March 2001

PETROLEUM ENGINES
APPLICATION and
INSTALLATION GUIDE
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CATERPILLAR

PETROLEUM ENGINE
APPLICATION AND INSTALLATION GUIDE
Table of Contents
Marketing Profit Center Locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
Serviceability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
Installation Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6
Long Term Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
Petroleum Engine Selection, Ratings, and Configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
Petroleum Equipment Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
Engine Packaging for Electric Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
Petroleum Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
Two-Bearing Generator Offshore Power Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
Two-Bearing Generator Land Rig Power Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
Auxiliary Service Single-Bearing Generators Without Bases . . . . . . . . . .25
Equipment Mounting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27
Engine Packaging for Mechanical Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29
Mobile and Service Rigs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
Clutches, Belt and Chain Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35
System Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36
Torque Converters, Transmissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38
Transmission and Torque Converter Ratings and Adaptation . . . . . . . . . .40
Mud Pump Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
Alignment and Vibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
General Alignment Information Defining Types of Misalignment . . . . . . .43
Crankshaft Deflection Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
Alignment of Two-Bearing Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
Alignment of Close-Coupled Driven Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55
Alignment of Mechanical Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56
Vibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57
Isolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61
Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
TMI Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71
Noise Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72
1 LEBW1414-00
1976, 1979, 1982, 1985, 2001 Caterpillar
Available electronically in the Technical Information section of
https://oilandgas.cat.com
Table of Contents
Governors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77
Speed Droop Governors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77
Isochronous Governors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79
Electric Load Sharing Governors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80
Electronic Governing and Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84
Generator Set Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .86
Cooling Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89
General Information and Cooling System Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89
Coolant Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .94
Watermaker Installation Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98
Interconnection of Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .101
Heat Exchanger Cooling Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .102
Expansion Tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
System Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .109
Emergency Radiator Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .114
Radiators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .114
Installation Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117
Radiator Performance Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .118
Jacket Water Heaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .123
Extreme Cold Weather Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124
Sizing and Installing Radiators for EPA Certified Engines . . . . . . . .125
Supplemental Radiator Design Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125
Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .130
Lubricating Oil Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .130
Scheduled Oil Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .132
Lubricating Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .133
Prelubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .133
Duplex Oil Filter System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .134
Remote Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .134
Tilt Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .134
Supplemental Bypass Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .134
Fuel Delivery System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .136
System Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .136
Fuel System Attachments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .142
Fuel Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .143
Crude Oil Fuel System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .147
Exhaust System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .151
Air Intake Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .159
Engine Room Ventilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .159
Land SCR Rig Ventilation Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .164
Combustion Air Intake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .165
Air Cleaners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .165
Crankcase Ventilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .168
DC Power Systems Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .171
LEBW1414-00 2
Table of Contents
AC Power Systems Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .173
Oilfield Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .177
Shutoffs and Alarm Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .180
Starting Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184
Electric Starting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184
Air Starting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .187
Starting Aids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .189
Electrolytic and Galvanic Activity Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .191
Fuel Conservation on Petroleum Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .193
Daily Engine Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .205
Engine Support Systems Layouts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .206
Design Review Sheets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .208
3 LEBW1414-00
MARKETING PROFIT CENTER LOCATIONS
CAT POWER SYSTEMS NORTH AMERICA (PSNA)
CATERPILLAR AMERICAS CO. (CACo)
701 Waterford Way, Suite 200
Miami, FL 33126-4670
Ph: (305) 476-6800
Fax: (305) 476-6801
CATERPILLAR OF AUSTRALIA LTD.
(CofA)
1 Caterpillar Drive
Private Mail Bag 4
Tullamarine
Victoria 3043
Australia
CATERPILLAR ASIA PACIFIC LTD.
(CAPL)
Singapore Branch
7, Tractor Road, Jurong
Singapore 627968
Republic of Singapore
P.O. Box 0520
Jurong Town Post Office
Singapore 916118
Ph: 662-8333
Fax: 662-8302
CATERPILLAR CHINA LIMITED (CCL)
37/F., The Lee Gardens
33 Hysan Ave.
Causeway Bay
G.P.O. Box 3069
Hong Kong
Ph: (852) 2848-0333
Fax: (852) 2848-0440
(852) 2848-0400
(852) 2848-0236
(852) 2848-0223
(852) 2868-5435
CATERPILLAR POWER SYSTEMS INC.
Sanno Grand Bldg., 8th Floor
2-14-2 Nagatacho
Chiyoda-Ku, Tokyo 100
Japan
Ph: (03) 3593-3231
Fax: (03) 3593-3238
CATERPILLAR S.A.R.L.
76, Route de Frontenex
P.O. Box 6000
CH-1211 Geneva 6
Switzerland
Ph: (22) 849 44 44
Fax: (22) 849 45 44
Tlx: 413323
Cble: CATOVERSEA
NORTH CENTRAL REGION
330 S.W. Adams St., LD-LL30
Peoria, IL 61602
Ph: (309) 675-4605
Fax: (309) 675-4303
NORTHEAST REGION
175 Powder Forest Dr.
Weatogue, CT 06089
Ph: (860) 658-3411
Fax: (860) 651-4118
Speed No.: *0-119
NORTHWEST REGION
12600 SE 38th St.
Suite 205
Bellevue, WA 98006
Ph: (425) 865-0251
Fax: (425) 865-0919
Speed No.: *0-037
SOUTH CENTRAL REGION
8300 FM 1960 West
Suite 340
Houston, TX 77070
Ph: (281) 677-2525
Fax: (281) 807-6535
Speed No.: *0-112
SOUTHEAST REGION
7621 Little Avenue
Suite 202
Charlotte, NC 28226
Ph: (704) 752-1321
Fax: (704) 752-1316
Speed No.: *0-120
SOUTHWEST REGION
1450 N. Tustin Avenue
Suite 217
Santa Ana, CA 92705
Ph: (714) 560-4010
Fax: (714) 835-2737
Speed No.: *0-106
CANADIAN REGION
3700 Steeles Ave. West
Suite 902
Woodbridge, ON L4L 8K8
Ph: (905) 850-3655
Fax: (905) 850-3661
Speed No.: *7-25
LEBW1414-00 4
5 LEBW1414-00
Following are installation requirements for
Caterpillar Diesel Engines applied in petro-
leum applications, except for 3600 Series
engines.
Reliability of machinery is a major factor affect-
ing satisfactory performance.
Machinery must be properly installed in an accept-
able environment to achieve reliability.
The installation plan must assure machinery will
be able to function in its environment.
Caterpillar is not responsible for choice or per-
formance of components mentioned herein that
are not manufactured or serviced by Caterpillar.
It is the installers responsibility to consider and
avoid possible hazardous conditions which could
develop from the systems involved in the spe-
cific engine installation. The suggestions provided
regarding avoidance of hazardous conditions
apply to all applications and are necessarily of a
general nature since only the installer is familiar
with the details of his installation. The sugges-
tions should be considered general examples
only and are in no way intended to cover every
possible hazard in every installation.
The engine installation should be designed and
sized according to the requirements of the appli-
cation. Engine installation layout is important for
ventilation, cooling and the filtering of dirt and
sand from the air. Space must also be planned
for auxiliary equipment. In addition, heat and
noise levels should be adequate for workers
comfort and comply with local, state, marine
classification society or country codes. Consid-
erations must be given to how the engine pack-
age is delivered to the site, i.e. by crane or other
methods.
Multiple Use Facility
Drill rigs have auxiliary equipment such as boiler
units, compressors, etc. For this reason, it is
important for the room to have ample space for
maintenance and repair of all the equipment.
Serviceability
Adherence to proper maintenance practices is
critical to engine or generator set reliability.
Caterpillar publishes guidelines and service inter-
vals for every engine and generator model.
Reference should be made to these guidelines for
specific maintenance practices. However, the
installation must be designed for ease of servic-
ing to ensure adequate maintenance.
Lifting Capabilities
The room enclosures should have adequate
clearance to allow lifting of the generator sets for
repair work, etc.
Clearances
There are different types of clearances: overhead,
side and front/rear.
Overhead Clearances
Overhead clearance is the clearance above the
engine and generator. Special consideration
should be made for clearances above the muf-
flers, exhaust stacks and cylinder heads to allow
space for maintenance work.
Side Clearances
In a single or multiple generator set application,
there should be sufficient space between engines
for drain carts, tool carriages and other equip-
ment. As a rule, the space between engines
should be equal to at least the width of the engine.
Front/Rear Clearances
The room should be designed to provide suffi-
cient area in front for removing the radiator and
camshaft from the block in case of major over-
hauls. In a similar manner, there should be suf-
ficient space at the rear of the generator for
removal of the rotor.
Access
Accessibility is an important feature in any engine
room design.
There will be periodic preventive maintenance
on the engine, so easy access should especially
be provided to:
lube oil filters and drain plug
fuel and air filters
jacket water pump
turbocharger
heat exchanger
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Routine Maintenance
Access should be available through the service
entrance in the case of regular routine mainte-
nance. The entrance should be designed to han-
dle the removal of generator sets, parts, fluids
and tools. Maintenance personnel should be able
to pass through freely.
Major Repair
Rooms should be able to handle major repairs,
which may involve weight and size constraints.
Service Convenience
Air
Air should be in sufficient supply for use with air
tools as well as ventilation purposes.
Water
Water is an important resource for cooling pur-
poses as well as for cleaning the room, engine,
and hands.
Air Pressure
Doors
Air restrictions in enclosed engine rooms can cre-
ate a pressure differential between the room and
the surrounding areas. A 1.02 psi (7 kPa) pres-
sure differential can create a 3086 lb (1400 kg)
force exerted on a 3.28 6.56 ft
2
(1 2 m
2
)
door (as pressure is equal to weight divided by
area). The door design and proper ventilation
should be taken into consideration when design-
ing the room.
Air Velocity
While air temperatures must be controlled, air
velocities affect worker comfort. The typical air
motion conditions include:
Table 1. Conditions from air velocity
Temperatures
Pre-Start
The engine should be equipped with starting
capabilities especially in cold conditions.
Provisions such as jacket water heaters, battery
heaters, oil heaters, ether start aids and anti-
freeze concentration must be planned for to
ensure proper starting. These measures are taken
in cold ambient conditions.
Operational
In order to maintain temperature and prevent de-
rating of the engine during operation, adequate
air and coolant flow are necessary. Radiators, if
so equipped, provide cooling air for the room, as
well as the engine. Heat exchanger and remote
radiator cooling remove much of the heat from
the room, but ventilation will still be necessary
for radiant heat.
Installation Considerations
Handling
Lift Points
Lift points on drill rig power modules are impor-
tant as they provide support to the equipment
when it is moved.
When lifting, all supporting members (chains and
cables) should be parallel to each other and as
perpendicular as possible to the top of the object
being lifted.
When it is necessary to remove a component on
an angle, remember that the capacity of an eye-
bolt is reduced when the angle between the
supporting members and the object becomes
less than 90 degrees. Eyebolts and brackets
should never be bent and should only be loaded
under tension.
To move only the engine, use the lifting eyes on
the engine itself.
To remove the generator only, use the lifting eyes
that are on the generator.
Center of Gravity (CG) Calculations
This information is important, especially when
they are hoisted by overhead cranes. Compo-
nents with a lower center of gravity have less ten-
dency to tip over when lifted.
Air Velocity
(fpm) m/min Conditions
50 15.2 Offices, seated worker
100 30.5 Factory, standing worker
150 45.7 Capture velocity, light dust
200 61.0 Maximum continuous exposure
1300 396.0 Capture velocity, rain
1 2000 306.0 Maximum intermittent exposure
610.0
LEBW1414-00 6
Long Term Storage
Engine Storage
When an engine is not started for several months,
the lubricating oil drains from the cylinder walls
and piston rings. Rust can then form on the cylin-
der liner surface, increasing engine wear and
decreasing engine life.
To prevent excessive engine wear:
Be sure all lubrication recommendations
mentioned in the Maintenance Schedule
intervals chart are completed.
If freezing temperatures are expected, check
the cooling system for adequate protec-
tion against freezing. A 50/50 solution of
Ethylene Glycol based antifreeze and
approved water will give protection to 33F
(36C).
If an engine is out of operation and if use of the
engine is not planned, special precautions should
be made. If the engine will be stored for more
than one month, a complete protection proce-
dure is recommended. Refer to SEHS9031,
Storage Procedures for Caterpillar Products, for
more detailed information on engine storage.
Your Caterpillar dealer will have instructions for
preparing your engine for extended storage
periods.
Generator Storage
When a generator is stored, moisture may con-
dense in the windings. Use a dry storage space
and space heaters to minimize condensation.
Removing Generator Moisture
Drying does not always produce desired results.
It may be necessary for the generator to be
dipped and baked by a qualified rebuild shop.
Energize the space heaters in the generator
(if equipped).
Space heaters can be installed on genera-
tors (see the Parts Manual). They warm the
windings to remove moisture. The heaters
should be connected at all times in high
humidity conditions, whenever the genera-
tor is not running.
Refer to SEHS9124, Special Instructions, Clean
and Dry Gen Set, or contact your Caterpillar
dealer.
Open Storage of Generators
Test the main stator windings with a megohm-
meter:
before the initial start-up of the genera-
tor set
every three months* if the generator is oper-
ating in a humid environment
if the generator has not been run under load
for three months* or more
*This is a guideline only. If the environment is extremely
humid or salty, it may be necessary to perform the Megger
Test more frequently. Refer to one of the following publica-
tions for Megger Test information:
SEBU6918, SR4B Generators and Control Panels Oper-
ation and Maintenance Manual
* SENR5359, SR4B Generator Service Manual
7 LEBW1414-00
LEBW1414-00 8
PETROLEUM ENGINE SELECTION, RATINGS, AND CONFIGURATIONS
Petroleum Engine Selection
General
One of the major concerns in applying petroleum
engines is proper application of engine horse-
power to obtain desired performance, economic
operation, and satisfactory engine life. Successful
application of petroleum engines requires under-
standing of power requirements, how engines are
rated, applicable emissions requirements, and
knowledge of the proper selection and use of
these ratings.
Power Requirements Compared
With Past Experience
Before selecting an engine model and rating,
power demand must be analyzed. This is simpli-
fied if experience is available with a similar
machine powered by an engine of known rat-
ing and fuel rate performance. This experience
helps decide whether the machine was under-
powered, correctly powered, or overpowered.
Calculated Horsepower Demand
Machine load demand can be estimated mathe-
matically when no actual machine experience is
available. Using basic engineering principles on
work and energy and data on the type of task to
be accomplished, it is possible to convert all
functions of a machine to torque demand and
then to power demand. Calculation may be the
only way available to estimate power requirements
at the start of a new machine design. Of course,
this approach is accurate only if all factors are
considered and assumptions are correct. For
applications such as pumps or other continuous
loads, where demand is known quite well, cal-
culated values are quite accurate. In other appli-
cations, actual demand can differ significantly.
Engine Measured Power Demand
Usually, the most practical way to assess power
demand and engine capability is to make a selec-
tion based on calculation or comparison with past
experience and test it. There is no substitute for
a rigorous evaluation of an engine in the machine
or application. This provides final proof of
machine performance acceptability, or it will
identify shortcomings in need of correction.
Horsepower, Torque, and Machine Productivity
To better understand torque and horsepower,
consider that a very small engine can provide
sufficient torque for a very large machine if there
is enough speed reduction. But, although the
machine could have sufficient torque, it would
operate at such a slow speed as to be unpro-
ductive. Productivity of most machines is approx-
imately proportional to horsepower input.
Horsepower is the time rate of doing work. Or
restated, horsepower is proportional to the prod-
uct of torque times rpm. Some basic relation-
ships are:
English units
bhp =
T RPM
5252
T =
5252 bhp
RPM
1 hp =
33,000 ft-lb
min
Where: T = Torque, ft-lb
Metric units
bkW =
T RPM
9537
T =
9537 bkW
RPM
T = Torque, Nm
Torque Rise Effect on Performance
For equipment (such as a plunger pump) which
is capable of lugging the engine (i.e., applying
sufficient load to pull the engine speed down
below rated speed at full throttle), it is important
to consider two other characteristics of engine
performance. These are torque rise and response
to sudden load change.
Torque Rise % =
(Peak Torque) (Rated Torque) 100
Rated Torque
Cat

