Journal of Islamic Philosophy 1 (2005):119127

2005 by the Journal of Islamic Philosophy. All rights reserved. 1536-

4569/2005/001001008
The Introduction of Greek Philosophy
in the Muslim World

Muhammad Hozien

Hellenistic, or Greek philosophy,
came to the Muslim world by way of
Syriac. At Haran, in northern Iraq, a
philosophical school kept the
Hellenistic heritage intact in the
original Greek, or in Syriac
translations. The
c
Abbssid rule was
a fertile period during which the
Greek heritage was translated into
Arabic. The caliph (ca. 754833) had
a strong interest in the knowledge of
previous civilizations and
commissioned translations of works
on natural sciences, civil administration, and ethics. This interest
continued to other branches of knowledge and triggered a
vigorous effort to translate all scientific works that were in
Greek and Syriac. This interest turned into a national
phenomenon (among Muslim intellectuals) in which where
wealthy patrons would vie with each other in funding
translations of works of earlier civilizations that came under
Muslim control.
1

Some of the early translations were not from good
original copies, but as the demand for philosophical literature
increased, more and better copies were found. Interestingly,
however, some important works never made it into Arabic, for
example the Politics by Aristotle
2
was never found. To make
matters even worse, some of Plotinus Enneads
3
were translated
under the title of the Theology of Aristotle, so Muslims had a

1. This effort spread to all branches of learningscience, philosophy, and even
religious works. It was not limited to Hellenistic works, but included Persian and
Hindu worksthough this is beyond the subject of this paper. One work that
survives is Kalila and Dimna, Selected Fables of Bidpai (Rochester, VT: Inner
Traditions International) 1986. See also: Dimitri Gutas, Greek Thought, Arabic
Culture: The Graeco-Arabic Translation Movement in Baghdad and Early
Abbasid Society (London: Routledge) 1998.
2. See Aristu
3. This is available online, see Enneads


Muhammad Hozien
is Managing Editor
of the Journal of
Islamic Philosophy,
and webmaster of
muslimphilosophy.c
om
Journal of Islamic Philosophy / 2005
119
skewed, if not contradictory view of Aristotle.
4
Few writers
questioned its attribution to Aristotle and no one researched the
issue until Ibn Rushd, who strongly opposed the view that the
Theology was a work of Aristotle. By that time, more than two
hundred years had passed since the first work on Greek
philosophy was published
5
in Arabic translation.

Al-Kind (ca. 800865)

The first Muslim philosopher to write on Greek philosophy in
the Muslim world was al-Kind. He wrote many works on Greek
science and philosophy, and laid the foundation for others to
follow in studying philosophical works. He had a firm
conviction that the Greek heritage contained important truths
that Muslims could not afford to overlook. As a mathematician,
he realized the importance of Aristotelian logic, however, al-
Kind found Aristotelian metaphysics contradictory, particularly
the view of the eternity of the world. He believed that Aristotle
did not offer valid logical support for that argument.
Al-Kind, in his mathematical philosophy, presented an
argument that actual infinity is self-canceling. In his philosophy
of nature, he showed matter, motion, and time to be closely
related concepts (this is an advanced concept relative to most
philosophical thought in the Middle Ages). Furthermore, since
matter cannot be eternal, and cannot generate its existence (cf.
essence and generation argument) then its motion and time are
not eternal either. Al-Kind was the first Muslim philosopher to
note clearly that the metaphysics of the Greek philosophers first,
contradicts itself, and second, contradicts Islamic belief. He also
gave a preliminary religious basis for studying these fields.
Al-Kind proved to be a difficult Muslim thinker to
study, for a variety of reasons. He was a scientist, a philosopher
of science, a rigorous mathematician, and a man of letters with a
high command of Arabic. One not well versed in all of these
topics, or without a solid grasp of scientific Arabic terminology,
would not be able to fully appreciate Al-Kind or his
contributions.


4. As early as al-Frb and even Ibn Sn.
5. Note that publishing then was radically different than academic publishing
nowadays.
Muhammad Hozien
Al-Frb (870950)

