0
K K
K K
K (22.24)

As slave nodes are unloaded

0 K K = +
m sm s ss
or
m sm ss s
K K
1
= (22.25)

Thus

sm ss
K K T
1
= . (22.26)

Finally, it is up to the user to choose how master and slave DOF are
assigned. It is obvious that DOF with no attached mass (or with small
attached mass) are the first ones to be declared slave DOF, because their
contribution to the dynamic response of the structure is insignificant. The
FEA computer codes have an automatic option for master DOF selection.
The selection procedure is based on the ratio value between the diagonal
terms of the stiffness and mass matrices,
ii ii
M K / . The DOF corresponding
to the largest values of the ratio are selected until the desired number of
master DOF is reached.

22.1.5 The structural response

The total response of a structural system with several dynamic DOF is
defined as the sum of shape functions multiplied by the generalized
coordinates. This representation is based on the free vibrations eigenvectors.
Each eigenvector represents one of the n pattern displacements. By their
amplitudes, considered as generalized coordinates, any deformed shape can
be represented. The combination of first three vibration shapes into a
displacement shape is shown in figure 22.3. For each modal component
n

the displacement is computed as the product between the eigenvector and
the modal amplitude Y
n
:


223
n n n
Y = (22.26)

The total displacement is computed as the sum of its modal components:

n n n
Y Y Y + + + = ...
2 2 1 1
(22.27)

According to relationship 22.27, the modal matrix is used to transform
the generalized coordinates Y into geometrical coordinates .

Fig. 22.3 Displacement of a 4 dynamic DOF system, as sum of its modal
components

An example of modal analysis is represented below. The structure of a three
storey building is made of concrete diaphragm walls, spatial frames and
concrete floors. The 3D finite elements model is shown in figure 22.4.a.
Although the columns and beams are meshed with line-type elements the
representation is made emphasizing their real cross section. The equivalent
mass was evaluated by assigning the material density. The masses of the
faade and the partition walls are taken into account using an artifice, by
melting them in the floors density. The constraints are applied at the
bottom nodes, by suppressing all DOF.

1
2,1 3,1 1,1
1,3
1,4
1,2
2,4
2,2
2,3
4
3,2 2
3,4
3,3
+ + =
3
1 1 1
Y =
3 3 3
Y =
2 2 2
Y = Y =


224
For a building with a limited height and a reasonably regular structure, the
first three vibration modes (and frequencies) define with sufficient accuracy
its dynamic behavior. The first vibration shape occurs usually along the
transversal direction, as the most flexible one, while the second vibration
shape occurs along the longitudinal direction. The third vibration shape
represents the torsion of the structure, due to the different locations of the
mass centroid and the rotational stiffness centroid, leading to an overall
torsion moment.

Although the presented structure has only longitudinal symmetry, the
expected results are achieved. The natural vibration modes as well as the
corresponding calculated frequencies are shown in figures 22.4.b, c and d.

22.2 THE SPECTRUM ANALYSIS

The spectrum analysis represents the next step in the dynamic response
assessment of a structure. Usually the deterministic spectrum method is
used. It must be preceded by a modal analysis, finished with the expansion
step of the required vibration modes.

The aim of the analysis is to calculate the displacement, strain and stress
fields as components of the dynamic response of the structure. The
assessment is based on the use of various response spectra, followed by a
probabilistic combination of maximum effects.

The main assumptions of the spectrum method are:

- the structure has a linear-elastic behavior;
- in case of the single-point response spectrum, the structure is excited
by a spectrum of known frequency components applied
simultaneously on all constrained points (or on specified master
DOF);
- in case of the multi-point response spectrum, the structure may be
excited by different input spectra at different points.

The maximum response values of a simple oscillator to a variable excitation
applied on the support point - such as an acceleration ) (t u& & - are called


225
spectral response values. The corresponding graphical representations of
these values versus a frequency range are called response spectra.

Fig. 22.4 Finite elements model (a); first, second and third vibration shapes
(b, c, and d respectively)
a. b.
c. d.
T
1
= 0.48 sec
f
1
= 2.09 Hz
T
2
= 0.36 sec
f
2
= 2.78 Hz
T
3
= 0.18 sec
f
3
= 5.37 Hz


226
According to the meaning of these representations, a response spectrum may
be a displacement spectrum, a velocity spectrum or an acceleration
spectrum. An example is shown in figure 22.5, each graph corresponding to
a different dumping value.

