INTRODUCTION TO COMPOSITES

A broad definition of composite is : Two or more

chemically distinct materials which when combined have
improved properties over the individual materials. It is also
defined as a heterogeneous substance consisting of two or more
materials which does not lose the characteristics of each
component. This combination of materials brings about new
desirable properties.
Mankind has been aware composite materials since
several hundred years before Christ and applied innovation to
improve the quality of life. Although it is not clear has to how Man
understood the fact that mud bricks made sturdier houses if lined
with straw he used them to make buildings that lasted. Ancient
!haraohs made their slaves use bricks with to straw to enhance
the structural integrity of their buildings some of which testify to
wisdom of the dead civili"ation even today.
Composites could be natural or synthetic.
Traditional or natural composites - composite materials that
occur in nature or have been produced by civili"ations for
many years
#$amples: wood concrete asphalt
%aturally occurring composites include tendon bone bamboo
rock and many other biological and geological materials. &ood is
a good e$ample of a natural composite combination of cellulose
fiber and lignin. The cellulose fiber provides strength and the
lignin is the 'glue' that bonds and stabili"es the fiber.
Synthetic composites ( modern material systems normally
associated with the manufacturing industries in which the
components are first produced separately and then combined
in a controlled way to achieve the desired structure properties
and part geometry
Contemporary composites results from research and
innovation from past few decades have progressed from glass
fiber for automobile bodies to particulate composites for
aerospace and a range other applications.
Ironically despite the growing familiarity with
composite materials and ever(increasing range of applications
the term defines a clear definition. )oose terms like *materials
composed of two or more distinctly identifiable constituents+ are
used to describe natural composites like timber organic
materials like tissue surrounding the skeletal system soil
aggregates minerals and rock.
Composites that forms heterogeneous structures
which meet the requirements of specific design and function
imbued with desired properties which limit the scope for
classification. ,owever this lapse is made up for by the fact new
types of composites are being innovated all the time each with
their own specific purpose like the filled flake particulate and
laminar composites.
-ibers or particles embedded in matri$ of another
material would be the best e$ample of modern(day composite
materials which are mostly structural.

Components of composite materials
Composites are combinations of two materials in
which one of the material is called the reinforcing phase is in
the form of fibers sheets or particles and is embedded in the
other material called the matrix phase.
Typically reinforcing materials are strong with low
densities while the matri$ is usually a ductile or tough material. If
the composite is designed and fabricated correctly it combines
the strength of the reinforcement with the toughness of the
matri$ to achieve a combination of desirable properties not
available in any single conventional material
Basic Components of composite materials:
C)A..I-ICATI/% /- C/M!/.IT#. :
In its most basic form a composite material is one
which is composed of at least two elements working together to
produce material properties that are different to the properties of
those elements on their own. In practice most composites consist
of a bulk material0the 1matri$12 and a reinforcement of some kind
added primarily to increase the strength and stiffness of the
matri$. This reinforcement is usually in fibre form.
Composite materials are commonly classified at following two
distinct levels:
Composites based on matri$ constituent.
Composites based on reinforcement form.
Composites based on matri$ constituent :
The first level of classification is usually made
with respect to
the matri$ constituent. The ma3or composite classes include
/rganic Matri$
Composites 0/MCs2 Metal Matri$ Composites 0MMCs2 and
Ceramic Matri$
Composites 0CMCs2. The term organic matri$ composite is
generally assumed
to include two classes of composites namely !olymer Matri$
Composites
0!MCs2 and carbon matri$ composites commonly referred to as
carbon
carbon composites.
Today the most common man(made composites can be divided
into three main groups:
!olymer Matri$ Composites 0!MC1s2 :These are the most
common and will the main area of discussion in this guide. Also
known as -4! ( -ibre 4einforced !olymers 0or !lastics2 ( these
materials use a polymer(based resin as the matri$ and a
variety of fibres such as glass carbon and aramid as the
reinforcement.
Metal Matri$ Composites 0MMC1s2 ( Increasingly found in the
automotive industry these materials use a metal such as
aluminium as the matri$ and reinforce it with fibres such as
silicon carbide.
Ceramic Matri$ Composites 0CMC1s2 ( 5sed in very high
temperature environments these materials use a ceramic as
the matri$ and reinforce it with short fibres or whiskers such as
those made from silicon carbide and boron nitride.
Composites based on reinforcement form

The second level of classification refers to
the reinforcement form ( fibre reinforced composites laminar
composites and particulate composites. -ibre reinforced
composites can be further divided into those containing
discontinuous or continuous fibres.

-ibre 4einforced Composites are composed of fibres embedded
in matri$ material. .uch a composite is considered to be a
discontinuous fibre or short fibre composite if its properties
vary with fibre length. /n the other hand when the length of
the fibre is such that any further increase in length does not
further increase the elastic modulus of the composite the
composite is considered to be continuous fibre reinforced.
-ibres are small in diameter and when pushed a$ially they
bend easily although they have very good tensile properties.
These fibres must be supported to keep individual fibres from
bending and buckling.
)aminar Composites are composed of layers of materials held
together by matri$. .andwich structures fall under this
category.

