1

CHAPTER 1-PROPULSION SYSTEMS AND COMPARISON

1.1Propulsion
Propulsion in a broad sense is the act of changing the motion of a body. Propulsion mechanisms
provide a force that moves bodies that are initially at rest, changes a velocity, or overcomes
retarding forces when a body is propelled through a medium. Apart from this propulsion systems
also help in changing the direction in which the rocket is flying .It also plays an important role in
station keeping (to maintain an arbitrary satellite in its orbit)..
The following types of space flight maneuvers and vehicle accelerations use rocket
propulsion:
a. First stage and its upper stage propulsion systems add momentum during launch and ascent.
b. Orbit injection or transferring from one orbit to another
c. Velocity vector adjustment and minor in-flight correction maneuvers
d. Reentry and landing maneuvers.
e. Simple rotational maneuvers rotate the vehicle on command into a specific angular position so
as to orient or point a telescope, instrument, solar panel, or antenna for purposes of observation,
navigation, communication, or solar power reception.
f. Docking is the linking up of two spacecraft and requires a gradual gentle approach as not to
damage the spacecraft
1.2 Propellants.
The propellants, which are the working substance of rocket engines, constitute the fluid that
undergoes chemical and thermodynamic changes.
The various types of propellants are:
1.2.1 Solid : Advantages Higher performance; good burn-rate control; usually stable
combustion low temperature coefficient;
Disadvantages Expensive, complex facilities; hazardous processing ,combustion, high density;
moderate temperature sensitivity; can harder-to-control burn rate; high flame have good
mechanical properties temperature; toxic, smoky exhaust; Example:
:Nitrocellulose+Nitroglycerine
1.2.2 Liquid:Advantages: High performance; usually stable combustion small temperature
variation. High specific heat, high thermal conductivity simple ignition system required,non-
hazardous
Disadvantages: Difficult to control . It is necessary to insulate all lines, tanks, valves, and so on,
that contain propellant in order to reduce the evaporation loss.
Example: Liquid Oxygen+Liquid hydrogen

1.2.3 Gelled Propellants: Advantages: Increased propellant density reduces the size of tanks
and vehicles, reduced susceptibility of leakage or spill, Long-term storage without settling or
separation is possible; (more than 10 years has been demonstrated) Explosions or detonations are
2

much less likely with gelled propellants.
Disadvantages: Loading or unloading of propellants is somewhat more complex. Some gelling
agents have resulted in unstable gelled propellants. Expensive.
Example: gelled nitroglycerine
1.2.4 Gaseous Propellants:
Advantages: Engine system is simple. Cheaper tank size will be smaller if the tank pressures are
high. Pressures are typically between 300 and 1000 MPa (about 300 to 10,000 psi). Better
performance. The specific impulse is high.
Disadvantages: Much larger gas storage volume high pressure required.
Example: Methane, Nitrogen
1.3 CLASSIFICATION
Rocket propulsion systems can be classified according to the type of energy source (chemical,
nuclear, electrical or solar), the basic function (booster stage ,altitude control, orbit station
keeping, etc.), the type of vehicle(aircraft, missile, assisted take-off, space vehicle, etc.), size,
type of propellant, type of construction, or number of rocket propulsion units used in a given
vehicle.
The energy source useful to rocket propulsion is chemical combustion. Energy can also be
supplied by solar radiation and, in the past, also by nuclear reaction and electrical systems.
Accordingly, the various propulsion devices can be divided into chemical propulsion, nuclear
propulsion, solar propulsion, electric propulsion.
1.3.1 Chemical propulsion: The energy from a high-pressure combustion reaction of propellant
chemicals, usually a fuel and an oxidizing chemical, permits the heating of reaction product
gases to very high temperatures (2500 to 4100C or 4500 to 7400F). These gases subsequently
are expanded in a nozzle and accelerated to high velocities (1800 to 4300 m/sec or 5900 to
14,100 ft/sec). Since these gas temperatures are about twice the melting point of steel, it is
necessary to cool or insulate all the surfaces that are exposed to the hot gases. Since these gas
temperatures
gases.
Fig1.0. A typical pressure-fed liquid propellant rocket engine system
3