The maximum response values for an oscillator with several dynamic DOF
are calculated based on the spectral representations, as it is shown in figure
22.3. The spectra are distinguished on each excitation direction. They are
assigned as tabular data, according to an accepted frequency range or natural
vibration periods range. Also, each vibration mode which is taken into
account has a different participation factor to the overall result.

Fig. 22.5 Acceleration spectra for three different dumping factors.

The participation factor of the i
th
mode, for a given excitation direction is
defined as:

MD
T
i i
= for the support excitation option, or
F
T
i i
= for the force excitation option,

where
i
- the normalized eigenvector;
D - a vector describing the excitation direction
F - the input force vector.
T(s)
S
a
(m/s
2
)
1
2
3
2.5
1.5
0.5
0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
= 0.01
= 0.02
= 0.05
T
1
T
2
S
a,2

S
a,1


227
The excitation direction vector has the general form

| | .....
3 2 1
k k k
D D D = D

where
k
j
D is the excitation at DOF j in the direction k.

The displacement vector for each mode is computed from the eigenvector
by using the mode coefficients
i
:

u
i
=
i
i
(22.28)

The mode coefficient is computed in different ways, depending on the
excitation type. For a velocity excitation of the support points,

i
i i v
i
S
,
= (22.29)

with S
v,i
the spectral velocity for the i
th
mode, as input value from the
velocity spectrum at frequency f
i
, and
i
the i
th
natural circular frequency.

For an acceleration excitation of the support points,

2
,
i
i i a
i
S
= (22.30)

with S
a,i
th
i
., and

i i i
S
,
= (22.31)

with S
,i
th
i
.

The spectral values S
v,i
, S
a,i
and S
,i
between the ones defining the spectrum
vertexes are calculated by interpolation.


228
The modal displacements are finally combined in order to obtain the
maximum response of the structure. It includes strains, stresses and reaction
forces as well, if they where computed in the expansion step. The most used
combination methods are the following:

- The Square Root of the Sum of Squares method; the total modal
response (displacement, stress or reaction) is calculated with the relationship

=
=
n
i
i
R R
1
2
(22.32)

with R
i
the modal response of mode i.

- The Naval Research Laboratory Sum method calculates the
maximum modal response as
+ =
=
n
i
i
R R R
2
2
1
(22.33)

where
1
R is the absolute value of the largest modal response at the peculiar
point and R
i
the modal response of the same point from other modes.

- The Grouping method; the maximum modal response yields

=
= =
n
i
n
j
j i ij
R R R
1 1
(22.34)
where
>
=
1 . 0 if 0
1 . 0 if 1
i
j i
i
j i
ij

The main disadvantage of using the modal analysis results in the design
process is due to the fact that the maximum modal response values are
always positive (being obtained from square roots). In this circumstance, the
combination of these results with other load cases (as the results of a static
analysis, due to gravity load) should be made with care.


229
22.3 PERFORMING MODAL AND SPECTRUM ANALYSES

In order to perform a modal analysis, the following steps should be
followed:

1. Build the finite element model. All the modeling rules shown in chapters
25 and 26 are available, with the subsequent remarks:

- only the linear behavior is valid in a modal analysis; if nonlinear
elements or material properties are specified, they are treated as linear;
- it is compulsory to define the mass of the model, either as materials
density or by using concentrated mass elements;
- no loads are applied during a spectrum analysis (only prestress
effects if the case);
- the DOF where the base excitation spectrum will be applied should
be constrained.

2. Select the vibration modes extraction method and the number of modes to
be extracted. Frequency ranges may be used in order to filter unnecessary
vibration modes. Enough modes should be chosen to cover the frequency
range to characterize the structure's response. The accuracy of the solution
depends on the number of modes used: the larger the number, the higher the
accuracy.

3. Select the master DOF (user defined or automatically, using the computer
code options).

4. Calculate the natural frequencies and the corresponding mode shapes.

5. Define the spectrum (spectral value versus frequency curve) spanned in
the range of expected natural frequencies. Define the dumping coefficients.

6. Expanding the reduced solution to the full DOF set.

7. Combine the modes in a separate solution phase, selecting the appropriate
combination method.

Chapter 22 The FEM Applied To Dynamic Analyses

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