Diesel Engines used in mechanical drives

typically provide high torque rise to perform well
in a wide variety of applications.
A torque curve is the graphical representation of
torque versus speed.
9 LEBW1414-00
Some modification to the torque curve of a non-
certified engine is possible in those cases where
this is required to achieve satisfactory machine
performance. Consult your engine supplier if this
need exists.
If torque rise capability is higher than necessary,
the machine driveline may be subjected to torque
levels which may shorten the life of gearing and
bearings. For this reason it is sometimes desir-
able to let the machine operator shift to a lower
gear to increase engine speed instead of always
lugging the engine without a gear change. So, the
decision to use an extra high torque rise engine
must also consider driveline capability. By con-
trast, an engine with insufficient torque rise will
seem weak and may even stop running before
the operator has time to make a gear change.
This is not acceptable either. The best compro-
mise is to use enough torque rise to satisfy
machine performance requirements, but not so
much that driveline life becomes unacceptable.
Devices such as blowers and centrifugal pumps
cannot lug an engine because power demand
drops off faster than engine capability as speed
is reduced. The amount of torque rise available
in these applications is generally meaningless
because torque rise is not required, except as it
may contribute to the ability to accelerate the load.
Generation sets are constant speed applications
and do not need torque rise capability.
Response Effect on Performance
A naturally aspirated engine has the fastest
response to sudden load increase because
required combustion air is immediately available.
However, few naturally aspirated engines meet
emissions requirements. They are also more
costly and heavy.
There is a momentary lag in the response of a
turbocharged or turbocharged and aftercooled
engine because it takes a moment for the turbo
to accelerate upon load increase. Progress in tur-
bocharger development has produced smaller,
faster responding turbochargers and, therefore,
turbocharged engines which respond quickly
to sudden load increase. With steady load
and speed, turbo response is of no consequence.
Air/fuel ratio controllers, also called smoke lim-
iters, momentarily limit fuel delivery until suffi-
cient air is available for combustion. They respond
to inlet manifold boost pressure. The proper
air/fuel ratio setting provides optimum machine
responsiveness and acceptable level of transient
smoke for a particular application.
Adequate Machine Performance
Manufacturers and customers develop their own
ideas of what constitutes adequate machine
performance. Insufficient power causes low
productivity and user dissatisfaction. Excessive
power costs more to purchase, requires heavier
drive system components, and may reduce
equipment life if the operator is careless. The
ideal machine is responsive, productive, and
durable, satisfying the owners need for per-
formance and overall value.
Tolerances
Actual engine power output may vary by up to
3% from nameplate value on a new engine.
Similarly, where load demand of some work-pro-
ducing device is published, the manufacturers
tolerance should be added to demand power if
power needs are to be met in all cases.
Fuel Heating Value
Fuel heating value affects the ability to achieve
rated power output because fuel is delivered to
the engine on a volumetric basis. Allowance
should be made for lower heat content fuel
(higher API than standard) where the power level
is critical.
Fuel rates are based on fuel oil of 35 API {60F
(16C)} gravity having an LHV of 18,360 Btu/lb
(42,780 kJ/kg) when used at 85F (29C) and
weighing 7.001 lb/U.S. gal (838.9 g/L).
Auxiliary Loads
In addition to the engines main load, allowance
must be made for engine-driven auxiliary loads.
Extra loads imposed by a cooling fan, alternator,
steering pump, air compressor, and hydraulic
pump may represent a significant proportion of
total engine power available.
After establishing main load power demand and
adding all auxiliary power demands, some addi-
tional power should be allowed for peak loads
(such as grades and rough terrain) and reserve
for acceleration, where applicable.
Engine Rating Conditions
Ratings are based on SAE 1995 standard
ambient conditions. Ratings are subject to 3%
Power Tolerance. Ratings are valid for air cleaner
inlet temperatures up to and including 122F
(50C).
Note: Horsepower shown on the performance
curve for generator set applications may be
slightly below the advertised horsepower to
match a generator nominal output.
Engine performance is corrected to inlet air stan-
dard conditions of 29.31 in. hg (99 kPa) dry
barometer and 77F (25C) temperature. These
values correspond to the standard atmos-
pheric pressure and temperature as shown in
SAE J1995.
Performance measured using a standard fuel with
fuel gravity of 35 API having a lower heating
value of 18,390 Btu/lb (42,780 kJ/kg) when
used at 84.2F (29C) where the density is
7.001 lb/US gal (838.9 G/L).
The corrected performance values shown for
Caterpillar engines will approximate the values
obtained when the observed performance data
is corrected to SAE J1995, ISO 3046-2 & 8665
& 2288 & 9249 & 1585, EEC 80/1269 and
DIN 70020 standard reference conditions.
Engine Ratings
Another concern in applying engines is the proper
application of engine power to obtain desired per-
formance, economic operation, and satisfactory
engine life. Successful application of engines
requires an understanding of how they are rated
and how to properly select and use these ratings.
Published ratings are representative statements
expressing engine power and speed capability
under specific loading conditions. There are sev-
eral ratings for each configuration of petroleum
engine model.
Engine Capability Determines Ratings
Horsepower rating capability is determined by
engine design. Combined capability and dura-
bility of all engine components determine how
much horsepower can be produced successfully
in a particular application.
Power Setting Determines Maximum Fuel Rate
Horsepower output of a basic engine model can
be varied within its design range by changing the
engine fuel setting or speed setting. Both settings
affect the engines maximum fuel rate and,
therefore, the horsepower output capability.
Thermal and mechanical design limits will not be
exceeded if an appropriate engine and rating
is selected.
Caterpillar Ratings are Offered
in a 5 Tier Format
INDUSTRIAL A CONTINUOUS RATINGS
For heavy duty service when engine is
operated at rated load and speed up to
100% of the time without interruption or
load cycling.
Time at full load up to 100% of the duty
cycle.
Typical examples are: pipeline pumping,
well service mixing units.
INDUSTRIAL B RATINGS
(Mud Pump Service)
For service where power and/or speed
are cyclic.
Time at full load not to exceed 80% of the
duty cycle.
Typical examples are: oil field mechanical
pumping/drilling, independent rotary drive,
well service blenders, cementers.
INDUSTRIAL C INTERMITTENT RATINGS
(Hoisting Service)
For service where power and/or speed are
cyclic. The horsepower and speed capa-
bility of the engine which can be utilized
for one uninterrupted hour followed by one
hour of operation at or below the INDA
Continuous power.
Time at full load not to exceed 50% of the
duty cycle.
Typical examples are: off-highway truck,
fire pump application power, blast hole
drills, oil field hoisting, nitrogen pumping,
well service kill pumps, cementers, electric
drill rig power (also called Prime power).
LEBW1414-00 10
11 LEBW1414-00
INDUSTRIAL D RATINGS
For service where rated power is required
for periodic overloads. The maximum
horsepower and speed capability of the
engine can be utilized for a maximum of
30 uninterrupted minutes followed by one
hour at IND C Intermittent power.
Time at full load not to exceed 10% of the
duty cycle.
Typical examples are: offshore cranes, fire
pump certification power, coil tubing units,
offshore cementer.
INDUSTRIAL E RATINGS
For service where rated power is required
for a short time for initial starting or sudden
overload. For emergency service where
standard power is unavailable. The maxi-
mum horsepower and speed capability of
the engine can be utilized for a maximum
of 15 uninterrupted minutes followed by
one hour at IND C Intermittent power
or duration of emergency.
Time at full load not to exceed 5% of the
duty cycle.
Typical examples are: oil field well servic-
ing frac/acid pumping.
NOTE: APPLICATION EXAMPLES ARE FOR
REFERENCE ONLY. FOR EXACT DETERMI-
NATION OF RATING TIER REFER TO SPECIFIC
APPLICATION INFORMATION AND GUIDE-
LINES IN TMI.
Life Related to Load Factor
Use of an oversized engine contributes to longer
engine life because it runs at a lower overall load
factor. It also provides quicker response to sud-
den load changes. Load factor is the ratio of aver-
age fuel rate to the maximum fuel rate the engine
can deliver when set at a rating appropriate for a
particular application. This value is expressed as
a percent.
Factors Involved in Establishing a Rating
Some of the application conditions considered
by a manufacturer in determining a rating for an
application are: load factor, duty cycle, annual
operating hours, historical experience at a par-
ticular rating level, and expected engine life
to overhaul.
Engine Determines Rating Validity
A properly maintained engine in actual use will
determine whether a particular rating level is
appropriate. Ratings which are validated by
acceptable field experience are retained. Contin-
uing engine development results in ongoing
engine improvement and some increase in rat-
ings may result from this process.
Engines are Developed for
Specific Rating Levels
Engines are designed and developed to produce
specific power levels for particular applications.
Subsequent lab and field experience confirms
rating validity. Increasing engine horsepower
beyond approved levels to compensate for
excessive load is not acceptable. Excessive
engine wear or damage can result.
Rating Curves
Consult Technical Marketing Information (TMI)
or Petroleum Engine Performance handbooks for
rating curves which show available ratings at var-
ious speeds for each model and configuration.
Specification sheets also carry some of this infor-
mation for preliminary sizing purposes.
Special Ratings
Most engine applications are well understood and
utilize one of the above existing published ratings
which have been confirmed by thousands of
hours of successful experience. However, occa-
sionally, a unique application merits special rat-
ing consideration because of unusually low load
factor or unusually short life requirements. In this
case, consult your engine supplier. Factory appli-
cation engineers will require that a special rating
request data sheet be submitted for review before
a special rating can be considered for approval.
Emissions certification regulations reduce the
feasibility of some special rating requests.
Altitude Derating
Each model and rating has established maxi-
mum altitude capabilities for lug and nonlug
applications. For higher altitude operation, power
settings must be reduced approximately 3% per
1000 ft. (305 m) above that ratings altitude limit.
Mechanically controlled diesel engines do not
self-derate enough so that the fuel setting can be
left unchanged. If they are not reset to appropri-
ate power levels, naturally aspirated engines may
smoke badly and turbocharged engines may suf-
fer excessive thermal and mechanical loading,
resulting in internal damage without giving exter-
nal indication of distress. Engine derating curves
are contained in the TMI.
Actual Power Output Derives
from Load Demand
Regardless of engine rating (power and speed
setting), the actual power developed by an
engine is determined by the load imposed by
driven equipment. For example, an engine set to
produce 500 hp (373 kW) will actually produce
only 40 hp (30 kW) if the driven load demands
only 40 hp (30 kW). For this reason, average fuel
consumption indicates average load demand.
Average fuel consumption also indicates load
severity on the engine by comparing it with the
rated fuel rate associated with that rating. When
this ratio is expressed as a percent, it is called
load factor.
Engine Configurations
On a given engine model, a power range capa-
bility is created by providing different engine
configurations such as naturally aspirated,
turbocharged, and turbocharged-aftercooled.
Some engines may have the aftercooler cooled
with engine jacket water (JWAC). Some engines
may have the aftercooler cooled with a separate
lower temperature fresh water circuit (SCAC).
Some engines may have the aftercooler cooled in
an air-to-air cooling device (ATAAC). Emissions
requirements many times determine the type of
aftercooling used. Internally, these engines may
differ significantly. Naturally aspirated engines
generally do not meet emissions regulations.
Increasing power output by injecting more fuel
requires additional air for complete combustion
and internal cooling. This requires additional
mechanical strength of internal components and
additional design features such as oil jet cooling
for pistons. In any engine, the mass flow of air
supplied to each cylinder determines the amount
of fuel which can be efficiently burned. The entire
engine must be designed for strength and dura-
bility at approved power levels.
Turbocharging, using energy from waste exhaust
gas, provides an efficient means to increase air
flow. The power rating of a turbocharged engine
is usually limited by internal temperatures, tur-
bocharger speed, and structural limits. Compres-
sion of the air by the turbocharger increases air
temperature.
An aftercooler between the tubocharger and
intake manifold cools the hot compressed air.
This increases air density and allows more air to
be packed into the cylinder and more fuel to be
burned. The rating is typically limited by internal
temperature limits, turbocharger speed, and
structural limits.
Because turbochargers and aftercoolers provide
more air to the engine, the engine fuel rate can
usually be increased to use this extra combus-
tion air. As a result, engine component loading
or turbo speed become the limit on rating.
Caterpillar Diesel Engines do not utilize turbos or
aftercoolers as add-ons. Rather, engines are
designed and developed in all aspects for these
higher loading levels. Then they are tested
thoroughly to assure long life and satisfactory
performance.
LEBW1414-00 12
13 LEBW1414-00
There are many different ways to transmit power
from rig engines to the mud pumps, rotary table,
drawworks, and auxiliary loads. Representative
examples are discussed in this section to define
nomenclature of these various drives and enable
proper application of engines with correct ratings.
The terminology discussed is representative, but
recognize that the petroleum industry does not
have complete agreement on nomenclature.
Petroleum drives will be discussed under the fol-
lowing headings:
Mechanical Drives
Conventional Rig
Split Rig
Mobile Rig
Electric Drives
DC
SCR
Service Rigs
Cementing
Acidizing
Fracturing
Nitrogen Pumping
Mechanical Drives
Mechanical drives may be either direct drive or
use a torque converter.
Conventional Rig
The most common rig is the conventional rig. It
may also be called a compound rig, although
compounds may also be used with independent
drives, Figures 1.1 and 1.2. Clutches are between
the engines and compound with either direct
drive or torque converter drive.
The drawworks/rotary table is on an elevated
structure to provide ground clearance under the
rotary table for safety valves (blowout preven-
ters). Rig engines are also elevated on a sub-
structure. This simplifies power transmission to
the drawworks.
Engine outputs are connected together with the
compound. A number of clutches control power
distribution. Normally, engines operate in com-
pound while hoisting and separately when run-
ning the rotary table and mud pumps.
The approved engine rating is the pumping and
drilling rating.
CONVENTIONAL RIG
Figure 1.1
PETROLEUM EQUIPMENT DESCRIPTION
MAST (DERRICK)
DRAWWORKS
SUBSTRUCTURE
MUD PUMPS
ENGINES
COMPOUND
TYPICAL CONVENTIONAL RIG
Figure 1.2
SPLIT RIG
Figure 1.3
LEBW1414-00 14
15 LEBW1414-00
Split Rigs
Split rigs utilize independent drives to power the
various pieces of drilling machinery, Figure 1.3.
The approved engine rating for independent mud
pump application is the pumping and drilling
rating. Hoisting ratings are approved for inde-
pendent drawworks/rotary drive applications.
(Pumping and drilling rating can be used if engine
commonality is desired.)
Independent rotary drives are sometimes used
with conventional rigs. Pumping and drilling rat-
ing is approved for this application.
AC auxiliary generator sets supply electric
power necessary on a mechanical rig. In this
application, prime power generator set rating
should be utilized.
Auxiliary engines power such things as mud
mix pumps, supercharger pumps, or air com-
pressors. Depending upon the particular appli-
cation, duty cycle, load factor, etc., either A, B,
or C rating tier levels are applicable. Electric
motor drives may be used in place of auxiliary
engine drives.
Mobile Rigs
Mobile units are defined as oil field drilling or
workover units permanently mounted on wheels.
They are frequently called chassis or carrier units,
self-propelled or trailer mounted. They are a ver-
sion of the split rig. A workover rig performs
underground repair of an existing well. It may be
called a pulling unit when there is no provision
of rotating the tubing string.
Carrier Designations
Figure 1.4 shows a back-in workover rig. It is rep-
resentative of the workover rig carrier designa-
tion. A drive-in carrier has the drivers cab located
at the hinge point of the derrick.
These rigs may also be trailer-mounted (not
shown).
Figure 1.4
Mobile workover rig describes a truck or trailer-
mounted unit used to pull rod and tubing from a
producing well. The unit consists of engine(s),
transmission(s), and drawworks.
Additionally, some rigs include a limited rotary
table capacity for use during well bore cleanout,
while drilling out plugs (packers), or limited
redrilling in an existing well. A workover rig is also
commonly called a service rig.
Occasionally, a mobile workover rig includes a
chassis-mounted mud pump. This is required to
kill a flowing well, provide circulation during
cleanout and while drilling out plugs, etc.
Normally, a mobile workover rig will use an inde-
pendent mud pump kill unit.
Mobile drill rig describes a truck or trailer-
mounted unit used to drill a well. The unit consists
of engine(s), transmission(s), drawworks, and
rotary table.
Mud pumps are normally independent units.
The rig may even be used for both drilling and
workover, or the basic unit can be sold into either
application. In such cases, the major difference
is depth capacity. A drawworks and derrick used
for drilling (where heavy casing is handled) has a
smaller depth capacity than when used for work-
over (where lighter tubing or rods are handled).
Manufacturers sales specifications will state both
drilling and workover depth capacities.
Depending upon power and derrick capacity,
dual purpose rigs (workover/drilling) can drill to
more than 12,000 ft. (3600 m) and workover to
more than 20,000 ft. (6000 m).
TRANSMISSION ENGINE
DRAWWORKS
LEBW1414-00 16
Figure 1.5
17 LEBW1414-00
Drive Train Configurations for Mobile Rigs
Figure 1.5 shows various drive trains. There is a
great variety, and the drawings are not all-inclusive.
If the unit is a trailer unit, the power system drop-
box (K) and drive axle (J) are eliminated.
On the twin engine in-line, the two engines could
also be offset from each other, or the rear engine
elevated to eliminate the dropbox (C).
Rigs using only a torque converter behind the
engine may have a drawworks with either a two-
or three-speed transmission or high-low drum
clutches.
Electric Drives
Electric drives are commonly SCR. Older DC
drives may still exist. The same engine ratings
are applicable to both drives. Both utilize DC
motors due to their high torque at 0 rpm and their
variable speed characteristics. The drives differ in
the method used to produce DC power.
DC Drives (Figure 1.6)
DC generators supply power to DC motors. A
DC control panel regulates the DC and provides
means to connect the DC generators to various
DC motors (Motor Assignment).
As Figure 1.6 illustrates, different motor assign-
ments are used when hoisting or pumping and
drilling.
A main and spare AC generator is required for
auxiliary power. The AC generators could be sep-
arately driven by smaller Caterpillar Engines.
Figures 4.19 and 13.1 are a representative diesel
engine power modules for DC drives. The DC
generator is at the rear of the engine and utilizes
an AC blower for forced ventilation. Many of
these DC rigs are being converted to SCR.
SCR Drives (Figure 1.7)
AC generators supply power to an AC
switchgear. AC power is then fed to the SCR
(Silicon Controlled Rectifier) modules where the
AC is rectified to DC. An integral DC control
panel connects the SCR modules to various DC
motors (Motor Assignment).
As Figure 1.7 illustrates, different motor assign-
ments are used when hoisting or pumping and
drilling.
Auxiliary AC power is normally supplied from
the same generators. Utility transformers are nor-
mally required as the AC generators are normally
600V AC. 600V AC provides the most accept-
able DC voltage, when rectified.
Figure 2.10 and 17.10 are representative diesel
engine power modules for SCR drives.
Figure 1.6
LEBW1414-00 18
Figure 1.7
Some Electric rigs power variable frequency AC
motors instead of DC motors. This has no essen-
tial change for the engine or generator construc-
tion. If the variable frequency device is a diode
front end device, the AC generators do not have
to be oversized.
AC Generators for SCR Drives
SCR drives require special generators. The rated
voltage is usually 600V AC (for both 50 and
60 Hz). This voltage changes to 800V DC through
the SCR system, to power the DC motors.
Operating DC motors at variable speeds causes
the generator Power Factor to vary. For exam-
ple, the drawworks go from 0 PF to 1.0 PF every
hoisting cycle. Operation of the mud pumps at
low strokes also causes a low PF.
Accordingly, AC generators are oversized to 0.6
or 0.7 PF to provide more generator ampere
capacity. Testing of gen sets with oversize gen-
erators is limited to the engines hp capacity.
Testable capacity of the gen set is given by the
equation: EkW = (bhp rad fan hp) Gen eff
0.746.
Additionally, the generator must be form wound
to provide additional mechanical bracing of the
generator winding. This bracing resists the forces
caused by current surges resulting from operation
of the SCR controllers. Generator winding tem-
perature rise design limit is also lowered to com-
pensate for additional heating caused by the
SCR load.
Undersized generators may cause circuit breaker
tripping or slower drawworks acceleration.
Service Rigs
Service rigs perform well servicing. This broad
category generally includes those oilfield activi-
ties that provide underground repair or alteration
of an existing well (workover) and technical well
servicing. Workover rigs are discussed under the
subject Mobile Rigs.
Technical well services provide support functions
to well drilling (cementing and logging) or pro-
vide means to change productivity of under-
ground formations (acidizing and fracturing).
Technical well service rigs are not equipped to
do mechanical work on a well.
Service rigs that utilize large engines are used to
perform three distinct services: cementing,
acidizing, and fracturing.
The unit consists of an engine(s), transmis-
sion(s), and piston-type pump(s). Equipment is
usually mounted on a commercial truck chassis
or may be trailer-mounted.
Figure 1.8 shows an acidizing/fracturing unit. A
cement unit is not illustrated but is similar except
with smaller engines.
Cementing is the process of pumping cement
down a well bore to anchor casing. Cementing
can be required several times during the drilling
of a well.
19 LEBW1414-00
Acidizing is the process of pumping an acid
down the casing of a completed well into the
desired producing formation. Certain types of
rock can be dissolved by acid, and this dissolv-
ing process creates channels by which hydro-
carbons can more readily flow to the well bore.
Fracturing is the process of applying an ultra-
high pressure [2,000-15,000 psi (13783-
103448 kPa)] down the casing of a completed
well to a desired producing formation. This pres-
sure fractures the rock and creates channels by
which hydrocarbons can more readily flow to the
well bore.
Nitrogen pumpers can be used with fracturing
units. Nitrogen is used for foam-frac in formations
that would be damaged by a large volume of
fracturing fluid. Nitrogen can also be used to
remove the frac fluid from a well after the frac-
turing operation. (The nitrogen expands on
removal of pump pressure.)
The same service rig may be used to acidize or
fracture. This does require changing the fluid end
of the pump to match various pressure and flow
requirements.
Cementing units normally are not used to acidize
or fracture, although the unit appearance is sim-
ilar. Cementing units normally carry mixing
equipment not found on acidizing/fracturing units.
Cementing a well requires less power [100-
500 hp (75-373 kW)] than fracturing or acidizing
[500-10000 hp (373-7460 kW)]. Cementing is
thus usually done with trucks with two engines of
approximately 400 hp (300 kW) each.
Fracturing and acidizing are usually performed
by trucks that have a 1250-2250 hp (930-
1575 kW) engine.
Multiple trucks are used for high power acidizing
and fracturing operations.
Figure 1.8
LEBW1414-00 20
Properly designed power modules are essential
for diesel electric drives. Power modules must
withstand vibrations and maintain original align-
ment under all operational and environmental
conditions. Misalignment can cause vibration and
shorten the life of couplings and generator
bearings.
The major cause of misalignment is flexing of the
base due to weakness in design. Other causes
are poor installation methods and incorrect align-
ment procedures.
Petroleum Bases
Caterpillar petroleum bases are designed to elim-
inate frequent, periodic realignment. The follow-
ing criteria has been met with properly installed
Caterpillar bases:
A. Engine torque does not cause excessive
misalignment.
B. Substructure flexure during operation does
not cause bending movement of the base.
C. The power module is able to withstand
rough handling during transportation with-
out permanently distorting the base and
misaligning driven equipment. Tip over
angle of the Caterpillar petroleum land rig
base with engine-generator arrangement
is a minimum of 42 degrees (.74 rad).
D. The petroleum base is free of torsional or
linear vibrations in the engine operating
speed range.
One-Bearing and Two-Bearing Generators
Caterpillar offers different bases for single- and
two-bearing generators. Whereas bases for two-
bearing generators must be sturdy to provide
support and maintain alignment, the base on sin-
gle-bearing generators can be lighter because
the base does not have to withstand torque reac-
tion. Bolting the generator stator housing to the
flywheel housing eliminates the need for the oil
field base to absorb the engines driving torque,
Figure 2.1.
Close-coupled two-bearing generators are like
single-bearing generators in that torque reaction
is taken through the flywheel housing.
The stationary frame of two-bearing driven
equipment tries to rotate with the engine crank-
shaft. If the petroleum base were not rigid
enough, engine torque would cause excessive
base flexing. Misalignment results, proportional
to load, which will not show up during a conven-
tional static alignment check.
Bases for Two-Bearing Generator Drives
A Caterpillar petroleum base is a torsionally rigid
structure. Three-point suspension maintains
proper relationship and alignment of all equip-
ment and, by isolating external forces, prevents
engine block distortion.
TORQUE REACTION OF 1 BEARING
VS 2 BEARING GENERATOR
Figure 2.1
1 BEARING GENERATOR OR
CLOSE-COUPLED 2 BRNG. GEN.
FLYWHEEL HOUSING TO
GENERATOR BOLTED
JOINT ABSORBS
TORQUE REACTION
2 BEARING GENERATOR
BASE MUST MAINTAIN
ALIGNMENT AGAINST
TORQUE REACTION
GENERATOR
MOVEMENT
CRANK ROTATION
ENGINE
MOVEMENT
ENGINE PACKAGING FOR ELECTRIC DRIVES
21 LEBW1414-00
Alignment Responsibility
The Caterpillar base assures the user of one-
source responsibility for both packaging and
alignment.
Three-Point Mounting
The three-point suspension system must be used
as there is a possibility the substructure sup-
porting the base can deflect due to external
forces or settling.
Three-point mounting isolates the unit from sub-
structure deflection, thus maintaining proper rela-
tionship and alignment of all equipment and
preventing engine block distortion. More than
three mounting points can cause base distortion,
Figure 2.2.
Objectionable vibration can occur in adjacent
machinery or structures if the power module is
not mounted on well supported structures or is
not anchored securely. In addition to the three-
point mounting, vibration isolators may be
required to isolate objectionable vibrations.
Figure 2.2
Two-Bearing Generator
Offshore Power Modules
The Caterpillar petroleum offshore base consists
of a base-within-a-base. The inner base is three-
point mounted with integral spring isolators
and limit stops to the outer base. The outer
base can be welded to the rig support structure.
The inner base structure is not the same as engine
rails used in other applications. See Figures 2.3
and 2.7.
The other base must be supported by large gird-
ers. The outer base can be welded or bolted to
the rig structure. Inadequate support may result
in power module vibrations, Figure 2.4.
SPRING ISOLATOR OUTER BASE INNER BASE
Figure 2.3
LEBW1414-00 22
Provision for High Tilt Angles
Engines on isolators have movement when sub-
ject to high tilt angles. Repeat cycles may dam-
age connections to engine such as exhaust or
coolant. If tilt angle is extreme, the power mod-
ule could fall out of the vibration isolator.
To prevent these conditions, limit stops are
included with each isolator, Figure 2.5.
To optimize sound isolation, spring isolators
include a mounting isolation pad and special
washers under the hold down bolt heads.
Figure 2.4
Figure 2.5
23 LEBW1414-00
Lift Requirements
Lifting of heavy power modules must be done
properly to avoid damage or injury. Engine or
generator lift points should not be used to lift the
entire power module.
Figure 2.6 shows the decal included with each
power module, showing proper lift methods.
Two-Bearing Generator
Land Rig Power Modules
Caterpillar land rig base uses 18 in. (457 mm)
wide flange beams. Available lengths of 25 ft. 9 in.,
30 ft. 9 in., 40 ft. 9 in. (7.85 m, 9.37 m, 12.42 m)
allow matching base length to equipment needs.
Alignment integrity is provided by using a base-
within-a base design. Figures 2.8 and 2.9.
The 40 ft. 9 in. (12.42 m) base has no decking
provided from rear of generator to rear of base.
Customer-supplied auxiliary equipment is to be
mounted here, necessitating customer-supplied
decking and reinforcement.
Figure 2.8
Figure 2.6
WARNING
!
IMPROPER LIFT RIGGING CAN ALLOW
LOAD TO TUMBLE CAUSING INJURY
AND DAMAGE
1. WEIGHT, CENTER SYMBOL LOCATION AND
INSTRUCTIONS GIVEN HEREIN APPLY TO UNIT
AS SHIPPED BY CATERPILLAR.
WEIGHT kg ( POUNDS)
2. USE PROPER SPREADER BAR AS DESCRIBED,
BECAUSE CENTER OF GRAVITY IS ABOVE
BASE LIFT POINTS.
3. ATTACH TWO PROPER RATED CABLES
FROM BASE LIFT POINTS TO SPREADER
BAR.
4. POSITION SPREADER BAR OVER CENTER
SYMBOL FOR LEVEL LIFT.
2438 mm
(96 INCH)
MAX.
1524 mm
(60 INCH)
MIN.
4W-1422 1
INNER BASE
OUTER BASE
SPRING ISOLATOR
Figure 2.7
LEBW1414-00 24
Three-Point Mounting
Three mounting points are built into the base,
Figure 2.8. This maintains alignment of engine-
generator on uneven surfaces and during most
rig moves.
Required site preparation is a level firm soil
which may be planked or a concrete surface,
Figure 2.9.
Rough handling may occur during rig moves.
This requires that alignment should be checked
after such rig moves.
Additionally, certain types of soil, such as fine
clay, loose sand, sand near the ground water
level, or soil that is freezing or thawing, are par-
ticularly unstable under dynamic loads. Loose
planking under the power modules may also
cause power module vibration.
Because ground conditions may vary from well
location to well location, vibrations may result
which are not due to misalignment or unbalanced
parts. Unstable ground, discussed above, may
be reacting to normal forces within the engine/
generator combination, whereas at another well
location no such reaction may occur.
See the section on Vibrations for further infor-
mation.
Package Handling
Cable tow and lift ends are part of land rig base,
Figure 2.10.
Cable wrap protection against sharp bends is pro-
vided. Pipe end is above bottom of base to pro-
tect cable from constant abrasion when skidding
on hard surfaces, Figure 2.10.
Figure 2.9
PLANKING OR CONCRETE
FIRM
SOIL
CABLE LIFT PROVISION
AIR CLEANER
Figure 2.10
25 LEBW1414-00
Roof and Walkway
Roofs and walkway wings can be added by the
customer for servicing and weather protection,
Figure 2.11.
Width of the wings should suit the customer. It
should be at least as wide as the radiator. All con-
nections of the bracing to the base should avoid
stressing or flexing the I-beams flange or verti-
cal member.
Guard rails, cable runs, lighting, exhaust piping,
etc., can be added according to customer prefer-
ence. See Figures 10.2, 10.3, 10.4, and 10.5 for
additional details.
Figure 2.11
ENGINE
NON-SKID
DECKING
PLATE
TYPICAL LAND RIG BASE USAGE
WITH WEATHER PROTECTION
ROOF
BRACE
ADDED
WING
Auxiliary Service Single-Bearing
Generators Without Bases
Caterpillar Engines equipped with mounting feet,
similar to those shown in Figure 2.14, are
designed to flex. Bolting the feet to the rig struc-
ture provides proper mounting. Do not weld the
engine to the rig structure.
Figure 2.12
LEBW1414-00 26
Figure 2.13
On larger Caterpillar Engines, engine rails are
extended to mount the generator. These rails
should not be notched or the cross braces
removed when generator interference is encoun-
tered, Figures 2.12 and 2.13.
A single-bearing generator set is still subject to
vibrations if bolted to an uneven base or one
that flexes.
NOTE: A one-inch block of flexible mounting
material may be used under each mounting loca-
tion to provide sufficient clearance to isolate sub-
base flexing. Several types of resilient pads
isolate noise but not vibration. Some may even
amplify first order vibrations. As a general rule,
resilient mounting pads should have at least
0.250 in. (6.0 mm) static deflection; less than
this results in reduced noise but little or no vibra-
tion isolation. Consult the supplier for specific
information.
When a generator set is installed on a base that
has a deck place surface, make sure the genera-
tor set rests firmly on the base beams, Figure 2.14.
Mounting on the deck plate will cause consider-
able vibration of the deck plate or other struc-
tures on the base. This is true whether or not
a generator base is under the generator set,
Figure 2.15.
The preferred method of mounting is to provide
steel pads between the generator base and base
DECK PLATE
BASE BEAMS
FLEXIBLE MOUNT AT
MOUNTING FEET
ON BASE BEAMS Figure 2.14
DECK PLATE
GENERATOR BASE
BASE BEAMS
UNDER MOUNTING FEET
BASE BEAMS
DO NOT BOLT
DECK PLATE TO
GENERATOR BASE
STEEL PADS TO
PROVIDE CLEARANCE
TO DECK PLATE
Figure 2.15
27 LEBW1414-00
beams. The deck plate should be cut out at the
pad location. Pads eliminate contact with the
deck plate, reducing vibration transmission into
the base. The mounting recommendations of
Figure 2.15 also apply to engines with mounting
rails, Figure 2.13.
Other auxiliary equipment installed on the same
base as the engine may create vibrations. Recip-
rocating air compressors are a frequent cause of
vibrations. These and other similar auxiliary
equipment should be mounted on isolators.
Flexible connections should be used on com-
pressor air lines, etc.
Equipment Mounting
Mounting Engine to Base
The standard Caterpillar mounting channel or
box rails are required. They properly support and
anchor Caterpillar 3508, 3512, and 3516 Vee-
type Oilfield Engines, Figure 2.16. These rails,
while rigid enough, flex slightly to isolate the
engine block from deflection caused by shim-
ming error or non-rigid mounting structure. A
proper engine mounting system helps ensure
dependable performance and long life if all equip-
ment is properly aligned.
Figure 2.16
Engine Construction
A Caterpillar Engine is built as a rigid structure.
If the engine is mounted on a pair of longitudi-
nal rails, the tops of which are in the same plane,
the engine will hold its own alignment and allow
all working parts to operate in the manner for
which they were designed. If the engine is sub-
jected to external forces, or is restrained from its
natural thermal growth, tolerances are greatly
affected and could easily result in bearing or
crankshaft damage.
The main structural strength of an engine is the
cast iron block. The plate steel oil pan, which
supports the engine, is a deep, heavy weldment.
Lugs or brackets are welded to the sides of the oil
pan and hold the engine to the standard mount-
ing rails, Figure 2.16.
Expansion/Thermal Growth
Any engine will expand in length, width, and
height from cold start to operating temperature.
THIS GROWTH MUST NOT BE RESTRAINED.
(The effect of thermal growth on alignment will
be discussed later.) As engine temperature
increases to operating level, the entire engine
grows in length due to thermal expansion.
Cast iron has a coefficient of expansion of
0.0000055, and that of steel is 0.0000063. This
means that the block of an engine 94 in.
(238.8 cm) in length will grow 0.083 in.
(0.212 cm) if its temperature is increased from
50F (10C) to 200F (98.8C). Using 0.0000063
as the plate steel coefficient of expansion, a steel
weldment of 94 in. (238.8 cm) will grow 0.089 in.
(0.226 cm) through the same temperature range.
The small difference in growth between the block
and the lubricating oil pan is compensated for in
the design of the engine by making holes in the
flange of the attached component (rails) larger
than the attaching bolts.
A fitted bolt is installed at the right rear corner of
the block to oil pan to provide a reference point
for making alignment. Clearance between the
mounting bolts and the mounting rails to the base
will then allow slip to compensate for thermal
growth.
Engine mounting rails also increase in tempera-
ture, but to a lesser degree. Therefore, as much
clearance is not necessary for the mounting bolts
through the engine rails as would be predicted
by engine growth.
Diameter of the clearance-type bolts used between
the engine rails and base mounting blocks must
be 0.06 in. (1.6 mm) less than the diameter of
the holes in the engine rails. This clearance allows
the engine mounting rails to grow without con-
finement, Figure 2.17.
Figure 2.17
Chocks should not be welded against the front
of the engine rail. There must be a minimum of
0.030 in. (0.76 mm) clearance between them
and the engine rails to allow sufficient room for
thermal growth.
It is common marine practice to install a fitted
bolt at the right rear corner of the engine mount-
ing rail. This is not required with the Caterpillar
base-within-a-base design.
Mounting Instructions
The engine and generator must be mounted and
anchored according to the following rules. Failure
to do so may result in reduced life or prema-
ture failure.
Engine Mounting
The following information applies to engines uti-
lizing the 10 in. (254 mm) rails instead of the
base-within-a-base concept.
1. No shimming is allowed between the engine
and engine channel or box rails.
2. Four mounting blocks and shims are used
between the engine rail and the base-sup-
porting member on two-bearing units. This
eliminates the need to machine base-sup-
porting pads, Figure 2.17. Use Grade 8 bolts
and hardened steel washers.
3. Mounting blocks must be welded to the base-
supporting members. Use only two mount-
ing blocks on each side of the engine, one at
each end. This minimizes engine block bend-
ing due to base bending. The engine should
be positioned before the blocks are welded.
The engine will serve as an alignment fixture,
and the blocks can be tack welded in place.
It may be necessary to remove the engine to
facilitate final welding. Figure 2.18.
Generator Mounting
1. Mounting blocks are used between the gen-
erator mounting feet and base supporting
members. This eliminates the need to
machine base supporting pads, Figure 2.19.
One shim pack of approximately 0.030 in.
(0.76 mm) to 0.060 in. (1.5 mm) is installed
between each mounting block and generator
foot at original installation to permit possible
replacement of generator. Use Grade 8 bolts
and hardened steel washers.
2. The mounting blocks must be welded to the
base supporting members. Use only two
mounting blocks on each side of generator,
one at each end. The generator should be
aligned before the mounting blocks are
welded. The generator will act as an alignment
fixture to hold the mounting blocks in place.
3. Recheck alignment and add or remove shims
between the generator mounting feet and
mounting blocks. See the section Alignment
for alignment details.
Figure 2.18
Figure 2.19
LEBW1414-00 28
29 LEBW1414-00
Figure 3.1
ENGINE PACKAGING FOR MECHANICAL DRIVES
Engine Supports
Two types of engine supports are used mount-
ing rails, Figure 3.2, and mounting feet, Figure 3.3.
Caterpillar 3508, 3512, 3516 (and some 3412)
Vee-type Oilfield Engines utilize mounting rails.
The standard Caterpillar mounting rails are
required.
DO NOT USE FRONT
RAIL RESTRAINT
CLEARANCE
TYPE BOLTS
MOUNTING BLOCK (4)
AND SHIMS
ALIGNMENT CHOCKS
(REAR AND FRONT
SIDE ONLY)
Figure 3.2
Mounting Engines to Rig
The proper engine mounting system helps ensure
dependable performance and long life, if all
equipment is properly aligned.
The engine should be mounted on a pair of lon-
gitudinal beams, the tops of which are in the
same plane. If the tops of the beams are not flat,
add sufficient shims between the engine mount-
ing surface and mounting beams. Bolting engines
to an uneven surface can cause harmful distor-
tions in the engine block, springing of the mount-
ing beams, and high stress in welds or base metal.
Refer to section on crankshaft deflection test
for the means of assuring the engine block is not
stressed.
Mounting blocks are not required under the cen-
ter of the engine rail, Figure 3.2. A mount located
there will distort the block if the beams to which
the rails are bolted bend.
Figure 3.3
The diameter of clearance-type bolts holding the
engine rails or feet to the mounting blocks on the
oilfield base must be 0.06 in. (1.6 mm) less than
the diameter of the holes in the engine rails. This
clearance allows the engine mounting rails or feet
to grow without confinement, Figure 3.2.
Each engine or generator mounting bolt must
bolt through solid material, Figure 3.4. If a mount-
ing bolt is overhung, it will cause distortion,
Figure 3.5.
When engines are being installed for repower, the
vertical distance from the crankshaft centerline to
the engine rails/feet may be different between
old and new engines. Modifications to the longi-
tudinal beams may be required to lower an
engine. The alternative of raising the compound
is normally more costly.
PROPER PRACTICE
Figure 3.4
IMPROPER PRACTICE
Figure 3.5
Mobile and Service Rigs
Engine-Transmission Mounting
The chassis of mobile rigs have two long stringers.
Frame flexing can occur due to off-highway
usage. Additionally, well site preparations may
not result in a flat operating surface. Service units
can also have extreme frame flexing due to feed-
back from the plunger pump.
These considerations require that some type of
three-point mounting of the engine-transmission
package be utilized. It supports the engine at a
single point at the front (a minimal torsional
restraint) and at two points (each side) on the fly-
wheel housing. This system allows large amounts
of rig frame deflection without undue stresses to
the mounting pieces or engine.
Front Support Most mobile rig engines utilize
the mobile equipment engine configurations with
a trunnion-type support, Figure 3.6. This is not
a true trunnion support in that it cannot rotate.
For this reason, the frame connection to the trun-
nion must allow an engine rocking motion to
occur (minimal torsional restraint). The radiator
has to be mounted separately on the rig chassis.
Some engine installations will require the wide
front support of the standard industrial engines,
Figure 3.3. To provide a single mounting point
at the front, this mount must be modified,
Figure 3.10. The wide front support is used where
it is inconvenient to separately mount the radia-
tor. It will also find usage on helicopter rigs where
the engine and radiator weight is restricted.
LEBW1414-00 30
31 LEBW1414-00
Rear Engine Mounts Rear mounts support the
rear of the engine and most of the transmission
weight. Rear mounts also supply resistance to
longitudinal and torsional forces.
In addition, the transmission must be supported
so that the transmission causes no appreciable
bending moment at the flywheel housing rear
face. See the section Overhung Power Trans-
mission Equipment for the method to calculate
bending moment, Figure 3.12.
Certain transmissions provide mounting pads to
support the rear of the engine and cause no
appreciable bending moment at the flywheel
housing rear face. Using this mount, instead of
the engine rear mounts and transmission mounts,
eliminates the transmission bending force on the
flywheel housing and need for the bases dis-
cussed later in this section (assuming trunnion
front support). Approval from the transmission
supplier should be received before this mount-
ing is used.
Figure 3.6
Figures 3.7 through 3.11 illustrate the various
mounting concepts. They are all equally suitable,
subject to the limitations discussed below.
Figure 3.7 illustrates the use of a base to support
the engine, transmission, and radiator. This base
is mounted to the chassis at three points.
Figure 3.7
TRUNION FRONT
SUPPORT
LEBW1414-00 32
Figure 3.9 is a modification of Figure 3.8. It shows
a power package which can be moved by heli-
copter. Such packages require rear engine feet for
support whenever the transmission is removed
from the engine for transportation.
Figure 3.8
Figure 3.8 illustrates tying together the trans-
mission and rear engine supports with a short
base. This base has two mounting points to the
chassis. The front of the engine has a trunnion
mount plus the radiator is not engine-mounted.
Figure 3.9
Figure 3.10 illustrates how to make a single-point
mount out of the wide front support. If space is no
limitation, the fabricated single-point mount could
attach to the bottom of the wide front support.
Figure 3.11 illustrates the overhanging weight of
the transmission being supported on springs.
Calculations are required to determine spring siz-
ing. The use of springs is limited to trailer rigs or
service rigs. The trailer fifth wheel gives, essen-
tially, a three-point mount during transit to min-
imize deflection forces on the flywheel housing.
33 LEBW1414-00
Figure 3.10
Figure 3.11
Forces and deflections of all components of the
mounting system must be resolved. If the third
mount is a spring, with a vertical rate consider-
ably lower than vertical rate of the rear engine
support, the effect of the mount is in a proper
direction to reduce bending forces on the flywheel
housing due to downward gravity forces but the
overall effect may be minor at high gravity force
levels. Supports with a vertical rate higher than
the engine rear mount are not recommended
since frame deflections can subject the engine
power transmission equipment structure to high
forces. Another precaution is to design the sup-
port so it provides as little resistance as possible
to engine roll. This also helps to isolate the engine/
transmission structure from mounting frame or
base deflection.
Overhung Power Transmission Equipment
Power transmission equipment, which is directly
mounted to the engine flywheel housing, must
be evaluated to ensure the overhung weight is
within tolerable limits of the engine. If not, ade-
quate additional support must be provided to
avoid damage.
CAUTION: Mobile applications require consider-
ation of dynamic bending movement imposed
during normal machine movement or abrupt
starting and stopping.
The dynamic load limits and the maximum bend-
ing moment that can be tolerated by the flywheel
housing can be obtained from your Caterpillar
Engine supplier (source Caterpillar Technical
Marketing Information) [TMI].
For determination of the bending moment of
overhung power transmission equipment instal-
lations, see Figure 3.12.
To compensate for power transmission systems
which create a high bending moment due to
overhung load, a mount as shown in Figures 3.7,
3.8, 3.9 or 3.10 is required.
LEBW1414-00 34
Figure 3.12
Clutches, Belt and Chain Drives
Clutches
Both plate-type clutches and air clutches are
used. Plate-type clutches are primarily used to
drive small pumps and compressors. Engines
driving mud pumps, drawworks, or a rotary table
normally use air clutches.
Cyclic loading greatly affects clutch sizing.
Centrifugal pumps cause no cyclic loading while
duplex mud pumps cause the greatest amount.
Consult the clutch manufacturer to determine
applicable clutch load factors.
Plate-type clutches can operate with a limited
amount of side load. Clutch supports or pillow
block bearings allow greater side loads. Such
supports or bearings must be mounted on the
same skid as the engine, Figure 3.13.
CLUTCH SUPPORTS
Figure 3.13
Excessive side loading of plate-type clutches can
cause the driven plates to rotate off-center with
the drive plates. The result is destruction of the
teeth and failure of the clutch plates. Running the
engine without the clutch engaged (for long peri-
ods of time) can damage the clutch pilot bearing.
Air clutches utilize an expanding air bladder for
the clutch element, Figure 3.14. The output shaft
must be supported by two support bearings. Air
pressure to operate the clutch is supplied by an
air connection through the drilled passage in the
output shaft. Clutch alignment tolerances are
reduced as air pressure to the clutch increases.
Auxiliary Drives
Engines on mechanical drill rigs are sometimes
called upon to drive one or more secondary loads
in addition to the primary load. These may be
driven from a front power takeoff, gear-driven
auxiliary drive, front crankshaft pulley, front stub
shaft, or a rear-mounted power takeoff driven
from the top of some transmissions.
Auxiliary loads may be driven directly or indirectly
through belt or chain drives. Those which are
direct driven may or may not require special cou-
pling arrangements, depending upon torsional
characteristics of the total engine and load system
for both ends of the engine. A torsional analysis
is recommended to identify any destructive tor-
sional criticals unless previous experience on
identical installations has proven the system safe.
Belt and Chain Drives
Belt and chain drives are generally free from tor-
sional problems. Large input shafts, etc. may
cause torsional problems, however. Belt and
chain drives introduce side loads due to belt or
chain pull plus tensioning forces. The larger the
drive pulley or sprocket, the greater the power
that can be transmitted. Increasing drive pulley or
sprocket diameter for any given side pull
increases the torque requirement of the drive.
Consequently, shaft size, the drives bearing spac-
ing and size, and capacity of the drive gears limit
the total horsepower the drive is capable of deliv-
ering regardless of side load limitations.
It is important to remember that belt or chain ten-
sioning must be added to the dynamic side load
when calculating the total. Failure to do this may
overload bearings, chains, or belts and cause pre-
mature failure. Follow recommended practices
on belt or chain tensioning as well as those for
belt or chain size and width.
Refer to the Technical Marketing Info (TMI) for
data on specific equipment.
Belt and chain drives may cause engine or driven
machine to shift under heavy load due to torque
reaction plus belt and chain preload tension. Belts
or chains may also cause the PTO (Power Take
Off) shaft or crankshaft to deflect which causes
bearing failures and shaft bending failures.
The driven sprocket or pulley should always
be mounted as close to the supporting bearing
as possible.
35 LEBW1414-00
LEBW1414-00 36
Side load limits shown in TMI must not be
exceeded. Sometimes, due to the heavy side load,
it is necessary to provide additional support for
the driving pulley or sprocket. This can be done
by providing a separate shaft which is supported
by a pillow block bearing on each side of the pul-
ley or sprocket, see Figure 3.14. This shaft can
then be driven by the engine or clutch through
an appropriate coupling.
The size of the driving and driven sprockets or
pulleys is also important. A larger pulley or
sprocket will give a higher chain or belt speed.
This allows more horsepower to be transmitted
with less chain or belt tension. If it is suspected
that an engine or the driven machine is shifting
under load, it can be checked by measuring from
a fixed point with a dial indicator while loading
and unloading the engine. Torque reactive vibra-
tions or torque reactive misalignment will always
occur under load.
System Considerations
Substructure Suitability
Substructures must have sufficient strength and
rigidity to support the weight of engines, com-
pounds, etc., and withstand imposed vibrations
and torque from mud pumps and engines.
Lateral bracing provides resistance to sway,
Figure 3.15. Pin joints should be tight. On older
rigs, it is sometimes necessary to repair worn
pin joints.
Figure 3.15 illustrates that there should be no
appreciable unsupported span of the compound
Figure 3.14
Figure 3.15
skid. Unsupported spans tend to allow the skid
to sag, causing harmful vibrations.
Engine Spacing
Engine spacing is normally determined by the
distance between compound shafts.
Verify that using optional heavy-duty air clean-
ers does not cause interference with machinery
or restrict personnel movement. If necessary,
brackets and piping can be fabricated to remotely
mount the air cleaner.
Engine radiators may also interfere with other
radiators or restrict personnel movement. Radia-
tors with the fan supported on the radiator can
be modified for right or left offset (as required).
Engine Operating Speeds
Most drilling contractors prefer to limit chain
speed to a given fpm (m/s) that gives a corre-
sponding engine speed in the range of 1000 to
1100 rpm, depending upon chain size and type.
Torque converter drives usually can operate at
1200 rpm.
Engines without torque converters must operate
at this speed. It is recommended that the engines
be set for this rated rpm to assure optimum per-
formance, particularly under hoisting conditions.
Engine governor springs/settings and turbo-
charger matches will have to be changed from the
1200 rpm values when operating in the 1000 rpm
range, subject to engine certification limits. The
Governor speed droop percent increases as the
operating speed is lowered. Improper springs
result in engines operating at a lower rpm when
switching from mud pump to hoisting service
with a resulting lowered hoisting rate.
Proper turbocharger matches reduce fuel con-
sumption, exhaust smoke and improve response.
An engine should be set, with proper governor
springs/settings and turbocharger, for the full
load operating speed and altitude.
Engine rated power changes as the rated speed
is changed. Consult the appropriate specifica-
tion sheet.
Above the engine altitude capability, improper
turbo match can damage pistons and other com-
bustion components. Consult the TMI for a spe-
cific engine altitude capability.
Compound Ratio
The compound ratio refers to the ratio of the pul-
ley/sprocket diameters that transmit power from
the compound to mud pumps and drawworks,
Figure 3.16. Changing one or both of these pul-
leys or sprockets changes the operating speed
of mud pumps and drawworks. The result is to
reratio the compound.
Figure 3.16
It is important the compound ratio be such that
mud pumps and drawworks rated speed are
reached with the engine at rated speed. Engine
life and performance are reduced when operated
with high loads at low rpm.
If mud pumps are not operated at their rated
speed, the compound ratio should be sized to
allow the engine to operate at its rated speed.
Either ratio selected should not allow either the
mud pump or engine to be overloaded.
During many repowers, the engines removed
operated at speeds (e.g., 900 rpm) which may
be below the chain speed limits. Under such con-
ditions, the replacement engines can be oper-
ated at a higher speed corresponding to the chain
speed limitation.
This higher speed may necessitate reratioing
mud pump drives (changing the ratio), or the
engines may have to be throttled back when
operating the pumps. Verify engine overload does
not occur when throttled back. The drawworks
drive may not have to be reratioed, with the
resulting benefit of shorter trip time.
When new engines are replacing naturally aspi-
rated engines in direct drive hoisting service,
lower gear selections may be required. Never-
theless, trip time is normally equal to or better
than that with the original rig power.
37 LEBW1414-00
Three factors account for this:
Once the engine accelerates, the hoisting speed
is faster, provided the compound is operating at
a higher speed than with the previous rig power.
Engines with low torque rise may be able to
accelerate to rated speed when coming off the
slips. However, they then may slow down con-
siderably as layers of cable building up on the
drawworks drum increases line speed/engine load
and begins to lug the engine back. Cat Engines
have a high torque rise. This allows the draw-
works transmission to be operated in a higher
gear with more weight on the hook than with low
torque rise engines when hoisting the drill string.
The engine is better able to maintain rated speed
as layers of cable build up on the drawworks
drum. The remaining hoisting cycle is thus faster.
If the compound is operating at a higher speed
than with the previous rig power, time will also
be saved with the faster rate the empty blocks
are lifted when tripping out.
In hoisting service, the heaviest drill string load
should be able to be lifted in other than the low-
est drawworks transmission gear under normal
conditions.
Torque Converters
When torque converters are used, the clutch is
normally on the torque converter output shaft.
Clutch capacity has to be increased beyond a
direct drive system.
Caterpillar Engines are compatible with rigs that
do or do not use torque converters.
In hoisting service, engines without torque con-
verters may require a lower gear selection than
engines with torque converters.
The use of torque converters increases the heat
rejection to the engine radiator (up to 50%), gen-
erally requiring oversized radiators.
Torque converter speed ratios are an important
consideration. The torque converter output shaft
speed does not match engine speed. The approx-
imate relationship of output shaft speed to engine
speed of a properly sized system is as follows:
Speed Ratio
Torque Converter Full Load No Load
1 Stage 80% 90-95%
3 Stage 50-60% 90-105%
Type 4, 1 Stage 50-60% 90-105%
National and Allison torque converters are single
stage, Figure 3.17. Twin Disc and Allison Trans-
missions use single stage torque converters.
The compound ratio must be selected accord-
ingly. Engine throttle settings may have to be
reduced during light load operation to prevent
operating the compound chain above recom-
mended speeds.
NATIONAL ALLISON
Figure 3.17
Transmissions
Transmissions fall into three broad classifications,
all of which transmit power through sets of
mechanical gears, either spur or helical types, or
planetary designs. Where multi-speed capability
is provided, it is accomplished either mechani-
cally or automatically (hydraulically, pneumati-
cally, etc.).
Due to the large number of transmissions com-
mercially available, the transmission discussion
will be restricted to general operating principles
and considerations.
LEBW1414-00 38
When selecting a transmission, the package
designer must work closely with the transmission
manufacturer.
CAUTION: REGARDLESS OF THE TYPE OR
BRAND OF TRANSMISSION SELECTED, THE
DESIGNER MUST ENSURE THAT IT HAS THE
CORRECT HORSEPOWER, TORQUE, AND
SPEED CAPABILITY TO MATCH THE DIESEL
ENGINE PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS.
Mechanical Transmission
The mechanical transmission provides the low-
est cost method of providing multiple output
speeds when the driven equipment input speed
range or torque requirements exceed the oper-
ating capability of the diesel engine. Mechanical
transmissions are usually equipped with some
type of clutch assembly to facilitate not only
engine starting but also to change gear ratios.
Figure 3.18
This type of transmission is applicable to both
semimobile and mobile installations where the
momentary loss of power to the driven equip-
ment when gear changes are affected does not
pose operating problems. Generally, the mechan-
ical transmission is employed when the gear