In the thrust chamber the propellants react to form hot gases, which in turn are accelerated and
ejected at a high velocity through a supersonic nozzle, thereby imparting momentum to the
vehicle. Pump-fed liquid rocket systems are used typically in applications with larger amounts of
propellants and higher thrusts, such as in space launch vehicles.
Advantages:
a) Very high values of thrust. Therefore they are used in the initial launch where the gravitational
forces are very high.
b) Very low burn time required for attaining definite acceleration.
c) Temperature of the thrust chamber can be controlled easily.
Disadvantages:
a) Large storage tank for fuel required 40% of the mass of the satellite is propellant .
b) Only the energy contained in the propellant can be used for acceleration thus only limited
velocity is obtainable (about 4.5km/sec)
c) It has low efficiency (about 50%)
d) It is very expensive
Application:
1. First stage and its upper stage propulsion systems add momentum during launch and ascent.
2. Orbit injection or transferring from one orbit to another.
1.3.2 Nuclear propulsion:
Nuclear energy is associated with the transformations of atomic particles within the nucleus of
atoms and can be of several types, namely, fission, fusion, and decay of radioactive species.
Nuclear energy sources have been investigated for delivering heat to a working fluid, usually
liquid hydrogen, which subsequently can be expanded in a nozzle and thus accelerated to high
ejection velocities (6000 to 10,000 m/sec). The nuclear fission rocket is primarily a high-thrust
engine (above 40,000 N) with high exhaust velocities.

Fig 1.1 : The principle of nuclear thermal propulsion..
Advantages:
a) Very high thrust values (about 40000N)
b) Considerably high exhaust velocities (6000 to 10,000 m/sec).
Disadvantages: a) The thrust chamber temperatures are extremely high and are very difficult to
cool
b) There is a possibility of radiation leakage.
4

c) To avoid the radiation the core needs to be insulated .this leads to an additional weight.
d)Low efficiency .
Application:
Flight has not been confirmed yet but they can be used in first and upper stage propulsion and
also for orbit injection.
1.3.3 Solar Propulsion:
An attractive concept, the solar thermal rocket, has large diameter optics to concentrate the sun's
radiation (e.g., by lightweight precise parabolic mirrors or Fresnel lenses) onto a receiver or
optical cavity.

Fig 1.2 :. Simplified schematic diagram of a solar thermal rocket concept.
The receiver is made of metals (such as tungsten or rhenium) and has a cooling jacket or heat
exchanger. It heats a working fluid, usually liquid hydrogen, up to perhaps 2500C and the hot
gas is controlled by hot gas valves and exhausted through one or more nozzles The large mirror
has to be pointed toward the sun and this requires the mirror to be adjustable in its orientation
thrust levels in most studies are low (1 to 10 N). .
Advantages:
a) High efficiency,
b)No need of oxygen tanks so reduced weights
c) Contamination is negligible,,
Disadvantages:
a) Since large lightweight optical elements cannot withstand drag forces without deformation,
the optical systems are deployed outside the atmosphere.
b) Problems being investigated include rigid, lightweight mirror or lens structures, operational
life, minimizing hydrogen evaporation, and heat losses to other spacecraft components.
Application:
They can be used in station keeping.


5

1.3.4 Electric Propulsion:
In all electric propulsion the source of the electric power (nuclear, solar radiation receivers, or
batteries) is physically separate from the mechanism that produces the thrust. Electric rocket
propulsion devices use electrical energy for heating and/or directly ejecting propellant, utilizing
an energy source that is independent of the propellant itself.The thrust usually is low, typically
0.005 to 1 N. In order to allow a significant increase in the vehicle velocity, it is necessary to
apply the low thrust and thus a small acceleration for a long time.
Advantages:
a)Very high efficiencies(about 90%).
b)Only 0.3% of the rocket is due to the fuel.
c)Very high exhaust velocities
d)Improve the rockets mass ratio significantly .
e)Significant reduction in cost as fuel requirement is very less
f)In electrostatic type there is no need for cooling.
g)Can be used in vacuum also.
Disadvantages:
a)Very low thrust 0-1N(although this low thrust has been put to use in various types of
maneuvers efficiently)
b)Very high Burn times
c) This type of propulsion has been handicapped by heavy and inefficient power sources.
Application:
a) Pitch correction of rocket
b)These propulsion systems have been extensively used in station keeping.
c)They are used in orbit raising.
d)They are used in docking of two spacecrafts
e)They are basically used in applications where the deployment mission time are very
high(satellites)