!articulate Composites are composed of particles distributed or
embedded in a matri$ body. The particles may be flakes or in
powder form. Concrete and wood particle boards are e$amples
of this category.
4#I%-/4C#M#%T.:
.trong materials bonded to or into a matri$ to
improve mechanical properties. Materials ranging from short
fibers through comple$ te$tile forms that is combined with a resin
to provide the composite with enhanced mechanical properties.
4einforcements for the composites can be fibers
fabrics particles or whiskers. -ibers are essentially characteri"ed
by one very long a$is with other two a$es either often circular or
near circular. !articles have no preferred orientation and so does
their shape. &hiskers have a preferred shape but are small both
in diameter and length as compared to fibers.
T6!#. /- 4#I%-/C#M#%T. I% C/M!/.IT#.:
4einforcing constituents in composites as
the word indicates provide the strength that makes the
composite what it is. 7ut they also serve certain additional
purposes of heat resistance or conduction resistance to corrosion
and provide rigidity. 4einforcement can be made to perform all or
one of these functions as per the requirements.
A reinforcement that embellishes the matri$
strength must be stronger and stiffer than the matri$ and capable
of changing failure mechanism to the advantage of the
composite. This means that the ductility should be minimum or
even nil the composite must behave as brittle as possible.
-iber 4einforcement :
-ibers are the important class of
reinforcements as they satisfy the desired conditions and
transfer strength to the matri$ constituent influencing and
enhancing their properties as desired.

8lass fibers are the earliest known fibers used to
reinforce materials. Ceramic and metal fibers were subsequently
found out and put to e$tensive use to render composites stiffer
more resistant to heat
.
-ibers fall short of ideal performance due to
several factors. The performance of a fiber composite is 3udged by
its length shape orientation composition of the fibers and the
mechanical properties of the matri$.
Types of Fibers :
/rganic and inorganic fibers are used to
reinforce composite materials. Almost all organic fibers have low
density fle$ibility and elasticity. Inorganic fibers are of high
modulus high thermal stability and possess greater rigidity than
organic fibers and not withstanding the diverse advantages of
organic fibers which render the composites in which they are
used.
Mainly the following different types of fibers
namely glass fibers silicon carbide fibers high silica and quart"
fibers aluminina fibers metal fibers and wires graphite fibers
boron fibers aramid fibers and multiphase fibers are used. Among
the glass fibers it is again classified into #(glass A(glass 4(glass
etc.
There is a greater marker and higher degree of commercial
movement of organic fibers. The potential of fibers of graphite
silica carbide and boron are also e$ercising the scientific mind
due to their applications in advanced composites.
Glass fibers :
/ver 9:; of the fibers used in reinforced
plastics are glass fibers as they are ine$pensive easy to
manufacture and possess high strength and stiffness with respect
to the plastics with which they are reinforced.

Their low density resistance to chemicals
insulation capacity are other bonus characteristics although the
one ma3or disadvantage in glass is that it is prone to break when
sub3ected to high tensile stress for a long time.
,owever it remains break(resistant at higher stress(levels in
shorter time frames. This property mitigates the effective
strength of glass especially when glass is e$pected to sustain
loads for many months or years continuously.

!eriod of loading temperature moisture and
other factors also dictate the tolerance levels of glass fibers and
the disadvantage is further compounded by the fact that the
brittleness of glass does not make room for prior warning before
the catamorphic failure.
7ut all this can be easily overlooked in view
of the fact the wide range of glass fiber variety lend themselves
amicably to fabrication processes like matched die(moulding
filament winding lay(up and so on. 8lass fibers are available in
the form of mates tapes cloth continuous and chopped
filaments roving and yarns.
Addition of chemicals to silica sand while making glass yields
different types of glasses
Carbon fibers also come in a variety of grades and si"es and
were once limited to the aerospace industry due to their high
cost. Carbon fiber imparts significantly more stiffness to a
composite than glass fibers at a lower weight and as the cost of
the fibers have decreased the utili"ation of carbon fibers have
made their way into other industries.

Aramid fibers recogni"ed more commonly by their trade
names of <evlar and Twaron are very strong lightweight and
heat resistant fibers. Aramid fibers are most commonly used in
high(end composites that require optimal strength(to(weight
performance.
Thermoplastic fibers are strands of thermoplastic resin from
polypropylene to ultra(high molecular weight polyethylene that
are lightweight chemical resistant and very tough.