speed change requirements are not a constant
requirement and the speed shifts do not have to
be executed rapidly.
Todays modern mechanical transmission, when
properly matched to the engine-driven equip-
ment, will provide reliable trouble-free service.
Frequent gear changes, however, will accelerate
clutch wear and maintenance costs.
Installation is simplified since mechanical trans-
missions do not normally require oil cooling sys-
tems as do the automatic types.
Automatic, Semiautomatic, and
Preselector-Type Transmissions
As the names imply, these transmission types
affect the gear changes either completely auto-
matically or as predetermined by the machine
operator.
Engine power engagement/disengagement
clutching is normally fully automatic and does
not require the machine operator to physically
move a clutch pedal or lever. For disengagement
the operator need only move the selector lever
to a neutral position.
As with the mechanical transmission, the auto-
matic type must be carefully matched to the
engine operating horsepower, torque, and speed
characteristics. However, with the automatic
types, additional match consideration may be
required since they normally utilize a torque con-
verter, hydraulic coupling, or other type of non-
mechanical engagement device for the power
engagement/disengagement function. This is
nearly always accomplished hydraulically.
The automatic-type transmissions provide oper-
ator ease of machine operation, as well as a
nearly constant power flow to the driven equip-
ment during gear changes.
A number of commercial manufacturers offer a
wide range of automatic-type transmissions. The
package designer/installer must work closely with
the transmission supplier to ensure the trans-
mission properly matches the machine applica-
tion and provides the desired operating features.
Generally, the higher cost of an automatic trans-
mission can be justified with a machine requiring
high productivity and frequent load cycle changes.
When using automatic-type transmissions, other
installation considerations are required since most
types require a system to cool the transmission
oil. Caterpillar offers jacket water connections to
supply cooling water to customer or transmis-
sion manufacturer-supplied heat exchangers.
Also offered are complete heat exchanger pack-
ages on some engines, but care must be exer-
cised to ensure that the Caterpillar system is
capable of handling the transmission heat rejec-
tion. The cooling system capacity of the systems
offered by Caterpillar can be obtained from your
Caterpillar Engine supplier.
39 LEBW1414-00
LEBW1414-00 40
Engine Mounted Transmissions
Engine mounted automatic transmissions are
commonly used on workover and service rigs,
Figure 3.19. Due to weight and space limitations,
engine mounted transmissions are generally pre-
ferred to drawworks mounted transmissions.
The most common transmission is a five or six
speed power shift transmission with manual shift
controls. These transmissions have a built-in
torque converter. The transmission is normally
not shifted on-the-go due to drawwork stress.
Torque converters in these transmissions auto-
matically lock up as the converter output shaft
accelerates to a set ratio of the engine speed. As
an engine is loaded and slows down, the trans-
mission is adjusted to go back into converter
drive at about 100 rpm to 120 rpm above peak
torque rpm. Transmissions used with competitive
engine models are usually adjusted to return to
converter drive at higher engine rpms. Caterpillar
recommends that proper lock-up be used for
Caterpillar Engines.
Rigs using only a torque converter behind the
engine may have a drawworks with either a two-
or three-speed transmission or high-low drum
clutches.
Miscellaneous Considerations
When adding torque converters to an existing rig,
or repowering with more powerful engines, it is
necessary to verify the compound, drawworks,
and derrick assemblies can handle the increased
horsepower or torque.
Normally, a clutch is required with torque con-
verters and transmissions. Running only one
engine in a compound will rotate the output shaft
of the other engines converter or transmission
and will damage the unit because the lubrication
pump is normally driven off the input shaft.
Contact the manufacturer regarding lubrication
recommendations when the output shaft is rotat-
ing and engine is stopped.
Transmission and Torque Converter
Ratings and Adaptation
Contact the respective manufacturers for infor-
mation and performance curves not contained
in this section, such as stall torque, etc.
Allison transmissions and torque converters
contain a flywheel as an integral part of their unit.
Caterpillar Engines require a Caterpillar optional
Allison adapter which includes a special flywheel.
The Allison flex plates bolt to the Caterpillar fly-
wheel. Access holes are provided in the flywheel
housing to give access to certain mounting bolts,
Figure 3.20.
ALLISON
Figure 3.19
TWIN DISC
Figure 3.20
Allison transmissions and torque converters do
not necessarily have the same engine adaptation
even though the same series designation is used.
Oil Coolers
Torque converters and/or transmissions reject
heat which must be removed. Commonly, this
heat is transferred into the engine cooling system.
Torque converter efficiency varies with the
applied load and may have a peak efficiency
of about 90%.
By convention, to allow operating tolerance, the
heat load from torque converters is assumed to
be 30% of the engine bhp.
Transmissions, with lock up capability, are
assumed to have a heat load of 20% of the
engine bhp.
In either case, over heating can occur if the con-
verter is loaded heavier than these assumptions.
Where available, the Caterpillar transmission
torque converter oil cooler is sized for 70% con-
verter efficiency. Actual heat rejection capacity is
in the TMI. Customer flanges are included. A
cooler connection group may be available if the
customer desires to supply his own cooler.
NOTE: Other torque converters or transmission
applications may require adaptation on the part
of the dealer or OEM.
Torque Converter and Transmission
hp/kW Ratings
Contact the torque converter or transmission
suppliers for their approved ratings.
NOTE: For convenience, transmission/torque
converter manufacturers list their approved input
hp/kW as the equivalent without fan engine
hp/kW that the engine is to be set for. Yet these
matches assume a net input hp/kW that includes
normal accessory losses. To these manufactur-
ers, without fan hp/kW is a gross hp/kW that
excludes normal accessory losses such as engine
radiator fan and certain hydraulic pumps. For
proper transmission/torque converter rating for a
nonradiator-cooled application or an application
with extra auxiliary hp/kW loads, consult the
manufacturer.
Use of Allison and Twin Disc transmissions for
pumping and drilling applications is not antici-
pated because the lower engine speed does not
provide for an optimum converter match.
Mud Pump Calculations
When sizing engines to drive mud pumps, several
calculations may be required, depending upon
the extent of information available.
Mud pump input power (hp
in
) can be calculated
by the following formula:
hp
in
=
psi gpm
=
kPa L/s
____________ ____________
1543 or 1457 671 or 634
water or mud water or mud
1543/671 or 1457/634 reflect different volu-
metric efficiencies.
41 LEBW1414-00
LEBW1414-00 42
Determination of engine power requires addition
of drive train power losses.
Engine hp = hp
in
+ drive train hp losses
A reserve margin of 10% to 20% is commonly
added.
Many times only the pump stroke speed is known.
Gallons per stroke (liters per stroke) can be
derived as follows: (volume per pump stroke, not
volume per pump piston stroke)
Triplex:
(Dia)
2
Stroke
____________________
97.9 424000
English Metric
Duplex:
(Dia)
2
Stroke
___________________
+
147 63600
English Metric
[(Dia)
2
(rod)
2
] Stroke
______________________________
147 63600
English Metric
(Dia = diameter of piston)
It is also useful to know the common operating
speeds of mud pumps when sizing belt ratios:
Duplex: 40 to 65 strokes per minute
Triplex: 100 to 175 strokes per minute
Internal gear reduction ratios can be found in
manufacturer spec sheets or by inspection of the
mud pump, Figure 3.21.
Figure 3.21
43 LEBW1414-00
Improper alignment results in excessive vibra-
tion, short life of generator/compound bearings
and coupling or clutch parts and a need for fre-
quent realignment. Good alignment practices
include proper shimming, correct torque on hold-
down bolts, accurate dial indicator usage,
allowances for bearing clearances, thermal
growth, and other characteristics of the engine.
CAUTION: BEFORE MAKING ANY ATTEMPTS
TO MEASURE RUN OUT OR ALIGNMENT, IT IS
IMPORTANT THAT ALL SURFACES TO BE
MEASURED OR MATED BE COMPLETELY
CLEAN AND FREE FROM GREASE, PAINT,
OXIDATION, OR RUST AND DIRT ALL OF
WHICH CAN CAUSE INACCURATE MEA-
SUREMENTS.
General Alignment Information
Defining Types of Misalignment
Parallel Alignment
Parallel or bore misalignment occurs when cen-
terlines of driven equipment and engine are par-
allel but not in the same plane, Figure 4.1.
Figure 4.1
Checking Parallel Alignment
Parallel misalignment can be detected by attach-
ing a dial indicator, as shown in Figure 4.2, and
observing the dial indicator readings at several
points around the outside diameter of the flywheel
as the wheel holding the indicator is turned.
Figure 4.2
As a rule of thumb, the load shaft should indicate
to be higher than the engine shaft because:
A. Engine bearings have more clearance than
most bearings on driven equipment.
B. The flywheel or front drive rotates in a
drooped position below the centerline of
rotation.
C. The vertical thermal growth of the engine
is usually more than that of the driven
equipment. Engine main bearing clear-
ance should be considered when adjust-
ing for parallel alignment.
NOTE: Both parts can be rotated together if
desired. This would eliminate any out-of-round-
ness of the parts from showing up in the dial indi-
cator reading. With non-Caterpillar couplings, the
rubber driving elements must be removed or dis-
connected on one end during alignment since
they can give false parallel readings.
ALIGNMENT AND VIBRATION
Angular Alignment
Angular or face misalignment occurs when cen-
terlines of driven equipment and engines are not
parallel, Figure 4.3.
Figure 4.3
Checking Angular Alignment
Angular misalignment can be determined by
measuring between the two parts to be joined.
The measurement can be easily made with a
feeler gauge, and it should be the same at four
points around the hubs, Figure 4.4.
If the coupling is installed, a dial indicator from
one face to the other will indicate any angular
misalignment. In either case, the readings will be
influenced by how far from the center of rotation
the measurement is made.
NOTE: The face and bore alignment affect each
other. Thus, the face alignment should be
rechecked after the bore alignment and vice versa.
After determining that the engine and load are in
alignment, the crankshaft end play should be
checked to verify that bolting the coupling
together does not cause end thrust.
Figure 4.4
Figure 4.5 illustrates that misalignment can occur
in more than one plane. For this reason, alignment
readings must be taken at 90 degree intervals as
the units are rotated when checking alignment.
BORE MISALIGNMENT
UP/DOWN
BORE MISALIGNMENT
RIGHT/LEFT
FACE MISALIGNMENT
UP/DOWN
FACE MISALIGNMENT
RIGHT/LEFT
Figure 4.5
LEBW1414-00 44
Inaccurate Flanges
Inaccurate flanges cause apparent misalignment
and make accurate alignment impossible.
Face runout refers to the distance the hub face is
out of perpendicular to the shaft centerline,
Figure 4.6.
Figure 4.6
Bore runout refers to the distance the driving bore
of a hub is out of parallel with the shaft centerline,
Figure 4.7.
Figure 4.7
The face and bore runouts of flywheel, clutch or
coupling, driven members, and hubs must be
checked when inconsistent alignment results
occur. Face or bore errors must be corrected.
Bore-to-pilot diameter runout error should not be
more than 0.002 in. (0.05 mm) on the flywheel
and 0.005 in. (0.13 mm) on adapters bolted to
the flywheel. Flange face runout should not be
more than 0.002 in. (0.05 mm).
Shimming
Shim packs under all equipment should be
0.030 in. (0.76 mm) minimum and 0.125 in.
(3.2 mm) maximum thickness to prevent later
corrections requiring removing shims when there
are too few or zero shims remaining. Excessive
thickness of shims may compress with use.
Shims should be of nonrusting material. Handle
shims carefully.
Engines and generators are recommended to use
four mounting feet. Before they can be aligned,
each foot must be carrying its portion of the load.
Failure to do this can result not only in misalign-
ment, but also in springing of the substructure,
high stress in welds or base metal, and high twist-
ing forces in the engine or generator, Figure 4.8.
Figure 4.8
45 LEBW1414-00
Procedure for Tightening Engine and
Generator Mounting Bolts
After alignment, each mounting surface must
carry its portion of the load. Figure 4.9 shows the
procedure used to verify proper shimming of gen-
erator or engine has been accomplished. When
the proper number of shims has been established,
add or remove shims evenly when making align-
ment corrections.
Figure 4.9
Bolt Torque
A bolt is properly torqued when it is stretched a
calculated amount. Proper stretch clamps the
driven device to the base securely. The clamp is
then maintained during movement caused by
vibration. An undertorqued bolt cannot maintain
clamping force while vibrations are present. It will
gradually work loose and allow misalignment to
occur, Figure 4.10.
Bolts of the size used on Caterpillar oilfield bases
require very high torque values. As an example,
a 1 in. (25.4 mm) bolt has a torque of 640
80 ft. lbs (868 108 Nm). A torque wrench,
extension and torque multiplier are required to
obtain this high value. Do not use special bolt
lubricants as the effective bolt clamping force
can be excessive.
Caterpillar bolts are made of Grade 8 steel, one of
the strongest available. They are identified by six
raised or depressed lines on the nut or bolt head.
Figure 4.9 shows the recommended torque for
various Caterpillar bolts; however, these values
may be too high for standard commercially avail-
able hardware.
Make sure mounting bolts are not bottomed out
in hole, resulting in low effective bolt clamping
force. After completion of the final shimming and
bolting operation, recheck the alignment.
Figure 4.10
LEBW1414-00 46
47 LEBW1414-00
Mounting Bolt Location
Each engine or driven equipment mounting bolt
must bolt through solid material. If a mounting
bolt is in an overhung condition, it will cause dis-
tortion, Figure 4.11.
PROPER PRACTICE
IMPROPER PRACTICE
Figure 4.11
Dial Indicators
A dial indicator measures very small changes in
distance. Alignment of shafting requires meas-
urement of small changes in distance dimen-
sions. The indicator must be rigidly located so
the specified alignment values can be measured.
Support Brackets
An indicator support bracket must rigidly sup-
port the indicator when fixed to one of the shafts
and rotated. The support bracket allows location
of the dial indicator at the measurement point.
Proper brackets can be adjusted to work with
varying driveline configurations, Figure 4.12.
Figure 4.12
Dial indicator brackets must not bend due to
weight of the indicator. Commercially available
dial indicator brackets may not give adequate
support when the indicator is rotated, causing
false readings. Therefore, magnetic base dial indi-
cator supports are not recommended.
To check support bracket rigidity, rotate the same
configurations of bracket and indicator through a
circle while indicating on the bracket side of the
coupling. A maximum reading of less than
0.001 in. (0.025 mm) is allowed. It may be nec-
essary to temporarily bolt a very rigid reference
arm onto the bracket side of the coupling for the
indicator to read against to allow the same con-
figuration of bracket and indicator, as when tak-
ing an alignment reading.
Caterpillar recommends using the bracket,
Figure 4.13, when performing alignment checks.
Use two 0.50 in. (12.7 mm) diameter threaded
rods or bolts to assemble the adapter. It may be
necessary to fabricate different brackets when
checking clutch alignments.
LEBW1414-00 48
Accuracy of Dial Indicator Readings
There is a quick way to check the validity of dial
indicator face alignment readings. As Figure 4.14
shows, readings are taken at four locations des-
ignated as A, B, C, and D. When taking readings,
the dial indicator should be returned to location A
to be sure indicator reading returns to zero.
Values shown in Figure 4.14 are for a unit that is
not in alignment.
The quick check is to remember that reading of
B + D should equal C. (This is valid where driv-
ing and driven shafts are rotated together while
checking alignment.)
The quick check is useful for identifying improper
procedures such as: Sagging indicator brackets,
dial indicator finger riding on flywheel chamfer, or
indicator not properly positioned causing indi-
cator to run out of travel.
Figure 4.14
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I D +10 3 B
A
0
+7
C
B + D = C
3 + 10 = +7
Figure 4.13
Crankshaft Deflection Test
3512 and 3516 Engines mounted on bases not
supplied by Caterpillar may require a crankshaft
deflection test. This applies to bases that support
the engine at six or more points. Unevenness in
such a large number of mounting points can
bend the engine block.
In contrast, the use of four mounting blocks can-
not bend the engine block. Four mounting blocks
can induce a twist in the engine block, but this
cannot be detected with a crankshaft deflec-
tion test. See the section Procedure for Tighten-
ing Engine and Generator Mounting Bolts.
This test can be performed on all Caterpillar Oil-
field Engines equipped with crankcase inspection
doors to assure the engine block is not unduly
stressed. It should be performed under cold engine
conditions as this is the safest condition.
1. Remove an inspection door from the block
to expose the center crankshaft throw.
Rotate the crankshaft in the normal rotation
direction. When the cheeks of the center
throw just pass the connecting rods, install a
Starrett No. 696 distortion dial indicator or
similar tool. As a precaution, tie a string to
the gauge and secure it outside the engine
to facilitate retrieval should the assembly fall
into the oil pan.
Zero the dial indicators rotating bezel.
Properly seat the indicator by rotating it on its
own axis until it will hold a zero reading.
2. With the indicator still set at zero, rotate the
crankshaft in the normal direction until the
indicator nearly touches the connecting
rods on the other side of the crankshaft. (Do
not allow the indicator to touch the connect-
ing rod.)
The dial indicator reading must not vary
more than 0.001 in. (0.025 mm) through-
out the approximately 300 degrees of crank-
shaft rotation.
Rotate the crankshaft back to its original
position in the opposite rotation direction.
The indicator must return to its original read-
ing of zero to make a valid test. If not, the indi-
cator shaft points were not properly seated
and the test procedure must be repeated.
3. If the gauge reads more than 0.001 in.
(0.025 mm), cylinder block distortion has
occurred due to improper mounting.
Figure 4.15
Loosen the hold-down bolts between the
engine rails and mounting blocks. Check
carefully for loose shims, improper locations
of fitted bolts, interference from clearance
bolts, or any other constraints to proper
engine block movement.
Make any needed adjustments and secure the
hold-down bolts, making sure alignment of
the engine has not been disturbed.
4. Repeat the distortion check procedure.
Consult your Caterpillar dealer if the engine
block is still bent.
Alignment of Two-Bearing Generators
Factors Affecting Alignment
The input shaft of remote-mounted equipment is
always positioned higher than the engine crank-
shaft. This compensates for vertical thermal
growth, flywheel sag, and main bearing oil film lift
on crankshaft. These factors cause the relative
positions of crankshaft and load input shaft to
shift between static and running conditions.
49 LEBW1414-00
Bearing Clearances
The generator rotor shaft and engine crankshaft
rotate in the center of their respective bearings,
so their centerlines should coincide. Alignment
is made under static conditions while the crank-
shaft is in the bottom of its bearings. This is not
its position during operation. Firing pressures,
centrifugal forces, and engine oil pressure all tend
to lift the crankshaft and cause the flywheel to
orbit around its true center, Figure 4.16.
Generally, driven equipment will have ball or
roller bearings which do not change their rota-
tional axis between static and running conditions.
Figure 4.16
Flywheel Sag
With the engine not running, the weight of the
overhanging flywheel and coupling causes the
crankshaft to bend. This effect must be com-
pensated for during alignment since it results in
the pilot bore and outside diameter of the fly-
wheel rotating lower than the true crankshaft
bearing centerline during alignment. Caterpillar
recommends alignment checks be performed
with the coupling in place, Figure 4.17.
Figure 4.17
Torque Reaction
The tendency of the engine to twist in the oppo-
site direction of shaft rotation and the tendency
of the driven machine to turn in the direction of
shaft rotation is torque reaction. It naturally
increases with load and may cause a vibration.
This type of vibration will not be noticeable at idle
but will be felt with load. This usually is caused
by a change in alignment due to insufficient base
strength allowing excessive base deflection under
torque reaction load. This has the effect of intro-
ducing a side-to-side centerline offset which
disappears when the engine is idled (unloaded)
or stopped.
LEBW1414-00 50
51 LEBW1414-00
Thermal Growth
As engine and generator reach operating tem-
peratures, expansion or thermal growth will
occur. This growth is both vertical and horizontal.
Vertical growth occurs between component
mounting feet and their respective centerlines of
rotation. This thermal growth depends on the
type of metals used, the temperature rise that
occurs, and vertical distance from the center of
rotation to the mounting feet, Figure 4.18.
Vertical compensation consists of aligning equip-
ment to a non-zero value, Figure 4.25.
Crankshaft horizontal growth occurs at the oppo-
site end of the engine from the thrust bearing.
This growth has to be planned for when driven
equipment is connected to that end of the engine.
The growth is slight if the driven equipment is
bolted to the engine block, since the block and
crankshaft grow at approximately the same rate,
Figure 2.12.
Figure 4.18
Figure 4.19
HORIZONTAL THERMAL
GROWTH
COUPLING
CLEARANCE
GENERATOR VERTICAL GROWTH
ENGINE VERTICAL GROWTH
LEBW1414-00 52
Horizontal compensation consists of using a cou-
pling that allows sufficient relative movement
between driving and driven members. The equip-
ment must be positioned so the horizontal growth
moves into the coupling operating zone, not away
from it. Failure to do so results in excessive
crankshaft thrust bearing loading and/or coupling
failure. Sufficient clearance has been allowed if it
is determined during a hot alignment check that
the crankshaft still has end clearance. Location of
thrust bearings on 3500 Series Caterpillar Engines
is at the center of the crankshaft. It is at the rear
of the crankshaft on other Caterpillar engines.
Cat Viscous Dampened Coupling
Caterpillar couplings use an internal gear design
with a rubber element between the gears. Silicone
grease aids in the dampening characteristics.
Clearances involved in internal gear design allow
accurate alignment measurement to be made
without removing the rubber element, Figure 4.20.
The coupling for front-driven equipment is similar
to the rear-drive coupling illustrated here. On front
drives, the driven element, Figure 4.20, is sup-
ported on the engine crankshaft as it does not
weigh as much as the driving element.
Figure 4.20
Interpreting Dial Indicator Readings
With front crankshaft drives, indicator readings
may appear to show the driven shaft is lower than
the engine. This occurs because the dial indica-
tor is mounted on the driven shaft instead of the
engine, reversing the indicator reference point,
Figure 4.21, due to the coupling configurations.
Figure 4.21
Alignment Procedures
Refer to the following Caterpillar Special Instruc-
tion for more detailed information and spe-
cific instructions on mounting and alignment
procedures.
Final alignment should be performed after all
major equipment has been installed on the base.
Engines should be filled with oil and water and
ready to operate.
Misalignment between the diesel engine and all
mechanically driven equipment must be kept to
a minimum. Many crankshaft and bearing fail-
ures can be traced to incorrect alignment of the
drive systems. Misalignment at operating tem-
peratures and under load will always result in
vibration and/or stress loading.
Since there is no accurate and practical method
for measuring alignment with the engine running
at operating temperature and under load, all
Caterpillar alignment procedures must be per-
formed with the engine stopped and the engine
and all driven equipment at ambient temperature.
Place driven equipment in its final position as
closely as possible without taking indicator read-
ings. There should be a minimum of 0.030 in.
(0.76 mm) and a maximum of 0.125 in. (3.2 mm)
of shims under each mounting surface of the
driven equipment.
Position driven equipment, using the leveling and
alignment screws, Figure 4.22.
Figure 4.22
For cold alignment, the generator is mounted
higher than the engine to compensate for ther-
mal growth, bearing clearances, and flywheel
droop, Figure 4.21.
Installation of Cat Viscous Dampened Coupling
When using the Caterpillar viscous dampened
coupling, the rubber elements should be installed
at this time. Install the coupling grease retainer
plate. Install the silicone grease after coupling
end clearance is correct.
Shift generator fore and aft as necessary to assure
the inner member of the coupling is properly
positioned between the rear retaining plate of the
coupling and engine flywheel to allow for hori-
zontal growth. Failure to do so can result in exces-
sive crankshaft thrust bearing loading and/or
coupling failure.
Using a flexible steel scale or depth gauge, meas-
ure coupling end clearance to check that horizon-
tal thermal growth will not cause metal-to-metal
contact within the coupling, Figure 4.23. Measure
distance (axial clearance dimension) from the
outer face of inner coupling member to the outer
face of grease retainer plate. The distance should
be 0.34 0.03 in. (8.6 0.8 mm) for front drives
and 0.41 0.03 in. (10.4 0.8 mm) for rear
drives (flywheel-mounted couplings.)
Other Couplings
Flexible element of other couplings may need to
be removed during alignment checks. Element
stiffness can prevent accurate alignment readings.
With coupling element removed, driving and
driven members of the coupling should be rotated
together during alignment checks. This prevents
face or bore runout of piece parts from affecting
dial indicator readings. When both members are
rotated together, only equipment misalignment
will register on dial indicator readings.
Form No. Title
SEHS7654 Alignment General Instructions
SEHS7259-06 Alignment of Single Bearing Generators
SEHS7073-01 Alignment of Two-Bearing Generators
53 LEBW1414-00
LEBW1414-00 54
Final Alignment
Use indicator support brackets to mount two dial
indicators to simultaneously measure bore and
face misalignment. See Figure 4.24 for proper
format to record alignment readings.
Be sure crankshaft end thrust is always in the
same direction before taking a face reading. Zero
both dial indicators at the top and take readings
every 90 degrees (1.5 rad). Rotate the complete
assembly by barring the engine over.
Figure 4.25 illustrates the method to be used,
provides instructions to be followed and lists
alignment limits for various generator drive
arrangements.
When the generator is moved to correct face
alignment, it will be necessary to recheck bore
alignment and vice versa.
When the engine drives more than one genera-
tor, recheck alignment of each generator after all
generators have been aligned.
For instructions on installation of shims and
mounting bolts on the engine, refer to the Engine
Mounting Section.
Figure 4.23
Figure 4.24
55 LEBW1414-00
After completion of the final shimming and bolt-
ing operation, recheck coupling alignment.
Crankshaft end play should be checked after unit
is up to operating temperature. It should be
between 0.007 to 0.025 in. (0.178 to 0.635 mm).
Realignment Limits
Realignment is not required until field check lim-
its are reached. When these limits are reached,
units should be realigned to limits shown in pre-
vious paragraphs.
Alignment of Close-Coupled
Driven Equipment
Close-coupled components, such as single-bear-
ing generators, close-coupled two-bearing gen-
erators, transmissions, compounds, etc., rely on
bolting together of two piloted housings to deter-
mine alignment. When two piloted housings are
joined together in a parallel manner, they are in
alignment. However, outside stresses can be
introduced by poor mounting practices and allow
the flywheel housing to flex. This can contribute
to high vibration.
To check for outside stresses, loosen the mount-
ing bolts between the driven equipment and
engine flywheel housing. There should be no con-
tact between flywheel housing and driven equip-
ment housing at this time to assure neither
housing is being stressed. Clearance between the
two separated faces should be parallel within
0.005 in. (0.13 mm). See Figure 4.26. Oilfield
generators are extra heavy and may distort the
flywheel housing when it is not parallel to engine.
Figure 4.26
TWO BEARING ALIGNMENT 21 INCH (534 mm) BASE AND BASE-WITHIN-A-BASE TYPE
Figure 4.25
To avoid this, make sure there is a minimum
0.001 in. (0.03 mm) gap for the full 360 degrees
when making this parallelism check.
A dial indicator mounted between flywheel and
generator rotor is sometimes used to check align-
ment. However, after the generator housing is
piloted into and bolted to the flywheel housing,
alignment is not checked by the dial indicator
method.
When the dial indicator method produces results
in conflict with the parallelism check of the two
housings, Figure 4.26, such conflict indicates the
rear bearing of the driven equipment is not cen-
tered in relation to the engine and is subject to
generator manufacturers accepted tolerances,
flywheel housing nominal runout, and flywheel
droop.
Generator mounting feet should not be shimmed
after the generator housing is bolted to the fly-
wheel housing. Such practices stress both the
generator housing and flywheel housing and can
cause vibrations.
It is not necessary to make this check on smaller
Caterpillar Generator Sets where the engine does
not have rear mounting feet but relies on the gen-
erator supports, Figure 4.18. However, this check
is necessary on smaller Caterpillar Engines where
the driven equipment is also rigidly connected to
another piece of equipment. A common example
of this would be a mechanical drive where the
clutch mechanism is bolted to the compound. Poor
mounting practices with this arrangement can
cause excessive stresses in the flywheel housing.
Single bearing generators are recommended to
have a pilot shaft extension and loose fitting flex
plates or no pilot shaft extension but with piloted
plates. This aids in maintaining proper alignment.
If vibration is noted at assembly of a generator
having coupling plates piloted into the flywheel,
correction can often be made by repositioning
coupling plates
1
4 turn with respect to the origi-
nal location. Start the unit and observe the
change in vibration. A second or third relocation
may be necessary to find the position of lowest
vibration. Locate plates at point of lowest vibra-
tion. This procedure allows manufacturing toler-
ances to attempt to cancel each other.
Before bolting coupling plates onto the flywheel,
always rotate engine to the same position (i.e.,
no. 1 TDC). Tighten half the bolts while the fly-
wheel is in this position. Then rotate as necessary
to tighten other bolts. This procedure assures that
any sag in the crankshaft is always as the same
position when the plates are fastened to flywheel.
Alignment of Mechanical Drives
Improper alignment will result in excessive vibra-
tion, short life of compound bearings and clutch
parts and a need for frequent realignment. Good
alignment practices include proper shimming,
correct torque on hold-down bolts, and accurate
dial indicator usage. See the section on General
Alignment Information for additional information.
Alignment Procedures
Final alignment should be performed after all
major equipment has been installed on the base.
Engines should be filled with oil and water and
ready to operate.
When clutches are used that contain air bladders,
pay careful attention to air pressure; the allow-
able amount of misalignment goes down as air
pressure increases. Alignment limits must not
exceed limits established for a Caterpillar viscous
dampened coupling or for the clutch, whichever
is smaller.
Clutches are to be disengaged when alignment is
checked, Figure 4.27. Rotate clutch slowly
through 360 degrees (6 rad) and check total indi-
cator reading at 90 degree (1.5 rad) intervals.
Shim engine, as required, to achieve correct align-
ment, Figure 4.5.
ALIGNMENT CHECK
Figure 4.27
LEBW1414-00 56
Dial indicator readings will include an error due
to runout of clutch or flywheel parts. Where
excessive runout is suspected, check and cor-
rect as required.
Non-Cat Bases
Bases not manufactured by Caterpillar must
meet several design criteria. These bases must be
rigid enough to limit torsional and bending forces
caused by torque reaction and subbase flexing.
They must prevent excessive bending forces
from passing to the engine block, couplings, and
driven unit during shipment. To prevent reso-
nance, they must have a natural frequency out of
the operating speed range. They must allow suf-
ficient space for shimming so proper alignment
can be accomplished.
Vibration
All mechanical systems with mass and elasticity
are capable of vibration. Engines produce vibra-
tion due to combustion forces, torque reactions,
structural mass and stiffness combinations, and
manufacturing tolerances on rotating compo-
nents. These forces may create conditions rang-
ing from unwanted noise to high stress levels,
and possible ultimate failure of engine or driven
components.
The same amplitude and frequency of vibration
generated by the engine could result in structural
damage if a fixed installation were housed in a
building, or close to sensitive instruments or equip-
ment, such as computers.
Other influencing factors are foundation design,
soil load characteristics, and other machinery
operating in close proximity.
Vibrating stresses can reach destructive levels at
engine speeds which cause resonance. Reso-
nance occurs when natural system frequencies
coincide with engine excitation frequencies.
Engine vibrations are produced and maintained
by regular, periodic driving forces set up by
unbalanced moving masses. These are called
forced vibrations.
Free vibrations have no driving force. When set
in motion such vibrations, if undamped, would
continue indefinitely with constant amplitude and
natural frequency.
If the frequency of a forced vibration is the same
as the natural frequency of free vibrations, exces-
sive vibration results. This is called resonance
and can cause serious problems.
Mass Elastic System
Engine vibration may be of the following types
and causes:
1. Linear vibration vertical and/or horizontal
inertia forces due to lack of balance in recip-
rocating or rotating machinery.
2. Torque reaction not a vibratory force, but
may excite vibration.
3. Torsional vibration of shafting occurs in
any rotating mass elastic system (two or
more masses connected by an elastic shaft)
where periodic forces are present. Where
these forces recur near the natural frequency
of torsional vibration, resonance may develop
and cause dangerous stress.
4. Axial vibration of shafting when torques
are applied to a crankshaft, it is alternately
shortened and lengthened. This could be
troublesome if the natural axial frequency is
near a torsional frequency.
Generator sets need no isolation for protection
from self-induced vibrations. However, isolation
is required if:
1. Engine vibration must be separated from
building structures.
2. Vibrations from nearby equipment are trans-
mitted to inoperative generator sets.
3. System is supported on a flexible mounting
surface, such as a trailer bed.
Vibration isolators prevent the transmission of pos-
sible damaging generator set vibration through-
out a building. Noise is also reduced.
When an engine and generator are to be assem-
bled to each other, vibration studies and tests
must be completed to assure satisfactory, trou-
ble-free operation on the job site. With factory
assembled generator sets, the responsibility is
assumed by the manufacturer. In any case, wher-
ever assembly takes place, someone must
assure the integrity of the installation from a
vibration standpoint.
Perfectly balanced rotating devices can vibrate
if not properly aligned.
57 LEBW1414-00
LEBW1414-00 58
Vibration Measurement
Vibration measurements on large engine units
should be made using the Caterpillar Vibration
Analyzer, Part No. 4C-3030. If Caterpillar meas-
uring equipment is not available, an equivalent
device capable of measuring peak-to-peak dis-
placement at selected frequencies, overall veloc-
ity, and overall displacement should be used.
Vibration should be measured at nine points on a
two bearing generator set. Comparable points on
non-generator driven equipment may be impor-
tant. These points are illustrated in Figure 4.28
and are described below.
Point 1
Horizontal direction at the front of the engine;
locate the probe on the left side of the block at the
crankshaft centerline.
Point 2
Vertical direction at the front of the engine; locate
the probe on the block top deck in the plane of
the crankshaft centerline.
Point 3
Horizontal direction at the rear of the engine;
locate the probe on the side of the block at the
crankshaft centerline.
Point 4
Vertical direction at the rear of the engine; locate
the probe on the block top deck (or rear housing)
in the plane of the crankshaft centerline.
Point 5
Vertical direction at the generator front bearing;
locate the probe on the bearing housing at the
shaft centerline.
Point 6
Horizontal direction at the generator front bear-
ing; locate the probe on the side of the bearing
housing at the shaft centerline.
Point 7
Vertical direction at the generator rear bearing;
locate the probe on the bearing housing at the
shaft centerline.
VIBRATION MEASURING POINTS
Figure 4.28
59 LEBW1414-00
Point 8
Horizontal direction at the generator rear bear-
ing; locate the probe on the side of the bearing
housing at the shaft centerline.
Point 9
Axial direction at the generator rear; locate the
probe on the rear right outside edge of the
generator structure (not sheet metal) at the shaft
centerline.
Vibration measurements must be made at the
advertised driven equipment rating (100% load).
If additional data is desired, it is recommended
that measurements be made at 0% load, 50%
load, and 75% load. It may be useful to take
vibration measurements also at plus and minus
10% of rated speed, at no load.
Data must be reported in terms of peak-to-peak
displacement (mils) at half order frequency, first
order frequency, overall velocity level (in/s) and
overall displacement (mils) for each of the nine
measuring locations. A chart can be used to
record and report the measured vibration data.
Vibration Limits
The vibration levels for any load condition, at any
of the nine measuring locations, must not exceed
the following guideline limits:
1. Peak-to-peak displacement at half order fre-
quency = 5 mils (0.13 mm)
2. Peak-to-peak displacement at first order fre-
quency = 5 mils (0.13 mm)
3. Overall displacement = 8.5 mils (0.22 mm)
4. Overall velocity = 1.35 in/s (34.3 mm/s)
This is applicable to both Diesel and Gas Engines
(reference: EDS 73.1, Linear Vibration).
Consult the manufacturer of the driven equip-
ment for applicable vibration limits.
If the measured vibration levels exceed the limits,
contact your Caterpillar dealer representative or
Caterpillar factory representative for assistance.
Warning: It is not an acceptable practice to lower
the package vibration levels when operating at
stable conditions by tightening the snubber bolts
on the Caterpillar vibration isolators. This prac-
tice will only hide vibration problems.
Linear Vibration
Linear vibration is exhibited by noisy or shaking
machines, but its exact nature is difficult to define
without instrumentation. Human senses are inad-
equate to detect relationships between the mag-
nitude of vibration and period of occurrence. A
first order (1 rpm) vibration of 0.010 in.
(0.254 mm) displacement may feel about the
same as third order measurement of 0.002 in.
(0.051 mm).
Vibration occurs as a mass is deflected and
returned along the same plane and can be illus-
trated as a single mass spring system (see
Figure 4.29). With no external force imposed on
the system, the weight remains at rest and there
is no vibration. But when the weight is moved or
displaced and then released, vibration occurs.
The weight travels up and down through its orig-
inal position until frictional forces cause it to rest.
When external forces, such as engine combus-
tion, continue to affect the system while it vibrates,
it is termed forced vibration.
MASS-SPRING SYSTEM
Figure 4.29
LEBW1414-00 60
Time required for the weight to complete one
movement is called a period (see Figure 4.30).
ILLUSTRATION OF A PERIOD
Figure 4.30
Maximum displacement from the mean position
is amplitude; interval in which the motion is
repeated is called the cycle.
If the weight needs one second to complete a
cycle, the vibration frequency is one cycle per
second.
If one minute, hour, day, etc., were required, its
frequency would be one cycle per minute, hour,
day, etc. A system completing its full motion
20 times in one minute would have a frequency
of 20 cycles per minute, or 20 cpm.
Establishing vibration frequency is necessary
when analyzing a problem. It allows identifica-
tion of engine component or condition causing
the vibration.
Total distance traveled by the weight, from one
peak to the opposite peak, is peak-to-peak
displacement. This measurement is usually
expressed in mils, one mil equaling one-thou-
sandth of an inch [0.001 in. (0.025 mm)]. It is a
guide to vibration severity.
Average and root-mean-square (rms) are used to
measure vibration (rms = 0.707 times the peak
of vibration). These terms are referred to in the-
oretical discussions.
Another method to analyze vibration is measur-
ing mass velocity. Note that the example is not
only moving but changing direction. The speed of
the weight is also constantly changing. At its limit,
the speed is 0. Its speed or velocity is greatest
while passing through the neutral position.
Velocity is extremely important; but because of
its changing nature, a single point has been cho-
sen for measurement. This is peak velocity nor-
mally expressed in inches per second.
Velocity is a direct measure of vibration and pro-
vides best overall indicator of machinery condi-
tion. It does not, however, reflect the effect of
vibration on brittle material.
Relationship between peak velocity and peak-to-
peak displacement is compared by:
V Peak = 52.3 D F 10
6
Where:
V Peak = Vibration velocity in inches per second
peak.
D = Peak-to-peak displacement, in mils
(1 mil 0.001 in.).
F = Frequency in cycles-per-minute (cpm).
Acceleration is another characteristic of vibra-
tion. It is the rate of velocity change. In the exam-
ple, note that peak acceleration is at the extreme
limit of travel where velocity is 0. As velocity
increases, acceleration decreases until it reaches
0 at the neutral point.
Acceleration is dimensioned in units of g
(peak), where g equals the force of gravity
(980 6650 mm/s
2
= 386 in./s
2
= 32.3 ft./s
2
).
Acceleration measurements, or gs, are used
where relatively large forces are encountered. At
very high frequencies (60,000 cpm), it is per-
haps the best indicator of vibration.
Vibration acceleration is calculable from peak
displacement :
g Peak = 1.42 D F
2
10
8
Machinery vibration is complex and consists of
many frequencies. Displacement, velocity, and
acceleration are all used to diagnose particular
problems. Displacement measurements are
better indicators of dynamic stresses and are,
therefore, commonly used. Note that overall, or
total peak-to-peak displacement, described in
Figure 4.31, is approximately the sum of indi-
vidual vibrations.
61 LEBW1414-00
PEAK-TO-PEAK DISPLACEMENT
Figure 4.31
Isolation
Generator sets need no isolation for protection
from self-induced vibrations. They easily with-
stand any vibrations which they create.
However, isolation is required if engine vibration
must be separated from building structures, or if
vibrations from nearby equipment are transmit-
ted to inoperative generator sets. Caterpillar Gen-
erator Sets with isolation mounts between the
generator set and base already satisfy these
requirements. Running units are rarely affected
by exterior vibrations. Methods of isolation are the
same for external- or self-generated vibrations.
Isolation Location
Several commercial isolators provide various
degrees of isolation. Generally, the lower the nat-
ural frequency of the isolator, the greater the
deflection (soft) and more effective the isolation.
Weight of generator sets can be unequally dis-
tributed among the isolators, within the limits of
the isolators. However, isolator overloading will
eliminate isolator benefits. Isolators are most
effective when located under generator mount-
ing and engine front support (see Figure 4.32).
If additional support is desired, place an isolator
midway between front and rear mounts and
under radiator.
REFERENCES FOR DISTANCES
Figure 4.32
To apply isolators, wet weight and center of grav-
ity of the assembled unit must be established.
Assuming engine and generator are assembled
to a base, wet weight (W
T
) and assembled center
of gravity can be calculated. A common reference
is needed (see Figure 4.32). In this case, use the
rear face of the flywheel housing or engine block.
Because measurements are to both sides of
the reference, one direction can be considered
negative.
W
T
(D) = W
E
(D
2
) W
G
(D
1
) + W
R
(D
3
)
D =
W
E
(D
2
) W
G
(D
1
) + W
R
(D
3
)
___________________________
W
T
W
T
= wet weight
W
E
= engine weight
W
G
= generator weight
W
R
= radiator weight
D
1,2,3
= distances
If additional equipment is added, the process is
repeated to determine a new center of gravity.
Having established center of gravity for the total
unit (see Figure 4.33), loading on each pair of
isolators is determined by:
S
1
= W
T
S
2
= W
T
A
__
C
B
__
C
LEBW1414-00 62
DETERMINATION OF ISOLATOR LOCATION
Figure 4.33
Isolators are sized to have natural frequencies far
removed from engine exciting frequencies. If
these frequencies were similar, the entire unit
would resonate. The transmissibility chart in
Figure 4.34 depicts this condition. It also shows
the significant improvement caused by decreas-
ing the mounting natural frequency to allow a
ratio increase above , or 1.414.
Isolation Methods
Vibration is reduced by commercially available
fabricated isolators or bulk isolators. Both tech-
niques utilize static deflection, with increased
deflection resulting in greater isolation. Although
internal damping of various materials cause per-
formance differences, the vibration chart in
Figure 4.35 describes the general effect deflec-
tion has on isolation. By using engine rpm as the
nominal vibration frequency, magnitude of com-
pression on isolating materials can be estimated.
The unit can be separated from supporting sur-
faces by these soft commercial devices, i.e., those
which deflect under the static weight. Mounting
rails or fabricated bases withstand torque reac-
tions without uniform support from the isolators.
2
TRANSMISSIBILITY CHART
Figure 4.34
63 LEBW1414-00
BASIC VIBRATION CHART
Figure 4.35
Piping connected to generator sets requires iso-
lation, particularly when generator sets mount on
spring isolators. Fuel and water lines, exhaust
pipes, and conduit could otherwise transmit
vibrations long distances. Isolator pipe hangers,
if used, should have springs to attenuate low fre-
quencies, and rubber or cork to minimize high
frequency transmissions. To prevent buildup of
resonant pipe vibrations, support long piping runs
at unequal distances (see Figure 4.36).
PIPE RUNS SUPPORT
Figure 4.36
Rubber
Rubber isolators are adequate for applications
where vibration control is not severe. By careful
selection, isolation of 90% is possible. They iso-
late noise created by transmission of vibratory
forces. Avoid using rubber isolators with natural
frequencies near engine excitation frequencies.
Adding rubber plates beneath spring isolators
block high frequency vibrations transmitted
through the spring. These vibrations are not
harmful but cause annoying noise.
Spring
The most effective isolators are of steel spring
design. They isolate over 96% of all vibrations and
noise transmitted from rotating machinery to
the foundation or mounting surface. Conversely,
isolators can absorb disturbances generated by
adjacent machinery and prevent damage from
being transmitted to idle equipment.
Spring-type linear vibration isolators are included
in offshore power modules. These isolators per-
mit mounting the generator set on a surface
capable of supporting only the static load.
A detail of a spring-type isolator shows the
addition of thrust blocks to restrict lateral move-
ment without interfering with the spring function
(see Figure 4.37). Limit stops are also included,
for tilt angle requirements.
VIBRATION ISOLATOR
Figure 4.37
LEBW1414-00 64
No allowance for torque or vibratory loads is
required. As with direct mountings, no anchor
bolting is usually required. However, when oper-
ating in parallel, vertical restraints are recom-
mended and the isolator firmly fastened to the
foundation. Spring isolators are available with
snubber for use when engines are side loaded or
located on moving surfaces.
Other Isolation Methods
Fiberglass, felt, composition, and flat rubber do
little to isolate major vibration forces. These
materials tend to compress with age and become
ineffective. Because deflection of these types of
isolators is small, their natural frequency is rela-
tively high compared to the engines. Attempting
to stack these isolators or apply them indiscrim-
inately could force the system into resonance.
Land rig power module include composition pads
at the three internal mounting points. Land rig
modules have reduced concern over vibration
transmission. Composition pads are easily
designed to remain in place during the frequent
rig moves.
If no isolation is required, auxiliary generator sets
may rest directly on the mounting surface.
Factory assembled units are dynamically bal-
anced and theoretically there is no dynamic load.
Practically, the surface must support 25% more
than the static weight of the unit to withstand
torque and vibratory loads. Unless the engine is
driving equipment which impose side loads, no
anchor bolting is required. This normally applies
to all non-parallel generator set mountings. Thin
rubber or composition pads minimize the units
tendency to creep or fret foundation surfaces.
External Isolation
Piping connected to generator sets requires iso-
lation, particularly when generator sets are
mounted on spring isolators. Fuel and water lines,
exhaust pipes, and conduit could otherwise trans-
mit vibrations long distances.
If isolator pipe hangers are used they should have
springs to attenuate low frequencies, and rubber
or cork to minimize high frequency transmissions.
To prevent buildup or resonant pipe vibrations,
long support piping should run at unequal dis-
tances (see Figure 4.36).
Vibration carried throughout an enclosure causes
early failure of auxiliary equipment. Relays,
switches, gauges, and piping are adversely
affected.
Noise, while normally only annoying, can attain
levels objectionable to owners and operators. If
operating near property lines, noise could exceed
local ordinances.
Torsional Vibration
Torsional vibrations occur as subjects, such as
an engine crankshaft, twist and recover. Standard
generator set components withstand normal
stresses caused by combustion forces and torque
reactions. A generator set must prevent the
natural frequency of the drive train from approach-
ing the units operating speed. Failure of crank-
shaft, couplings, gears or bearings may result
without this attention.
Torsional vibrations originate with the piston power
stroke. The simplified drive train in Figure 4.38
illustrates relationship of shaft diameter, length,
and inertia on the natural system frequency.
TORSIONAL VIBRATIONS
Figure 4.38
Even though generator sets, factory packaged
on Caterpillar designed bases, avoid critical
speeds where resonant conditions occur, all
applications, whether packaged by Caterpillar or
others, require a torsional vibration analysis. This
assures compatibility of the engine and driven
equipment. It must be performed by either the
customer or by Caterpillar, depending on the cus-
tomers preference. Customer performed analy-
ses are subject to Caterpillar review and approval
and Caterpillar does not assume responsibility
for analysis performed by others without specific
Caterpillar review and approval. Without the
65 LEBW1414-00
approval, no warranty for vibration caused prob-
lems can be claimed from Caterpillar. For
Caterpillar-performed analyses, a complete set
of technical data (see below) must be submitted
to Caterpillar before calculations are undertaken.
The report will include a mathematical determi-
nation of the natural frequency, critical speeds,
relative amplitudes of angular displacement, and
approximate nodal locations of the complete
elastic system (both engine and driven equip-
ment). See the Special Additions section of the
price list for ordering information.
NOTE: Consult factory on compound installa-
tions. There may be additional charges for analy-
ses of applications where more than one engine
drives a single load. A separate torsional analy-
sis is also required for each engine with different
driven equipment in multiple engine installations.
Technical data required:
1. The operating speed range.
2. Load demand curve on generator sets which
have a load dependent variable rigidity
coupling.
3. General arrangement drawing or sketch of
complete system, including data on equip-
ment driven from front of engine.
4. With driven equipment on both ends of the
engine, the power demand of each end is
required. In addition, simultaneous front
and rear power (maximum engine load) is
required.
5. Make, model, WR
2
(rotational inertia), and tor-
sional rigidity on all couplings used between
the engine and driven equipment.
6. WR
2
of each rotating mass. Weight of each
reciprocating mass.
7. Torsional rigidity and minimum shaft diam-
eter or detailed dimensions of all shafting
in the driven system whether separately
mounted or installed in a housing.
8. The ratio of the speed reducer or increaser.
The WR
2
and rigidity submitted for a speed
reducer or increaser should state whether or
not they have been adjusted to engine speed.
9. For reciprocating compressor applications,
a harmonic analysis of the compressor
torque curve under various load conditions.
If not available, a torque curve of the com-
pressor under each load condition through
one compressor cycle. The WR
2
of all avail-
able flywheels for the compressor.
Couplings
A coupling must be torsionally compatible with
engine and driven load so that torsional vibration
amplitudes are kept within acceptable limits. A
mathematical study called a torsional vibration
analysis should be done on any combination of
engine-driveline-load for which successful expe-
rience doesnt already exist. A coupling with the
wrong torsional stiffness can cause serious dam-
age to engine or driven equipment.
All couplings have certain operating ranges of
misalignment, and the manufacturers should be
contacted for this information.
Some drives, such as U-joint couplings, have dif-
ferent operating angle limits for different speeds.
As a general rule, the angle should be the same
on each end of the shaft (see Figure 4.39). The
yokes must be properly aligned and sliding spline
connections should move freely. If there is no
angle at all, the bearings will brinell due to lack
of movement.
Cyclic Irregularity
Cyclic irregularity is a nondimensional ratio
describing degree of crankshaft twist occurring
between two successive firings of cylinders dur-
ing steady-state operation. Formulas to repre-
sent this movement were derived before modern
instrumentation allowed measurement. The ratio
is expressed as:
Cyclic irregularity: rpm rpm
(maximum) (minimum)
________________________
rpm (average)
System speed varies with connected rotating
mass. Cyclic irregularity differs, therefore, for a
basic engine, one driving a generator, or addi-
tional equipment.
This ratio compares merits of large slow speed
engines which were custom made, but has little
value applied to modern medium speed engines.
LEBW1414-00 66
Out-of-Balance Driven Equipment
The engine itself is designed and built to run very
smoothly. Objectionable vibration generally
arises from either poor driveline component
match to the engine or unbalance of the driven
equipment. Reciprocating equipment with large
imbalances, for example, can cause premature
failure of the mounting structure or undesirable
vibration even though the unit is properly mounted,
aligned, and isolated from the engine.
Even though the engine and the driven load are
in balance, it is also possible to encounter unde-
sirable and damaging vibration as a result of the
driving or connecting equipment having a mis-
alignment or out-of-balance condition. Long
shafts, drives, gear assemblies, clutches, or any
type of coupling where misalignment, out-of-bal-
ance, or mass shifting may occur, are probable
sources of vibration.
Alignment
An unsatisfactory engine mounting nearly always
results in alignment problems between the engine
and the driven machinery. Assuming that failure
of the driven equipment does not occur first, the
forces or loads transmitted to the engine in the
form of pounding, twisting, flexing, or thrust could
result in engine crankshaft and bearing failure.
Costly failures of this nature can be avoided if, at
the design and installation stage, the importance
of proper alignment between the engine and
driven load and adequate mounting to maintain
alignment is considered.
If this is possible, a suitable flexible coupling must
be incorporated into the drive train to compen-
sate for misalignment.
Good alignment practices include proper shim-
ming, correct torque on hold-down bolts, accu-
rate dial indicator usage, allowances for bearing
clearances, thermal growth, and accounting for
other characteristics of the engine.
UNIVERSAL JOINT SHAFT DRIVE
Figure 4.39
67 LEBW1414-00
Definitions
Noise can be defined as all unwanted sounds.
Music is sound and can be pleasant to some
people and noise to others. Noise and sound are
often used to describe the same physical char-
acteristics. Noise is generally random in nature
without distinct frequency components. Noise
can produce undesirable psychological effects
on people and physical damage to the ears.
Noise can be annoying and affect verbal com-
munications at work and away. At times, it may
impact behavior, including short term and long
term hearing loss, muscle tension, respiratory
reflexes, stress level, heart function, etc. Recog-
nizing this, many governmental agencies around
the world have established regulatory limits for
various levels of noise.
The noise from the engine comes mainly from
combustion, mechanical forces and from the
exhaust and air intake sources.
Frequency of sound refers to the rapidity or
cycles of an oscillation in a unit time. The con-
ventional unit is Hertz (Hz) one Hz being one
cycle per second.
Sound Waves and Measurement
As sound waves radiate, their strength diminishes
(see Figure 5.1). As distance traveled doubles,
the wave amplitude is reduced by one-half. This
rule applies if the first measuring point is at least
two or three times the largest dimension of the
noise source, usually about three feet.
Figure 5.1. Distance vs. wave amplitude.
Sound waves impinging on a microphone pro-
duce voltages proportional to sound pressures.
The signals measure amplitude or strength, of
the sound pressure waves. Amplitude and fre-
quency are the only sound properties measura-
ble using ordinary techniques.
Sound Pressure
The extensive audible range of sound compli-
cates noise ratings. The human ear hears pres-
sure levels that are about 100,000 times stronger
than the lowest pressure it is affected by. For this
reason, measuring instruments have extraordi-
nary range and are scaled in decibels (dB). The
decibel scale is logarithmic, which allows the
wide range of sound pressures to be measured in
only two- or three-digit numbers.
Sound Pressure Level (SPL) in dB =
20 log
10