1.4 Criteria Used in the Selection of a Particular Rocket Propulsion System
1.Affordability (Cost)
They are the sum of R&D costs, production costs, facility costs, operating costs, and
decommissioning costs, from inception to the retirement of the system. Only 0.3% of the rocket
is due to propellant when electric propulsion systems are used as compared to 40% when
chemical propulsion systems are used this reduces the cost significantly.






6


2.System Performance


ENGINE TYPE
Propulsive
efficiency

INPUT
CURRENT
Is (A)
EXHAUST
VELOCITY

POWER
INPUT

Chemical rocket

0.50 30

2940

29.4 kW

Nuclear fission 0.50 80 7840 78.7kW

Solar 0.50 60 5880 58.8Kw
Ion electrostatic 0.90 200 10,600 195.9Kw
Table: Comparison of system performances of various systems
Here we can see that electric propulsion systems have a very high efficiency as compared to
other system. Moreover the exhaust velocities are very high so velocity increment is very high
which is primary characteristic for deep space missions.
3.Survivability (Safety): It has been proved that electric propulsion systems have the ability to
bear very high mechanical stresses. Whereas solar propulsion system on the other hand is very
vulnerable to mechanical stresses
4.Reliability Statistical analyses of test results indicate a satisfactory high-reliability level.
Technical risks, manufacturing risks, and failure risks are very low, well understood, and the
impact on the overall system is known in case of Electric propulsion systems. On the event of
failures occur, the system can be shut down safely. Whereas in Nuclear and Chemical, the
system cannot be shut down easily.
5.Controllability:
It is a key factor which deals with turn on turn off and precision. Using control systems Electrical
propulsion systems are highly controllable. The time responses to control or command signals
are within acceptable tolerances. Controls are to be fool proof and not inadvertently create a
hazardous condition
6.Reusability:
Some applications such as station keeping etc need the engine to be re usable .This is achieved
easily in Electric propulsion systems because the control valves can be easily operated. Whereas
in a Chemical propulsion system, the engine cannot be reused.
7.Geometric Constraints:
There is usually an advantage for the Electric propulsion system as it has the smallest volume or
the highest average density .In a Chemical Propulsion system for combustion extra oxygen is
required to be carried. Which is irrelevant in Electric systems as the can work in vacuum as well
7


Fig1.5 : The figure shows chemical system and 2 electric propulsion systems both serve the
same purpose for the rocket

8.Environmental Acceptability:
Electric Propulsion systems do no create hazardous plumes as in Chemical Propulsion and there
are no chances of radiation leakages as in the case if Nuclear systems
















8

CHAPTER 2-ELECTRIC PROPULSION
Electric Propulsion Systems:
Electric rocket propulsion devices use electrical energy for heating and/or directly ejecting
propellant, utilizing an energy source that is independent of the propellant itself.