Natural Fibers have been in 'composites' for thousands of
years dating back to the use of straw in mud bricks for primitive
buildings. In more recent times with a focus on renewable
resources there has been increased use of natural fibers in
composites focused mostly in thermoplastic composites. As with
any natural resource there is natural variation in material and
performance variation that has thus far been too great for many
composite manufacturing processes. As agri(tech and
manufacturing process continue to evolve and e$pand with a
focus on such.
Fabrics are produced from all of the above fibers in a multitude
of weaves. These fabrics from unidirectional to three(dimensional
weaves are all designed and engineered to optimi"e particular
mechanical properties in specific directions within the composite.
Cores are materials that have been encapsulated within a
composite laminate typically designed to increase the stiffness or
increase the insulative properties of the composite without
significantly increasing the weight of the system. The use of cores
are even used to 'tune' a composite1s transparency to specific
electromagnetic radiation 0i.e. various radar bands2. #$amples of
core material include a wide range of materials from
polyurethane foam to thermoplastic or even aluminum
honeycomb structures.
Multiphase Fibers :
.poolable filaments made by chemical vapour deposition
processes are usually the multiphase variety and they usually
comprise materials like boron silicon and their carbides formed
on surface of a very fine filament substrate like carbon or
tungsten. They are usually good for high temperature
applications due to their reduced reaction with higher melting
temperature of metals than graphite and other metallic fibers.
7oron filaments are sought after for structural and intermediate(
temperature composites.
A poly(phase fiber is a core(sheath fiber consisting of a poly(
crystalline core.
Whiskers :
.ingle crystals grown with nearly "ero defects are termed
whiskers. They are usually discontinuous and short fibers of
different cross sections made from several materials like graphite
silicon carbide copper iron etc. Typical lengths are in = to ::
%.M. ranges. &hiskers differ from particles in that whiskers have
a definite length to width ratio greater than one. &hiskers can
have e$traordinary strengths upto >??? M!a.
Matrix Materials
Although it is undoubtedly true that the high strength of
composites is largely due to the fibre reinforcement the
importance of matri$ material cannot be underestimated as it
provides support for the fibres and assists the fibres in carrying
the loads. It also provides stability to the composite material.
4esin matri$ system acts as a binding agent in a structural
component in which the fibres are embedded. &hen too much
resin is used the part is classified as resin rich. /n the other hand
if there is too little resin the part is called resin starved. A resin
rich part is more susceptible to cracking due to lack of fibre
support whereas a resin starved part is weaker because of void
areas and the fact that fibres are not held together and they are
not well supported.

Funtions of a Matrix
In a composite material the matri$ material serves the following
functions:
@ ,olds the fibres together.
@ !rotects the fibres from environment.
@ Aistributes the loads evenly between fibres so that all fibres
are sub3ected
to the same amount of strain.
@ #nhances transverse properties of a laminate.
@ Improves impact and fracture resistance of a component.
@ ,elps to avoid propagation of crack growth through the fibres
by
providing alternate failure path along the interface between
the fibres
and the matri$.
@ Carry interlaminar shear.
The matri$ plays a minor role in the tensile load(carrying capacity
of a composite structure. ,owever selection of a matri$ has a
ma3or influence on the interlaminar shear as well as in(plane
shear properties of the composite material. The interlaminar
shear strength is an important design consideration for structures
under bending loads whereas the in(plane shear strength is
important under torsion loads. The matri$ provides lateral support
against the possibility of fibre buckling under compression
loading thus influencing to some e$tent the compressive strength
of the composite material.
The interaction between fibres and matri$ is also important in
designing damage tolerant structures. -inally the processability
and defects in a composite material depend strongly on the
physical and thermal characteristics such as viscosity melting
point and curing temperature of the matri$. The fibres are
saturated with a liquid resin before it cures to a solid. The solid
resin is then said to be the matri$ for the fibres
General types of Matrix Materials
In general following general following types of matri$ materials
are available:
@ Thermosetting materialB
@ Thermoplastic materialB
@ CarbonB
@ MetalsB
@ CeramicsB
@ 8lass Matri$.
A thermosetting material is the one which when cured by
heat or chemical reaction is changed into an infusible and
insoluble material. Thermosetting resins undergo irreversible
chemical cross(linking reaction upon application of heat. /n the
other hand thermoplastics do not undergo a chemical reaction on
application of heat. They simply melt on application of heat and
pressure to form a component. Thermoplastics can be softened
and they undergo large and rapid change in viscosity with
variation in temperature. Thermoplastics can be repeatedly
softened by heating and hardened by cooling.
Thermosetting Materials
The ma3or group of materials used today in the industries
contains thermosetting matri$ resins.
T!er"oset Resin
!olyesters epo$y and other resins in liquid form
contain monomers 0consisting of simple molecules2 which
convert into polymers 0comple$ cross(linked molecules2 when the
resin is cured. The resulting solid .is called thermosets which is
tough hard insoluble and infusible. The property of infusibility
distinguishes thermosets from the thermoplastics. Cure and
polymerisation refer to the chemical reactions that solidify the
resin. Curing is accomplished by heat pressure and by addition of
curing agents at room temperature.
Thermosetting materials can be further divided into two
groups depending on how they react to form their network
structure. -or e$ample epo$ies and polyesters react to form a
network structure without formation of a volatile by(product.
!henolics react to form a volatile by(product i.e. water. The fact
that some thermosets form volatile by(products means that high
pressure laminating techniques must be used to prevent the
formation of voids or other defects. #po$ies and polyesters can be
cured at atmospheric pressures and also at ambient
temperatures.