The reference pressure is taken as: 20 Pa or

2 10
4
microbars = 0 dB. The relationship
between Pa and dB is that when multiplying the
sound pressure (Pa) by 10, 20 dB is added to
the dB level. Decibel (dB), is the relative meas-
urement of amplitude of sound. Sound is a pres-
sure which makes the membrane in the human
ear deflect. The softest pressure the human ear
can hear is 20 Pa (1 atmospheric pressure =
1 bar = 100 kPa = 14.5 psi) but the ear can take
pressures up to more than 1 million times higher.
Frequency Weighting Networks
The ear is more sensitive to high frequencies than
low frequencies. To approximate the effect of
sound on the average person, measurements are
weighted according to frequencies correspon-
ding to the sensitivity of the ear. Loudness can
be measured by filtering the microphone signal
to reduce the strength of the low frequency sig-
nals and give more weight to frequencies in the
5,00010,000 Hz range. The signal from the
measuring microphone is fed to an amplifier, then
to an attenuator, which is calibrated in decibels.
The signal is then fed to one of four weighting
networks, referred to as A, B, C, and D. The
response of the network chosen modifies the
input signal accordingly.
The most commonly used network is weighting
A (A-scale), and it is known as dBA or dB(A).
Measured pressure
___________________
Reference pressure
Distance Sound Strength
X 100%
2X 50%
4X 25%
NOISE
Figure 5.2 shows the response characteristics for
an A filter. The result of adjustments through-
out the frequency range is a total decibel rating
with a correction for various frequencies to
approximate the human ears sensitivity.
RESPONSE CHARACTERISTICS OF A FILTER
Figure 5.2
Octave Band Levels
More detail is required of the frequency dis-
tribution of a noise than provided by an
A-weighted measurement. Measurements
are made with filters subdividing sounds over the
entire audible range into standardized frequency
bands, permitting the pressure levels of only the
sound within each subdivision to be measured.
Each filter spans an octave; that is, the upper fre-
quency limit is twice the lower limit as shown in
Figure 5.3. Sound levels in each octave are meas-
ured in decibels and are referred to as octave
band levels.
STANDARD OCTAVE BANDS
(ANSI STANDARD S1.11 IEC 225)
Figure 5.3
Loudness
The human ear does not use sound pressure
decibels to judge loudness. Rating noise loud-
ness is a complex operation because human
hearing is also frequency sensitive.
Sounds with frequencies in the 5,000-10,000 Hz
range are the easiest to hear; sounds with very
low frequencies are the hardest. Hearing loss
from exposure to noise is frequency sensitive.
Direction of Sound
Sound is mostly directional, meaning that the
sound tends to move more in one direction
than another.
The contour of the sound wave can be complex.
By measuring the sound pressure level three
dimensionally around the engine, the contour can
be determined (see Figure 5.4).
It is not only the source of the sound which will
give the direction, but also any kind of reflective
surface in the area of the engine, i.e. floor, walls
or ceiling.
Band
Designation
(Center
Frequency)
Band
Limits
8000 Hz
4000
2000
1000
500
250
125
63 Hz
44 Hz
88
176
353
707
1415
2830
5650
11300 Hz
Signals entering
filter
Low
frequencies
High
frequencies
Signals leaving
filter
dB total
dB(A) total
Frequency Hz
Relative
Response
dB
A weighted
filtering
- 5
0
+ 5
-10
-15
-20
-25
-30
-35
-40
-45
-50
20 50 100 200 500 1000 2000 5000 10,000
A
A
LEBW1414-00 68
69 LEBW1414-00
CONTOUR OF A SOUND WAVE
Figure 5.4
Noise Addition
When standing by an engine, the noise heard
from other engines operating in the same area
will depend on the spacing of the engines and
where the person is in relation to the spacing.
A chart showing the combined effect of up to ten
equal sound sources is shown in Figure 5.5.
ADDITION OF EQUAL SOUNDS
Figure 5.5
Figure 5.6 shows the versatility of the decibel sys-
tem. Although calculations are made on the basis
of sound power, the system uses measured or
calculated sound pressures. Use the difference
in the pressure levels of two sounds to find how
their combined level exceeds the higher of the
two. First adjust the levels for the distances from
the source to the spot where the noises are being
added. To add a third level, use the same process
to combine it with the total of the first two.
ADDITION OF UNEQUAL SOUNDS
Figure 5.6
Sound Level Conversions
Sound level information is presented both in
terms of sound power level, SWL, dB(A), and
sound pressure level, SPL, dB(A). SWL is the total
sound power being radiated from a source, and
its magnitude is independent of the distance from
the source. Relative loudness comparison between
engines is simply a comparison of their sound
power levels at equivalent operating conditions.
When the sound power level (SWL) is known, the
sound pressure level (SPL) at any distance from
a point source (such as exhaust noise) can be
calculated.
0
.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
D
e
c
i
b
e
l
s

a
d
d
e
d

t
o

h
i
g
h
e
r

o
f

t
w
o

n
o
i
s
e
s

t
o

o
b
t
a
i
n

t
o
t
a
l

i
n

d
B
Difference between two noises in dB
0
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2
4
6
8
10
2
Increase in sound pressure
dB or dB(A)
I
n
c
r
e
a
s
e