The basic subsystems of a typical electric propulsion thruster are:
(1) An energy source
(2)Conversion devices to transform this energy into electrical form at the proper voltage,
frequency, pulse rate, and current suitable for the Electrical propulsion System .
3)Electric Propulsion system .
2.1 Energy source:
Batteries. Batteries can basically be classified as either primary or secondary. Primary batteries
consume their active materials and convert chemical energy into electrical. Secondary batteries
store electricity by utilizing a reversible chemical reaction and are designed to be recharged
many times. They are very bulky and thus are generally avoided
Fuel Cells. Chemical fuel cells are conversion devices used to supply space power needs for 2 to
4 weeks and for power levels up to 40 kW in manned missions. A catalyzer controls the reaction
to yield electricity directly from the chemical reaction; there is also some heat evolved, which
must be removed to maintain a desirable fuel cell temperature. They are too massive for both
robotic and long-duration missions, having also had some reliability problems. Recent
improvements in fuel cell technology have considerably advanced their performance.
Solar Cell Arrays. Solar cells rely on the photovoltaic effect to convert electromagnetic
radiation. They have supplied electrical power for most of the long-duration space missions. The
Solar arrays exist in sizes up to 10 kW and could potentially grow to 100kW sizes in earth orbits.
Typically, solar cell arrays are designed for 20% over-capacity. There has been some
improvement in efficiency, reliability, and power per unit mass. For example, standard silicon
cells deliver 180 W/m 2 and arrays have 40 W/kg. Newer gallium arsenide cells produce 220
W/m 2 and are more radiation resistant than silicon cells; gallium arsenide cells are presently
space qualified and integrated; together with parabolic concentrators, their arrays can reach 100
W/kg
Long-Duration High-Output Dynamic System Designs of electric power generation with
outputs of l0 to 1000 kW here on earth have been based on Stirling or Rankine heat engine
cycles with nuclear, chemical, and even solar power sources. Overall efficiencies can be between
10 and 50%, but the hardware is complex, Superconducting magnets together with advances in
the state-of-the-art of seals, bearings, and flywheel energy storage have made some dynamic
units relatively more attractive. There remain development issues about high temperature
materials that will withstand intense nuclear radiation fluxes over several years. The potential of
flight accidents, i.e., the unwanted spreading of nuclear materials, remains a concern for the
launch and in manned space missions.

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2.2 Power-Conditioning Equipment
Power-conditioning equipment is a necessary part of electric propulsion systems because of
inevitable mismatches in voltage, frequency, power rate, and other electrical properties between
the space-power generating unit and the electric thruster. In some earlier systems, the power-
conditioning equipment has been more expensive, more massive, and more difficult to control
than the thruster itself. They basically contain all the meters which measure the voltages current
and frequency of the supply Ion engines typically require from 1000 to 3000 V DC; the output of
solar-cell arrays is 28 to 300 V DC so there is a need for DC-to-AC inverters and step up
transformers rectifiers and filters to accomplish the task
Fig2.1: Block Diagram of power conditioning system for Ion propulsion engin
Modern conditioning equipment contains all the internal logic required to start, safely operate,
and stop the thruster; it is controlled by on-off commands sent by the spacecraft-vehicles and
rockets control processor .In fact, advances in solid-state electronic pulse circuits together with
lighter, more efficient, and higher temperature power-conditioning hardware are an area of great
interest to the implementation of electric propulsion units. The efficiency of the equipment tends
to be high, about 90% or more, but the heat generated is at a low temperature and must removed
to maintain the required moderately low temperatures of operation.
2.3 Types of Electric Propulsion systems
CLASSIFICATION
1. Electro thermal. Propellant is heated electrically and expanded thermodynamically; i.e., the
gas is accelerated to supersonic speeds through a nozzle, as in the chemical rocket.
2. Electromagnetic. Acceleration is achieved by the interaction of electric and magnetic fields
within a plasma. Moderately dense plasmas are high temperature or non equilibrium gases,
electrically neutral and reasonably good conductors of electricity.


10

2.3.1 Electro thermal:
Resistojets
The propellant is heated by flowing over an ohmically heated refractory-metal surface, such as
(1) coils of heated wire,
(2) through heated hollow tubes,
(3) over heated knife blades, and
(4) over heated cylinders.

Fig2.2: The Schematic of Resistojet Propulsion System
The basic electrothermal thruster, or `resisto-jet', consists of a nozzle with a high expansion ratio,
connected to a chamber in which the propellant is heated by a hot wire through which passes an
electric current. This type of electric thruster uses the same thermodynamic effects to generate a
high-velocity exhaust stream.For adequate heating very high currents are required as
H=

RT ------------------------------------------------------------------------- ( 1)
where T is the burn time and H is the heat produced in the heater element. Power requirements
range between 1 W and several kilowatts; a broad range of terminal voltages, AC or DC, can be
designed for, and there are no special requirements for power conditioning. The system using
liquid propellants has the advantage of being compact and the catalytic decomposition preheats
the mixed gases to about 700C (1400F) prior to their being heated electrically to an even
higher temperature; this reduces the required electric power while taking advantage of a well-
proven space chemical propulsion concept. Available materials limit the maximum gas
temperature of a resistojet.
High-temperature materials used for the resistance element include rhenium and refractory
metals and their alloys (e.g., tungsten, tantalum, molybdenum)
The chamber pressure is in the range of 15 to 200 psi.
The efficiency is defined in this case as the ratio of output energy (M

to the input energy

applied PeT therefore
= M

PeT
where Pe=Electrical power applied ,Ve=exhaust velocity,T=burn time,M=dead mass of the
rocket Thruster efficiencies of resistojets range between 65 and 85%, depending on the
propellant and the exhaust gas temperature,
11