!olyester matrices have been in use for the longest period in
the widest range of structures. !olyesters cure with the addition
of a catalyst 0usually a pero$ide2 resulting in an e$othermic
reaction which can be initiated at room temperature. The most
widely used matrices for advanced composites have been the
epo$y resins. These resins cost more than polyesters and do not
have the high temperature capability of the 7ismaleimides or
!olyimides. ,owever they are widely used due to the following
advantages.
@ Adhesion to fibres and to resin
@ %o by(products formed during cureB
@ )ow shrinkage during cureB
@ ,igh or low strength and fle$ibilityB
@ 4esistance to solvents and chemicalsB
@ 4esistance to creep and fatigueB
@ &ide range of curative optionsB
@ Ad3ustable curing rateB
@ 8ood electrical properties.
#po$ies do have few inherent disadvantages also vi"
.
@ 4esins and curatives are somewhat to$ic in uncured formB
@ Moisture absorption resulting into change in dimensions and
physical propertiesB
@ )imited to about C??DC 0=9CD-2 upper temperature useB
@ Aifficult to combine toughness and high temperature
resistanceB
@ ,igh thermal coefficient of e$pansionB
@ ,igh degree of smoke liberation in a fireB
@ May be sensitive to ultraviolet light degradationB
@ .low curing.
Fibre einforced !ol"mer #F!$ %aminated
Composites :
#a"inate #ay$up :
A structural laminate is designed to have a specific
lay(up or ply
arrangement based on the various design criteria imposed on it.
A laminate lay(up definition refers to the fibre orientation of
successive pies in a laminate with respect to an established
reference coordinate system.