Al-Kind was followed by al-Frb, who served in the
Hamdanid court in the northern Syrian city of Aleppo. Al-Frb
was able to formulate philosophy in a manner more palatable to
Muslim tastes. His efforts were aimed at expounding philosophy
in Islamic terms. It is worthwhile to note that during his lifetime,
he was not a well-known figure in the field. Actually, Ibn Sn
(9801037)
6
popularized his writings. Al-Frb then became
known as the Second Teacher in the Muslim world (Aristotle
being the first). Al-Frb also laid important groundwork in
other major fields of philosophy, most importantly political
philosophy, and is credited with popularizing neo-Platonism in
the Muslim world.
The concept of prophethoodnamely that God
selected messengers and endowed them with enlightenment and
truth through prophecy, by direct communication from God, or
indirectly through angelsis an important aspect of Islamic
belief that had to be explained philosophically. Al-Frb
formulated this concept in Greek philosophical terms. He
equated two sources of knowledge, namely revelation and
philosophy as the two roads to enlightenment and truth.
Al-Frb accomplished a great deal in all major fields
of philosophy, including metaphysics, logic, music theory,
ethics, and politics. Not only did he make a brave attempt to
reconcile philosophy with Islamic doctrine, he also attempted to
reconcile philosophy with itself, in a work on the philosophy of
Plato and Aristotle (available online cf. al-Frb). He was also
a renowned musician.
Following al-Frb, a group known as the Ikhwn al-
af (Brethren of Purity, ca. 9461055) published a
hodgepodge work titled Ras
c
il ikhwan al-af (The Epistles of
the brethren of purity). This work is a mix of Pythagorean
speculation, theology (including Jewish, Christian, Persian,
Hindu, and Islamic elements), mysticism, mathematics, music
theory, and astrology. Philip Hitti, in his History of the Arabs
says of the group ...they evidently aimed to overthrow
[Abbasid rule] by undermining the popular intellectual system

6. In his autobiography he mentions that he only understood Aristotles
metaphysics after reading al-Frbs commentary on it. See his autobiography,
available online in Arabic (www.muslimphilosophy.com/sina/).
Journal of Islamic Philosophy / 2005
121
and religious beliefs.
7
The members of the group kept their
identity secret and a shroud of mystery surrounded them and
their work. Scholars who wrote on philosophical topics were
stigmatized as being either followers of the brethren or ardent
readers of the Epistles.

Ibn Sn (9801037)

The third most important figure among Muslim philosophers is
Ibn Sn or Avicenna, as he is known in the West. Ibn Sn also
wrote about all areas of philosophy, and is credited with
popularizing the philosophy of the elite. There are many legends
surrounding his life, and numerous books falsely attributed to
him, according to scholarly accounts. His writings on
philosophy range from short works to encyclopedia-length
works, such as the famed al-Shif
8
(Healing) that runs to fifteen
volumes.
9

Ibn Sn also wrote on a wide variety of sciences
including medicine. Outside of philosophy, he is famous for his
medical encyclopedia, al-Qnn fi al-ibb (Canon of
medicine),
10
from which the English term canon comes from.
This work includes all branches of medicine from pharmacology
to surgery.

Al-Ghazl (10581111)

Al-Ghazl, an important figure in the history of Muslim
thought, was a scholar of Islamic jurisprudence, and a
theologian by training who delved into philosophy out of
necessity. He was also a gifted writer with a keen knack for
clarifying terse subjects. Al-Ghazl categorized philosophyin
the Muslim world of his time into three distinct rulings
according to Islamic law.
The first category is kufr (heresy); by this al-Ghazl
asserts that some of the teachings of philosophy are contrary to
the teachings of Islam to the point that they cannot be rationally
reconciled. The second category is bid
c
ah (unnecessary
innovation); al-Ghazl states that these teachings contradict the

7. Phillip Hitti, The History of the Arabs (New York: St. Martin's Press) 1970, p.
373. This group was aligned with the Fimid rule and espoused Ism
c
l
ideological thoughts and ideas.
8. A current edition has been edited in fifteen large volumes.
9. Two volumes are available online, see Avicenna.
10. This work is available online in original Arabic (1593 ed.)
Muhammad Hozien
teachings of philosophy itself, that they are incoherent at best
and otherwise destructive, and run counter to philosophy and its
stated goals of being coherent, logical, and consistent. The third
category is mub (allowable), meaning that some of the
teachings of philosophy are useful to Islam, namely logic, math,
astronomy, and physics.
To prove his point, al-Ghazl did two things; first, he
wrote a summary of philosophical teachings concentrating on
metaphysics and logic, entitled al-Maqid al-falsifah (Aims of
the philosophers). This summary proved useful beyond his
design and desire,
11
and earned him the title of the expositor of
Avicennan philosophy in the West. He firmly believed that to
be able to refute philosophy, one must be competent in it. Thus,
he became competent in it, much to the dismay of his colleagues
who claimed that he had done what the philosophers could not
do by simplifying their teachings for the layperson.
12
Ibn Rushd
vented his intellectual anger on al-Ghazl years later: How
dare he bring the literature of the elite, [hidden by complex
terminology and vague statements] that only the select were
meant to understand only after undergoing thorough and time-
consuming training, study and contemplation to the masses?
Second, al-Ghazl wrote a work entitled Tahfut al-
falsifah (The Incoherence of philosophers).
13
The Tahfut was
a refutation of the metaphysics of Aristotle as understood by al-
Frb and Ibn Sn, summarized in twenty points. Three of
these twenty points not only lead to heresy but to outright
apostasy. This work was well accepted by the scholars of his
time, who heralded it as a victory for Islamphilosophy was
defeated on its own battlefield, and no longer held that charm or
air of mystery that Ibn Sn had sought so hard to veil it with
throughout his life.
The success of al-Ghazls Tahfut should not be
construed to denote the end of philosophy in the Muslim world.
This was hardly the case, as this book opened the door for many
theologians to study philosophy with relative ease, legitimacy,
and a new sense of confidence. Actually, the case can be made