They are most attractive for low to modest levels of mission velocity increments, where power
limit ,thrusting times, and plume effects are mission drivers.
Selected Performance Values of a Typical Resistojet:

Inlet pressure (MPa)

0.689-2.41
Resistojet outlet temperature (K) 1144
Thrust (N) 0.18-0.33
Power for heater 350-510
Power for valve (max.) 9-20
Thruster mass (kg) -80-100


Arcjet


Fig 2.3 :The schematic of an arc jet
Arcjet overcomes the gas temperature limitations of the resistojet by the use of an electric arc for
direct heating of the propellant stream to temperatures much higher than the wall temperatures.
The arc stretches between the tip of a central cathode and an anode, which is part of the coaxial
nozzle that accelerates the heated propellant. These electrodes must be electrically insulated
from each other and be able to withstand high temperatures. For electrical (but not thermal)
insulation, boron nitride has been used effectively. In reality, arcs are highly filamentary and
tend to heat only a small portion of the flowing gas unless the throat dimension is sufficiently
12

small; bulk heating is done by mixing, Arcs are inherently unstable, they can be somewhat
stabilized by an external electric field or by swirling vortex motion in the outer layers of the gas
flow.
The conduction of electricity through a gas requires that a certain level of ionization be present.
This ionization must be obtained from an electrical discharge, i.e., the breakdown of the cold
propellant resembling a lightning discharge in the atmosphere (but, unlike lightning, a power
supply may feed the current in a continuous or pulsed fashion). Gaseous conductors of
electricity follow a modified version of Ohm's law. In an ordinary uniform medium where an
electrical current I is flowing across an area A through a distance d by virtue of a voltage drop V,
we can write Ohm's law as
V = IR = (I/A)(AR/d)(d)
As given, the medium is uniform and thus we may define the electric field as E = V/d, the
current density as j = I/A, and we introduce the electrical conductivity as =d/AR. We can now
rewrite the basic Ohm's law as simply
j = E
The value of plasma electrical conductivity may be calculated from
=

Ne/
Here e is the electron charge, Ne the electron number density, : the mean time between
collisions, and the electron mass. To start an arcjet, a much higher voltage than necessary for
operation has to be applied momentarily in order to break down the cold gas. Some arc jets
require an extended initial burn-in period before stable consistent running ensues.
Because the conduction of electricity through a gas is inherently unstable, arcs require an
external ballast resistance to allow steady-state operation. About 10 to 20% of the electric power
input is usually dissipated and radiated as heat to space or transferred by conduction from the hot
nozzle to other parts of the system. Arcjets, however, are potentially more scalable to large thrust
levels than other electric propulsion systems Arcjets have another disadvantage in that the
required power processing units are somewhat more complex than those for resistojets, due to
the complexity of arc phenomena.
The life of an arcjet can be severely limited by local electrode erosion and vaporization, which is
specifically due to action of the arc attachment point and of the high operating temperatures in
general.




13


Specific performance characteristics of arc jets
Steady thrust 222-258 mN
Feed pressure 185-330pa
Power control unit (PCU)
input
4.4 kW
PCU efficiency 93%
Dimensions; Arcjet 237 x 125 x 91