Ply Orientation %efinition :
It designates the tape fibre direction or the warp
It is important that for positive and negative angles should be
consistent with the coordinate system chosen.
/ne of the advantages of using a modern composite is its
potential to orient the fibres to respond to the load requirement s.
this means that the composite designer must take into
consideration the characteristics of the material including the
aspects of the fibre orientation in each ply and how the plies arte
arranged.
#ach pl" #lamina$ is defined by a number representing the
direction of the fibre in degrees with respect to the reference 0$2
a$is. ?E fibres of both tape and fabric are oriented at angles equal
in magnitude but opposite in sign 0F2 and 0(2 are used. #ach 0F2
or 0(2 sign represents one ply.
Criteria use% %urin& Ply Orientation
-ollowing criteria should be used during ply orientation:
@ Attention to ply orientation on strength controlled laminates
can prevent matri$ and stiffness degradation. The ?E ply
orientation is used to carry the longitudinal loading the 9?E
ply orientation is suited to the transverse loading and the
GH:E ply orientation is for shear loading.
@ In order to minimise the in(plane shear place the GH:E and
(H:E plies togetherB the in(plane shear is carried as tension
and compression in the H:E plies.
@ To minimise warpage and interlaminar shear within a
laminate maintain the symmetry about the centre line of
the laminate.
@ .tress orientation can be minimised by proper designing or
by stepped laminate thickness changes.
@ The placement of specific ply orientations can influence the
buckling strength and damage tolerance. The outer ply
orientations influence the laminate bending characteristics
more than plies placed at or near the laminate bending
characteristics more than the plies placed at or near the
neutral a$is.
Influene of Fibre Orientation :
Strength and stiffness of a composite laminate depends on the orientation of the
plies with reference to the load direction. Proper selection of ply orientation is
necessary to provide a structurally efficient design. As stated above, a composite
part might require 0 plies to react to the axial loads, !" to react to the shear
loads and #0 plies to react to the side loads. $or example, a lay%up of "0& of 0
plies and "0& of !" plies will have strength and stiffness equivalent to those of
aluminium when loaded in the 0 direction.
Speial lassifiation of #a"inates :
'he laminates also classified based on the symmetricity of (einforced fibres, vi)*
+ Symmetric laminates
+ Anti%symmetric laminates
+ ,on%symmetric laminates
Desi&nin& t!e la"inate :
Many structural materials generally have isotropic properties
and they are homogeneous that is to say they are uniform in all
directions.
A composite material can take a number of different
forms. The material may be orthotropic such as a unidirectionally
reinforced polymer where the strength and stiffness in the fibre
direction considerably e$ceeds that at 9?D to the fibre. It may be
planar&isotropic such as a random chopped strand glass mat
reinforced polymer. It may approach isotropy by the use of very
short fibres randomly placed in a polymer by in3ection moulding.
In all cases though composite materials are inhomogeneous.
It is these anisotropic properties of composite
materials that are the key to developing highly efficient
structures. -ibres can be strategically placed so that they locally
engineer the required strength and stiffness properties.
-urthermore by combining different fibre types ( glass aramid
carbon etc ( the particular properties of each fibre can be
e$ploited. -or instance the low cost of glass the e$treme
toughness of aramid fibre and the high strength and stiffness of
carbon can all be used within a single laminate.
A composite material is not ductile like metal and
failure when it occurs is abrupt. The stiffness properties are
generally lower than those of steel but the lower weight of
composite materials results in e$cellent specific strength and
stiffness properties leading to reduced( weight components and
structures.
The properties of the laminate are affected by the amount of fibre
in the matri$ which in turn is influenced by the manufacturing
process.
T!e priniples of %esi&n analysis :
As in all structural designs the developed stress and strain levels in the
polymer composite when it is under load must be determined and the material
designed. 'he critical stress, strain and deformation values are then compared with
the relevant design criteria to ensure that the component satisfies product
requirements and material limitations. Polymer composites are usually
macroscopically inhomogeneous and anisotropic because of the reinforcing fibres
and, in addition, have visco elastic properties derived from the polymer matrix.
-wing to the differing material descriptions between composites, further material
properties are required to characterise polymer composites completely,
consequently, more complex analysis procedures are required to determine stress
and deformation levels than are generally required for the more conventional
materials.
'he three main aspects of material design which will be considered are*
.. 'he analysis which considers the anisotropy and non%homogeneity in
polymer composites /the material properties 0 the fibre and matrix, ply
orientation, layer thic1nesses, etc.2.
3. 'he short term load condition, in which the elastic stress and analysis
methods may be used, provided anisotropy is ta1en into account.
4. 'he long term load conditions, in which viscoelastic and degradation effects
may be significant5 in this case it would be necessary to modify the short
term elastic design procedures.
Re'uire"ents of "aterials( %esi&n
!olymer composite materials generally consist of laminae of
resin impregnated fibres which are unidirectionall" or
orthogonall" aligned angle&pl" or randoml" orientated
systems. It is also possible to provide a mi$ture of fibre arrays
in ad3acent laminae when fabricating a composite material to
meet the required loading situation. This freedom to tailor(
make composite materials with specific required properties
introduces an additional comple$ity in the design analyses of
these systems over those of the conventional ones.
As the design of composite structures ideally involves the
simultaneous analysis and design of the material and the
structural system this approach may be undertaken by the finite
element analysis. It can be e$pensive for small 3obs and is really
relevant only to the high technology of the aerospace industryB for
the medium technology applications a simpler approach is to
consider the material design independently from that of the
structural one. Consequently for the latter design application the
properties of a chosen fibreImatri$ array are calculated or
measured and are then utilised in the structural analyses.
'he ma6ority of polymer composite structural systems are composed of
relatively thin plates or shell laminates where the properties may be in terms of
laminate structure and ply thic1ness using laminated plate theory or by
commercially available P7 software. Assuming that the laminates had orthotropic
symmetry and that both in%plane direct and shear loads as well as bending and
twisting moments were acting on the plate,the element properties would require
two principal tensile stiffness, shear stiffness and two principal flexural rigidities.
8n addition, the corresponding strength values in tension, flexure and shear would
be required5 the latter three values would be obtained by either mechanical tests or
by underta1ing a laminate analysis and thus the laminate stiffness and strength
characteristics would be 1nown. 'o satisfy the necessary design criteria this
relatively small number of properties would then be used in the structural analysis
and design for the composite
M)NUF)CTURING OR F)*RIC)TION PROCESS OF COMPOSITE
#)MIN)TE:
Manufacturing !rocesses :
Manufacturing of composite materials involves distinct operations
that may vary depending upon available technology e$isting
facilities and personnel skill. The manufacturing process may also
vary due to wide variety of composite materials and their
application. #ach of the fabrication processes has characteristics
that define the type of products to be produced. This is
advantageous because this e$pertise allows to produce the best
composite. -actors considered for selection of most efficient
manufacturing process are as follows:
@ 5ser needs
@ Total production volume
@ !erformaiJce requirements
@ #conomic targets
@ .i"e of the product
@ )abour
@ .urface comple$ity
@ Materials
@ Appearance
@ ToolingIassembly
@ !roduction rate
@ #quipment
The goals of the composite manufacturing process are to:
@ Achieve a consistent product by controlling
-ibre thickness
-ibre volume
-ibre direction
@ Minimise voids
@ 4educe internal residual stresses
@ !rocess in the least costly manner
The procedure to achieve these goals involves series of actions to
select the three key components vi".
@ Composite material and its configuration
@ Tooling
@ !rocess
As reinforcement for composite material the choice
between unidirectional tape and woven fabric is made on the
basis of the greater strength and modulus attainable with the
tape particularly in applications in which compression strength is
important. .alient advantages and disadvantages of tape and
fabric for their selection are given below:
Tape Ad'antages
@ 7est modulus and strength efficiency
@ ,igh fibre volume achievable
@ )ow scrap rate
@ )ess tendency to trap volatiles
+ Automated lay(up possible
@ %o discontinuities
Fabri )%+anta&es
+ 9etter drape for complex shapes
+ Single ply is balanced and may be essentially symmetric
+ 7an be laid up without resin
+ Plies stay in line better during cure
+ 7ured parts easier to machine
+ 9etter impact resistance
+ :any forms available
Fabri Disa%+anta&es
+ $ibre discontinuities /splices2
+ ;ess strength and modulus
+ ;ower fibre volume than tape
+ :ore costly than tape
+ <reater scrap rates
+ =arp and fill properties differ
+ $abric distortion can cause part warping
Another aspect considered important for composite fabrication is
appropriate lay(up techniques along with composite cure control.
.ome of the considerations for choosing lay(up techniques are
given below:
Classifiation of Manufaturin& Proesses
:ost widely used manufacturing methods for laminated fibre composites are as
follows*
Open Mol% Proess :
+ Spray lay%up % 7hopped roving and resin sprayed simultaneously, rolled.
+ >and lay%up % ;ay%up of fibres or woven cloth, impregnate, no heat or
pressure.
+ $ilament winding.
+ Sheet molding compound.
+ ?xpansion tool molding.
+ 7ontact molding.
Close% Mol% Proess :
+ 7ompression molding @ ;oad with raw material, press into shape.
+ Aacuum bag, pressure bag, autoclave % Prepreg laid up, bagged, cured.
+ 8n6ection molding @ :old in6ected under pressure.
+ (esin 'ransfer @ $ibres in place, resin in6ected at low temperature.
Continuous Proess :
+ Pultrusion.
+ 9raiding.
As the resources are limited for us in our study of the
composites we employed hand lay up process for the fabrication
of composite laminate.