i
n

d
B

o
r

d
B
(
A
)
Number of sources
Engine
The equation for determining the sound pressure
level of exhaust noise without any correction for
ambient temperature and pressure, is:
Sound Pressure Level, SPL dB(A) =
Sound Power Level, SWL dB(A) 10 Log
10
(CD
2
)
Where C = 2 For exhaust source adjacent to a
flat surface, such as a horizontal
exhaust pipe adjacent to a flat roof.
or C = 4 For exhaust source some distance
from surrounding surfaces, such as
a vertical exhaust stack some dis-
tance above roof.
D = Distance from exhaust noise
source (m).
For C = 4 = SPL = SWL - 20 Log
10
D - 10.99
SPL measurement requires only a simple sound
level meter. However, the sum of sound waves
arriving from every direction depends on the
acoustic characteristics of the environment and
varies with position relative to the noise source.
SPL cannot be used to describe the strength of a
noise source without specifying relative position
and room acoustic properties of the test envi-
ronment. A disadvantage is that sound pressure
level conversion is valid for a point source only.
It cannot be used for mechanical noise since the
source (overall engine) is quite large.
If the sound pressure level of a point source at
some distance is known, the sound pressure
level at another distance can be calculated using
this formula:
SPL
2
= SPL
1
20 Log
10
(D
2
D
1
)
Where: SPL
1
= known sound pressure level,
dB(A)
SPL
2
= desired sound pressure level,
dB(A)
D
1
= known distance, ft. (m)
D
2
= desired distance, ft. (m)
Noise Exposure
As mentioned before, exposure to excessive
noise causes permanent hearing damage and
adversely affects working efficiency and com-
fort. Recognizing this, the U.S. Government cre-
ated the Occupational Safety and Health Act
(OSHA) which established limits for industrial
environments.
When an individuals daily noise exposure, des-
ignated D(8), is composed of two or more peri-
ods of noise at different levels, the combined
effect is calculated by: D(8) = (C1/T1) + (C2/T2)
+ ... + (Cn/Tn). Where Cn is duration of expo-
sure at a specified sound level and Tn is total time
of exposure permitted at a specified sound level
(see Figure 5.7). The noise exposure is accept-
able when D(8) is equal to or less than 1.
PERMISSIBLE NOISE EXPOSURES
Figure 5.7
Duration of Allowable
Daily Exposure Level
(hours) dB(A)
8 90
6 92
4 95
3 97
2 100
1.5 102
1 105
0.5 110
0.25 115
LEBW1414-00 70
71 LEBW1414-00
Engine packages include an engine and some
piece of driven equipment, such as a generator
or a compressor. Guidelines for installation design
are provided, along with information on using
noise data on Caterpillar units from TMI.
Some installations require very little noise abate-
ment (for example, a remote facility far from peo-
ple). Very sensitive installations, on the other
hand, may require extensive noise abatement
measures. Because of the variety of noise crite-
ria that may apply to a given site, it is impossi-
ble to provide a description of abatement
measures meeting all site criteria. It is the respon-
sibility of the facility designer to ensure that the
specific criteria of the site are met.
It is strongly advised that a noise control expert
be involved in the facility design process from
the beginning if the engine unit is to be installed
in a building or area that is noise sensitive. Since
internal combustion engines produce high noise
levels at low frequencies, many traditional noise
control approaches are relatively ineffective.
Every aspect of facility design must therefore
be reviewed with special emphasis on low-fre-
quency attenuation characteristics in order to
meet site criteria.
A typical approach to designing an engine instal-
lation is as follows:
Recognize the special requirements of engine
installations. The first step is to become
aware of the special noise characteristics of
engine installations. Possible sources, paths,
and receivers of large-engine noise are
reviewed.
ENGINE INSTALLATIONS
TMI contains the specific noise values (SPL) for
the specific engine at different ratings. Various
definitions are used and most can be found under
HELP in TMI.
Free Field
Free field means that it is a 100% open area with-
out any kind of sound reflections or other modi-
fying factors.
Sound Pressure Level, SPL,
Mechanical or Exhaust
Sound pressure level is presented under two
index headings: mechanical or exhaust.
Over one thousand data points per engine are
used to prepare this data. There are eight octave
bands and one overall reading taken at four
engine speeds, four loads, three distances, and
four positions around the engine.
Mechanical
Sound pressure level data is obtained by oper-
ating the engine in an open free field and
recording sound pressure levels at a given dis-
tance. The data is recorded with the exhaust
sound source isolated.
Exhaust
Sound pressure level data is recorded with the
mechanical sound source isolated.
Measurements
The instrumentation used are Larsen/Davis and
Hewlett-Packard. All measurements are for with-
out radiator fan arrangements.
Tolerances for the overall and for the octave band
data is shown below:
Overall Plus or minus 2 dB(A)
60 Hz Plus or minus 5 dB(A)
125 Hz Plus or minus 5 dB(A)
250 Hz Plus or minus 4 dB(A)
500 Hz Plus or minus 3 dB(A)
1000 Hz Plus or minus 2 dB(A)
2000 Hz Plus or minus 2 dB(A)
4000 Hz Plus or minus 2 dB(A)
8000 Hz Plus or minus 2 dB(A)
The confidence level of the above data is 99.73%,
which means that only 27 out of each 10,000
engines measured of the same configuration as
listed could fall outside of the nominal values plus
the tolerances shown for the same engine, the
repeatability tolerance is 1 dB(A).
TMI DATA
LEBW1414-00 72
Noise can be either airborne or structure-borne
transmitted. Airborne noise is transmitted through
air. Structure-borne noise is vibration transmit-
ted through a structure; typically supporting the
engine. Noise control methods are different for
the two sources. Noise control refers to appro-
priate technology used for noise attenuation to
acceptable levels.
Noise criteria at various frequencies for typical
areas are shown in Figure 5.8.
Airborne Noise Control
Airborne noise control is a straightforward and
well-developed area compared with structure-
borne noise control. There is abundant infor-
mation available on sound absorption and
transmission properties of common construction
materials, and there are accepted and proven
procedures for applying that information.
However, it is important to recognize that much
of the conventional information and procedures
were developed for higher-frequency noise, and
thus may not be appropriate for engine units,
which produce strong low-frequency acoustic
energy. For example, structural and acoustic
resonances (conditions of minimum dynamic
stiffness) may coincide with pure-tone frequency
components of the engine noise, resulting in very
efficient transfer of energy. Conventional build-
ing acoustics generally is based on statistical
descriptions of noise, and therefore does not
address resonance effects.
For some installations, airborne noise must be
controlled at several receiver points: inside the
engine room; in other rooms in the building; and
outside the building. The simplest way to reduce
airborne noise within a building is through good
building layout. Equipment rooms should be sit-
uated far from sensitive receiver locations in the
building. This takes advantage of the fact that
propagating sound energy diminishes with dis-
tance from the source. In addition, there are two
other methods of controlling airborne noise: with
high transmission loss walls and with absorption.
It is helpful to review some terminology before
discussing the sound transmission characteris-
tics of walls. The transmission loss (TL) of a par-
tition is a measure of the ratio of energy incident
on the wall to that transmitted through the wall,
expressed in dB. The less relative sound trans-
mitted through the wall, the higher the TL of the
wall. TL is a function of frequency.
NOISE CONTROL
NOISE CRITERIA
Figure 5.8
Octave Bands in Cycles Per Second 31.5 63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000
Highly Critical Hospital or
Residential Zone 71 63 44 37 35 34 33 33 33
Night, Residential 73 69 52 44 39 38 38 38 38
Day, Residential 76 71 59 50 44 43 43 43 43
Commercial 81 75 65 58 54 50 47 44 43
Industrial-Commercial 81 77 71 64 60 58 56 55 54
Industrial 87 85 81 75 71 70 68 66 66
Ear Damage Risk 112 108 100 95 94 94 94 94 94
Identify site noise criteria. For example, is the
installation in a remote or a populated area?
Is it within a building sensitive to noise (for
example, a laboratory or a hospital)? What
regulations, standards, or restrictions apply
to noise? The noise criteria form an essen-
tial part of the design goals. Since criteria
vary from site to site, all the criteria that apply
to a particular site cannot be identified. How-
ever, some guidelines for site noise criteria
are provided.
Identify and select appropriate noise abate-
ment measures. Guidelines for attenuation of
noise, both through commercially available
equipment and through facility construction,
are provided.
73 LEBW1414-00
The sound transmission class (STC) of a partition
is a single-number rating calculated from the par-
tition TL. A reference contour is adjusted against
the measured TL data, and the STC rating equals
the value of the adjusted contour at 500 Hz. The
STC rating does not include information in fre-
quency bands below 125 Hz. This rating is use-
ful for designing walls that provide insulation
against the sounds of speech and music; it is
inappropriate for industrial machinery with low-
frequency energy such as engine units. TL data
should be used instead, whenever possible.
In typical partitions, sounds at higher frequen-
cies are attenuated more than sounds at lower
frequencies. The highest transmission loss val-
ues are found in cavity wall (two-leaf) construc-
tions, where the two separate wall layers are well
isolated. The transmission loss values increase
with the masses of the individual leafs, the depth
of the airspace, and the characteristics of any
sound-absorptive material in the airspace.
It should be noted that noise leaks can severely
degrade the performance of a partition. Materials
are tested for their transmission loss character-
istics in a controlled laboratory setting, with all
edges sealed. But in typical construction, sound
leaks may occur at the edges of the wall, at open-
ings for pipes or electrical outlets, and across
shared ceilings (so-called flanking paths). A wall
with a leakage area equal to 0.01% of that of the
wall area cannot exceed STC = 40, no matter
how high the STC of the wall construction.
A partition may include elements with various
transmission loss characteristics, for example,
windows and doors. The transmission loss of the
partition must be calculated taking all elements
into consideration.
To estimate the total airborne noise transmission
loss of a facility, subtract the noise value for each
receiver from the estimated room-average sound
pressure level. If there is more than one space,
the sum of the individual contributions must not
exceed the criterion.
Mechanical Noise
Many techniques for isolating generator set vibra-
tions are applicable to mechanical noise isolation.
Modest noise reductions result from attention to
noise sources, i.e., reducing fan speeds, coating
casting areas, and ducting air flows. But for atten-
uation over 10 dB(A), units must be totally iso-
lated. One effective method utilizes concrete
blocks filled with sand to house the generator set.
In addition, the unit must incorporate vibration iso-
lation techniques. A rough guide comparing var-
ious isolation methods is illustrated in Figure 5.9.
Completely enclosed engines are impractical due
to openings required for pipes, ducts, and venti-
lation. Enclosures with numerous openings rarely
attain over 20 dB(A) attenuation.
ILLUSTRATION OF ISOLATION METHODS
Figure 5.9
Intake Noise
Intake noise attenuation is achieved through
either air cleaner elements or intake silencers.
Noise attenuation due to various air cleaners and
silencers can be supplied by the component
manufacturer.
Original
machine
Vibration
isolators
Baffle
Absorption
material
only
Rigid
sealed
enclosure
Enclosure,
and
isolators
Enclosure,
absorption
and
isolators
Double
walled
enclosure,
absorption
and isolators
Approximate
sound level
reduction
dB(A)
0
2
5
5
15-20
25-30
35-40
60-80
LEBW1414-00 74
Exhaust Noise
Exhaust noise is typically airborne. Exhaust noise
attenuation is commonly achieved with a silencer
typically capable of reducing exhaust noise
15 dB(A) when measured 10 ft. (3.3 m) perpen-
dicular to the exhaust outlet. Locating it near the
engine minimizes transmission of sound to the
exhaust piping. Since the number of cylinders
and engine speeds result in varied exhaust fre-
quencies, specific effects of mufflers must be pre-
dicted by the muffler manufacturer.
Silencers/Mufflers
Silencers are used to attenuate airborne noise in
piping and duct systems. Their effectiveness gen-
erally is frequency sensitive, so it is essential that
they be matched to the frequency content of the
noise. There are two major categories of silencers;
dissipative and reactive. Dissipative silencers use
absorptive, fibrous material to dissipate energy
as heat. They are effective only for high fre-
quency applications (i.e., 500 to 8000 Hz).
Reactive silencers, on the other hand, use a
change in cross-sectional area to reflect noise
back to the source. They are typically used
for low-frequency applications (such as internal
combustion engines), and they may incorporate
perforated tubes to increase broadband per-
formance. The effectiveness of a reactive silencer
depends on its diameter, volume, and overall
design. Multi-chamber silencers provide maximum
sound attenuation with some flow restriction.
Straight-through silencers offer negligible flow
restriction with slightly lower sound attenuation.
Stack silencers are designed to be inserted directly
into a stack and withstand a harsh environment.
Finally, some manufacturers offer combination
heat-recovery silencers for hot gas exhaust.
Most manufacturers offer silencer dynamic
insertion loss (DIL) information in octave bands
from 63 to 8000 Hz, tested in accordance with
ASTME-477. DIL is the difference in sound level
with and without a silencer installed in pipe or
duct with air flow. Some manufacturers rate
silencers as being industrial, commercial, or
residential grade; in such a case, the DIL of
the silencer should still be requested in order to
determine the grade of silencer most suitable for
the installation.
To determine the DIL required by a particular
application, information is required on the actual
(unsilenced) and desired noise levels at the emis-
sion point. The difference between these values
is the silencer DIL. The desired source level is
determined from the criteria governing the site.
When used to attenuate exhaust noise, the
silencer must be sized to accommodate the spec-
ified volume of flow without imposing excessive
backpressure. The flow area for a given back-
pressure can be calculated from the engine
exhaust flow (CFM) and the exhaust tem-
perature. The pressure drop will determine the
required size of the silencer.
Sound Absorption Treatments
Acoustically absorptive surfaces convert acoustic
energy into heat and are generally described by
sound absorption coefficients in octave bands.
Absorptive surfaces may be used to reduce the
reverberant (reflected) sound field within a room.
As mentioned above, reducing the reverberant
field within a room can also reduce the noise
field outside the room. It should be noted that
absorptive materials do not attenuate the direct
sound field.
The absorption of a room may be estimated on
an octave-band basis from the absorption coef-
ficients and the area of each room surface (ceil-
ing, walls, and floor). Alternatively, the room
absorption may be determined through rever-
beration time measurements. Using this infor-
mation and the source sound power data, the
noise reduction that can be obtained by adding
absorption to a room may be determined.
Information on the absorption coefficients of a
material or element may be obtained from the
manufacturer.
A wide variety of commercially available sound
absorbing elements are available for almost every
application. Ceiling treatments include lay-in tiles
or boards (for suspended ceilings), tiles that can
be directly affixed to the ceiling surface, and
suspended absorbers. Acoustic wall panels range
from architectural panels with attractive finishes
to perforated metal panels filled with absorbing
materials. Concrete blocks with slotted faces and
acoustical fill may be used to add sound absorp-
tion to normal concrete block wall construction.
75 LEBW1414-00
Sound absorbing elements are selected on
the basis of their sound absorption coefficient in
the octave bands of interest. In addition, the ele-
ments must survive their environment, be easy to
maintain, and offer acceptable flame spread
properties.
Enclosures and Barriers
Enclosures and barriers block and reflect direct-
radiated sound from a noise source. A barrier
provides a shadow zone of sound attenuation
between the source and the receiver, much as
light casts a shadow behind a wall. Full enclosures
may be used around the source or around the
receiver (e.g., personnel in affected areas). Partial
barriers may be used to protect noise sensitive
areas, by locating receivers in the shadow zone.
The effectiveness of a barrier in blocking noise
transmitted through it is a function of its sound
transmission characteristics. Both enclosures and
barriers should be lined with absorptive material
to be fully effective. In the case of an enclosure
without absorption, the reverberant field inside
the enclosure can greatly increase the interior
sound pressure so that noise outside the enclo-
sure is also increased. In the case of a barrier
without absorption, the noise is simply reflected
elsewhere. Transmission loss and absorption are
the main selection criteria for barriers and enclo-
sures, and each is a function of frequency.
Openings in enclosures should be acoustically
treated, for maximum effectiveness. Also, when
using sound barriers it is important to control
flanking path (sound paths around the barrier).
There are many types of commercially available
enclosures and barriers. Complete enclosures for
specific types of mechanical equipment are avail-
able, some of which include silenced air inlets/exits
and a reactive silencer for exhaust noise. Several
types of modular panels are available that may
include sound absorbing material on one or both
sides of the panel. Outdoor barriers, designed to
resist wind and seismic forces, are also available
to block or reflect noise outdoors.
Along with acoustical performance, practical
issues must be considered in using barriers or
enclosures. Engine enclosures require ventila-
tion to dissipate the heat that builds up within the
enclosure. The enclosure must be accessible for
maintenance and inspection and may require
panic latches on doors. Acoustic materials within
the enclosure must be fire-resistant.
Structure-borne Noise Control
The purpose of a vibration isolation system
(whether simple or compound), or a wave bar-
rier, is to control the transmission of structure-
borne noise fromthe engine unit to the building
structure, either directly or through the ground.
Those measures are intended to control noise
close to the source, where control measures gen-
erally are most effective. However, even with
effective isolation mounting of the engine unit it
still may be necessary to provide additional struc-
ture-borne noise attenuation in the building
construction. The simplest way to attenuate
structure-borne noise along a path (at least con-
ceptually) is to increase the distance between the
source and receiver, since the amplitude of struc-
ture-borne noise decreases with increasing dis-
tance from the vibration source. The attenuation
of noise in concrete-frame buildings has been
found to be about 5 dB per floor for frequencies
up to 1000 Hz. Attenuation for vibrations travel-
ing along continuous concrete floor slabs typi-
cally range from 1.5 to 2 dB/meter. In general,
there is less attenuation along horizontal build-
ing structures.
Another way to attenuate structure-borne noise
is through structural discontinuities. A disconti-
nuity, or impedance mismatch, causes a reflec-
tion of energy back toward the source, thereby
controlling noise transmission. Such discontinu-
ities are usually filled with a resilient material to
prevent debris falling into and shorting out the
gap. Semirigid fiberglass board is normally used
to fill wall gaps, while asphalt-impregnated fiber-
glass board is normally used between on-grade
slabs, foundations, and footings. Many times,
large buildings already incorporate expansion
joints to allow for thermal expansion and con-
traction. These may be used to attenuate struc-
ture-borne noise by placing the source and
receivers on opposite sides of the expansion joint.
It is essential that construction elements, pipes,
or any other rigid connections do not bridge these
discontinuities.
In addition to the source and the path, receiver
locations can also be treated to control structure-
borne noise in some situations. For example,
a floating floor construction may be used to
isolate the receiver (e.g., a person or some piece
of vibration-sensitive equipment) from building
vibration.
LEBW1414-00 76
Foundation
Foundation Design is a very important and often
overlooked aspect of large-engine unit facility
design. Large-engine units, as noted above, emit
relatively strong low frequency energy struc-
ture-borne as well as airborne. If the facility design
does not account for both forms of noise, it is likely
that site noise criteria will not be met. (Foundation
design for installations where noise is not an issue
is discussed in the Mounting section.)
Unfortunately, structure-borne transmission and
radiation is much more difficult to analyze than
airborne noise. Whereas it may be relatively
straightforward to estimate the airborne noise
transmission loss of the building structure and
various types of noise control systems, and
thereby assess the adequacy of a facility design,
reliable quantitative estimates of structure-borne
noise transmission may be extremely difficult or
impossible to obtain with current technology,
particularly at low frequencies. Thus, the usual
approach for noise-sensitive installations is to
over-design for structure-borne noise, to ensure
that it is not a problem. This means taking care
to control every possible structure-borne noise
path. Especially in this area, designers are strongly
urged to consult qualified professional noise con-
trol engineers for noise-sensitive installations.
Engine units usually are mounted on concrete
pad or metal deck foundations, using the spring
mounts between the unit base and the founda-
tion. Some of the smaller engine units come with
isolators between the engine/generator and base
and do not require additional spring mounts for
the unit base. Since the unit base provides suffi-
cient stiffness for alignment and relative deflec-
tion of the engine and the driven equipment,
there is no need to rely on the foundation for addi-
tional stiffness. Thus a foundation that is ade-
quate for supporting the static load of the unit
will be satisfactory for many installations where
noise is not a critical concern.
In installations where noise is a major concern,
attention must be directed toward all elements of
the isolation system and to the structural paths
between the foundation and the rest of the build-
ing structure. Adequate isolation often can be
achieved with a simple system, but some instal-
lations may require a compound isolation system.
77 LEBW1414-00
The purpose of the governor is to control the
diesel engine speed by regulating the amount of
fuel injected.
Diesel engines that do not have to meet emis-
sions standards typically utilize a hydra-mechan-
ical (or hydraulic) governor and mechanically
actuated unit fuel injection systems. This gover-
nor regulates speed by controlling the position of
the fuel control rack. The speed control lever on
the governor is positioned by the operator using
some type of control lever, cable, or remote air
actuator. Devices such as air-fuel ratio controls,
shutdown solenoids, and manual shutoffs also
operate on the governor.
Most diesel engines that meet emissions stan-
dards utilize an electronic governoring and con-
trol system. The Electronic Control Module (ECM)
is engine mounted and used in conjunction with
unit fuel injectors that are electronically controlled.
This governor regulates speed by controlling the
activation of the electronic solenoid on the unit
fuel injector. Speed setting can be remotely set
with various electrical devices. Functions such
as air-fuel ratio, shutdown function, and altitude
sensing are electronically controlled in the ECM.
See the section on Electronic Governing and
Control Systemfor further information.
Speed Droop Governors
If the speed of an engine drops from no load to full
load operation, the governor is said to have speed
droop. Speed droop is expressed as a percentage
of full load speed. For example, a 10% speed
droop governor with a full load speed of 1200 RPM
would have a no load speed of 1320 RPM.
SPEED DROOP GOVERNOR
Figure 6.1
Speed droop hydra-mechanical governors avail-
able on Caterpillar Engines are not all the same
in construction, but their speed droop character-
istics are the same. They are generally available
in approximately 3% or 8% versions, Figure 6.1.
Load sharing between engines
Mechanical rigs
Engines on a direct drive mechanical compound
must have load sharing, i.e., they must have speed
droop. Without droop, it is not possible to bal-
ance the load between engines, with the result that
one engine will tend towards full fuel and the other
engine will tend towards fuel off. This is true even
for ECM controlled engines which have an
adjustable feature called Top Engine Limit, TEL.
TEL equipped engines provide speed droop
under certain operating conditions, but not under
the range of conditions encountered on direct
drive mechanical compounds.
Engines on a mechanical compound, but with
each engine equipped with a torque converter, can
operate successfully with Zero speed droop in the
governor. The slip in the torque converter allows
the load to balance between engines, assuming
the engine speed settings are close to each other.
SHUTOFF
SHAFT
LOCATION FOR
SHUTOFF
SOLENOID
AIR-FUEL
RATIO
CONTROL
THROTTLE
SHAFT
GOVERNORS
Load sharing between engines
Generator sets
Lite plants on mechanical rigs are typically 3%
speed droop. They can be 0% speed droop if they
are not operated in parallel, and equipped with
optional hydraulic or electric governors.
Generator sets for SCR drill rigs require 0% (or
isochronous) operation. This is accomplished
with a load sharing isochronous electric gover-
nor. These are typically referred to as Wood-
ward 2301A load sharing governors or
equivalents. The newer electronic controlled
engines have a load sharing module available,
but this module is sensitive to the extreme elec-
trical noise encountered on SCR drill rigs, plus it
cannot be used to parallel with older engines that
are controlled with master/slave type load shar-
ing control systems. For 3500B engines for SCR
rig service, Caterpillar therefore recommends the
use of the direct fuel control attachment. This
allows the engine to be controlled with the 2301A
load sharing governor or equivalent.
Hydra-mechanical
Speed Droop Governor
Engines equipped with speed droop governors
can be shut down by rotating the hand throttle
shaft beyond a detent into a fuel off position. A
manual shutoff shaft and provisions for mount-
ing an optional DC shutoff solenoid are available
on most Cat Engines.
The manual shutoff shaft can have a lever
installed on it to provide a mechanical or pneu-
matic method of stopping the engine whereas
the solenoid option provides for remote electric
shut down of the engine.
When operated at less than rated full load speed,
the governor speed droop percentage increases
because of the reduced flyweight force. Governor
springs should be changed to provide proper
droop. If not changed, engine power, response,
and load sharing will be reduced.
Air-fuel ratio controls are available as standard
or optional equipment for speed droop gover-
nors. This control minimizes smoke when accel-
erating or applying load to engine. They are
recommended for workover, service rigs, and
drawworks applications.
Air actuator governor controls are available for
many engines. Engine shutdown cannot be
accomplished through the air actuator. The air
actuators operate between 10 psi to 60 psi
(69 kPa to 414 kPa), Figure 6.2.
The air line to the drillers console must be prop-
erly sized for best hoisting response. Too small
or too large reduces response rate.
Customer supplied shutoff and vent valve are rec-
ommended as it is an aid during engine servicing.
Figure 6.2
Governor Force and Motion Data
The TMI contains information on (1) arc of
motion and (2) force level required to operate
the governor speed control on each engine
model. This allows the designer to select or
design an appropriate cable control, air control or
some lever-link arrangement if a factory supplied
unit is not available.
Design for Linkage Over-Travel
Non-factory supplied control mechanisms must
be designed with a stop which prevents over-
loading the governor throttle lever when it
reaches its limit of travel. But this causes a prob-
lem when the stop on the control linkage is
reached before full speed position of governor
lever is reached. This causes power complaints
because the engine is prevented from operating
at rated power, because the linkage did not allow
the engine to develop rated speed.
The best approach is to use a spring-loaded
breakover governor throttle lever which accepts
motion of the control linkage beyond the travel of
the governor throttle shaft. It is easy to adjust cor-
rectly and visually check that the governor speed
control lever will travel its full range.
Engine Shutdown Control
Engine shutdown is done by shutting off the fuel
supply in some manner. Usually this is done with
a direct mechanical connection which pulls the
rack to shutoff, or with a solenoid which does the
To DRILLERS
CONSOLE
SHUTOFF AND
VENT VALVE
AIR
ACTUATOR
LEBW1414-00 78
79 LEBW1414-00
same thing. Safety shutoffs are discussed more
completely in another chapter.
The 3300 and 3400 hydra-mechanical gover-
nors are available with an attachment 24V DC
speed trim adjusting motor. This feature is often
desirable on generator set service, Figure 6.3.
Figure 6.3
SHUTOFF
SOLENOID
MECHANICAL
SHUTOFF LEVER
GOVERNOR
CONTROL MOTOR
HANDLE FOR MODE
SELECTION AND
MANUAL CONTROL
LINKAGE
Isochronous Governors
Isochronous governors are usually referred to as
constant speed or 0% speed droop. Their no-
load and full-load speeds are the same.
The isochronous governors used by Caterpillar are
the Woodward PSG and 3161. These governors
are serviced by Caterpillar, Figures 6.4 and 6.5.
Although these governors are isochronous, they
can be adjusted to provide 3% speed droop,
(8% on 3161). The speed droop adjustment is
external on the PSG and internal on the 3161.
PSG GOVERNOR
Figure 6.4
The PSG governor, which operates on engine oil,
is available for smaller generator set engines and
is normally supplied with an electric speed
changing motor.
The 3161 is supplied on the 3508, 3512, and
3516 for mechanical rig service. It has features
similar to the Caterpillar speed droop governors.
The 3161 is supplied with a 10 to 60 psi (69 to
414 kPa) air actuator for drill rig service.
A shutoff and vent air valve should be added into
the governor air signal line near the engine,
Figure 6.2. This allows a serviceman to hold the
engine at low speed, if desired.
3161 GOVERNOR
Figure 6.5
Additional Isochronous Governor Features
Engines equipped with isochronous governors
cannot be shut down by use of the governor con-
trol. These engines contain a manual shutoff pro-
vision. PSG-equipped diesel engines have a
hand-operated shutoff lever mounted next to the
governor. Diesel engines equipped with the 3161
governors have a hand-operated shutoff plunger
lever located near the governor.
2301A Standby Governor
For standby generator sets, a 2301A Governor is
standard on most engines. The control box does
not allow parallel operation, Figure 6.6. This
governor provides faster response than speed
droop governors. An EG3P or EG6PC actuator
is mounted on the engine, Figure 6.7.
NONPARALLEL CONTROL (STANDBY)
Figure 6.6
Electric Load Sharing Governors
A Woodward 2301A electric load-sharing gover-
nor system is available on most Caterpillar
Engines, Figure 6.9, including 3500B SCR rig
units with the direct fuel control feature added.
It is isochronous and provides automatic and
proportional load division between paralleled AC
generators and still maintain isochronous speed.
An EG3P or EG6PC actuator is mounted on the
engine, Figure 6.6. They require a 0 to 200 mA
input signal. The 3500B with direct fuel control
also requires this same 0 to 200 mA input signal,
but includes a coil that simulates the current input
requirements of the EG3P or EG6PC actuator.
The load sharing 2301A is recommended for
SCR drives. Isochronous hydraulic governors
cannot maintain proper load division during the
large load swings when tripping (operating the
drawworks).
Speed adjustment from the face of the switchgear
can be provided by using a sealed 50 ohm rheo-
stat. Engine shutdown from the switchgear can
be accomplished by connecting a pushbutton
across the min-fuel terminals of the governor,
except on 3500B series. A manual shutoff is also
provided at the engine.
SCR control systems, provided by many SCR
system suppliers, contain a load-sharing gover-
nor integral with the switchgear circuitry and is
referred to as a master/slave control system.
Though these systems provide essentially the
same features as the 2301A Governor, Caterpillar
is not responsible for aspects of these systems.
AIR-FUEL
RATIO
CONTROL
PNEUMATIC
SPEED
CONTROL
THROTTLE
SHAFT
LEBW1414-00 80
81 LEBW1414-00
Duplex mud pumps cause a cyclic load fluctua-
tion occurring at the pump stroke speed. This
cyclic load will cause a cyclic reading on the fre-
quency meter plus a cyclic motion of the engine
fuel control.
EG3P or EG6PC ACTUATOR
Figure 6.7
2301A Governor Control Unit
Installation/Environment
Mounting
Mount control unit at a location of minimum
vibration with four 1/4-20 bolts (6.4 mm) (length
as required) through the 5/16 in. (7.9 mm)
mounting holes in the plate assembly.
For ease of adjustment, control unit should be
mounted so switchgear electrical indicating
instruments are readable when making governor
adjustments.
For stable speed control, control unit ambient
temperature must remain constant and be within
a 60F to +150F range (50C to +65C). As
a general rule, mount the voltage regulator higher
than the governor to minimize temperature
buildup within the switchgear cubicle.
Do not expose control unit to intense AC mag-
netic fields like electrical buses or circuit break-
ers. Speed droop or actuator instability can occur
due to the erroneous signals picked up. A solid
metallic barrier should be used between the gov-
ernor compartment and circuit breaker and/or
bus area.
WIRING DIAGRAM STANDBY CONTROL
Figure 6.8
NOTE A: Lube oil idle speed switch maintains
low idle speed until oil pressure
closes switch. Another switch may be
added in series for low speed control
at the switchgear.
NOTE B: Approximately 1% speed change per
20 ohms. 250 ohms maximum remote
speed settling potentiometer.
NOTE C: 20K droop potentiometer. Leave open
if not used.
NOTE D: 2 second acceleration time per
50 MFD. Leave open if not used.
NOTE E: Shielded wires should be twisted
pairs.
NOTE F: Ground battery negative to switch-
gear frame and neutral bus.
NOTE G: Run shielded cable from component
to component. Do not run through ter-
minal points. Ground shielded cable
at control box only.
NOTE H: Installed on engine by Caterpillar Inc.
NOTE J: Speed range of magnetic pickup
1800-5400 hz.
NOTE K: All external wiring to be furnished
by customer.
LEBW1414-00 82
Wiring
Since the 2301A system is designed to be sen-
sitive to small signal changes, certain input lines
must be shielded from picking up stray signals
from adjacent equipment. Shield all lines indi-
cated in the wiring diagram, Figures 6.8 and
6.10, and do not run shielded lines in the same
conduit with heavy current carrying cables.
As Figure 6.10 indicates, the paralleling lines
should be closed through contacts of an auxiliary
relay. The recommended contacts are sealed,
mercury wetted, dry reed or equivalent.
Electrical noise can be picked up if the parallel-
ing lines go direct to the circuit breaker. Also, cir-
cuit breaker auxiliary contacts sometimes provide
poor connections to the extremely small mV/mA
signals that flow through paralleling lines.
To minimize electrical interference, the required
shielded cable must be run from component to
component, not through terminal points. All
shields must be grounded only at the control box
because it is a ready reference point. Shielded
cable must not have an outside metal sheath
which could cause a multiple ground. The bat-
tery negative and shielding of various cables must
connect to a common point to provide effective
grounding. See the section labeled Electrolytic
and Galvanic Action Protection for further infor-
mation when in a marine environment.
As with any electrical component, the control unit
must be mounted in a dust-free environment.
Wiring to governor components should be
16 gauge or larger stranded wire.
A control battery and battery charger are required
for the governor system. The control battery is
used only during undervoltage or dead bus con-
ditions. Normally, the battery charger float charges
the battery and operates the governors. Recom-
mended system contains one battery set and two
battery chargers. Battery chargers should be
fused separately and on the emergency genera-
tor circuit, if so equipped. If battery maintenance
presents a problem, a nickel cadmium battery
should be used. A nickel cadmium battery rat-
ing equivalent to 2 ampere-hours (7200Coulomb)
per engine is sufficient for four hours running
without either battery charger operating. With
lead-acid batteries, a capacity of 10 ampere-
hours (36 000 Coulomb) per engine is required.
Condition of control batteries should be periodi-
cally checked. Lead-acid batteries should be
changed on a regular schedule.
It may be desirable to have a low voltage alarm
set at 22V on a 24V system.
On land rigs, the battery should be disconnected
during rig moves to prevent discharge.
A battery charger or Power Pak by itself is not
recommended. The governor is unstable during
low voltage transients. Also during a dead bus
condition, engines would shut down due to no
governor power input.
If electric starting is used on standby units, that
standby battery can be used to operate that gov-
ernor; however, no other engine governor or
starter can be connected to it. The voltage dip
during cranking will cause instability on any 2301A
equipped engines that are running. If the standby
generator will run in parallel with main generat-
ing units, cranking battery must be separate from
control battery.
PARALLEL CONTROL (LOADSHARE)
Figure 6.9
2301A WIRING DIAGRAM LOAD SHARING CONTROL
Figure 6.10
NOTE A:
All external wiring, contacts and potentiome-
ters to be furnished by customer.
NOTE B:
Run shielded cable from component to com-
ponent, not through terminal points. Ground
shielded cable at control end only.
NOTE C:
Governor paralleling contacts (terminals 10
and 11) are closed simultaneously with gen-
erator circuit breaker by an auxiliary circuit
breaker contacts directly, but through a relay
solenoid.
NOTE D:
Ground battery negative to switchgear frame
and neutral bus.
NOTE E:
Load sensor input voltage (terminals 1
through 3) may be either 120 or 208 volt AC by
simple reconnection of load sensor trans-
formers. (Reconnection Terminal Board). All
units shipped for 208-volt AC connection.
NOTE F:
On 3500B with Direct Fuel Control,this con-
nects to terminals 01 (+) and 02 () of the 40
pin connector at the bottom of the Engine
Instrument Panel.
NOTE G:
Ramp switch connected to terminals 14 and
15 is engine-mounted oil pressure switch
which maintains low idle speed until oil pres-
sure closes switch. Another manual switch
may be added (in series) for low speed con-
trol at switchgear.
NOTE H:
Optional shutdown switch(es) may be con-
nected to terminals 22 and 23 for remote shut-
down at drillers console, at switchgear, etc.
NOTE I:
Governor may be operated in parallel, without
carrying load if required, by wiring load shar-
ing control switch as shown (switch shown in
non-load sharing position).
NOTE J:
A switch may be connected and labeled as:
Position Connection
1. STOP Shutdown Switch
Note H
2. LOW SPEED Ramp Switch
Note G
3. FULL SPEED Load Share Switch
Note I
4. LOAD SHARE Load Share Switch
Note I
83 LEBW1414-00
Miscellaneous
A load-sharing control switch can be used where
it is desired to remove load from the engine
before opening the generator circuit breaker. This
reduces wear on the circuit breaker and mini-
mizes transient speed changes. In full speed posi-
tion, engine load is reduced to less than 10%. See
Note I, Figure 6.10.
Electronic Governing and
Control System
The Electronic Control Module (ECM) is a full
range electronic governor. It is a computer and
has full authority over engine fuel delivery.
Injection timing is varied as a function of operat-
ing conditions to optimize engine performance
for emissions, fuel consumption, and ease of
operation. The electronic system also includes
mechanical or hydraulic actuated electronically
controlled unit fuel injections (MEUI or HEUI),
the wiring harness, switches, and sensors. The
personality module is the software for the ECM.
The ECM is engine mounted and cooled with
diesel fuel. See Figure 6.11.
Figure 6.11
The ECM monitors many engine parameters, and
generates diagnostic codes, as required. This
ECM data becomes the source for the data dis-
played on the engine instrument panel. Electronic
controlled engines have a self-diagnostic capa-
bility. In addition to monitoring the engine with
various sensors and transducers, the ECM detects
unintentional grounds, shorts, and open circuits,
thereby saving time during diagnosis of engine
problems. The engines electronics stores records
of past performance. This will allow troubleshoot-
ers to see if operation contributed to problems.
The ECM also provides cold start modifications
to injection timing. This provides reduced smoke
and reduced engine warm-up time.
Installation wiring diagrams and programming
features vary somewhat between the various
engine models. For specific and complete infor-
mation, consult the proper Installation guide.
These presently are:
SENR1025-03, for 3176C, 3196, 3406E,
3456, 3408E & 3412E
LEMB7301-00 for 3500B series engines.
Alarm, Derate, Shutoff Options
The ECM monitors functions such as exhaust
temperature, air cleaner restriction, water tem-
peratures, and crankcase pressure continuously.
If important parameters enter into a dangerous
condition, the engine can protectively respond in
various ways.
Alarm mode provides alarm only for monitored
engine parameters. Derate mode will alter engine
RPM or hp when specific operating parameters
are exceeded. Shutdown mode will shut down the
engine when specific operating parameters are
exceeded. For example, it may derate itself sev-
eral percent every few seconds/minutes to pro-
tect itself from unplanned down time. Consult the
specific Installation Guide for specific details.
With proper communication links and software,
real time or historical data can be accessed and
remotely displayed or analyzed.
Programming Parameters
Many programmable parameters affect engine
operation. Certain parameters affecting engine
operation may be changed with an Electronic
Service Tool, (ET). Some parameters may affect
engine operation in ways an operator may not
expect. Parameters are stored in the ECM and
may be protected from unauthorized changes by
passwords. Certain parameters are accessible
only with Factory Passwords. Other parameters
are accessible with Customer Passwords. Refer to
the specific Installation Guide for details.
ECM
LEBW1414-00 84
Auxiliary switch requirements
All non-Caterpillar provided switches connected
to the electronic control system must be two wire
design and externally connected to the battery
negative. Internally grounded or case grounded
switches must not be used.
Applied voltage to switches by the ECM will nor-
mally not exceed 12 VDC. Switch contact plating
should not corrode or oxidize. Gold plated switch
contacts are recommended. Normal current draw
through the switches by the ECM will not exceed
5.0 mA.
Pin Connector Requirements
All connections to the electrical control system
are through pin type connectors. Field added
wiring should be tested with a 45 N (10 lb) pull
test on each pin/wire. This test ensures the wire
was properly crimped in the pin, and the pin
properly inserted into the connector. (Do not sol-
der wiring connections.)
All unused connector socked slots must be sealed.
Wiring Harness Routing
All wiring connections have connector seals to
keep out water and other contaminants. Wiring
added should not have short radius bends or ten-
sion on the connectors. Routing of all harnesses
should ensure that connector seals are not stressed
because the harness wiring curvature is too close
to the connector. See Figure 6.12.
Figure 6.12
Battery Circuit Requirements
and Considerations
Proper grounding for the engine electrical sys-
tems is necessary for proper performance and
reliability. Improper grounding results in unreli-
able electrical circuit paths. That may damage
main bearings, crankshaft bearing journal sur-
faces, and aluminum components. Stray electri-
cal currents can also cause electrical noise which
degrades control and system performance.
These problems are often very difficult to diag-
nose and repair.
The customer must provide an AWG 4 (or larger)
ground wire from the engine Electronics Ground
Stud to the battery negative. All ground paths
must be capable of carrying any conceivable
fault currents. An AWG 4 (or larger) wire is rec-
ommended to handle alternator currents. The
alternator and other electrical loads should be
grounded at the same point (starting motor neg-
ative or battery negative) to avoid stray electri-
cal currents. Grounding through frame members
is not recommended.
Use of an alternator or battery charger without a
battery is not recommended as a power source
for electronic engines. The battery provides noise
suppression in addition to starting capability for
the engine.
Certain smaller engines can operate on 12 VDC
systems. Larger engines require 24 VDC. The
acceptable voltage range is 20 to 28 VDC. Lower
voltage will first cause the loss of instrumenta-
tion but the engine may keep operating with the
voltage as low as the 10 VDC. This is not rec-
ommended for normal operation.
A temporary loss of power (as in one or two milli-
seconds when switching) will not affect engine
operation. A loss of DC power for a longer period
(over 0.25 second) will cause the engine to stop
running, depending upon injection duration and
other loads on the ECM.
3500B engines require a power source of 24 VDC
10 Ampere continuous, 20 Ampere intermittent,
clean electrical power source.
Welding on an Electronic Engine
Before welding near an electronic engine, the fol-
lowing precautions should be observed:
Turn the Engine Control Switch to the OFF
position.
HARNESS CORRECTLY
ROUTED
WIRE EXITING STRAIGHT OUT
OF CONNECTOR CORRECTLY
WIRE EXITING PULLED
UP ON CONNECTOR
INCORRECTLY
HARNESS PULLED TOWARD CENTER
TOO CLOSE TO CONNECTOR
HARNESS PULLED UP
TOO CLOSE TO CONNECTOR
INCORRECT
INSTALLATION
CORRECT
INSTALLATION
85 LEBW1414-00
LEBW1414-00 86
Disconnect the NEGATIVE battery cable at
the battery. If a battery disconnect switch is
provided, open the switch.
Disconnect the ECM harness connectors.
Connect the welder ground cable directly to
the member being welded. Place the ground
cable clamp as close as possible to the weld
to reduce the possibility of weld current dam-
age to bearings, hydraulic components, elec-
trical components and ground straps. Do not
use electrical components, the ECM, or
Electronics Ground Stud for grounding of the
welder.
Protect wiring from welding debris or splatter.
Use standard welding techniques to weld the
materials together.
Suppression of Voltage Transients
Caterpillar recommends transient suppression at
the source of the transient. Inductive devices such
as relays and solenoids can generate voltage
transients on control system inputs, and degrade
electronic control system performance. Field
installed relays and solenoids should include
built-in transient suppression diodes where pos-
sible. See Figure 6.13.
Figure 6.13
Throttle Position Sensor
Non-generator Sets
The Throttle Position Sensor (TPS) eliminates the
mechanical throttle and governor linkages. The
TPS utilizes operator lever movement and sends
an electrical speed signal to the engine Electronic
Control Module (ECM). The TPS signal, along
with the speed/timing signal is processed by the
ECM to control engine speed.
The TPS signal is a Pulse Width Modulated (PWM)
signal. See Figure 6.14. Note that 0 signal does