PCU -632x361 x 109

Mass: Arcjet and cable 6.3 kg
PCU

15.8 kg

2.3.2 Electromagnetic thrusters:
Electrostatic thrusters rely on Coulomb forces to accelerate a propellant composed of non-neutral
charged particles. They can operate only in a near vacuum. The electric force depends only on
the charge, and all charged particles must be of the same "sign" if they are to move in the same
direction. Electrons are easy to produce and are readily accelerated, but they are as extremely
light in mass as to be impractical for electric propulsion. From thermal propulsion fundamentals
one might deduce that "the lighter the exhaust particle the better." However, the momentum
carried by electrons is relatively negligible even at velocities near the speed of light. Thus, the
thrust per unit area that can be imparted to such an electron flow remains negligible even when
the effective exhaust velocity or specific impulse gets to be very high. Accordingly, electrostatic
thrusters use charged heavy-molecular-mass atoms as positive ions (a proton is 1840 times
heavier than the electron and a typical ion of interest contains hundreds of protons). There has
been some research work with small liquid droplets or charged colloid which can in turn be some
10,000 times heavier than atomic particles.
In terms of power sources and transmission equipment, the use of the heavier particles
contributes to more desirable characteristics for electrostatic thrusters--for example, high
voltages and low currents.



14

Electrostatic thrusters can be categorized by their source of charged particles as follows:
1. Electron bombardment thrusters. Positive ions from a monatomic gas are produced by
bombarding the gas or vapor, such as xenon or mercury, with electrons emitted from a heated
cathode. Ionization can be either DC or RF.
2. Ion contact thrusters. Positive ions are produced by passing the propellant vapor, usually
cesium, through a hot (about 1100C or 2000F) porous tungsten contact ionizer. Cesium vapor
was used extensively in the original ion engines.
3. Field emission or colloid thrusters. Tiny droplets of propellant are charged either positively
or negatively as these droplets pass through an intense electric field discharge. The stability of
large, charged particles remains a challenge.
Electric Bombardment Thruster


Electric
FIG 2.4 Simplified schematic diagram of an electron bombardment ion thruster,
The electrostatic (or Coulomb) force and the electromagnetic (or Lorentz) force can be used to
accelerate a suitable propellant to speeds
The microscopic vector force Fe on a singly charged particle can be written as
Fe = eE + e(Ve B)
Where e is the electron charge magnitude, E the electric field vector, Ve the velocity of the
charged particle, and B the magnetic field vector. The exhaust velocity is a function of the
voltage Vacc imposed across the accelerating chamber or grids, the mass of the charged particle
and its electrical charge e. In the conservation of energy equation the kinetic energy of a
charged particle must equal the electrical energy gained in the field, provided that there are no
collision losses.
V= m/sec
15


Ionization Schemes.
Even though all ion acceleration schemes are the same, there are several ionization schemes for
electrostatic engines. Most devices are DC but some are RF. To a great extent, the ionization
chamber is responsible for most of the size, mass, and perhaps efficiency of these devices.
Ionization of a gas by electron bombardment is a well-established technology. Electrons are
emitted from a thermionic (hot) cathode or the more efficient hollow cathode and are forced to
interact with the gaseous propellant flow in a suitable ionization chamber. The chamber
pressures are low, typically 10 -3 torr or 0.134 Pa
Emitted electrons are attracted toward the cylindrical anode but are forced by the axial magnetic
field to spiral in the chamber, causing numerous collisions with propellant atoms which lead to
ionization. A radial electric field removes the electrons from the chamber and an axial electric
field moves the ions toward the accelerator grids.
Radiofrequency thrusters
Most high powe hence high thrust systems use electrodes, of one kind or another, to
generate the current in the gas that provides the ions and hence the thrust. These always
erode in the discharge, being worse for high power systems. Several attempts have been
made to increase the power input by using radiowaves to provide the internal energy
source . The process here begins with the gas, hydrogen and helium mixed, being exposed to
the electromagnetic radiation from an RF antenna that ionises most of the atoms. It then
passes into a cavity with strong magnetic fields, where it is excited by a high-power
RFgenerator resonance here gives avery high efficiency of power transfer from the RF
field to the gas.
Electrons are routed from the cylindrical anode through an external circuit to another hot
cathode at the exhaust beam in order to neutralize the exit beam.
An ion propulsion thruster using xenon as a propellant. has three perforated electrically
charged grids: the inner one keeps the electrons in the ionizer, the middle one has a high
voltage (1000 V or more) and accelerates the ions, and the outer one keeps the neutralizing
electrons from entering the accelerator region. Each grid hole is lined up with a similar
opening in the other grids and the ion beam flows through these holes. If the grids are
properly designed, only a few ions are lost by collision with the surface

In general, losses can be reduced by
(1) decreasing the electron energy and ion density near the walls,
(2) increasing the electron energy and ion density near the grid, and
(3) optimizing the screen-grid open area.