Open Mol% Proesses:

/pen molding offers a number of process and product advantage
over other high volume and comple$ application methods. These
include:.
@ -reedom of design
@ #asy to change design
@ )ow mold andIor tooling cost
(Tailored properties possible
@ ,igh strength large parts possible
@ /n(site production possible
(isad'antages associated with the open molding process
include:

@ )ow to medium number of parts
@ )ong cycle times per molding
@ %ot the cleanest application process
@ /nly one surface has aesthetic appearance
@ /perator skill dependent
Wet %a"&up)*and %a"&up:
The hand 0wet2 lay(up is one of the oldest and most
commonly used methods for manufacture of composite parts.
,and lay(up composites are a case of continuous fibre reinforced
composites. )ayers of unidirectional or woven composites are
combined to result in a material e$hibiting desirable properties in
one or more directions. #ach layer is oriented to achieve the
ma$imum utilisation of its properties. )ayers of different materials
0different fibres in different directions2 can be combined to further
enhance the overall performance of the laminated composite
material. 4esins are impregnated by hand into fibres which are in
the form of woven knitted stitched or bonded fabrics. This is
usually accomplished by rollers or brushes with an increasing use
of nip(roller type impregnators for forcing resin into the fabrics by
means of rotating rollers and a bath of resin. )aminates are left to
cure under standard atmospheric conditions.
Materials used for fabrication :
4esin: #po$y resin0 )6 ::K 7I-5%CTI/%A) 4#.I%2
-ibers: &oven 8lass fibre reinforcement
Cores:
+,T-MAT-N. C/0+A.+ AN( MAT+-A% +12-+M+NT,

J2Aifferent amounts of resin are required to wet out different
forms of fiberglass. -or e$ample one gallon of resin will wet out
appro$imately the following amounts of fiberglass:

H? square foot of L to J? o". cloth
:? square foot of M o". mat
=? square foot of JN o". mat
=: square foot of CH o" roving

In the event successive layers of glass are laid up before previous
layers gelled coverage will be greater.

C.2The desired thickness for gelcoat is generally J: mils 0?.J:+2.
This is equivalent to C: square feet per quart or J?? square
feet per gallon.

-or e$ample suppose a boat is to be fabricated having a hull area
of J?? square feet using gelcoat M o". mat and
C layers of JN o". mat. 7ased upon the rules stated in OJ and
OC the following is required:

-rom OC one gallon of gelcoat is required.

-rom OJ resin needed is:

0J?? sq. ft. M mat2 I :?PC gallons of resin
0C?? sq. ft. JN mat2 I :?PC gallons of resin

L gallons total of resin

=.2The percentage of glass to resin in various laminates is:

Type of -iberglass ;8lass
;4esin

Chopped 8lass )ay(5pC: >:
Mat )ay(5p =? >?
&oven 4oving )ay(5p H? K?
Cloth )aminate H: ::

H.The weight of a finished fiberglass and resin laminate is
appro$imately:

Thickness &eight

JIH' C lb.
JIL' J lb.
JIJK' JIC lb.

:.Casting resin and table top resin for various thickness of pour
are:

Thickness .q. ftI8al. .q. ft.IQt
JIH' K J(JIC
JIL' JC =
JIJK' CH K
JI=C' HL JC
JIKH' 9K CH



The above figures will vary depending upon the worker thickness
of laminate and method used. In general the higher the
percentage of glass the stronger the laminate.
,T+!, -N0/0%+( -N *AN( %A3 2! !/C+,,:
J. !4#!A4I%8 T,# M/)A
4emove dust and dirt from mold. If mold is of plaster wood or
new fiberglass apply soft wa$ 0&a$ OC2 and buff with soft towel.
Then spray or brush with !.R.A. parting compound and allow to
dry. If mold material is glass metal ceramic or well(cured
fiberglass apply three coats of hard wa$ carnauba type buffing
between each coat.

C. A!!)6I%8 T,# 8#)C/AT
J. If gelcoat is to be brushed on allow first coat to cure and then
apply second coat to make sure there are no light spots.

C. If gelcoat is to be sprayed on with a gelcoat gun spray up to a
thickness of .?J:+ to ?C?+. &hen gelcoat has cured long enough
that your fingernail cannot easily scrape it free 0test at edge of
mold where damage will not show on part2 then proceed with
ne$t step.

=. )A6(5! .<I% C/AT
Cut M or J o". mat to cover part. 7rush cataly"ed resin over
gelcoat then apply the mat. &ork with roller adding more resin
where necessary until all white areas in mat fibers have
disappeared and all air bubbles have escaped. A mohair roller is
ideal for rolling in the resin and a serrated plastic roller assists
greatly in popping any remaining bubbles. Avoid leaving e$cess
resin standing in puddles. 4esin(rich areas weaken the part.
&here rollers will not reach brushes must be used. &hen this
step is complete clean all tools in acetone. Allow skin coat to
cure before ne$t step.

H. )A6I%8 -I7#48)A.. 4#I%-/4C#M#%T
-or a JC ft. boat two layers of JN o". or C o". mat may be
adequate depending upon design. -or a JH ft. boat an additional
layer of woven roving will add considerable strength. Apply each
layer as in step = but it will not be necessary to wait for curing
between these layers. 7e sure to shake all acetone out of
brushes and rollers before applying resin. Acetone drips can
result in uncured spots in the lay(up.