not stop the engine, but lets engine operate at a
pre-programmed low speed. The TPS can be fit-
ted with a pneumatic operator for control.
SPEED CONTROL WITH PWM INPUT
Figure 6.14
Direct Fuel Control 3500B Gen Sets
Control of 3500B gen sets is recommended with
an optional 0-200 mA engine governor conver-
sion. This provides for control by the 2301A type
load sharing control. It allows for parallel opera-
tion with non-3500B gen sets, including opera-
tion in systems with master-slave control
schemes. Also see Note F in Figure 6.10.
The Direct Fuel Control disables the governor
system in the ECM. Low idle and overspeed func-
tions are retained. 0 mA control returns the engine
to the ECM set low idle, not to engine stop.
Shutdown can be done at the engine or by wiring
in a remote routine stop switch.
Data Connections
The ECM provides output pins that are dedicated
to the communications data link. The data link is
available to share data between the ECM, elec-
tronic service tools, and electronic display mod-
ules. See the specific Installation Guide for details.
Generator Set Performance
A governor should provide a stable speed control
when the load remains constant, Figure 6.15.
This is unrelated to any particular speed, but is
merely a tolerance on speed at any steady load.
Caterpillar governors have a steady-state speed
tolerance of 0.33%, while Woodward governors
offer 0.25%.
Transient speeds are temporary excursions (dips
or overshoots) from steady-state speeds caused
by sudden imposition or detraction of load.
0 5 10 90 95 100
100%
(Programmed
High Idle)
0%
(Programmed
Low Idle)
Throttle
Position %
5% Deadband Insures engine will reach Low and High Idle
Engine drops to Low Idle and a fault is logged
THROTTLE POSITION VS. PWM INPUT
POWER POWER
87 LEBW1414-00
Wherever a load is applied to or removed from a
generator set, the engine speed rpm, voltage and
frequency are temporarily changed from its
steady-state condition. This temporary change
is called transient response. When a significant
load is applied, the engine speed temporarily
reduces (generally referred to as frequency or
voltage dip) and then returns to its steady-state
condition. The degree of this dip depends on the
amount of active power (kW) and reactive power
(kVAR) changes based upon total capacity and
dynamic characteristics of the generator set. On
removal of load, the engine speed increases
momentarily (generally referred to as overshoot),
then returns to its steady-state condition. The
time required for the generator set to return to its
normal steady-state speed is called recovery time.
This is illustrated graphically in Figure 6.15.
Generator sets on offshore rigs have to meet the
transient response requirements of the various
marine classification societies. These require-
ments are demonstrated on a resistive load bank
with various step load changes.
In addition, jackup drill rigs can impose large AC
motor block loads with their leg jacking systems.
(See the section on motor starting.) Typically,
other AC motors on land or offshore rigs do not
present significant transient response challenges
due to the size of these motors in comparison to
the engine and generator capacity.
The DC motors, powered through the SCR con-
trol system, are considered to be soft-start. The
severest transient DC load (but of short duration)
on a drill rig is applied by the drawworks when lift-
ing empty blocks.
Motor Starting
The gen sets ability to start large AC motors
without large frequency or voltage dips depends
on the entire system. System factors include:
Available engine power
Capacity of the generator
Energy stored in the rotating inertia of the
gen set
Acceleration of the motor and its load (motor
characteristics).
A properly sized generator will support the high
starting kVA (skVA) required and sustain ade-
quate output voltage for the motor so it can pro-
duce the needed torque to accelerate its load to
rated speed.
After the initial voltage dip, it is important that
the generator restore voltage to at least 90% to
develop adequate torque to accelerate its load to
rated speed. Full voltage starting causes the
largest voltage dip.
Voltage Regulators
The voltage regulator is a key component in
determining the amount of voltage/frequency
deviation and recovery time on the AC motor
portion of the load, such as when jacking up a
jackup drill rig or when performing load bank
Figure 6.15
acceptance testing. There are several different
types of regulators:
Constant voltage
Volts/Hertz (Caterpillar standard)
2 Volts/Hertz
Digital Voltage Regulator (adjustable Volts/
Hertz)
A constant voltage regulator attempts to maintain
rated voltage as the load is applied. Since the
generator is maintaining rated voltage, even
though the speed has reduced, it is maintaining
the applied AC load (ekW). This results in an
increased RPM drop during large AC load changes.
Constant voltage regulators are the most com-
mon regulation system on drill rigs. Some offshore
rigs have begun to use Volts/Hertz (Volts-per-
Hertz) regulation systems to improve stability
and transient response during certain non-drilling
functions. The voltage temporarily reduces when
the speed drops during the starting of large AC
motors. This voltage reduction improves the
overall voltage and frequency recovery time.
Digital Voltage Regulators are programmable to
compensate for changes in the inertia of the
engine generator and local load requirements. It
will provide constant voltage control, with
Volts/Hertz operation when under frequency.
LEBW1414-00 88
89 LEBW1414-00
General Information
A No. 2 diesel fuel, when mixed with the proper
amount of air and compressed to the ignition tem-
perature, will produce in excess of 19,500 Btu/lb
of heat energy (45,5000 kJ/kg).
As a general rule, 38% of this energy will be used
to produce useful work, 30% will be discharged
into the exhaust system, 27% will be rejected into
the engine cooling system, and 5% is radiated to
the environment.
The cooling system has a direct effect on the
operation and service life of the engine. If the
cooling system is not correctly sized, does not
have good maintenance, or is not operated cor-
rectly, the engine can overheat or overcool. This
can shorten the engine service life and/or result
in poor engine performance.
Caterpillar oilfield Engines are equipped with the
basic components required for a closed circuit
cooling system. A closed system recirculates the
coolant. The components are all engine mounted
with the exception of the water system heat
exchanger or radiator. These two items may be
mounted on the same oilfield base. DO NOT use
sea water or impure untreated water in the jacket
system as it causes corrosion.
Caterpillar oilfield Engines are designed to oper-
ate with a jacket water temperature differential
of approximately 18F (10C) measured across
the engine under full load. Coolant entering the
block should be a minimum of 165F (74C).
Coolant will exit at 175 to 210F (79 to 99C),
depending on inlet temperature, load, temper-
ature regulator, and pressure. Cooling system
pressure determines maximum allowable tem-
perature. 200F (94C) is the maximum for non-
pressurized systems, and 210F (99C) is the
maximum for pressurized systems.
Jacket water temperatures are maintained high
enough by water temperature regulators to pro-
vide efficient engine operation. Light load oper-
ation in cold weather, particularly where engines
are not protected from wind, may result in low
engine operating temperatures. Extended oper-
ation under these conditions may cause engine
damage.
Maximum jacket water temperature limits are
controlled by size of radiators or heat exchangers.
Cooling System Functions
Figure 7.2 shows the basic components of com-
mon liquid cooled engine cooling systems. These
basic components are: coolant, the water pump,
the engine oil cooler, coolant temperature regu-
lators, the fan and the radiator. In operation, the
water pump pushes coolant through the engine
oil cooler and into the cylinder block. The coolant
then flows through the cylinder block and into
the cylinder head(s) where it flows to the hot
areas of the cylinder head(s). Additional com-
ponents that will transfer heat to the coolant are
COOLING SYSTEMS
Figure 7.1
AFTERCOOLER WATER OUTLET
RADIATOR
EXPANSION TANK
JACKET WATER OUTLET
STACKED CORE
AFTERCOOLER
CIRCUIT
LEBW1414-00 90
aftercoolers, water cooled exhaust manifolds,
water cooled turbocharger shields and housing
and torque converter oil coolers. After flowing
through the cylinder head(s), the coolant goes
into the coolant temperature regulator housing.
Figure 7.2
When the engine is cold, the temperature regu-
lators prevent the flow of coolant to the radiator
and direct the coolant back to the water pump
inlet. As the temperature of the coolant becomes
warmer, the temperature regulators begin to open
and permit some flow of coolant to the radiator
or heat exchanger.
The regulator opens to maintain the correct
engine temperature. The amount that the regu-
lator opens and the percent of coolant flow to the
radiator depends on the load on the engine and
the outside air temperature.
Caterpillar provides a radiator or heat exchanger
and expansion tank system designed to perform
satisfactorily with each engine manufactured and
to be compatible with various power levels
selected. Modifications to the cooling packages
are not acceptable without approval because of
possible disturbance to coolant flow paths.
See Figures 7.1 and 7.3 for typical external com-
ponents such as heat exchangers and expansion
tanks.
The expansion tank and heat exchanger perform
the same function as the radiator. A radiator fan
provides air flow through the cooling fins of the
radiator to transfer coolant heat to the air. An
external water supply is used to accomplish heat
transfer when using a heat exchanger.
Water Temperature Regulators
The thermostat (regulator) and bypass line main-
tain proper operating temperature. The regula-
tor directs all or part of the water discharged from
the engine jacket to the cooler. The bypassed
coolant is sent to the expansion tank on heat
exchanger cooled engines or to the water pump
inlet on radiator cooled engines where it mixes
with cooled water before returning to the engine
jacket. Thermostats with higher operating tem-
peratures are available for field installation. See
the section on Lubrication Requirements for High
Sulfur Fuels. Caterpillar Engines equipped for
radiator cooling have temperature regulators in
a controlled outlet configuration, Figure 7.4.
Most Caterpillar Engines equipped for expansion
tank/heat exchanger cooling have the same tem-
perature regulators but in a controlled inlet con-
figuration, Figure 7.5. This does cause the heat
exchanger to be pressurized to the higher JW
water pump pressure.
Operating temperature of the jacket water on
inlet-controlled systems will be higher than that
for the outlet-controlled system by the amount
of the temperature rise across the engine.
The jacket water pump has sufficient capacity to
maintain proper flow through the engine while
circulating water through a heat exchanging cir-
cuit with moderate line resistance. An increase
in pipe diameter is required when external resist-
ance reduces water flow below the required min-
imum. Refer to TMI or Engine Performance book.
Aftercooler Designs
The engine aftercooler reduces the temperature
of the charge air provided by the turbocharger.
This results in cooler combustion and exhaust
temperatures plus reduced engine emissions.
Jacket Water Aftercooling (JWAC)
Figures 7.2 and 7.4 illustrate this configuration.
Aftercooler water is the engine jacket coolant. The
aftercooler temperature will be up to 210F (99C).
Separate Circuit Aftercooling (SCAC)
In this configuration, the aftercooler water source
is a separate, cooler source of treated coolant.
This configuration is typically designed for an
aftercooler inlet coolant temperature of 140F
(60C). 140F (60C) is a practical limit for most
91 LEBW1414-00
radiator cooled applications and provides emis-
sion compliance for many engines. This is utilized
on the 3500B series of engines. See Figure 7.1.
In order to ensure emissions compliance in use,
optional or customer supplied radiators must be
capable of rejecting enough heat to allow proper
operation at worst case site conditions and also
must supply 140F (60C) SCAC cooling water
to the aftercooler inlet, with a SCAC flow rate of
at least 140 gpm (530 L/m) with an ambient tem-
perature of 86F (30C) and at site conditions
(including altitude considerations).
Figure 7.6 shows a SCAC radiator with side-by-
side cooling sections. This radiator configuration
can work with both suction or blower fan config-
urations. On larger engines, radiator width may
become unacceptably large.
RH VIEW LH VIEW
Figure 7.3
RADIATOR COOLING CONTROLLED OUTLET THERMOSTATS
Figure 7.4
AC HEAT
EXCHANGER
AFTERCOOLER
JW TEMPERATURE
REGULATOR
AC TEMPERATURE REGULATOR
AC WATER PUMP
JW PUMP
EXPANSION TANK
JW HEATER
JW HEAT
EXCHANGER
LEBW1414-00 92
Figures 7.1 and 7.7 show an SCAC radiator with
stacked core cooling sections. This radiator con-
figuration will only work with a blower fan con-
figuration.
SCAC cooling systems include an aftercooler ther-
mostat to prevent too cold of coolant in the after-
cooler. Cold aftercooler water, at high engine loads,
can cause excessive engine cylinder pressure.
See Figure 7.8.
Figures 7.3 and 7.5 show the SCAC system used
with heat exchanger cooling for offshore drilling
power modules. Dual heat exchanger circuits
includes expansion tanks to provide venting and
filling requirements.
HEAT EXCHANGER COOLING CONTROLLED INLET THERMOSTATS
Figure 7.5
RADIATOR COOLING SIDE-BY-SIDE SCAC COOLING SECTIONS
Figure 7.6
PIPING
PART OF ENGINE
SUPPLIED BY PACKAGER
OR RADIATOR SUPPLIER
ENGINE DRIVEN
JW PUMP
BYPASS
LINE
RETURN
OUTLET
JW THERMOSTAT
AC TEMPERATURE REGULATOR
R
A
D
I
A
T
O
R
AC JW
AC PUMP
93 LEBW1414-00
Air-to-Air Aftercooling (ATAAC)
In this configuration, the aftercooler core is relo-
cated from the engine to the radiator. Cooling
with the ambient air reduces charge air temper-
ature. Engines subject to more stringent emis-
sions requirements use the ATAAC aftercooler
configuration. This is utilized on most of the
smaller Caterpillar electronic controlled engines.
Air piping routes turbocharger outlet air to the
ATAAC section of the radiator and back to the
engine inlet manifold.
If the ATAAC radiator is locally made, the charge
air section must be designed to deliver air to the
engines air intake manifold at a temperature
specified for the engine model with ambient air
temperature equal to (77F) 25C, maximum air
temperature to turbocharger equal to 97F (36C),
maximum pressure drop from the turbocharger
compressor exit to engine intake manifold of
4 in. Hg (13.5 kPa), and zero cooling system ram
air velocity. Specified inlet manifold air temper-
ature and turbocharger compressor exit condi-
tions can be found in the TMI. The recommended
RADIATOR COOLING STACKED CORE SCAC COOLING SECTIONS
Figure 7.7
3500B AC PUMP AND LINES
Figure 7.8
PIPING
PART OF ENGINE
SUPPLIED BY PACKAGER
OR RADIATOR SUPPLIER
ENGINE DRIVEN
JW PUMP
BYPASS
LINE
RETURN
OUTLET
JW ENGINE THERMOSTAT
AC TEMPERATURE REGULATOR
R
A
D
I
A
T
O
R
AC PUMP
BLOWER
FAN
LEBW1414-00 94
charge air cooler location should provide paral-
lel air flow through the jacket water radiator and
charge air cooler. If a series (stacked) arrange-
ment between the charge air cooler and jacket
water radiator is selected, the charge air cooler
must be located upstream relative to the jacket
water radiator, or any other stacked coolers in
the system and special consideration must be
given for core cleaning and servicing.
Connections
Use flexible connections for all connections to
the engine (rubber hoses are not recommended).
The positions of flexible connections and shut-
off valves are important. Shut-off valves (used
on larger engines) should be located to provide
a flexible connection and also allow engine repair
without having to drain the entire cooling sys-
tem. Orient the flex connector to take the maxi-
mum advantage of its flexibility. When selecting
connectors, consider normal thermal expansion
and maximum expected movement.
Material compatibility must also be evaluated.
The internal surface must be compatible with the
coolant used over the anticipated operating tem-
perature and pressure ranges. The liner material of
the flexible connection must also be compatible
with potential coolant contaminants, such as lube
oil and system cleaning solutions. The outer cover
must be compatible with its environment (tem-
perature extremes, ozone, grease, oil, paint, etc.).
Cooling System Protection
All pipe and water passages external to the engine
should be cleaned before initial engine operation
to ensure there will be flow and foreign materials
will not be lodged in the engine or cooler.
Electrical systems should be designed so no con-
tinuous electrical potential is imposed on cool-
ing system components. Any electrical potential
may cause cooling system materials to be dam-
aged by electrolytic processes.
Galvanic activity in saltwater circuits produces a
corrosive action with metal, resulting in deteriora-
tion of system components. Proper cathodic pro-
tection should be employed by installing sacrificial
zinc rods in sea water flow passages at numerous
locations. Sufficient zinc rods are installed on
Caterpillar components. In order to maintain this
protection, the zinc rods must be inspected reg-
ularly and replaced when deteriorated. Refer to
the section on Electrolytic and Galvanic Activity
Protection for additional information.
Coolant Considerations
Properties
Water is used in the coolant mixture because it is
the most efficient, best known, and universally
available heat transfer agent. However, each
water source contains contaminant levels to
various degrees. At operating temperatures of
diesel engines, these contaminants form acids or
scale deposits that can reduce cooling system
service life.
Prime consideration in closed cooling systems is
to ensure no corrosion or scale forms at any point.
Therefore, select the best quality water available,
but never use salt water.
Water hardness is usually described in parts per
million, ppm (grains/gal), of calcium carbonate
content. Water containing up to 60 parts per mil-
lion (3.5 grains per gallon) is considered soft and
causes few deposits.
Treated Water
Never use water alone as a coolant. Supplemen-
tal coolant additives are required because pure
water is corrosive at engine operating tempera-
tures. Corrosion inhibitors or antifreeze solution
added to water maintains cleanliness, reduces
scale and foaming, and provides pH control.
Figure 7.9
A
IR
ATAAC
SECTION
W
A
T
E
R
JW
SECTION
95 LEBW1414-00
A 3%6% concentration of inhibitor is recom-
mended to maintain a pH level of 8.5 to 10. Sud-
den changes in coolant composition should be
avoided to minimize nonmetallic component
failure.
Caterpillar cooling inhibitor is compatible with
ethylene glycol and propylene glycol base anti-
freezes but not with Dowtherm 209, or Cat
Extended Life Coolant (ELC). With a 30% mix-
ture of glycol containing corrosion inhibitors, no
additional inhibitors are required. To maintain
constant protection, additives should be replen-
ished every 250 operating hours.
For conventional heavy duty cooling systems the
antifreeze/coolant is recommended.
NOTE: If cooling water comes in contact with
domestic water supplies, water treatment may
be regulated by local codes.
Coolant/Antifreeze (Glycol)
Glycol in the coolant provides boil and freeze pro-
tection, prevents water pump cavitation, and
reduces cylinder liner pitting. For optimum per-
formance, Caterpillar recommends a 50/50 gly-
col/water coolant mixture.
Ethylene glycol is commonly used in heavy duty
(HD) coolant/antifreezes. Propylene glycol is also
common. Both ethylene glycol and Propylene
glycol have similar fluid properties in a 50/50
glycol/water mixture. Both ethylene glycol and
propylene glycol provide similar heat transfer,
freeze protection, corrosion control, and seal
compatibility. The following charts define the
temperature protection provided by the two types
of glycol.
NOTE: Do not use propylene glycol in concen-
trations that exceed 50 percent glycol because of
propylene glycols reduced heat transfer capa-
bility. Use ethylene glycol in conditions that
require additional boil or freeze protection.
Exposing engine coolant to freezing tempera-
tures requires additional antifreeze. Ethylene gly-
col or Dowtherm 209 are recommended to protect
against freezing and inhibit corrosion. Borate-
nitrite solutions such as Caterpillar inhibitor are
compatible only with ethylene glycol and can
replenish the original corrosion inhibitors in the
antifreeze.
Figure 7.10 defines the concentration of ethyl-
ene glycol required for system protection. It also
describes the effect on coolant boiling tempera-
ture which reduces coolant afterboil. The concen-
tration should exceed 30% to assure protection
against corrosion, but above 60% will needlessly
penalize heat transfer capabilities. Generally, a
radiator derates 2% for each 10% of antifreeze con-
centration. Use of antifreeze year around decreases
radiator capabilities at least 6F (3.3C).
COOLANT FREEZING AND
BOILING TEMPERATURES VS.
ETHYLENE GLYCOL CONCENTRATION
Figure 7.10
Extended Life Coolant (ELC)
Caterpillar provides Extended Life Coolant (ELC)
for use in heavy duty diesel engines, natural gas
engines, and automotive engines. The Caterpillar
ELC anticorrosion package is totally different
from conventional coolants. Caterpillar ELC is
an ethylene glycol based coolant which contains
organic acid corrosion inhibitors (which turn into
80
60
40
20
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
260
280
300
320
(F)
62
51
40
29
18
6
4
15
26
38
49
60
71
82
93
105
116
127
138
149
160
(C)
Temperature
80 90 100 70 60 50
%
40 30 20 10 0
FREEZING
TEMP
RECOMMENDED
CONCENTRATION
RANGE 3067%
(SEA LEVEL)
BOILING
TEMP
Propylene Glycol
Concentration
Protection Against
% Glycol/% Water Freezing Boiling
50/50 20F (29C) 222F (106C)
Ethylene Glycol
Concentration
Protection Against
% Glycol/% Water Freezing Boiling
50/50 33F (36C) 223F (106C)
60/40 60F (51C) 226F (108C)
LEBW1414-00 96
carboxylates) and antifoaming agents. Caterpillar
ELC has nitrites that serve as corrosion inhibitors
that protect against cavitation corrosion. Caterpillar
ELC also has TT (toly-triazole, a yellow [non fer-
rous] metal corrosion inhibitor). Caterpillar ELC
has been formulated with the correct levels of
additives to provide superior corrosion protection
for all metals in diesel engine cooling systems.
Caterpillar ELC extends coolant service life to
6000 Service Hours or Four Years. Caterpillar
ELC does not require frequent additions of sup-
plemental coolant additives, SCA. A one time
only coolant Extender is the only maintenance
addition required. The extender should be added
to the cooling system at 3000 Service Hours or
Two Years.
Caterpillar ELC is available Premixed with distilled
water in a 50/50 concentration. The Premixed
ELC provides freeze protection to 33F (36C).
The Premixed ELC is recommended for initial fill
and for topping off the cooling system. ELC
Concentrate is available to lower the freezing
point to 60F (51C) for Arctic conditions. ELC
Concentration should be used to adjust the
coolant freeze point as required where Caterpillar
ELC Premixed freeze protection is not acceptable.
Contact your Caterpillar dealer for part numbers
and available container sizes.
Caterpillar recommends the Extended Life Coolant
as it provides extended coolant service life, cor-
rosion protection, extended water pump seal ser-
vice life, and extended radiator service life.
NOTE: The Caterpillar EC-1 specification is an
industry standard developed by Caterpillar. The
EC-1 specification defines all of the performance
requirements that an engine coolant must meet
in order to be sold as an extended life coolant
for Caterpillar engines. Caterpillar ELC meets
the industry performance requirements of
ASTMD4985 and D5345 for heavy duty low sil-
icate coolant/antifreezes. Caterpillar ELC also
meets the industry performance requirements
of ASTM D3306 and D4656 for automotive
applications.
NOTE: Do not mix ordinary ethylene glycol or
propylene glycol mixtures with ELC. Completely
flush system before converting from one to the
other coolant.
Corrosion Resistance
The coolant must prevent the formation of rust
and pits in the engine and other components.
Since all water can cause corrosion, water alone
is not a good coolant. Both distilled water and
softened water are unacceptably corrosive when
corrosion inhibitors are not added.
Always add Caterpillars corrosion inhibitor,
Cooling System Conditioner, or equivalent to the
water antifreeze mixture at the time of the initial
fill of the cooling system if the initial fill does not
include it. (This is not necessary when using
Caterpillar Antifreeze. The Caterpillar formula
includes all necessary inhibitors for initial fill.) If
water only is used (not recommended), it is
extremely important that conditioner be added.
Use 3P2044, quart (0.118 L), or 6V3542,
1/2 pint (0.24 L), Cooling System Conditioner.
Because modern antifreezes contain consider-
able dissolved chemical solids to accommodate
aluminum components, over-concentrations can
reduce heat transfer and cause water pump seal
leakage or failure.
NOTE: Do not over inhibit your cooling system
or damage will result.
Chromate Corrosion Inhibitors
Chromate is another corrosion inhibitor. In gen-
eral, special testing equipment must be utilized in
order to measure the coolant consist. Inappro-
priate amounts of corrosion inhibitor can do harm
to the system. These are being phased out of
usage due to toxicity and environmental concerns.
Water Quality and Treatment
Standard Temperature
Usable water for cooling systems must meet the
following criteria:
Chloride (CL) 2.4 grains/gal (40 ppm)
Maximum
Sulfate (S0
4
) 5.9 grains/gal (100 ppm)
Maximum
Total Hardness 10 grains/gal (170 ppm)
Maximum
Total Solids 20 grains/gal (340 ppm)
Maximum
pH 5.59.0
Water softened by removal of calcium and mag-
nesium is acceptable.
97 LEBW1414-00
Coolant Testing
The coolant should be maintained throughout the
life of the application. Dealers have available lab-
oratory testing services which can measure not
only the glycol levels but also the main corrosion
inhibiting additives, as well as contaminants.
Caterpillar recommends additives be kept within
certain ranges depending on the type of coolant
as well as the application. If regular coolant is
being used, a prescribed dose of Supplemental
coolant Additive or SCA is usually added at
250 hour intervals which recharges the corrosion
inhibitors in the form of nitrates, nitrites, borates,
and silicates. If ELC (Extended Life Coolant) is
used, Caterpillars Cooling System Conditioner
is added which contains a carboxylate or organic
acid corrosion inhibitor, nitrites, and other ingre-
dients necessary to ensure the coolant remains
corrosion resistant. Overtreatment should also
be avoided since this can cause problems as well;
do not add treatment unless testing shows addi-
tive depletion. Caterpillar also has specifications
covering contaminants such as chlorides, sulfates,
hard water minerals, as well as dissolved gases.
These must be checked by analytical methods
since they can destroy a system even if corro-
sion inhibitor additives are in correct proportions.
Coolant Conditioners and Filters
For 3400 Series and smaller engines a cartridge-
type chemical coolant conditioner is available.
The conditioner reduces potential cylinder block
and liner pitting and corrosion.
A. Consult the factory for suitable coolant
conditioners which should be applied and
maintained in accordance with published
instructions.
B. If a dry charged additive water filter is
selected, the following plumbing recom-
mendations should be followed.
1. The filter inlet and outlet are ordinary
0.375 in. (9.5 mm) inside diameter rub-
ber hoses. Connect the hoses to obtain
the highest possible coolant pressure dif-
ferential across the unit. Heater hose
connecting points at the coolant pump
inlet and the temperature regulator hous-
ing are recommended. If uncertain, plumb
the inlet to a point on the discharge side
of the water pump and the outlet to a
point near the water pump inlet.
2. The outlet should be orificed with an
0.125 in. (3.2 mm) internal diameter ori-
fice. This will prevent excessive coolant
flow through the filter which can bypass
the radiator core and reduce effective-
ness of the cooling system. Inlet and out-
let lines should include shutoff valves so
the filter can be serviced without drain-
ing the cooling system.
System Venting
Air and entrained combustion gas must be
purged and/or vented from the cooling system.
Air can be trapped in the cooling system at ini-
tial fill or enter through combustion gas leakage
during operation. System deterioration or water
pump cavitation will result.
Air trapped in high points of the cooling system
during initial fill is difficult to purge and requires
venting, Figure 7.11. Entrained combustion gas
requires deaeration capabilities built into the sys-
tem. Deaeration is performed by the Caterpillar
expansion tank or Caterpillar radiator top tank. If
these deaeration components are not included,
custom deaeration must be provided. Centrifugal
deaeration gas separators are available on the
aftermarket. Alternatively, see the section on
Expansion Tanks for use of enlarged pipe diam-
eters for deaeration.
Caterpillar-supplied cooling systems completely
vent during initial fill at rates up to 5 gpm
(0.32 L/s). External piping will also vent provided
piping is installed without air traps and no higher
than engine connecting points on heat exchanger
systems. Figure 7.12.
The expansion tank (surge tank) must be the high-
est point of a radiator cooled system, Figure 7.13.
Radiator air venting requirements for each engine
are available on request.
A cooling system that will not purge itself on ini-
tial fill must have vent lines from the highest
points of the system to the radiator expansion
tank or to the expansion tank of a heat exchanger
system. Lines must enter the tank above normal
water level, have a continuous upward slope, and
contain no air traps. An adequate vent line should
be 0.25 in. (6.3 mm) tubing. Caution: The con-
stant full level in the expansion tank must be
above all piping. For additional information on
radiator cooling, see the section Radiators with
Expansion Tanks.
LEBW1414-00 98
Watermaker Installation Requirements
Connecting watermakers to the jacket water cir-
cuit of 3508, 3512, 3516 Engines.
The following guidelines are intended to assist
the designer and installer of watermaker systems
to avoid installations which may damage or impair
engine operation. These guidelines in no way guar-
antee performance of the watermaker system.
Watermaker system performance, as it affects
the engine, must be verified at startup.
Watermaker performance will depend upon the
amount of heat received from the engine. Refer
to TMI or Engine Performance book for heat
rejection and jacket water pump flow data. This
data is for the engine at rated load and speed with
fully open thermostats. As load on the engine
and/or engine speed decreases, external water
flow decreases. The amount of heat and water-
flow available to the watermaker will be approx-
imately proportional to the load on the engine.
Watermaker Circuit
Flexible connectors are required on all connec-
tions to the engine. Rubber hoses are not rec-
ommended and are generally not approved by
marine classification societies. Use of flexible
metal connectors is recommended.
All connections are to be made external of the
engines pump, thermostat and bypass system,
i.e., between engine and cooler, Figure 7.14. The
INCORRECT PIPING
Figure 7.11
CORRECT PIPING
Figure 7.12
99 LEBW1414-00
engine jacket water bypass line is not to be mod-
ified or blocked.
Watermaker piping should not block access to
engine fuel and oil filters.
Flow resistance imposed on the jacket water
pump by watermaker and piping from the engine
must not exceed the limits shown in TMI or
Engine Performance book.
Shutoff valves in each line to the watermaker
should be installed. This also applies for auto-
matic systems since it allows deactivating the
system for servicing.
All external piping must be level, without air
traps, and below the expansion tank or radiator
top tank. All high points must be vented to the
expansion tank/radiator top tank.
CORRECT PIPING
Figure 7.13
Figure 7.14
LEBW1414-00 100
Expansion Volume
When the jacket water volume of the watermaker
and piping exceeds the allowable external vol-
ume for the engine-mounted expansion tank, an
auxiliary expansion tank must be added. Refer to
Figure 7.24 for allowable external volume of the
engine-mounted tank. (Refer to the section on
Auxiliary Expansion Tank if an additional tank
is required.) The engine mounted tank is
always required.
Expansion volume required for radiator-cooled
engines must be coordinated with the radiator
supplier. Additionally, a deaerator is required if
watermaker flow bypasses the deaeration fea-
tures of the radiator. Deaerator should be capa-
ble of venting air at the rate of 10% of the engine
displacement per minute. The deaerator must
vent to radiator top tank.
Watermaker Controls
Watermaker controls may be either manually
operated valves or thermostatically controlled
valves, Figures 7.15, 7.16, and 7.17.
Any failure of watermaker control system (elec-
trical, air, etc.) must shut off jacket water flow to
the watermaker and return the flow to the engine
heat exchanger.
The watermaker must be connected between the
engine jacket water connections and the heat
exchanger or radiator. Required flow diverters or
connections are not supplied by Caterpillar.
MANUAL CONTROL SYSTEM
Figure 7.15
AUTOMATIC CONTROL SYSTEM SERIES FLOW
Figure 7.16
101 LEBW1414-00
AUTOMATIC CONTROL SYSTEM PARALLEL FLOW
Figure 7.17
For safety, valve(s) in the engine heat exchanger
circuit should contain .25 in. orifices (6.35 mm)
so there will be a slight water flow in case all valves
are inadvertently left closed. This orifice assures
water flow to actuate engine alarm system.
The thermostat valve, Figures 7.16 and 7.17,
should have a temperature setting that will not
interfere with engine thermostats. This valve
should begin to divert water flow to the engine
heat exchanger at no more than 190F (88C)
and be fully diverting at 205F (96C) for engines
with outlet controlled thermostats. Engines with
inlet controlled thermostats should be 185F
(85C) and 200F (93C) respectively.
If the watermaker cannot handle the full engine
heat rejection and/or cannot handle full water flow
of the engine, the automatic system, Figure 7.17,
must be used. The circuit, Figure 7.17 connects
the watermaker in parallel with the heat exchanger
whereas the circuit, Figure 7.16, connects the
watermaker in series with the heat exchanger.
It should be remembered the volume of water
flow to the watermaker depends upon load and
watermaker size, up to the engines maximum
flow limits.
Mixing Tank
When the watermaker is a long distance from the
engine or where watermaker requires a constant
water flow, a mixing tank and circulating pump
are required, Figure 7.18.
Do not use a circulating pump by itself because
the circulating pump head pressure will damage
engine thermostats if they are closed.
Although the mixing tank is not Caterpillar sup-
plied, it can be used with any of the suggested
circuits.
An auxiliary electrical heater may be installed
as shown.
Interconnections of Engines
Central cooling systems utilize a single external
circuit supplying coolant to several engines.
Although separate cooling systems for each
engine is preferable, use of a single radiator or heat
exchanger system is possible. Practical experi-
ence has shown that only identical engines at the
same loads and speeds can be successfully com-
bined in a joint cooling system. A failure on one
engine can adversely affect all engines. For this
reason, interconnected engines should have iso-
lating valves. Check valves are required on the
output line of each engines to prevent recircula-
tion through an engine that is shutdown with the
thermostats opened.
The cooling system for mixed engines with mixed
speeds, loads and thermostat configuration are
very difficult to design and are rarely successful.
They must meet the required criteria (water flow,
temperatures, pressures, etc.) for each engine
while operating in all possible combinations with
other units.
LEBW1414-00 102
Figure 7.18
A single auxiliary expansion tank is permissible.
It must connect into each engine-mounted expan-
sion tank (if so equipped). See the section on
Auxiliary Expansion Tank. If a shutoff valve is
installed between auxiliary expansion tank and
each engine-mounted expansion tank, a 0.5 in.
(12.7 mm) line must be connected from below
the shutoff valve to the top of the auxiliary expan-
sion tank. The line should enter above the normal
full water level.
Coolant return header to the engines must be
large enough and so located that no engine jacket
water pump inlet operates in a vacuum.
If auxiliary jacket water pumps are required, refer
to the section on mixing tanks and Figure 7.18.
SCAC engines require that a separate set of
common cooling lines be provided for the after-
cooler function.
Heat Exchanger Cooling Systems
Water Specifications
Caterpillar used two water classifications: fresh
water and sea water.
Fresh Water
Fresh water refers to drinkable water. Prior to
chemical water treatment for engine corrosion
inhibiting, it must be in a pH range of 5.5 to 9.0,
containing no more than 40 ppm chlorides. Total
dissolved solids must be less than 340 ppm. Total
sulfates must be no more than 100 ppm. Total
hardness must be less than 170 ppm. This is the
cooling water that is used within the engines
jacket water system.
Sea Water
Sea water refers to salt water, river water, lake
water and all waters that do not meet the fresh-
water requirement. Heat exchanger components
in contact with this water should be copper-nickel
103 LEBW1414-00
construction, or equivalent, highly corrosion resist-
ant material. This is not the water retained within
the engines jacket water system.
Inboard Heat Exchanger Cooling
Inboard heat exchangers are recommended for
use with Caterpillar oilfield Engines. Caterpillar
inboard heat exchangers are shell and tube-type.
Heat is transferred from hot jacket water to cold
sea water. Heat exchangers are usually mounted
on the oilfield base, but may be mounted directly
on smaller engines.
Heat exchanger cooled systems require a sea
water pump to circulate sea water through the
heat exchanger tubes or plates. It is good design
practice to always put the sea water through the
tubes. The tubes can be cleaned by pushing a
metal rod through them; the shell side requires
chemical cleaning which is only available at
shore-side facilities.
Offshore drill rigs provide the main and standby
sea water pumps. Sea water is pumped into a
pressurized header for use throughout the rig,
including the engines.
The fresh water is circulated through the heat
exchanger shell, across the tubes by the engine-
driven water pump.
Most shell and tube heat exchangers are of either
the single-pass or the two-pass type. This des-
ignation refers to the flow in the cold water circuit
of the exchanger. In the two-pass type, the cold
water flows twice through the compartment
where jacket water is circulated; in the single-
pass type only once. When using a single-pass
exchanger, the cold water should flow through
the exchanger in a direction opposite to the flow
of jacket coolant to provide maximum differen-
tial temperature and heat transfer. This results in
improved heat exchanger performance. In a two-
pass exchanger, cooling will be equally effective
using either of the jacket water connection points
for the input and the other for return.
Factory supplied 150 gpm (9.5 L/s) two-pass
heat exchangers are recommended because rig
water header size is reduced. A 150 gpm (9.5 L/s)
engine driven sea water pump is NOT available.
The rig main and standby sea water pumps must
be sized to provide flow to a header system that
supplies all engines.
Engine-mounted heat exchangers require the
least amount of pipe fitting since jacket water
connections to the heat exchanger are made at
the factory, Figure 7.3. Remote-mounted heat
exchangers require connecting jacket water inlet
and outlet at the engine to shell side of the
exchanger.
The selected heat exchanger must accommodate
sea water temperature and flow required to cool
the engine when operating at maximum antici-
pated load with stated temperature differential.
HEAT EXCHANGER TYPES
Figure 7.19
Heat exchangers should always be located at a
lower level (elevation) than the coolant level in
the expansion tank.
Heat Exchanger Sizing
Occasionally, special applications exist which
require an inboard heat exchanger size not avail-
able as a Caterpillar unit. When these conditions
exist, it is necessary to obtain a heat exchanger
from a supplier other than Caterpillar. In order to
expedite the selection of a nonstandard heat
exchanger, a Heat Exchanger Selection Work-
sheet is included, Figure 7.20. Heat exchanger
suppliers will provide information and aid in
selecting the proper size and material for the
application.
LEBW1414-00 104
Heat Exchanger Sizing Worksheet
Heat Exchanger Sizing Data
Required by Heat Exchanger Supplier
Engine Jacket Water Circuit:
1. Jacket water heat rejection* ________________ Btu/min (kW)
1a. Jacket water engine outlet temperature ________________ F (C)
2. Jacket water flow* ________________ gpm (L/sec)
3. Anticipated sea water maximum temperature ________________ F (C)
4. Sea water flow ________________ gpm (L/sec)
5. Allowable jacket water pressure drop ________________ ft. (m) water
6. Allowable sea water pressure drop ________________ ft. (m) water
Drop
7. Auxiliary water source h sea water
(sea water or fresh water) h fresh water
8. Heat exchanger material h adm. metal
(admiralty or copper-nickel) h cu-ni
9. Shell connection size** ________________
10. Tube side fouling factor** ________________
Aftercooler Water Circuit:
1. Aftercooler circuit water heat rejection* ________________ Btu/min (kW)
1a. Aftercooler circuit engine inlet temperature ________________ F (C)
2. Aftercooler circuit water flow* ________________ gpm (L/s)
3. Anticipated sea water maximum temperature ________________ F (C)
4. Sea water flow* ________________ gpm (L/s)
5. Allowable Aftercooler Circuit ________________ ft. (m) water
Water Pressure Drop*
6. Allowable sea water pressure drop* ________________ ft. (m) water
7. Auxiliary water source h sea water
(sea water or fresh water)* h fresh water
8. Heat exchanger material h adm. metal
(admiralty or copper-nickel) h cu-ni
9. Shell connection size** ________________
10. Tube side fouling factor*** ________________
***Refer to TMI (Technical Marketing Information)
***Refer to engine general dimension drawing
***Fouling Factor, a descriptive quantity often found on heat exchanger specifications, refers to the heat exchangers ability
to resist fouling. As defined in Caterpillar literature, fouling factor is the percentage of the heat transfer surface which can
be fouled without losing the heat exchangers ability to dissipate the engines full heat load. A factor of 0.0001 0001
is assumed for sea water systems.
Figure 7.20
105 LEBW1414-00
For a given jacket water flow rate, the perform-
ance of a heat exchanger depends on both the
cold water flow rate and differential temperature.
To reduce tube erosion, the flow velocity of the
cold water through the tubes should not exceed
6 fps (183 cm/s).
At the same sea water flow rate, the flow resist-
ance and the flow velocity will be greater through
a two-pass heat exchanger. The heat exchanger
should be selected to accommodate the cold
water temperature and flow rate needed to keep
the temperature differential of the jacket water
below about 18F (10C) at maximum engine
heat rejection. Thermostats must be retained in
the jacket system to assure that the temperature
of the jacket water coolant returned to the engine
is approximately 175F (79C).
Size heat exchangers to accommodate a heat
rejection rate approximately 10% greater than
the tabulated engine heat rejection. The addi-
tional capacity is intended to compensate for
possible variations from published or calculated
heat rejection rates, overloads or engine mal-
functions which might increase the heat rejec-
tion rate momentarily. It is not intended to replace
all factors which affect heat transfer, such as foul-
ing factor, shell velocity, etc.
Pay particular attention to the shell side pressure
drop to ensure the entire cooling system flow
resistance does not exceed the limitations on the
engine freshwater pump.
Maximum Sea Water Temperature
Size heat exchangers such that the seawater is
not heated above approximately 130F (54C).
Higher sea water temperatures will result in foul-
ing of the heat transfer surfaces with chalk-like
compounds.
Temperature rise can be calculated with the fol-
lowing formula:
T (deg F) =
Keel Coolers
A keel cooler is an outboard heat exchanger
which is either attached to, or built as part of, the
submerged part of a ships hull. The heated water
from the engine(s) circuit(s) is circulated through
the cooler by the engine driven water pump(s).
This type of cooling system is not widely used
for oilfield engines. Sufficient ocean currents or
river currents, etc., are not always available to
maintain adequate cooling. They should be used
with caution as overheating can result.
Keel Cooler Types
Fabricated Keel Coolers
Fabricated keel coolers may be made of pipe,
tubing, channel, I-beams, angle or other avail-
able shapes. The choice of materials must be
compatible with materials used in the vessels
hull in order to prevent galvanic corrosion.
Sizing of Fabricated Keel Coolers
Engine water temperature maximum limits are
controlled by size of the keel cooler. Heat trans-
fer rates through any cooler depend mainly on
cooling water temperature, cooling water flow
and heat transfer surface area. A cooler may
have to operate at its maximum capacity at zero
hull speed. The minimum area calculated
includes a fouling factor. Materials used in cooler
construction, condition of waters in which the
vessel will operate, and service life expectancy
will influence the size selection of a new cooler.
See the keel cooler sizing worksheet for aid in
determining size of keel coolers for use with
jacket water circuits.
Keel cooler area recommendations contained in
the graphs (Figure 7.21 and 7.22) apply only to
keel coolers made of structural steel (chan-
nel, angle, half pipe, etc.) welded to the ships
shell plating. These recommendations take into
account the thermal resistance to heat transfer
of the steel plate, the internal and external water
films, and the internal and external surface cor-
rosion factors. The coefficient of heat transfer of
the fresh water film flowing inside the cooler is
based upon a flow velocity of 3 ft/sec (0.9 m/sec).
The coefficient of heat transfer for the raw water
film varies with the velocity of water flow past the
cooler due to vessel speed. Surface corrosion
factors are based on treated fresh water and pol-
luted river water. Miscellaneous factors become
so predominant in the resultant heat transfer rate
that the type of material used and thickness of
metal become minor considerations.
Heat Rejection (Btu/min)
_______________________
Flow (gpm) 7.99
LEBW1414-00 106
Normal deterioration of the coolers inner and
outer surfaces in the form of rust, scale and pit-
ting progressively reduce a keel coolers effec-
tiveness over a period of years. Protective coatings
and marine growths will also reduce the rate of
heat transfer. It can take 45 years before dete-
rioration stabilizes in keel coolers. It must be
designed considerably oversize when new.
Because of the severe deterioration of heat trans-
fer characteristics associated with structural steel
coolers, adequate cooler size sometimes becomes
impractical. This is particularly true in regions of
high sea water temperature (over 85F [30C]).
In these regions, the use of packaged keep cool-
ers, or box coolers, made of corrosion-resistant
materials is suggested. These coolers can provide
KEEL COOLER SIZING WORKSHEET
Engine Model __________________ Rating __________________ Hp (kW) at __________________ rpm
For Engine Jacket Water:
1. Jacket water heat rejection* ____________________________________________ Btu/min (kW)
2. Jacket water flow* ________________________________________________________ gpm (L/s)
3. Current speed classification (Refer to Figure 7.22) _____________________________________
4. Anticipated maximum sea temperature ________________________________________ F (C)
5. Minimum cooler area required (From Figure 7.22) _____________________________________
Sq ft/Btu/min (m
2
/kW)
6. Minimum area required (Line 1 times line 5)__________________________________Sq ft (m
2
)
*Refer to TMI or Engine Performance Book. Temperature assumed to be 210F (99C).
Figure 7.21
Figure 7.22
.006 .007 .008 .009 .010 .011 .012 .013 .014 sq ft per Btu/min
.032 .037 .042 .048 .053 .058 .063 .069 .074 .079
.015
sq m per kW
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
F
1.7
4.4
7.2
10.0
12.8
15.6
18.3
21.1
23.9
26.7
29.4
C
A
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t
i
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i
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a
t
e
d