Two aspects of the exhaust beam are non-thrust producing: one is the aforementioned
ionization energy contained in the beam and the other one is any vector divergence present
which results in beam spreading. Beam spreading, or the radial velocity component of
beams, can result from causes both upstream and downstream of the exit
electrode. Divergence downstream arises from forces within the beam or space charge
spreading. Once outside of then accelerator chamber, repelling electrostatic forces between
ions rapidly spread the beam radially. Proper neutralization of the beam reduces this
spreading, allowing nearly axial velocities.

16








Fig 2.5:The outer view of xenon ion prppulsion system
Hollow cathodes represent an advancement in the state-of-the-art in electron emission; this
cathode consists of a high-temperature metal tube with a flowlimiting orifice and a porous
tungsten cylinder impregnated with a bariumoxygen compound located next to the orifice.
At about 1370 K the cathode is a good thermionic emitter and thus the hot cylinder
produces enough electrons at a relatively low temperature. Xenon, the stable inert gas with
the highest molecular mass, is the propellant of choice. Xenon is a minor component of air,
in a concentration of about 9 parts in 100 million, so it is a relatively rare and expensive
propellant whose availability is currently limited. Its critical point is 289.7 K and 5.84 MPa
(the critical density is 1100 kg/m3). It is easily stored below its critical temperature as a
liquid and it does not pose any problems of condensation or toxicity. Pressure regulators
for xenon need to be more sophisticated, because no leakages can be tolerated and because
flows are very small.
The exhaust velocities Ve is of the order of 10000m/sec for Ion Propulsion system
2.4 How the Electric Propulsion system is started:
Step1:The sensing element (Transducers) for determining the attitude, velocity, and position
of the vehicle with respect to a reference direction at any one time convert the parameter in
electrical signals and sends it to a microcontroller
Step2:The microcontroller analyses the input and checks it with the reference input received
from ground station by microwaves or pre programmed value of the parameter.
Step3:The Power conditioning equipment converts the power from source to desired values.and
triggers the propulsion system .
17



Step4:The servo orifice valve opens and the propellant reaches the Electric Propulsion system.

The input to an electro-hydraulic (EH) servo valve is typically a current or a differential current
that powers an electromagnetic torque motor. The differential current i is
typically supplied by an amplifier to avoid excess loading of the interface to the computer
or controller. In the simplest)form, the torque motor moves a spool valve as shown below. The
spool valve allows the hydraulic fluid to pass from the supply to the return across two variable
metering orifices with a controlled flow rate QL. If the spool is shifted in the other direction the
direction of flow will reverse.

Fig 2.6 :Schematic of an Electro Hydraulic Valve
Step5:The electric Propulsion system gets fully operational and thrusts the vehicle in the desired
direction
2.5APPLICATIONS OF ELECTRIC PROPULSION SYSTEMS


2.5.1 Station keeping: Satellites of modern design, with irregular shapes due to protruding
antennas, solar arrays, or other asymmetrical appendages, experience torques and forces that tend
to perturb the satellite's position and orbit throughout its orbital life. The principal torques and
forces result from the following factors:

1. Aerodynamic drag. This factor is significant at orbital altitudes below 500 km and is usually
assumed to cease at 800 km above the earth. There are, changes in elliptical orbits known as
apsidal drift, a decrease in the major axis, and a decrease in eccentricity of orbits about the earth.