:. T4IM
/n a small lay(up the fiberglass laminate which hangs over the
edge of the mold can be trimmed off easily with a ra"or knife if
you catch the *trim stage+ of the period after the lay(up has
gelled but before it has hardened. /n a larger lay(up it can be
trimmed with a saber saw and coarse sand paper.

K. C54#
May take from two hours to overnight depending upon turnover
desired temperature canali"ation and nature of the part. If laid
up in a female mold longer cure will affect shrinkage and easier
parting. In the case of the male mold the part comes off more
easily before it shrinks appreciably. If the part is sub3ect to
warping a longer cure may be necessary. In any case when the
part is removed it should be supported in its desired shape until
fully cured.

>. 4#M/R# !A4T -4/M M/)A
-irst e$amine the trim edge all the way around the mold and
make sure there is no resin bridging the line between the mold
and the part. .and this edge where necessary. Then wooden
wedges such as *tongue sticks+ can be pushed into the edges to
start the separation. Continue separation by pulling and fle$ing.
In some cases it is necessary to drill a small hole in the mold and
apply air or water pressure.

L. -I%I.,
Trim edges and back of part may need to be fine(sanded and
coated with surfacing resin or gelcoat.

9. 8#)C/AT !4/7)#M.
Alligatoring or wrinkling of the gelcoat may be due to the
following reasons:

J. 8elcoat is too thin in spots consequently it does not
completely cure.
C. Insufficient hardener added or hardener not mi$ed well
enough. In general it is best to use about twice as much hardener
in gelcoat as in lay(up resin at the same room temperature since
the gelcoat goes on thinner than a mat lay(up.

=. 8elcoat has not cured long enough before mat lay(up.