11. The version that reached the west was missing the introduction and the closing
remarks stating his reason for publishing this work; this fact led to an erroneous
image of al-Ghazl in the Latin world.
12. This should be seen in light of Ibn Sn who made his students take an oath not
to divulge his teachings to the masses at large.
13. M. Bouyges, Tahafot al-falasifat: Texte arabe etabli et accompagne dun
sommaire latin et dindex par M. Bouyges (Beyrouth) 1927.
Journal of Islamic Philosophy / 2005
123
that al-Ghazl popularized the works of Ibn Sn in religious
circles, and these works continue to be studied today.

Philosophy in the Muslim West

The works of al-Ghazl played an interesting role in the history
of Andalusia, in part because of al-Ghazls fame. In addition,
certain theological and esoteric, not to mention heretical works
written by anonymous authors, were attributed to al-Ghazl.
Add to this the fact that al-Ghazl openly changed his mind on
specific issues of legislation and theology, and together these
two elements led to a great misunderstanding of al-Ghazl.
14


Ibn ufayl (11061185)

A major figure in Andalusia who contributed to the
misunderstanding of al-Ghazl was Ibn ufayl, a personal
physician of the Almohad caliph Ab Ya
c
qub Ysuf (1163
1184). Ibn ufayl dabbled in neo-Platonism and followed the
esoteric teachings of Ibn Sn
15
throughout his flourishing
medical career. He was the celebrated author of the fictional
philosophical tale entitled ayy bin Yaqn (Living son of
awake). This philosophical parable is set on an island in the
Indian Ocean (perhaps modern day Sri Lanka), and tells the
story of ayy, a child who grows up on the island without any
human contact, raised by a gazelle. As ayy grows up, he
discovers natural religion. Later, a shipwrecked sailor teaches
him human language and religion, and much to their surprise,
they find many points of agreement.
Ibn ufayl makes the point that religion can be arrived
at naturally without the aid of revelation. Interestingly, this
concept is not foreign to Islam, which sees itself as the natural

14. Numerous aspects of the intellectual, cultural, political, and social makeup of
the Muslim West played a role in how al-Ghazl was perceived. Many elements
somehow united the opinions of the Muslim West behind a single ideology that is
different from the one al-Ghazl espoused, namely the sh
c
ar / Shfi
c
teaching,
whereas many of the scholars of the Muslim West were of Salafi / Malaki
persuasion. See al-Taher al-Mamuris al-Ghazl wa
c
ulamal-Maghrib [al-
Ghazl and the scholars of North Africa], (Tunis: al-Dar al-Tunisia li al-nashr)
1990.
15. Mainly his Al-falsifah al-mashriqiyyah (Eastern philosophy) which is a mixture
of esoteric sufism and neo-Platonic metaphysical systems.
Muhammad Hozien
religion. Surprisingly, this neo-Platonist became the mentor of
the most famous Arab Aristotelian, Ibn Rushd.
16


Ibn Rushd (11261198)

Ibn Rushd, known as Averroes in the West and
sometimes as the Commentator, fared well in the West, better
than he did among his own people.
17
Ibn Rushd made a brave
attempt to extract Aristotles ideas on politics from Platos
Republic. He not only commented on all of the existing works
of Aristotle, but also summarized them and wrote grand
commentaries on them. He wrote Tahfut al-falsifah, as a
point-by-point refutation of al-Ghazls criticism of philosophy.
The success of his refutation is widely debated, because he only
defended what he believed were Aristotle's doctrines, sometimes
with little else save pure sophistry.
Ibn Rushd believed that the peak of philosophical
teachings ended with the master, Aristotle. Not surprisingly,
later scholars saw this as an attempt to defend Aristotle and not
as a functional or useful refutation of al-Ghazls criticism of
philosophy. The philosophical ideas that al-Ghazl was
attacking were the ideas of Ibn Sn and al-Frb , only some of
which came from Aristotle; the majority came from Plato and
Plotinus.
To his credit, Ibn Rushd had quite an influence on the
medieval philosophy of Europe, through the Latin translation of
his works. He also cast doubt on the authenticity of the
attribution of the Theology of Aristotle to Aristotle. The work, as
mentioned above, was a compilation of certain chapters from
Plotinus Enneads.
Shortly after this peak of philosophical interest,
Muslim political influence waned in Andalusia. The political
upheavals thereafter left the historical records in a shambles