2. Gravity gradients. Gravitational torque in spacecraft results from a variation in the
gravitational force on the distributed mass of a spacecraft. Determination of this torque requires
knowledge of the gravitational field and the distribution of spacecraft mass. This torque
decreases as a function of the orbit radius and increases with the offset distances of masses
within the spacecraft (including booms and appendages), it is most significant in large spacecraft
or space stations operating in relatively low orbits
3. Magnetic field. The earth's magnetic field and any magnetic moment within the satellite
interact to produce torque. The earth's magnetic field precesses about the earth's axis but is very
weak (0.63 and 0.31gauss at poles and equator, respectively). This field is continually fluctuating
18

in direction and intensity because of magnetic storms and other influences. Since the field
strength decreases with 1/R 3 with the orbital altitude, magnetic field forces are often neglected
in the preliminary design of satellites

4. Internal accelerations. Deployment of solar array panels, the shifting of propellant,
movement of astronauts or other mass within the satellite, or the "unloading" of reaction wheels
produce torques and forces. So it is very important to maintain the satellite in a definite orbit for
which electric thrusters play a vital role .When a drift from original orbit is sensed the Electric
Propulsion system triggers and the burn time remains till the required orbit is reached.
For example, a synchronous communications satellite in a GEO needs to maintain its position
and its orbit, so it will be able to
(1) keep covering a specific area of the earth or communicate with the same stations on earth
within its line of sight, and
(2) Not become a hazard to other satellites in this densely occupied synchronous equatorial orbit.
So in order to

SO inn
So in order to maintain the satellite in a pre defined orbit The electric Propulsion system in
necessary .As they have very high efficiencies they can be used for many years.The Electrical
Propulsion systems have enabled Satellites to be commissioned for 10 years

2.5.2Velocity vector adjustment and minor in-flight correction maneuvers are usually
performed with low thrust, short duration and intermittent (pulsing) operations, using a reaction
control system with multiple small liquid propellant thrusters, both for translation and rotation.
The vernier rockets on a ballistic missile are used to accurately calibrate the terminal velocity
vector for improved target accuracy. The reaction control rocket systems in a space launch
vehicle will allow accurate orbit injection adjustment maneuvers after it is placed into orbit by
another, less accurate propulsion system. Mid-course guidance-directed correction maneuvers for
the trajectories of deep space vehicles fall also into this category.

Propulsion systems for orbit maintenance maneuvers, also called station keeping maneuvers (to
overcome perturbing forces), keeping a spacecraft in its intended orbit and orbital position and
are considered to be part of this category.


2.5.3 Deep Space
Lunar and interplanetary missions include circumnavigation, landing, and
return flights to the moon, Venus, Mars, and other planets. The energy necessary
to escape from earth can be calculated as M

/2 from
. It is 6.26 x 107j/kg, which is more than that required for a satellite.
Such high Energy are only possible because Electric Propulsion System has the exhaust
velocities in the range of 10000m/sec
F
2.5.4 Low Earth orbit to geostationary orbit raising
The required velocity increment for an elliptical transfer to geo stationary altitude
andcircularisation of the orbit is theoretically 4.2km/s. To this should be added the gravity losses
associated with the continuous burning of the electric propulsion system, which is of the order
1km/s, producing a total of 5.2km/s for this mission. This is 10 times the station keeping
requirement. It should also be carried out in a reasonable length of time, so may be expected to
be more demanding of the thrusters. As a comparison chemical thruster we can consider a bi-
propellant engine using UDMH and nitrogen tetroxide. It has an exhaust velocity of 3,160m/s in
vacuum requiring a propellant fraction of 80% For the ion engine the propellant fraction is 16%,
and so the use of electric propulsion can potentially save about 80% of the propellant. Note that
the higher exhaust velocity of the ion engine has a much bigger effect for this mission..
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CONCLUSION:
Even though as the Electric Propulsion syetems have very low thrust Values .They can
be used for various applications .Due to their low weight,They have made Large
increase in the Payload weight possible which has enabled the communication
satellites to be massive in order t fulfil our communication needs.Their high
efficiencies and Very high exhaust velocities have made Further exploration and Deep
space Missions Possible where the mission times may last for many months.The Pitch
correction of a rocket is Primal in terms for proper manuvering of the vehicle and
directing it in the desired direction.Moreover Electric Thrusters play a vital role in
space missions as a lot of cost is saved by employing these systems.


S


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REFERENCES:

1.Rocket and spacecraft propulsion-by Professor Martin J Luther(Dept of
physics and astronomical sciences university of Leicester UK)


2.Rocket Propulsion Elements- GEORGE P. SUTTON Rocket
Propulsion Rocket Propulsion
3.Web Reference:
a)www.wikipedia.org
b) http://alfven.princeton.edu/

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