H. Acetone from tools drips onto gelcoat or into skin lay(up.

Main Ad'antages of *and %a"up !rocess:
)ow capital Investment.
.imple principles to fabricate the part.
)ow cost tooling if room(temperature cure resins are used.
&ide choice of suppliers and material types
(isad'antages:
@ /nly one molded surface is obtained.
@ Quality is related to the skill of the operator.
@ )ow volume process.
@ )onger cure times required.
@ 4esins need to be low in viscosity to be workable by hand.
This generally compromises their mechanicalIthermal
properties.
@ The waste factor can be high.
Applications :
@ .tandard wind(turbine blades production boats architectural
moldings
C2-N. /F C/M!/,-T+,:
A#-I%ITI/% /- C54I%8:
Curing is a term in polymer chemistry and process
engineering that refers to the toughening or hardening of a
polymer material by cross(linking of polymer chains brought
about by chemical additives ultraviolet radiation electron beam
or heat. In rubber the curing process is also called vulcani"ation.
Resin urin&:
Aespite the wide variety of thermoset resin formulations
0epo$y vinylester polyester etc.2 their cure behavior is
qualitatively identical. The resin viscosity drops initially upon the
application of heat passes through a region of ma$imum flow and
begins to increase as the chemical reactions increase the average
length and the degree of cross(linking between the constituent
oligomers. This process continues until a continuous =(
dimensional network of oligomer chains is created S this stage is
termed gelation. In terms of processability of the resin this marks
an important watershed: before gelation the system is relatively
mobile after it the mobility is very limited the micro(structure of
the resin and the composite material is fi$ed and severe diffusion
limitations to further cure are created. Thus in order to achieve
vitrification in the resin it is usually necessary to increase the
process temperature after gelation. Cure monitoring methods
give a significant insight to the chemical process and define
process actions towards achieving specific quality indices of the
cured resin systems.
A very important aspect of thermoset resins is their cure cycle.
5nsaturated polyester and vinylester along with epo$y require
time and temperature in order to achieve what we call
*Crosslinking.+ This is the the *set+ part of thermoset and is the
permanent and irreversible chemical bonds in the resin. The
amount of time and temperature is dependent upon the
formulation of the resin the ratio of resin(to(hardener and the
presence of additional chemicals used to modify the properties.
/utside of the chemistry the control of the time and temperature
is important to the curing of the resin. If the actual temperature is
outside the range of the intended formulated temperature it will
affect the curing reaction. If the part is demolded too early the
resin will continue to cure but the final shape of the part may not
match the mold. The manufacturer of the resin is the very best
source for information on the recommended cure time and
temperature.
As these resins change from liquid to solid states there is a
certain amount of shrinkage involved. A part made on a female
mold will shrink towards the center and a part made on a male
mold will tighten around that mold. This shrinkage factor depends
upon the resin chemistry and its additives but is generally less
than =; by volume. This is why male molds more difficult to
demold and the design of the mold needs to account for part
shrinkage and part removal.
Curing Mechanisms
Temperature plays an important role in the curing process of the
resins used in composites. Many of the resins are setup for room(
temperature curing. This requires that the ambient room
temperature is ideally set between K: and >: degrees. And that
the resin itself is near this temperature. The old rule of thumb is
that a drum of resin takes about CH hours to get to room temp
when moved in from shipping or storage. These room
temperature cured resins have windows of open working time
before the curing cycle begins to happen. #levated temperatures
in the summer can cause havoc but can be managed with special
mi$tures and ingredients.
.ome resins cure with time and elevated temperatures which are
achieved with the use of ovens. These allow for nearly unlimited
open working time before cure. &hen things are satisfactorily
placed the temperatures are elevated to start the cure process.
5R )ight is another curing mechanism that has special
applications and takes the temperature consideration away. This
has a big use with the infrastructure restoration industries
working onsite and underground. It is much more of a speciali"ed
niche application.
COMPOSITE M)C,INING:
The processes used to manufacture composite
structures generally require that trimming and other machining
operations be performed prior to assembly. Machining processes
are required to produce accurate surfaces and
holes to allow precision fitting of components into an assembly.
Aue to shrinkage during the curing stage of the composite
structure it is not
practicable to place holes in the part during the molding stage
therefore milling cutting drilling etc. are considered a post cure
operation.
Aue to the toughness and abrasive nature of modern
composites there is a need for harder and longer lasting cutting
tools. A large database
of machining information for various high speed steel and carbide
cutting tool
materials e$ists for machining metal wood and some
thermoplastics. ,owever much of this data cannot be applied to
machining modern
composites . Modern composites like graphite(epo$y aramid(
epo$y and carbon carbon each have their own machining
characteristics.
Composites are not homogeneous orisotropic therefore the
machining characteristics are dependent on the tool path in
relation
to the direction of the reinforcing fibers. Metals or metal alloys
have nearly homogeneous properties throughout the work piece
but each material in a composite retains its individual properties.
Ad'antages of machining composites are:
improved surface finish unless part surface was directly in
contact with the mold surfaceB
machined surfaces provide accurate mating surfaces for
parts to be assembledB
eliminates the ma3ority of the problems associated with part
shrinkage and insert movement during the fabrication
processes
(-,A(0ANTA.+,:
The disadvantages associated with machining of composites
include controlling dust particles produced due to machining
confining them to a small area and having an adequate collection
system.
A second problem is controlling the outer layers of the composite
so that the fibers will shear instead of lifting up under the force of
the cutting action and leaving e$tended fibers beyond the cut
surface. Also when cutting perpendicular to the lay of composite
fibers edge break(out can occur. This can be controlled by
designing a backup structure in the tooling.
Aelamination of composite is also another ma3or disadvantage
while machining .The fiber glass reinforcement tend to separate
from the matri$ material due to delamination .This tend to
happen during machining due to
Improper curing and insufficient compaction pressure .If the
curing temperature is not maintained properly then there will be
weak cross linking
/f the resin with the reinforcement .Therefore care should be
taken while
Curing the composites and machining of the composites.
,AF+T3 W*-%+ MAC*-N-N. /F C/M!/,-T+,:
.afety is something that needs lots of attention. The processes
are very operator dependent and we are working with chemicals
here so workers must be protected. Many of these chemicals are
regulated by several government agencies. This is why these
chemicals are generally difficult to obtain on the street.
The styrene(based polyesters and vinylesters require respiratory
protection and skin protection as styrene is considered by some
0California2 to be a possible carcinogen. There is a time weighted
average for breathing the esters specific to the percentage of
styrene in the mi$ture. #$cessive inhalation can lead to
headaches sinus irritation and watering eyes. .kin contact is
permissible but can be difficult to remove and can enter the
bloodstream.
The epo$y(based resins are more forgivable with regards to
respiratory issues but dermal protection is much more important.
.hort term occasional e$posure is not serious but can develop
into allergic reactions.
Therefore while machining of the composites a lot of dust is
generated and must be eliminated in order for the safety of the
workers .-or this a vaccum pump is provided while machining
process so that the dust produced is eliminate by vaccum pump
by sucking of the dust produced while machining process
ensuring the safety of the workers.As a safety measure very
every worker need to wear a protective mask around his face and
cover his body with a appron to prevent any health problems.
MAC,I%I%8 !4/C#..:
Aue to the toughness and abrasive nature of the modern
composites it is not possible to machine the composites through
the convectional methods as the tool wear out is at a larger scale.
.o non convectional maching process are employed for the
machining of the composites.
The various non convectional manchining process employed are
A74A.IR# &AT#4 T#T MAC,I%I%8
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5)T4A./%IC MAC,I%I%8
:A7>8,8,< -$ '>? $A9(87A'?B <;ASS $89?( 7-:P-S8'? 9C >A,B
;ACDP P(-7?SS 8, 7-;;?<? =-(ES>-P 9C 7-,A?7'8-,A;
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'he glass fiber reinforced composite fabricated in the wor1 shop of the college by
hand lay up process has a low toughness and abrasive nature.so,convectional
milling process is employed for the machining of the the composite.
A B8A:-,B P-8,' 7D''8,< '--; is employed for the machining
process.'he tool is mounted on to a flat table with a suitable position and is
connected to a electric motor.'he tool is made to rotate at a speed of .3000 (P:
and the machining of the composite is done.
'he dust produced from the glass fibre composite is much higher compared to
other composites.so to prevent the dust to disperse water is used a preventive
measure so that the the dust get mixed in the water and does get dispersed into
air.'he wor1er shold wear a protewctive mas1 and a apron to cover his body to
prevent any health problems.
'he machining should be done very s1illfully and precaution should be ta1en while
machining to avoid delamination.