M
a
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i
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u
m

S
e
a

W
a
t
e
r

T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
Cooler Area Required
S
t
i
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W
a
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r
8

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a
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A
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t
(Per Revision of 8/11/90)
Thermostats start open 175F (79C) or above
These requirements apply to Keel
Coolers made of structural steel only.
Consider use of packaged Keel
Coolers made of corrosion-resistant
materials where sea water
temperature may exceed 65F (18C)
107 LEBW1414-00
more heat exchange surface area in a given vol-
ume on, or within the hull, than the coolers made
of structural steel.
Expansion Tanks
Functions
Expansion tanks perform the following functions:
Vent gases in the coolant
to reduce corrosion.
to prevent loss of coolant due to dis-
placement by gases.
Provide a positive head on the system pump.
to prevent cavitation.
Provide expansion volume.
to prevent coolant loss when the coolant
expands due to temperature change.
Provide a place to fill the system, monitor its
level, and maintain its corrosion inhibiting
chemical additives.
Provide a place to monitor the system coolant
level.
an alarm switch located in the expan-
sion tank will give early warning of cool-
ant loss.
Type of Expansion Tank
Engine-Mounted Expansion Tank
(Manufactured by Caterpillar)
The engine-mounted expansion tank provides all
of the above functions for the engines jacket
water circuit. Caterpillar also provides an expan-
sion tank for Petroleum 3500B engines auxiliary
water circuit (the aftercooler circuit). It can pro-
vide adequate expansion volume for only a mod-
est amount of jacket water. Figure 7.24 describes
the allowable external volume using only the
engine-mounted JW expansion tank.
The factory-installed expansion tank must be
used with the heat exchanger and/or keel cool-
ing system. If it is absolutely necessary to remove
the engine-mounted tank, consultation with
Caterpillar Application Engineering on tank relo-
cation and design is recommended. Modified
expansion tank performance should be verified
by testing.
Figure 7.23
Figure 7.23 shows the preferred method of con-
necting a remote expansion tank into the engine
cooling system. The enlarged section of pipe is
necessary to allow entrained gas to separate out
of the water flow.
Expansion Tank Volume
The expansion tank allows for thermal expan-
sion of the coolant. In addition to the thermal
expansion, there should also be volume for after-
boil and sufficient reserve to allow operation with
small leaks until they can be repaired. For stan-
dard temperature systems, a volume of 15% of
the total system is sufficient.
Auxiliary Expansion Tank
(Jacket Water Circuit)
An auxiliary expansion tank is not required
when an engine-mounted or base-mounted heat
exchanger is used. Calculations to determine if an
auxiliary tank is required must be made if a remote-
mounted heat exchanger, keel cooler, or devices
such as watermakers are added. Figure 7.24
contains data indicating coolant capacity limits of
engine-mounted expansion tanks.
An auxiliary expansion tank provides additional
expansion volume for the cooling system. The
function of this auxiliary tank need not be con-
cerned with deaeration and can, therefore, con-
sist of a simple tank containing no baffle system.
The engine cooling system, including the engine-
mounted tank, is designed to provide proper
system venting. Air must also vent from the
engine-mounted tank through the connecting
LEBW1414-00 108
pipe to the auxiliary tank. Additional air vent pip-
ing may be required if the auxiliary expansion
tank is not located directly above the engine-
mounted expansion tank. Figure 7.25 shows the
recommended method of adding expansion vol-
ume to the cooling system.
The auxiliary tank should be supported sepa-
rately and isolated with a flexible connector
against vibration from the engine-mounted tank.
A pressure cap or vent cap is required. Auxiliary
tank minimum volume should include total expan-
sion volume required plus the water volume to
the low water level in the tank. Figure 7.26,
Auxiliary Expansion Tank Sizing, can be used to
determine minimum volume required.
Table of Cooling System Volumetric Data
Figure 7.24
Cooling System Volumetric Data
Column A Column B
Allowable External Volume Engine Jacket Water System Volume
Engine
With Engine Mounted Tank With Engine Mounted Tank
Model U.S. Gal Liters U.S. Gal Liters
3116 0.0 0.0 7.5 28.0
3126 0.0 0.0 7.5 28.0
3304B 2.1 8.0 14.7 55.6
3306B 2.1 8.0 14.7 55.6
3176 0.0 0.0 12.0 45.0
3196 0.0 0.0 12.0 45.0
3406C 10.0 38.0 23.6 94.5
3406E 10.0 38.0 23.6 94.5
3408C 14.0 53.0 37.5 142.0
3412 14.0 53.0 42.8 162.0
3508 64.0 243.0 75.3 285.0
3512 48.0 182.0 85.3 323.0
3516 32.0 122.0 101.4 384.0
Figure 7.25
109 LEBW1414-00
Auxiliary Expansion Tank Sizing, Engine Jacket Water
Engine Model ____________________ Rating ____________________ Hp at ___________________ rpm
1. Allowable external volume ___________ gal/L, with engine-mounted tank. (This value shown
in Figure 7.24).
2. Total Volume of jacket water contained in external cooling circuit (not furnished as part of
engine) ___________ gal/L. See Figure 7.34, for volume per length of standard iron pipe.
3. Line 2 minus Line 1 ___________ gal/L.
If this value is zero or less, additional tank is not required.
If this value is greater than zero, an auxiliary tank is required.
4. If required, the minimum volume of the auxiliary expansion tank can be determined by:
a. Engine volume, Figure 7.24, Column B ___________________________________________
b. External volume Line 2 __________________________________________________________
c. Multiply line a by 0.07 ___________________________________________________________
d. Multiply line b by 0.05 ___________________________________________________________
e. Total of lines c and d ____________________________________________________________
(This is the minimum volume of the jacket water auxiliary expansion tank.)
For Separate Circuit Aftercooler:
1. Total volume of aftercooler external water ___________ gal/L.
2. Multiply Line 1 by 0.02 ___________ gal/L.
3. Add the cold fill volume desired in auxiliary expansion tank to Line 2.
Total of Line 2 and cold fill volume ___________ gal/L.
(This is the minimum volume of the aftercooler circuit auxiliary expansion tank.)
Figure 7.26
System Considerations
Strainers and Filters
Strainers are used with large fabricated coolant
piping systems to protect the cooling system
from physical damage due to circulating abra-
sive materials and the plugging that occurs when
large foreign materials enter the system. Areas
having abundant marine life or shallow water
drilling are benefited most by strainers.
Strainers should be installed as close to the hull
as possible on the sea water inlet circuits.
Welded structural steel keel or skin cooler sys-
tems need strainers installed between the cooler
and pump inlet. Material, such as weld slag and
corrosion products, must be removed from the
system to prevent wear of cooling system com-
ponents.
Full-flow strainers of the duplex type are desir-
able. Strainer screens should be sized no larger
than 0.125 in. (2.3 mm) mesh for use in sea water
circuits and 0.063 in. (1.6 mm) mesh for use in
closed fresh water circuits. Strainer connections
should be no smaller than the recommended
line size. A differential pressure gauge across the
duplex strainers indicates pressure drop and
enables the operator to determine when strainers
need servicing.
Pressure drop across a strainer at maximum
water flow should be considered as part of the
systems external resistance. Suppliers can help
in proper selection of strainers and furnish the
values of pressure drop versus flow rate. The
strainer selected should impose no more than
3 ft. (1 m) water restriction to flow under clean
strainer conditions.
Careful initial cleaning of the fabricated cooling
system in addition to annual cleaning will keep
accumulation of wear-causing debris to a mini-
mum. Maintenance of proper water coolant
inhibitor concentrations will aid in minimizing
formation of debris.
Some form of continuous bypass filter should
also be used to remove smaller particles and
LEBW1414-00 110
sediment. Element size of the continuous bypass
filter should be 20 to 50 microns.
Water flow through the bypass and filter should
not exceed 5 gal per min (19 L per min).
No filtering system is required on the engine
jacket water circuit when the heat exchanger is
mounted on the oilfield base.
Marine Growth
Marine growth in sea water cooling systems
occurs in many areas of the world. Increased
temperature and flowing food source are primary
causes. Experience is the best guide in knowing
where marine growth is excessive.
Marine growth refers to minute marine plant or
animal life which enters the sea water cooling
system, attaches itself, and grows. Sea water
strainers have minimal effectiveness due to the
minute size of the adolescent plant or animal life.
(Strainers are effective with more mature plant
or animal life.)
Marine growth can be controlled with varying
degrees of success by several methods.
Periodic mechanical cleaning of heat exchanger,
etc., removes accumulated growth. It may be nec-
essary to clean sea water headers also.
Periodic chemical treatment combats marine
growth. Chemical type and concentration must
be controlled to prevent deterioration of the sea
water cooling system components. Contact a
knowledgeable chemical supplier.
Continuous low-concentration chemical treat-
ment via either bulk chemical or self-generating
processes are offered by various manufacturers.
Coolant Velocity
Coolant flow in the system must be maintained
in a velocity range to achieve optimum heat
transfer without erosion damage to system com-
ponents. Jacket water external circuit velocities
between 2 to 8 ft. per sec (0.6 to 2.5 m per sec) are
acceptable. Sea water circuit velocities between
2 to 6 ft. per sec (0.6 to 1.9 m per sec) are accept-
able. Experience has shown these velocity ranges
provide required cooling and adequate system life.
Coolant velocities can be varied for a known
pump flow by increasing or decreasing the size
of the pipe and components in the system. TMI
or Engine Performance book lists flow values of
engine driven pumps. Figures 7.27 and 7.28 are
useful graphs for converting water flow to veloc-
ity for pipes and tubes.
When electric sea water supply pumps are used, it
is recommended that flow be adjusted for individ-
ual engines with a balancing cock or glove valve
on the supply side of each engine. Pressure gauges
on supply and return lines should be installed as
a means of monitoring system operation.
System Pressure and Pressure Drop
Piping and heat transfer equipment resist cool-
ing water flow, causing an external pressure head
which opposes the water pump output. Cooling
water flow is reduced as external head increases.
Total system resistance to flow must be limited to
ensure adequate flow. Resistance to flow is deter-
mined by size and length of pipe, number and
type of fittings and valves used, coolant flow rate,
and losses contributed by heat transfer devices.
Excessive external heads demand pumps with
additional pressure capacity.
Depending upon arrangement, sea water differ-
ential pressure at the engine heat exchanger can
be between 3 psi (21 kPa) and 12 psi (83 kPa).
Relief valves are required where sea water system
valve sequencing could result in system over-
pressures. Pressure control valves are required
where sea water flow to engines could be acci-
dentally diverted to ballast pumps, mud tanks, etc.
Check valves are not required on outlet of heat
exchangers discharging into a common dis-
charge manifold. Recirculation between heat
exchangers does not occur.
A low sea water pressure alarm should be used in
case sea water pumps are inadvertently turned off
or to warn of gas entrainment of sea water pumps
during an attempted blowout.
Total system resistance to flow must be limited to
ensure adequate flow. Resistance to flow is deter-
mined by size and quantity of pipe, fittings, and
other components in the cooling system. As
resistance (pressure drop) increases, water pump
flow decreases.
111 LEBW1414-00
External resistance imposed on the pump (also
called external head) includes both the resist-
ance downstream of the pump outlet connection
and resistance ahead of the pump inlet. Resist-
ance to flow in the external circuit of a closed cir-
culating system consists only of the frictional
pressure drop.
Curves showing water flow versus external sys-
tem head for engine jacket water pumps are
available in the TMI. Maximum external resistance
must not be exceeded in the cooling circuit added
by the customer in order to maintain minimum
water flow. Flows lower than the minimums shown
in TMI or Engine Performance book for each
pump circuit will shorten the life of the engine.
VELOCITY VS FLOW
Standard Pipe Sizes 1.5 to 5 in. (38.1 to 127 mm)
Figure 7.27
VELOCITY VS FLOW
Tube Sizes from 1 in. to 5 in. O.D. (25.4 mm to 127 mm)
(Common Usage Wall Thickness)
Figure 7.28
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 gpm
28 26 24 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 L/s
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
fps m/s
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
.5
1.00 in.
(25.4 mm)
1.50 in.
(38.1 mm)
2.00 in.
(50.5 mm)
2.25 in.
(57.0 mm)
2.50 in.
(63.5 mm)
2.75 in.
(70.0 mm)
3.25 in.
(83.0 mm)
3.50 in.
(89 mm)
2.75 in.
(95.3 mm)
4.00 in.
(102.0 mm)
4.75 in.
(121.0 mm)
5.00 in.
(127.0 mm)
4.75 in.
(121.0 mm)
1.25 in.
(31.8 mm)
1.75 in.
(41.8 mm)
2.12 in.
(53.3 mm)
2.38 in.
(60.0 mm)
V = Vel (tps)
Q = Flow (gpm)
A = in
2
(ID)
ID = Inside Dia.
For Other Wall
Thicknesses
V =
0.321 Q
=
0.408 Q
A ID
2
Nom. Tube Size 0.65 in. (1.65 mm) Wall
FLOW
V
E
L
O
C
I
T
Y
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 gpm
28 26 24 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 L/s
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
fps m/s
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
.5
1.50 in.
(38.1 mm)
2.00 in.
(50.8 mm)
2.50 in.
(63.5 mm)
3.00 in.
(76.2 mm)
3.50 in.
(89.0 mm)
4.00 in.
(102.0 mm)
4.50 in.
(114.0 mm)
5.00 in.
(127.0 mm)
FLOW
V
E
L
O
C
I
T
Y
LEBW1414-00 112
Typical Friction Losses of Water In Pipe
(Old Pipe) (Nominal Pipe Diameter)
Figure 7.29
Gallons Gallons
Per Head Loss in Feet Per 100 Ft Per
Minute (m per 100 m) Minute
3/4" 1-1/4" 1-1/2" 2-1/2"
gpm L/s (19.05 mm) 1" (25.4 mm) (31.75 mm) (38.1 mm) 2" (50.8 mm) (63.5 mm) gpm L/s
5 0.34 10.5 3.25 0.84 0.40 0.16 0.05 3" (76.2 mm) 5 0.34
10 0.63 38.0 11.7 3.05 1.43 0.50 0.17 0.07 10 0.63
15 0.95 80.0 25.0 6.50 3.05 1.07 0.37 0.15 15 0.95
20 1.26 136.0 42.0 11.1 5.20 1.82 0.61 0.25 20 1.26
25 1.58 4" (101.6 mm) 64.0 16.6 7.85 2.73 0.92 0.38 25 1.58
30 1.9 0.13 89.0 23.0 11.0 3.84 1.29 0.54 30 1.9
35 2.21 0.17 119.0 31.2 14.7 5.10 1.72 0.71 35 2.21
40 2.52 0.22 152.0 40.0 18.8 6.60 2.20 0.91 40 2.52
45 2.84 0.28 5" (127 mm) 50.0 23.2 8.20 2.76 1.16 45 2.84
50 3.15 0.34 0.11 60.0 28.4 9.90 3.32 1.38 50 3.15
60 3.79 0.47 0.16 85.0 39.6 13.9 4.65 1.92 60 3.79
70 4.42 0.63 0.21 113.0 53.0 18.4 6.20 2.57 70 4.42
75 4.73 0.72 0.24 129.0 60.0 20.9 7.05 2.93 75 4.73
80 5.05 0.81 0.27 145.0 68.0 23.7 7.90 3.28 80 5.05
90 5.68 1.00 0.34 6" (152.4 mm) 84.0 29.4 9.80 4.08 90 5.68
100 6.31 1.22 0.41 0.17 102.0 35.8 12.0 4.96 100 6.31
125 7.89 1.85 0.63 0.26 7" (177.8 mm) 54.0 17.6 7.55 125 7.89
150 9.46 2.60 0.87 0.36 0.17 76.0 25.7 10.5 150 9.46
175 11.05 3.44 1.16 0.48 0.22 8" (203.2 mm) 34.0 14.1 175 11.05
200 12.62 4.40 1.48 0.61 0.28 0.15 43.1 17.8 200 12.62
225 14.20 5.45 1.85 0.77 0.35 0.19 54.3 22.3 225 14.20
250 15.77 6.70 2.25 0.94 0.43 0.24 65.5 27.1 250 15.77
275 17.35 7.95 2.70 1.10 0.51 0.27 9" (228.6 mm) 32.3 275 17.35
300 18.93 9.30 3.14 1.30 0.60 0.32 0.18 38.0 300 18.93
325 20.5 10.8 3.65 1.51 0.68 0.37 0.21 44.1 325 20.5
350 22.08 12.4 4.19 1.70 0.77 0.43 0.24 50.5 350 22.08
375 23.66 14.2 4.80 1.95 0.89 0.48 0.28 10" (254 mm) 375 23.66
400 25.24 16.0 5.40 2.20 1.01 0.55 0.31 0.19 400 25.24
425 26.81 17.9 6.10 2.47 1.14 0.61 0.35 0.21 425 26.81
450 28.39 19.8 6.70 2.74 1.26 0.68 0.38 0.23 450 28.39
475 29.97 7.40 2.82 1.46 0.75 0.42 0.26 475 29.97
500 31.55 8.10 2.90 1.54 0.82 0.46 0.28 500 31.55
750 47.32 7.09 3.23 1.76 0.98 0.59 750 47.32
1000 63.09 12.0 5.59 2.97 1.67 1.23 1000 63.09
1250 78.86 8.39 4.48 2.55 1.51 1250 78.86
1500 94.64 12" (305 mm) 11.7 6.24 3.52 2.13 1500 94.64
1750 110.41 1.1 7.45 4.70 2.80 1750 110.41
2000 126.18 1.4 10.71 6.02 3.59 2000 126.18
2500 157.73 1.8 2500 157.7
3000 189.27 2.5 3000 189.3
When designing engine cooling systems, pres-
sure drop (resistance) in the external cooling
system can be calculated by totaling the pres-
sure drop in each of the systems components.
Figures 7.29 and 7.30 can be used to determine
pressure drop through pipe, fittings, and valves.
Suppliers of other components, such as strain-
ers and sea cocks, can provide required data on
their products.
It is always necessary to evaluate the design and
installation of cooling circuits by testing the oper-
ation and effectiveness of the completed system
to ensure proper performance and life.
113 LEBW1414-00
Figure 7.30
Resistance of Valves and Fittings
to Flow of Fluids
EXAMPLE: The dotted line shows that
the resistance of a 6-inch Standard
Elbow is equivalent to approximately
16 ft. of a 6-inch Standard Pipe.
NOTE: For sudden enlargements or
sudden contractions, use the smaller
diameter, d, on the pipe size scale.
LEBW1414-00 114
Emergency Radiator Circuits
Some offshore drilling contractors may desire to
install a radiator on one drill rig engine in order
to supply some power whenever the sea water
system becomes inoperative, Figure 7.31.
The radiator core must be suitable for 30 psi
(206 kPa) operation due to the controlled inlet
temperature regulators. The radiator core oper-
ates near the engine jacket water pump pressure
plus radiator cap pressure setting. See the sec-
tion Water Temperature Regulators for additional
information.
The radiator should have an expansion tank to
collect any entrained gas. The pressure cap
should be removed and replaced with a 3/8 in.
(10 mm) vent line to the engine-mounted expan-
sion tank. A 1/4 in. (8 mm) orifice should be
installed to limit flow. If more than one engine
is connected to this radiator, each engine must
have a vent line with a shutoff valve to be closed
when the engine is not running. See the section
Radiators with Expansion Tanks for additional
vent line information.
See the section Watermaker Installation Require-
ments for proper circuit requirements. Figure 7.15
is the proper circuit.
Radiators
Radiator cooling is the most common type of
closed cooling systems. Radiator cooling pro-
vides a closed, self-contained system that is both
simple and practical for most installations.
Cooling of the engine parts is accomplished by
keeping the coolant circulating and in contact
with the metal surfaces to be cooled. The pump
draws the coolant from the bottom of the radia-
tor, forces it through the jackets and passages,
and ejects it into a tank on top of the radiator.
The coolant passes through a set of tubes to the
bottom of the radiator and again is circulated
through the engine by pump action. A fan draws
air over the outside of the tubes in the radiator
and cools the coolant as it flows downward. It
should be noted that the coolant is pumped
through the radiator from the top down.
Figure 7.31
115 LEBW1414-00
The top tank is used for filling, expansion, and
deaeration of engine coolant. Extended systems
using added coolant may require enlarged top
tanks. The top tank is fitted with a pressure cap.
This cap allows coolant level to be checked and
replenished as necessary. The cap also seals the
cooling system and limits its pressure with a
spring loaded disc valve.
The cooling system is designed to operate under
a pressure of 4 to 7 psi (27.6 to 48.3 kPa) which
results in a top tank temperature of 210F (99C).
This limit minimizes water pump cavitation and
prevents steam formation in the engine water
jacket. For each 1 psi (6.9 kPa) of pressure, the
boiling point is raised about 3F (2C).
The radiator fan represents a parasitic load of about
1.5% to 8% of the engine gross power output.
Information on attachment radiator fan groups is
available in the TMI.
A selection of radiators with engine-driven fans is
available for each Caterpillar Engine model. These
radiators are fin and tube type and are generally
available in two sizes for each engine; the smaller
designed for 110F (43C) maximum ambient,
and the larger for 125F (52C) maximum ambi-
ent. 140F (60C) are available for some con-
figurations. Specific values can be supplied, as
ambient capability will vary with engine power.
Performance
Radiator Design Criteria and Considerations
The following factors must be considered when
designing and installing a radiator cooling system.
Size the radiator to accommodate a heat
rejection rate approximately 10% greater
than the engines heat rejection. The additional
10% will compensate for possible variations
from published or calculated heat rejection
rates, overload, and system deterioration.
Even if the expected load is less than the
engine rated power, size the radiator to match
engine rated power.
Correction factors to the observed ambient
air temperature capability for the engine
must not be overlooked. Altitude above sea
level reduces the density of air and its ability
to cool the radiator. A good correction fac-
tor is 2F (1.38C) deducted from the
observed ambient temperature capability for
each 1000 ft. (305 m) above sea level.
Ambient air temperature may not be the
same as the air temperature flowing across
the radiator core. An engine equipped with
an engine-mounted radiator and blower fan
will increase the air temperature as it flows
across the engine to the radiator. The ambi-
ent temperature rise for different radiator
locations is found in Figure 7.32.
Figure 7.32. Estimated air to core rise.
The effects of antifreeze must be considered
when sizing a radiator. The ability to transfer
heat diminishes when water is mixed with
ethylene glycol. The loss in ambient capa-
bility due to antifreeze is about 1.8F (1C)
for each 10% glycol, up to 50%.
Fan noise should be considered when select-
ing radiator location. Fan noise transmits
through the air inlet as well as the outlet. Soft
flexible joints between the radiator and the
ducting will minimize vibration and noise
transmission.
Position the radiator so prevailing winds do
not act against the fan. One form of wind pro-
tection for radiators is a baffle located sev-
eral feet from the radiator air discharge.
Another method is to install an air duct out-
side the wall and mounting the air inlet or
outlet vertically. Large radius bends and turn-
ing vanes prevent turbulence and excessive
air flow restriction.
Backpressure or air flow restriction reduces
radiator performance. If radiator air flow is to
be ducted, consult TMI or your radiator man-
ufacturer regarding the allowable backpres-
sure. An engine installation in an enclosed
space requires that the inlet air flow rate to
the enclosed space include the combustion
air requirements of the engine, unless the air
for the engine is ducted directly to the engine
from the outside.
Blower Suction
Fan Fan
Engine only, outside or 5.4F None
in a large engine room (3C)
Engine/generator outside 7.2F Not
or in a large engine room (4C) Recommended
with generator
Engine/generator in enclosure 12.6F
with external muffler (7C)
Engine/generator in enclosure 16.2F
with internal uninsulated muffler (9C)
LEBW1414-00 116
Air flow losses and Efficiency
Particular attention should be given to items
restricting air flow, both in front of the radia-
tor and to the rear of the fan. The additive
effects of guards, bumpers, grills, and shut-
ters in front of the radiator, pulleys, idlers,
engine-mounted accessories, and the engine
itself behind the fan can drastically reduce
air flow.
Fan Drives
Caterpillar fan drives are designed to prevent exces-
sive crankshaft loading and to resist vibrations.
Fan drives sometimes require an outboard bear-
ing on the crankshaft pulley. These drives must
have a flexible coupling between the pulley and
the engine crankshaft. This coupling must not
interfere with the longitudinal thermal growth of
the crankshaft.
CAUTION: Fan belt and drive guard may not be
factory supplied due to the large number of pos-
sible configurations which we cannot identify.
OSHA and other government bodies may have
regulations concerning this. The user is respon-
sible to provide such guards where required but
not factory supplied.
Figure 7.33
Figure 7.34
Pipe Dimensions
Standard Iron Pipe
Nominal Size Actual I.D. Actual O.D.
ft per m per ft per m per
In (mm) In (mm) In (mm) gal. Liter cu. ft. m
3
1/8 3.18 0.270 6.86 0.405 10.29 336.000 27.000 2513.000 27,049.0
1/4 6.35 0.364 9.25 0.540 13.72 185.000 16.100 1383.000 14,886.0
3/8 9.53 0.494 12.55 0.675 17.15 100.400 8.300 751.000 8083.0
1/2 12.70 0.623 15.82 0.840 21.34 63.100 5.000 472.000 5080.0
3/4 19.05 0.824 20.93 1.050 26.68 36.100 2.900 271.000 2917.0
1 25.40 1.048 26.62 1.315 33.40 22.300 1.900 166.800 1795.0
1-1/4 31.75 1.380 35.05 1.660 42.16 12.850 1.030 96.100 1034.0
1-1/2 38.10 1.610 40.89 1.900 48.26 9.440 .760 70.600 760.0
2 50.80 2.067 52.25 2.375 60.33 5.730 .460 42.900 462.0
2-1/2 63.50 2.468 62.69 2.875 73.02 4.020 .320 30.100 324.0
3 76.20 3.067 77.90 3.550 88.90 2.600 .210 19.500 210.0
3-1/2 88.90 3.548 90.12 4.000 101.60 1.940 .160 14.510 156.0
4 101.60 4.026 102.26 4.500 114.30 1.510 .120 11.300 122.0
4-1/2 114.30 4.508 114.5 5.000 127.00 1.205 .097 9.010 97.0
5 127.00 5.045 128.14 5.563 141.30 0.961 .077 7.190 77.0
6 152.40 6.065 154.00 6.625 168.28 0.666 .054 4.980 54.0
7 177.80 7.023 178.38 7.625 193.66 0.496 .040 3.710 40.0
8 203.20 7.982 202.74 8.625 219.08 0.384 .031 2.870 31.0
9 228.60 8.937 227.00 9.625 244.48 0.307 .025 2.300 25.0
10 254.00 10.019 254.50 10.750 273.05 0.244 .020 1.825 19.6
12 304.80 12.000 304.80 12.750 323.85 0.204 .016 1.526 16.4
117 LEBW1414-00
Radiator Installation Criteria
Piping
Coolant connections must be as large as (or larger
than) applicable engine coolant connections.
Outlet piping to the radiator must have a contin-
uous upward slope. Low spots will cause engine
to be an air trap to combustion gas leakage,
Figures 7.11, 7.13 and 7.43.
In order to maintain the correct flow relationship
in the radiator top tank, it is recommended that
no lines tee into the vent lines.
Offset Radiator
Where compound spacing causes radiator inter-
ference, it is possible to offset radiators to gain
clearance. This is most successful where the radi-
ator fan is radiator mounted.
Crankcase Breathers
Crankcase breather fumes should be ducted
away from the radiator core when blower fans are
used. See the section on Crankcase Ventilation
for further information.
Miscellaneous
Guards should be fabricated for all exposed belts,
pulleys, or fans.
Radiator Mounting on Mobile Equipment
Several of the 3408/3412 radiators require a
base when engine-mounted, Figure 7.35. The
bottom of these radiators is lower than the engine.
The base raises the engine. In such cases, engine
height may become unacceptable. For example,
the derrick may no longer lay down.
Figure 7.36 illustrates the base has not been used
and radiator is supported off the carrier frame.
Determine that upper radiator connections do
not interfere with derrick.
Many times in-line engine configurations will
mount between the carriers frame members. The
radiator usually will not fit. Optional mobile fan
drives can then be used to provide a high mount
fan drive up to the limits of their adjustments. The
customer will have to supply the radiator or at
least fabricate new water lines and supports.
Figure 7.35
Figure 7.36
LEBW1414-00 118
Figure 7.37
The radiator top braces on radiators 17.0 ft
2
(1.6 m
2
) and larger may not be adequate to
restrain the radiator during off-road travel. This
would be particularly true with cross-mounted
engines. For this reason, a sturdy brace is required
between the radiator top tank and rig structure,
Figure 7.37. Brace angle should not be shallower
than that for the existing brace (which is to be
discarded). This bracing recommendation is an
engine installation requirement to be met by
engine installer.
Additionally, service units require the radiator bot-
tomsupports to be securely connected to the rig.
This protects against the large side-to-side chas-
sis movements caused by the triplex pump. The
radiator top may require side bracing as the radi-
ator shock mounts allow large top end movement.
Piping between the engine and the radiator should
be flexible enough to provide for relative motion
between the two. Hoses less than 6 in. (15.24 cm)
in length provide little flexibility and are difficult
to install. If the hose is more than 18 in. (45.7 cm)
in length, it is susceptible to failure from vibration
or coming loose at the connections. Long hoses
on the inlet require wire support on the inside
diameter to prevent collapsing. Support the pip-
ing with brackets, when necessary, to take weight
off a vertical joint. High quality hose, clamps and
fittings are a prerequisite for long life and to avoid
premature failure. It if also necessary to bead pipe
ends to reduce the possibility of a hose blowing
off. Double clamps are desirable for all hose con-
nections under pressure.
Radiator ambient capacity will be reduced by
things such as: fan air recirculation due to vehicle
cab, oil-to-air coolers added to core, watercooled
exhaust manifolds, torque converter coolers, etc.
Radiator Structure
Caterpillar industrial radiators such as the 3300
Series unit construction type and the 3400 Series
bolted core are not designed for applications with
extreme machine vibration and large impact
loads. The maximum total amplitude of vibration
allowed at any point on the radiator core is 10 mil
(5 mil). Core isolation is provided by rubber
mounts from the radiator frame sufficient to limit
core vibration amplitude for relatively high fre-
quency vibration; but low frequency vibration in
the order of 15 Hz may amplify radiator core
motion beyond 10 mil. In these cases special
machine frame or radiator support modifications
must be made.
Radiator Performance Criteria
Since many of the radiators used by equipment
manufacturers will not be Caterpillar designed, a
complete evaluation of the cooling system is
required to prove the capability of the system.
Caterpillar Application Engineering can provide
specific information on methods and criteria used
to evaluate radiator performance criteria or refer
to EDS 50.5, Form LEKQ3296. A cooling system
test needs to be performed in accordance with
EDS 50.5 when a Cat radiator or expansion tank
is NOT used.
Additional Heat Load
Frequently, the engine cooling system is utilized
to cool additional systems, such as transmissions
and torque converters. The heat rejection of these
devices must be considered when sizing the radi-
ator. The additional heat load which must be
added is 30% of flywheel power multiplied by
42.4 Btu/min/hp. (0.74 watt/hr/kW) on engines
driving mud pumps. Use a factor of 20% of fly-
wheel power for torque converters built into trans-
missions.
Because the torque converter oil cooler is on the
pressure side of the engine water pump, pres-
sure rated hose should be used and anchored
119 LEBW1414-00
securely. See Figure 7.39. Hose clamps are inad-
equate to anchor securely. The cooler device
must not present undue restriction to engine
coolant flow.
Figure 7.38 lists the cooler or cooler connections
available on oilfield engines. The btu/min heat
rejection capacity may vary if other than SAE
30W oil is used.
Water lines to the cooler must be high quality and
anchored to the engine so that hose failures due
to rubbing cannot occur.
Figure 7.39
Cold Fill and Low Coolant Level Marks
Caterpillar recommends a cold fill mark be noted
on the expansion tank or surge tank, Figure 7.40.
This indicates to the operator when the cooling
system is full.
The radiator should contain a low coolant level
mark, Figure 7.40. It should be at or above the
coolant level established under the coolant level
heading. This mark should be based on a cold
water condition.
Coolant Level
Caterpillar recommends a water reserve of 2 gal-
lons (7.57 L) or 12% of system capacity, which-
ever is greater, be provided. In systems where
total coolant capacity is more than twice engine
capacity, a reserve of 5% is sufficient.
Radiators With Expansion Tanks
Commercially available radiators may use expan-
sion tanks instead of top tanks. Such a radiator
must also meet the criteria listed in this section,
Figure 7.41, and the section on Remote-Mounted
Radiators.
Expansion and Afterboil Volume
An expansion volume equal to 10% of system
capacity must be provided to accommodate cool-
ant expansion and afterboil occurring at engine
shutdown. Failure to allow for this can result in
coolant overflow, dilution of antifreeze by subse-
quent makeup coolant, and possible water pump
cavitation caused by reduction in coolant level.
In systems where total capacity is more than twice
engine coolant capacity, an expansion volume
of 8% can be used, Figures 7.40 and 7.41.
TORQUE CONVERTER CONNECTIONS
Figure 7.38
Auxiliary Cooling Provisions
3516 3512 3508 3412 3412 3408 3406 3306 3304
(1200) (1200) (1200) (1200) (1800) (1800)
Connections Only
gpm (L/s) 125 100 75 200 215 165 100
(7.9) (6.31) (4.7) (12.7) (13.6) (10) (6.3)
psi (kPa) (water) 5 5.6 6.7 10 10 10 10
(34.5) (38.6) (46.2) (69) (69) (69) (69) (69)
Cooler Only
Oil gpm (L/s) 70 70 37 40 16 20
(4.41) (4.41) (2.33) (2.52) (1.01) (1.26)
Oil psi (kPa) 75 75 75 75 75 75
(517.1) (517.1) (517.1) (517.1) (517.1) (517.1)
psi (kPa) 20 20 16.4 20 20 15
(oil pressure drop) (137.9) (137.9) (113) (137.9) (137.9) (103.4)
Heat Rejection 9558 9558 5688 3750 2225 900
btu/min (kW) (170) (170) (101) (67) (39) (16)
(SAE 30W Oil)
LEBW1414-00 120
Radiator Overfilling
A radiator brim-full will expel water through the
overflow when the engine is started and brought
up to operating temperature. If the radiator is
refilled to brim-full when it is shut down, water
will again be expelled when the engine is started.
Continued operation under this cycling will result
in diluting the cooling system anti-freeze and cor-
rosion protection.
Additionally, makeup water may be poor quality
and cause harmful deposits.
Operating personnel should be instructed to
NOT fill radiators brim-full, but up to the cold
fill mark only.
Air/Gas Venting
Combustion gas leakage and entrained air must be
vented from the cooling liquid. The venting
requirement for each engine is shown in EDS50.5.
Separation of gas from a liquid medium requires
a low coolant velocity at the top of the radiator
and a relatively quiescent flow. Coolant velocity
across the top of a radiator core should be
approximately 2 fps (9.4 cm/s). Another way of
stating this limit is based on the rate of change of
the fluid volume above the core. The maximum
rate of change of volume should be 200 changes
per minute. For example, if the volume of water
above the core is 1 gal and the engine coolant
flow rate is 110 gpm, the 1 gal volume would be
changed 110 times per minute.
Any entrained air present in the external system
is also drawn into the water pump, causing cav-
itation. Cavitation can also be caused by under-
sized piping creating a vacuum at the water pump
inlet, causing water to boil. A cavitating pump
reduces the amount of water being circulated,
usually resulting in engine damage.
Water Pump Cavitation
Given proper conditions of pressure and tem-
perature, all liquids will form a gaseous state
(boiling point). In the cooling system pump inlet,
a gas or vapor bubble will displace liquid and
reduce the amount of liquid that can be pumped.
This loss of pumping volume can be observed as
a loss in water pump pressure rise. The maxi-
mum pump rise loss acceptable at the cavitation
temperature is 10% of the pressure rise observed
at 120F (48C) coolant temperature to the pump
while operating at rated speed. Acceptable cav-
itation temperature for a given engine is 210F
(98C) minus the temperature rise across the
engine when fully loaded. EDS 50.5 shows a
method for calculating temperature rise. As a
general rule, temperature rise will be in the range
of 10F to 18F (5.5C to 10C). The TMI pro-
vides heat rejection to jacket water and pump
flow which allows temperature rise calculations.
RADIATOR TOP TANK REQUIREMENTS
Figure 7.40
121 LEBW1414-00
Cavitation characteristics observed during an
evaluation can be affected by system air venting
capability. If air venting problems are present,
cavitation temperature should be rechecked after
a solution to the venting problem is found.
Cooling Level Sensitivity (Drawdown)
Drawdown capability from full coolant level with
180F (82C) pump inlet temperature and engine
operating at rated speed must be 12% of the total
system volume with no more than a 10% loss in
pump pressure rise. This level, so established, is
the low level reference position and should be
marked in such a manner on the radiator top
tank that it can be accurately detected by visual
inspection. A metal plate or sight glass should
be provided. The 12% value is appropriate for
a system which uses a 7 psi pressure cap, but
lower pressure systems should provide 16%
drawdown capability.
Duct Work
Duct work and adjustable shutters can be used to
direct some or all of the warmed radiator air for
heating purposes. If this air is used to heat the
engine room, engine room temperature should
be below 75F (24C).
Duct work should be supported independent of
engine or radiator.
Static pressure imposed by duct work must be
determined for each installation. The radiator
manufacturer should be consulted to determine
permissible static pressure.
Radiator Air Flow
Backpressure or air flow restriction reduces radi-
ator performance. If radiator air flow is to be
ducted, consult the radiator manufacturer regard-
ing allowable backpressure. An engine installation
in an enclosed space requires that the inlet air vol-
ume include engine combustion air requirements.
Remote-Mounted Radiators
Remote systems impose added restriction on
cooling water flow by additional piping and fit-
tings. An auxiliary pump in series with the engine-
mounted pump should not be used to overcome
this restriction. Consideration should be given to
radiator design and larger piping.
Figure 7.41
LEBW1414-00 122
TMI contains performance curves of various
jacket water pumps. Refer to Figures 7.27, 7.28,
7.29 and 7.30 for information on water velocity
versus flow, frictional losses of water in pipe, and
resistance of valves and fittings to flow of fluids.
Remote-mounted radiators should never be
located more than 57 ft. (17.5 m) above the
engine. At greater heights, the static head devel-
oped may cause leakage of the engine water
pump seals.
The radiator top tank loses its air venting capa-
bility if it is located belowthe level of the engine
regulator housing. When a radiator must be
mounted lower than the engine, the factory sup-
plied expansion tank must be used, Figure 7.42.
Radiator design operating pressure must be
increased by 1 psi (6.9 kPa) for every 2 ft.
(610 mm) the engine is above the radiator. Radia-
tor pressure caps should not be used. It should be
removed and the opening sealed. For best oper-
ation, water flow through the radiator should be
reversed. This ensures gas or air does not get
trapped in the radiator top tank, Figure 7.42.
Remote radiators may also be on the same level
as the engine, Figure 7.43.
Oversize piping may be required to minimize pip-
ing loss.
As shown in Figure 7.43, do not run the engine
water outlet line below the engine. Such design
does not allow the engine to vent air or combus-
tion gas to the radiator. Vent plugs could vent for
initial fill, but combustion gas produced during
operation would accumulate in the engine cool-
ing system and cause severe engine damage.
Radiators for use with expansion tanks must
withstand a water operating pressure of 30 psi
(207 kPa). (Caterpillar radiators are not recom-
mended for this pressure.) This higher tube
pressure results because the thermostats in an
expansion tank circuit are changed to a controlled
inlet configuration. See the section on Water
Temperature Regulators. Conventional radiator
tubes may flex and leak due to this pressure.
Figure 7.42
Figure 7.43
123 LEBW1414-00
WATER HEATER
Figure 7.44
Jacket Water Heaters
Jacket water heaters should be considered for
faster, easier starting in ambient air temperatures
below 70F (21C). All automatic installations,
standby generators, etc., should include these
heaters, Figure 7.44.
JACKET WATER HEATER SIZES
(Minimum Ambient Room Temperatures F/C,
No Wind and 10 hour warmup to 90F/33C)
Figure 7.45
Figure 7.45 indicates the correct size heater for
each engine model at minimum ambient room
temperatures to maintain engine jacket water
at approximately 90F (32C). Heater sizing
is based on wind velocity around the engine of
0 mph (0 kmh).
When a 15 mph (24 kmh) wind is present, heater
requirement doubles.
Time required for temperature to stabilize is
10 hours. Wattage requirements for shorter time
periods are inversely proportional to the 10-hour
requirements.
These heaters do not require circulating pumps.
Physical location and exposure to wind can affect
sizing.
Contact Caterpillar for special voltages, three-
phase current, and special heaters for ambient
temperatures lower than those listed.
For those who install their own systems, these
suggestions should be noted.
1. Mount heater as low as possible.
2. Cold water inlet to heater should be from
lowest possible point in the engine cooling
system.
3. Avoid cold water loops any situation where
cold water must rise to enter the heater.
4. Join hot water side of heater near top of
engine cooling system, but below the ther-
mostats. CAUTION: DO NOT CREATE HOT
WATER LOOPS. Hot water line should enter
engine in either a horizontal or slightly
inclined plane, eliminating the possibility of
forming a steam pocket.
5. Use same pipe size (or larger) as heater
connections.
Cold Weather Considerations
Form SEBU5338-01 Cold Weather Operation,
contains information on operation, lubrication,
and maintenance in cold weather conditions.
Methods of retaining engine heat are discussed
below.
Commercially available radiator shutters should
be considered. Fan air flow across the engine
increases heat lost to radiation. Particularly at
light load, shutters minimize this heat loss and
raises the engine temperature.
kW required
Engine
Attachment Units to achieve
Model 3.0 kW 2 3.0 kW 40F/40C
3516 10/23 9 kW
3512 30/34 7.5 kW
3508 40/40 5.5 kW
3412 40/40 4.5 kW
3408 40/40 3.5 kW
3406 40/40 3 kW
3306 40/40 1 kW
3304 40/40 .75 kW
Commercially available diesel fuel fired jacket
water heaters should be considered on engines
that must start when no AC power is available.
Engine enclosures or engine room enclosures are
recommended to retain engine heat.
Extreme Cold Weather Considerations
Extreme conditions require additional protection,
Figure 7.46. This protection is commercially
available.
The radiator should be in a separate room from
the engine. Absence of the radiator air flow will
ensure the engine environment is kept at a warmer
temperature in cold weather.
In warm temperatures, the weather enclosure is
either removed or opened. Radiator cooling air
is drawn in through a roof door in the radiator room
during winter operation. Normally, radiator dis-
charge air is utilized for rig heating.
If emissions regulations allow them, two-speed
radiator fans are recommended because they
offer several advantages for utilization of engine
heat. First, lower fan speed reduces air flow and
consequently increases air temperature rise of the
radiator air flow utilized for rig heating. Second,
radiator fan horsepower is considerably reduced.
Sensors for the two-speed motor and shutters
have to be protected from being affected by the
cold air coming through the roof door. The roof
door area is sized to accommodate only the
low fan speed air requirements. The opening is
adjustable. The enclosure door will have to be
opened by hand for summertime operation.
The house should be as airtight as possible. This
includes an air barrier under the engine oil pan,
as illustrated.
To minimize air changes in the engine room,
combustion air can be ducted to the air cleaner
from outside, as shown. An air source valve is
included so the engine can be started and idled
on the warmer air in the engine room. The engine
should be operated on outside air. Otherwise, a
vacuum may be caused in the engine room,
depending upon how airtight the engine room
is. Air cleaner adapters are available to connect
ducting.
Heavy duty air cleaners can be utilized for pro-
tecting the engine from air cleaner plugging due
to ice fogs, if they occur.
Crankcase breather fumes should be piped out of
the engine room to minimize oily deposits. In
extremely cold weather, the fumes may have to
be discharged into the engine room due to
breather outlet freezing. Fumes should be dis-
charged as remotely as possible from engine air
cleaner inlets. An alternative sometimes used is
to discharge the fumes under the power module
base where it is generally warmer.
Lube oil and jacket water heaters should be pro-
vided. They are required for cold startup after a
LEBW1414-00 124
Figure 7.46
125 LEBW1414-00
rig move. (Power is supplied by a small cold start
generator set.) They also can be used to main-
tain the temperature of an engine that is not run-
ning. On many rigs all engines are generally run
at all times, as there is no reliable way to keep the
engine ready for service at a moments notice,
with a resultant increase in fuel usage. Jacket
water heaters are readily available, but oil heaters
are not. Oil is difficult to heat without circulation.
Thus, immersion-type oil heaters are generally
not recommended as they lead to coking of the
oil. Unitized oil and water heaters are commer-
cially available which overcome the problem.
They employ oil and water circulating pumps for
proper system operation.
Exhaust piping should be so arranged that exhaust
will NOT be drawn into the radiator or combus-
tion air inlet.
Sizing and Installing Radiators for
EPA Certified 3500B Engines
Consult EPA document 40 CFR Part 89 for detailed
information on EPA regulations. Caterpillar radi-
ators meet these requirements.
Radiators must be sized to properly cool both the
jacket water and SCAC systems at maximum
ambient conditions and the conditions described
below to comply with the EPA regulation. Failure
to do so may be considered tampering.
Jacket water system sizing for EPA-certified
engines remains the same as non-certified
engines. The SCAC system, however, must be
properly sized to comply with EPA legislation.
Specifically:
SCAC radiator system must provide a maximum
of 140F (60C) coolant to the aftercooler at
140 gpm (530 L/min) minimum flow on an 86F
(30C) ambient day. Ambient is defined as air
temperature outside of the engine room or build-
ing in which it is installed.
Unless air cleaners are ducted to air at ambient
temperature (inside or outside of the engine room),
there will be an air temperature rise to the air
cleaner. This rise will increase the intake manifold
temperature and therefore affect emissions. To
compensate for this air rise to the air cleaners (in
cases where ducting is not possible), SCAC water
temperature must be lowered by the amount of
air temperature rise above ambient in a 1:1 ratio.
Caterpillar 3500B engine-mounted radiators are
sized to allow for a 7F (4C) air rise to the inlet
face of the radiator core (ATC) without ducting
the air cleaners. Optional Caterpillar high ambi-
ent radiators (122F, 50C) are available that
allow up to a 19F (10C) ATC rise where duct-
ing is not practical.
For non-Caterpillar radiators or remote-mounted
radiators, compensate for the air rise to the air
cleaners by using the aforementioned 1:1 ratio.
For example, if the temperature rise to the inlet
of the air cleaner is 10F (6C), the SCAC water
temperature to the aftercooler must be 140F
10F = 130F at 86F ambient (60C 6C =
54C at 30C ambient). Depending on the instal-
lation, it may be more economical to duct the air
cleaners to an ambient air location, or provide a
larger SCAC radiator.
Consult EPA document 40 CFR Part 89 for proper
usage of auxiliary radiator control devices (such
as variable frequency drives, multi-speed motors,
dampers etc.) to ensure they are in compliance
with the regulators.
Supplemental Radiator Design Criteria
Although Caterpillar-designed cooling packages
are recommended for many applications, there
are occasions where equipment manufacturers
prefer to supply their own radiators. The follow-
ing additional items should be considered with
these radiators.
Radiator Structure
Mobile equipment applications require radiator
construction which incorporates bolted top and
bottom tanks with side channel support. Rein-
forcing strips should be used on both sides of the
core header-to-tank bolted joint to limit distortion.
Compressed rubber is often incorporated between
the core and the inboard side of the channel
members to provide additional core support.
A complete evaluation of the cooling system is
required to prove the capability of the system.
Reference material for such an evaluation is pro-
vided by Engine Data Sheet EDS 50.5. Another
useful reference for evaluating radiator top tank
design is provided by EDS 52.1.
Cooling Capability
Caterpillar requires the maximum coolant dis-
charge temperature to the radiator to be 210F
(98C) for sea level operation and recommends
a minimum ambient capability of 110F (42.9C)
LEBW1414-00 126
during full load operation at all operating speeds.
This includes all additional heat loads which
might be imposed on the cooling system such
as torque converter coolers or air-to-oil coolers
which might be added in front of the radiator.
As indicated in EDS 50.5, certain measuring
devices are required to evaluate cooling capa-
bility. A suitable method for measuring engine
power could be a fuel meter, fuel setting indica-
tor (rack position), or dynamometer. Additional
measured data are engine speed, jacket water
and aftercooler coolant temperatures in and out
of radiator, air temperature to the radiator (sev-
eral locations), and ambient air temperature
which is sampled far enough from the machine
to eliminate effects of heat generated by the
operating machine.
Location of the test site should be such that
heated air which has passed through the radia-
tor is not forced back through the radiator in an
unrealistic manner by walls or other adjacent
structures (recirculation of air). Recirculation of
air can also be an inherent characteristic of the
cooling system but should be avoided. Locating
narrow strips of cloth on small pieces of wire fas-
tened at various locations around the outside sur-
face of the radiator provides an excellent flow
path indicator. Another useful tool for indicating
air flow path can be made by attaching a narrow
strip of cloth to the end of a long piece of wire
which can be used as a probe around the engine
or radiator periphery. Baffling of the radiator or air
flow directors are often necessary to ensure that
unheated ambient air is directed to the radiator
for most effective cooling. This is an insidious
problem which should not be overlooked.
Cooling capability of a radiator and torque con-
verter cooler are referenced to a 70% or 80% con-
verter efficiency operating level as a general design
consideration. Normally, the performance char-
acteristics of speed and torque ratio, input and out-
put power, and the heat generated by lost power
is provided by the torque converter manufacturer.
The efficiency characteristic will be associated
with an engine speed, and cooling system oper-
ating characteristics should be observed at this
engine speed whenever possible.
Equipment manufacturers often find that impos-
ing a load on the engine is difficult to accom-
plish during cooling test operations. Direct drive
machines are the most difficult and usually require
that some type of dynamometer or other load
absorbing device be fastened to the output shaft.
Torque converters can be used as load absorbing
devices if a separate cooling method (such as
cold plant water) is provided to the cooler.
Extended operation at converter stall can be
accomplished allowing all coolant temperatures
to stabilize without excessive torque converter oil
temperature. Note, however, that the cooling
capability established in this manner does not
include the equivalent of 20% to 30% flywheel
horsepower which would normally be cooled by
the engine cooling system. This must be included
by calculation in the same manner as the calcu-
lation shown in EDS 50.5 for extrapolating
observed temperature data to 210F (90C) radi-
ator top tank conditions. The additional heat load
which must be added is 20% to 30% of flywheel
horsepower multiplied times 42.4 Btu/min/hp.
Filling Ability (Reference EDS 50.5)
The cooling system must accept a bucket fill
method (interrupted) and continuous fill method
at a minimum rate of 5 gpm (18.9 L/min) with-
out air lock (false fill). The coolant should not be
below the qualified low operating level after
engine start and warm-up. The low coolant level
is established during drawdown tests. False fill is
a potential problem with all types of radiators.
Pump Cavitation (Reference EDS 50.5)
Verify capability in accordance with the earlier dis-
cussion of water pump cavitation.
Cavitation characteristics observed during an
evaluation can be affected by the system air vent-
ing capability. If air venting problems are present,
the cavitation temperature should be rechecked
after a solution to the venting problem is found.
Cooling Level Sensitivity (Drawdown)
(Reference EDS 50.5)
Verify capability in accordance with the earlier
discussion of cooling level sensitivity (Drawdown).
Air/Gas Venting (Reference EDS 50.5)
Verify capability in accordance with the earlier
discussion of air/gas venting. See Figures 7.47,
7.48, and 7.49 for suggested vent and fill piping
routing.
127 LEBW1414-00
Other Radiator Considerations
Radiator inlet and outlet diameters should be the
same or, if possible, larger on the outlet and should
be located on diagonally opposite sides to limit
channeling of coolant flow on one side of the
core. The bottom tank height of the radiator
should be no less than the outlet tube diameter.
Radiator Core
Core frontal area should be as large as possible
to minimize restriction to air flow. Low radiator
core restriction usually results in being able to
provide a larger diameter, quieter, slower turning
fan, which demands less drive horsepower. Radi-
ator cores which are nearly square can provide
the most effective fan performance. They can be
installed with a minimum of unswept core area.
As a general rule, keep core thicknesses to a
minimum with a maximum of 11 fins per inch.
Increasing the number of fins per inch does
increase the radiator heat rejection for a given air
velocity through the core but at the cost of
increasing the resistance to airflow. While the
most economical initial cost will be maximum
core thicknesses and fins per inch, this involves
higher fan horsepower with consequent operat-
ing cost and noise penalties throughout the life
of the installation. In addition, a radiator with
more fins per inch is much more susceptible to
plugging from insects and debris.
Fan Recommendations
A. Fan Diameter and Speed
As a general rule, the most desirable fan is
one having the largest diameter and turning
at the lowest speed to deliver the required air
flow. This also results in lower fan noise and
lowest fan horsepower draw from the engine.
Blade tip speed, while being only one of
the elements of cooling fan design, is an
itemeasily changed with choice of fan drive
pulley diameter. An optimum fan tip veloc-
ity of 14,000 fpm (7112 cm/s) is a good
compromise for meeting noise legislation
requirements and cooling system perform-
ance requirements. Maximum acceptable
tip speed is 16,000 fpm (9144 cm/s) for
Caterpillar fans.
B. Fan Performance
Proper selection and placement of the fan is
critical to the efficiency of the cooling sys-
tem. It requires careful matching of the fan
and radiator by determining air flow needed
and static air pressure which the fan must
overcome. This must be done since most dis-
crepancies between cooling system calculated
performance and test results are traceable
to the air side and directly related to items
affecting fan air flow.
There are two major considerations for proper
fan selection:
1. Air flow needed to provide the required
cooling.
2. Select a fan that provides the required
air flow, and one that is relatively insen-
sitive to small changes in static pressure.
This desired design point is where a
small change in static pressure does not
cause a large change in air flow. Select-
ing a lower pressure point is not recom-
mended as it could be in the unstable
stall area where a small change in static
pressure causes a large change in air
flow. Performance curves for available
Caterpillar fans are shown as air flow
(cfm), static pressure head, (inches of
water, gauge) and horsepower in the
TMI. The Caterpillar curves are based on
standard air density, an efficient fan
shroud, and no obstructions.
This is a theoretical air flow which is sel-
dom possible because of some obstruc-
tion. Theoretical air flow sometimes can
be approached with the fan in a properly
designed close fitting shroud with no
more than 0.0625 in. (1.6 mm) blade tip
clearance. Such a close fitting shroud
is not practical, and tip clearance is
increased; a 0.5 in. (12.7 mm) clearance
is generally recommended. When a fan
speed different from those shown in the
curves is needed, the additional perfor-
mance data can be calculated using these
fan rules:
For Speed Changes
cfm
2
= cfm
1
rpm
2 _____
rpm
1
LEBW1414-00 128
Ps
2
= Ps
1
( )
2
hp
2
= hp
1
( )
3
For Diameter Changes
cfm
2
= cfm
1
( )
3
Ps
2
= Ps
1
( )
2
hp
2
= hp
1
( )
5
For Air Density Changes
Ps
2
= Ps
1
hp
2
= hp
1
Ambient Capability Adjustments
(Air Flow or Fan rpm Changes)
T
2
= T
1
( )
0.7
T
2
= T
1
( )
0.7
Maximum Ambient Capability =
210 T
2
cfm= Air flow in cubic feet per minute.
rpm= Fan speed in revolutions per minute.
Ps = Static pressure in inches of water.
hp = Fan horsepower.
Dia = Fan diameter in inches.
= Air density in pounds per cubic foot.
T = Coolant top tank temperature minus
ambient air temperature.
C. Fan Shrouds and Fan Location
Two desirable types of shrouds are: venturi
and box.
Maximum air flow and efficiency is provided
by a tight fitting venturi shroud with sufficient
tunnel length to provide straight air stream-
lines. Small fan clearances require a fixed
fan or an adjustable shroud. Although they
are somewhat less efficient than the venturi
shroud, box-type shrouds are most com-
monly used because of lower cost. Properly
positioned, a simple orifice opening in the
box shroud is practical. Straight tunnel
shrouds are usually less effective than ven-
turi or box shrouds. The fan tip clearance
should be 0.5 in. (12.7 mm) or less. A prop-
erly designed shroud will:
1. Increase air flow.
2. Distribute air flow across core for more
efficient use of available area.
3. Prevent recirculation of air.
As a general rule, suction fans should be no
closer to the core than the projected blade
width of the fan. Greater distance gives bet-
ter performance. Consider also that engine-
mounted items close to the back side of the
fan can introduce vibrations into the fan to
cause fan failure, increase fan noise, and
reduce air flow. Suction fans should be posi-
tioned so that two-thirds of the projected
width is inside a box shroud orifice plate
while a blower fan position is one-third inside
the shroud.
rpm
1 _____
rpm
2
cmf
1 _____
cfm
2