16. As a historical note, the claim that Ibn ufayl was the mentor of Ibn Rushd is
open to question, and is, perhaps, the stuff of legend. There is a similar historical
claim that ibn al-
c
Arab learned philosophy from Ibn Rushd; perhaps ibn al-
c
Arab
learned (if not disabused) Ibn Rushd of Ibn ufayls philosophical (read sufi)
thought.
17. The philosophical tradition of Ibn Rushd did not survive well in the Muslim
West and was not popular in the Muslim East. This could be due to many factors;
paramount among them is the political state of Andalusia. Also, we do not have
complete information about the spread of his thought in the Muslim world. Many
manuscripts need to be studied to piece together what happened to philosophy in
the Muslim world. See the end of the article for more on the challenges of history
of philosophy in Muslim lands.
Journal of Islamic Philosophy / 2005
125
and not easily examined. The rest of the Muslim world had its
share of political intrigue: its intellectual history and the role of
Greek philosophy has yet to be written.

The Continuing Tradition of Philosophy
in Muslim Lands

Fakhr al-Dn al-Rz (d. 1210) continued in the
footsteps of al-Ghazl in a program that reformed philosophy
and theology. On the eve of the Mongol invasion in 1258, Nasr
dn al-Ts (d. 1274) was philosophizing and writing not only
commentaries on the works of Ibn Sn, but works of his own.
Ibn Taymiyyah (d. 1328) repudiated both al-Ghazl and Ibn
Rushd for their use of philosophynot to mention Ibn Sn.
18

He wrote a thesis that rejects not only philosophy, but
Aristotelian logic
19
itself. The historian Ibn Khaldn (d. 1406)
also mentioned philosophy and took issue with Ibn Rushd. From
all of this, we know that philosophical debates continued long
after Ibn Rushd was gone.
Muslims scholars the length and breadth of Muslim
lands excelled and made important contributions in all fields of
learning and sciences. The old adage by Epicurus that only
Greeks philosophize is clearly invalid. It would also be false to
conclude that philosophy abruptly disappeared
20
with Ibn
Rushdwhere one conjures up images of Aladdns genie
packing everything into his lamp and leaving the Muslims with
nothing but crumbs of rotting manuscripts and no memory of
what had taken place.


18. See the recent work of Yahya J. Michot A Mamlk Theologians
Commentary on Avicennas Risla Aawiyya Journal of Islamic Studies 14:2
(2003) pp.149203 and Part II in 14:3 (2003) pp.309363.
19. See Wael Hallaq, Ibn Taymiyya against the Greek logicians (Oxford:
Clarendon Press) 1993.
20. Harry Wolfson, Revised Plan for the Publication of a Corpus
Commentariroum Averrois in Aristotelem Speculum 38:1 (January 1963) p. 88.
This was slightly reworded.
Muhammad Hozien
Philosophy in the Muslim East: An Incomplete History

The history of the philosophical debate that al-Ghazl
and Ibn Rushd began continued at the hands of writers in the
Muslim East and Ottoman lands long after the eclipse of
Muslim rule in Andalusia. In fact, the famed sultan Mehmet II
(also known as FatihConqueror, 14511481) ordered two
Ottoman scholars to compile books to summarize the debate
between al-Ghazl and Ibn Rushd. Both of these works
21
have
been published. This part of history remains to be written; any
takers?

21. The two scholars were Allaaldn Al al-Tusi (d. 1472) and Khojazade
Muslihuddin Mustafa (d. 1488). The latter work is available online (cf. IPO.) for
more information, consult Ahmd ibn Mustaf Tshkprzade (d. 1561), Shaqaiq
al-nu
c
maniyya f
c
ulm al-dawlah al-
c
uthmniyya (Beirut: Dr al-kitb al-
c
arab)
1975 pp.153167 and Ktip elebi (d. 1657), Kashf al-zunun `an asmi al-kutub
wa-al-funn (Bulaq) 1857, vol. 1. p. 519.