2 __

2 __

1
Dia
2 _____
Dia
1
Dia
2 _____
Dia
1
Dia
2 _____
Dia
1
rpm
2 _____
rpm
1
rpm
2 _____
rpm
1
129 LEBW1414-00
Proper Venting for Non-Standard Radiators
OUTLET CONTROLLED WITH VERTICAL RADIATOR CORE
Figure 7.47
OUTLET CONTROLLED WITH VERTICAL CROSS FLOW RADIATOR
Figure 7.48
OUTLET CONTROLLED WITH HORIZONTAL RADIATOR
Figure 7.49
LEBW1414-00 130
The lubricating system of a modern diesel engine
accomplishes three purposes. First, it lubricates
friction surfaces to minimize friction losses.
Second, it cools internal engine parts which can-
not be directly cooled by the engines water cool-
ing system. Third, it cleans the engine by flushing
away wear particles.
Proper lubrication requires clean oil free from
abrasive particles and corrosive compounds. It
requires a lubricant with sufficient film strength to
withstand bearing pressures, low enough vis-
cosity index to flow properly when cold and high
enough to retain film strength when subjected to
heat exposure on cylinder and piston walls. The
lubricant must neutralize harmful combustion
products and hold them in suspension for the
duration of the oil change period. Your local
Caterpillar Dealer should be consulted to deter-
mine the best lubricant for local fuels.
The 3600 Series diesel engines and all Gas
engines have different, unique oil specifications
and requirements.
Cleanliness
Normal engine operation generates a variety of
contamination ranging from microscopic metal
particles to corrosive chemicals. If the engine oil
is not kept clean through filtration, this contam-
ination would be carried through the engine via
the oil.
Oil filters are designed to remove these harmful
debris particles from the lubrication system. Use
of a filter beyond its intended life can result in a
plugged filter.
A plugged filter will cause the bypass valve to
open releasing unfiltered oil. Any debris particles
in the oil will then flow directly to the engine.
Solid particles are removed from the oil by
mechanical filtration. Filter mesh size is deter-
mined by the maximum particle size that can be
circulated without noticeable abrasive action.
Standard oil filter systems on Caterpillar Engines
meet these requirements and are sized to pro-
vide reasonable time intervals between element
changes. Filter change intervals relate to oil
change periods.
Caterpillar filters are designed to provide
maximum engine protection. Use of genuine
Caterpillar elements is encouraged for adequate
engine protection.
Larger oil pans are available on some engines.
They provide increased oil change intervals
and/or increased tilt angle capability.
Lubricating Oil Requirements
Sulfur content of todays diesel fuels is increas-
ing in certain areas. Fuel supplies around the
world are limited and in order to maintain
needed quantities, refineries are buying crude oil
wherever available. Sulfur levels of these crude
oils vary significantly. Sulfur content of refined
diesel fuel is dependent upon the amount of sul-
fur in the crude supply, and the refiners ability
to remove it.
When diesel fuel is burned in the engines com-
bustion chamber, fuel sulfur is converted to sul-
fur oxides. These compounds will unite with
water vapor to form acids. When the vapors cool
and condense in the valve guides or in the pis-
ton ring belt area, the acids attack metal and
cause corrosive wear. One function of the engine
lubricating oil is to neutralize the acids and retard
metal corrosion.
One factor that influences the formation of cor-
rosive acids is the engine jacket water outlet
temperature. If the outlet temperature is below
175F (70C), acid vapor is readily formed
because of the lower dew point temperature and
corrosion can occur. This is true even in fuels
with less than 0.5% sulfur. Under the above con-
dition, the fuel performs as if it contained two
to three times the percent of sulfur that it actu-
ally has.
When corrosion occurs, the usual signs are liner
wear and ring wear. However, top ring wear is
not caused by corrosion but by the ring work-
ing/sliding against a pitted surface. This pitted
surface can peel layers of chrome off the ring
surfaces. Ring and liner wear will result in exces-
sive oil consumption.
Also, the water content of the oil increases
because of the lower temperature. The water
can react with the additives, deplete them and
form sludge. This reduces the oils protective
property.
LUBRICATION
131 LEBW1414-00
Additives
Lubricating oil consists of a mixture of base oil
fortified with certain additives. Depending on
the type of base, paraffinic, asphaltic, naph-
thenic or intermediate (which has some of the
properties of the former), different additive
chemistries are used.
Certain lubricating oil additives contain alkaline
constituents which perform the neutralizing func-
tion. The measure of alkalinity in a lube oil is
termed TBN or Total Base Number. Oils having
high initial TBN values will generally have more
reserve alkalinity or acid neutralizing capacity.
To minimize engine corrosive wear caused by
increases in fuel sulfur levels, engine oils with
higher alkalinity reserve (TBN) are essential.
Guidelines have been developed to be used in
the selection of engine lubricating oils that may
permit standard oil drain intervals when using
diesel fuel with up to 1.5% sulfur content. This can
be accomplished through use of oils with appro-
priate alkalinity reserves (new oil TBN values)
and satisfactory verification procedures listed in
oil analysis.
Figure 8.1 contains the necessary information to
select the appropriate new oil alkalinity value
(TBN) for the sulfur level in the fuel being used.
It must be kept in mind the new oil recommended
TBN value will provide acceptable performance
up to the standard drain interval, and we do not
recommend selecting oils with significantly
higher TBN values. More than 5 TBN above rec-
ommended is not advisable.
High Sulfur Fuels
Caterpillar lube oil change period recommen-
dations are based on the use of diesel fuels con-
taining 0.4% or less of sulfur by weight. Fuel
sulfur can produce rapid engine wear. Fuels of
higher sulfur content than 0.4% will require
reducing the oil change interval and/or use of
high TBN oil. These measures reduce the cor-
rosive effect of the sulfuric acid that is formed by
the sulfur and other by-products of combustion.
The properties of the specific lube oil used, load
factor, and other variables may affect the rate
of wear due to sulfur. The lube oil supplier should
be consulted for the analysis parameters and
limits which will assure satisfactory engine per-
formance with his products.
TBN by ASTM D2896
Percentage of fuel sulfur by weight
TBN of new oil
Change the oil when the TBN deteriorates to 50% of the original TBN
Figure 8.1
2
1
X
Y
1
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
3
5
7
9
11
13
15
17
Y X
2
1
% FUEL SULFUR, BY WEIGHT
T
B
N
Contamination
Contamination refers to the presence of unwanted
material or contaminants in the oil. There are
seven major contaminants.
1. Wear Elements
Wear elements are regarded as those ele-
ments whose presence indicates a part or
component which is wearing. Wear ele-
ments include: copper, iron, chromium, alu-
minum, lead-tin, molybdenum, silicon,
nickel, and magnesium.
2. Dirt and Soot
Dirt can get into the oil via air blowing down
past the rings and by sticking to the oil film
and being scraped down from cylinder walls.
Soot is unburned fuel. Black smoke and a
dirty air filter indicate its presence. It causes
oil to turn black.
3. Fuel
Unburned fuel may enter under cold condi-
tions or enter when the engine is not run-
ning, but with a high static fuel pressure.
4. Water
It can condense in the crankcase if the
engine operating temperature is insufficient.
The usual means of entry is via leaks.
5. Ethylene Glycol/Antifreeze
6. Sulfur Products/Acids
7. Oxidation Products
Oxidation products cause the oil to thicken;
oxidation rate is accelerated by high tem-
perature of the inlet air.
Scheduled Oil Sampling (SOS)
Many Caterpillar Dealers offer Scheduled Oil
Sampling as a means of determining engine
condition by analyzing lubricating oil for wear
particles. This program will analyze the wear
rate of your engines, indicate any shortcomings
in engine maintenance, show first signs of exces-
sive wear which would mean an upcoming fail-
ure, and help keep repair costs to a minimum.
This program may not indicate lube oil condition
nor predict a fatigue or sudden failure. Caterpillar
recommendations for oil and oil change periods
are published in Service Literature. Caterpillar
does not recommend exceeding published oil
change recommendations without verification
procedures.
Oils of the same alkalinity value may not per-
form the same. Oil alkalinity can be achieved
through a variety of additive formulations; some
are more effective against acid corrosive wear
than others. For this reason, it will be necessary
to closely monitor engine wear with Scheduled
Oil Sampling (SOS) Atomic Absorption
Wear Analysis. If oil recommendations are fol-
lowed and excessive wear is indicated by unac-
ceptable levels of iron (Fe) and chromium (Cr)
wear particles, it will be necessary to shorten
the oil change interval or change to another oil
of higher TBN value. If such oils are not avail-
able, SOS can provide the information nec-
essary to establish the maximum limit for a
reduced drain interval.
Other SOS elements (e.g., copper, aluminum,
tin and silicon) should not be ignored, however,
since acid corrosion is not the only cause of
engine wear. Infrared analysis can provide oil
condition information indicating problems that
may be contributing to engine wear.
If the means are available to analyze used oil
TBN by ASTM D2896, use Figure 8.1 to deter-
mine the minimum TBN allowable in used oil.
Minimum allowable TBN is determined by fuel
sulfur content. These limits are higher for pro-
portionately higher fuel sulfur contents. Con-
trolled laboratory tests have demonstrated this
is necessary because oil alkalinity concentra-
tion in critical areas having only small amounts
of oil (valve guides and piston ring belt areas)
must be proportionately higher to effectively
neutralize the higher quantities of acids pro-
duced in those areas.
Coping with effects of fuel sulfur is not a simple
problem. Oils with larger quantities of acid neu-
tralizing components will have higher ash con-
tents. This may increase deposits on exhaust
valve heads and turbocharger nozzle rings. Even
though proper use of lubricants and oil drain
intervals reduce the degree of corrosive attack,
engine wear will increase when high sulfur fuel
is used.
Synthetic Lubricants
Caterpillar Inc. neither endorses nor recommends
a brand or type of extended oil drain interval
crankcase oil for its engines.
LEBW1414-00 132
133 LEBW1414-00
Crankcase oil is changed because it becomes
contaminated with soot (unburned carbon),
wear products, partially burned fuel, acids,
dirt, and products of combustion. The additive
components included in the oil become depleted
as they perform their intended functions of dis-
persing soot, preventing oxidation, wear, foam-
ing, etc. Caterpillar requires engine crankcase
lubricants to meet Engine Service Designation
API CH-4.
Special Oil Formulations
Caterpillar does not recommend the use of addi-
tives to extend oil change periods. Oil additives
such as graphite, teflon, molybdenum disulfide,
etc., which have been properly blended into an
oil that meets API CH-4 specification can be
used in Caterpillar Diesel Engines. These addi-
tives are not necessary to achieve normal life
and performance of the engine.
Normal engine life and performance can be
achieved by properly applying the engine, by
servicing at recommended oil change period,
by selecting the correct oil viscosity, by using a
API CH-4 oil, and performing maintenance as
outlined in the engine operation and mainte-
nance guide.
Caterpillar does not recommend the use of
molybdenum dithiophosphate friction modifier
additive in the engine oil. This additive causes
rapid corrosion of bronze components in
Caterpillar Diesel Engines.
Lubricating Oil
Oils meeting Engine service classification
API CH-4 are recommended for Caterpillar
Diesel Engines. Publication Caterpillar Com-
mercial Diesel Engine Fluids Recommenda-
tions, form SEBU6251-06, contains complete
information.
Viscosity is the property of oil which defines its
thickness or resistance to flow. Viscosity is
directly related to how well an oil will lubricate
and protect surfaces that contact one another.
Oil must be provided in adequate supply to all
moving parts, regardless of the temperature.
The more viscous (thicker) an oil is, the stronger
the oil film it will provide.
The required viscosity is listed in Figure 8.2.
Multiviscosity oils are acceptable. In extreme
cold weather operation, where engines are
located in enclosed heated rooms, some oper-
ators and contractors prefer to make their oil
viscosity selection based on the expected range
of temperature within the engine room. After a
winter rig move, this may require use of space
heaters in the engine room for an extended
period of time before the engines can be started.
Figure 8.2
Lubricating Oil Heaters
Caterpillar does not recommend the use of
immersion-type lubrication oil heaters due to their
tendency to overheat the oil in contact with the
heating element. This overheating causes dete-
rioration and sludging of the lubricating oil and
may lead to premature engine failure.
To avoid this condition, when using an oil heater,
heater skin temperatures should not exceed
300F (150C) and have a maximum heat den-
sity of 8 W/in
2
(12.5 W/1000 mm
2
).
Prelubrication
3512 and 3516 Vee-type engines have the capa-
bility to prelubricate all critical bearing journals
before energizing the starting motors.
The automatic system, standard on the 3516 drill
rig engine utilizes a small air powered pump which
fills the engine oil galleries from the engine oil
sump until the presence of oil is sensed at the
upper portion of the lubrication system. Starter
motors are automatically energized only after the
engine has been adequately prelubricated.
Engine Oil Viscosity
Caterpillar DEO Ambient Temperature
Multigrade
EMA LRG-1
API CH-4
Minimum Maximum
API CG-4
and API CF-4
Viscosity Grade
SAE 0W20 40F (40C) 50F (10C)
SAE 0W30 40F (40C) 86F (30C)
SAE 0W40 40F (40C) 104F (40C)
SAE 5W30 22F (30C) 86F (30C)
SAE 5W40 22F (30C) 104F (40C)
SAE 10W30 4F (20C) 104F (40C)
SAE 15W40 5F (15C) 122F (50C)
LEBW1414-00 134
Duplex Oil Filter System
Oilfield engines that require marine classification
society certification must be capable of oil filter
change while running.
The optional Caterpillar Duplex Oil Filter System
(available for 3408, 3412, 3508, 3512, and 3516
offshore engines) meets requirements of the
standard filter system plus an auxiliary filter sys-
tem with necessary valves and piping, Figure 8.3.
The system provides means for changing either
main or auxiliary filter elements with the engine
running at any load or speed. A filter change indi-
cator is included to tell when to change the main
filter elements. A vent valve allows purging of air
trapped in either the main or auxiliary system
when installing new elements. Air must be purged
from the changed section to eliminate possible
turbocharger and bearing damage. The auxiliary
system is capable of providing adequate oil fil-
tration for at least 100 hours under full load and
speed operation. The same filter elements are
used in both systems.
Changing the filters when the engine is running
is not recommended when engine driven radia-
tors are used since fan blast may disperse oil dur-
ing filter change.
DUPLEX LUBE OIL FILTER
Figure 8.3
Remote Filters
Some Caterpillar Engines have the capability for
remote mounting the oil filter when space limita-
tion or serviceability is a problem on mobile type
land drill rigs. However, authorization from
Caterpillar Inc. must be obtained before making
any modification to the engine lubrication system.
While remote filters have more potential for oil
leaks, they seldom cause problems when the fol-
lowing recommendations are followed:
A. Exercise cleanliness during removal and
installation of oil filters and lines. Keep all
openings covered until final connections
are made.
B. Use medium pressure high temperature
(250F [120C]) hose equivalent to or
exceeding SAE 100R5 specification.
C Keep oil lines as short as possible and at least
as large as engine connections.
D. Support hose as necessary to keep from
chafing or cutting on sharp corners.
E. Use care in connecting oil lines so the direc-
tion of oil flow is correct. CAUTION: Engine
damage will occur if oil filter is improperly
connected.
Tilt Angles
Installations at a permanent tilt or slant angle
should be reviewed to ensure the lubrication sys-
tem will function properly. Transient and contin-
uous tilt angle limits are shown for all engines in
the TMI.
Supplemental Bypass Filters
Supplemental filters generally fall into two cate-
gories. The first are centrifugal filters. Centrifugal
filters remove solids from the oil such as sludge,
wear materials, soot and carbonous material.
Centrifugal filters can extend the operating hours
before the primary filters become restricted as
indicated by oil filter differential pressure.
The second category of supplemental filters is
absorptive filters. Absorptive filters have an
absorbent media such as cotton or cellulose
fibers which absorb acids, moisture and remove
contaminants from the oil.
Caterpillar Engines usually do not require a sup-
plemental bypass oil filter system. However there
may exist some unusual operating condition
which would cause the user to install a system.
Centrifugal filters have proved helpful in extend-
ing the primary filter life while absorptive filters
reduce acids and contaminants in the oil.
FUEL
FILTER
OIL
FILTER
135 LEBW1414-00
If used, system must have a non-drainback fea-
ture when the engine is shut down and a 0.125 in.
maximum diameter orifice limiting flow to 2 gpm
(7.57 L/min). Refer to engine general dimension
drawings for recommended bypass filter supply
location and oil return to the crankcase.
Supplemental bypass absorptive filters increase
oil capacity and may allow oil and filter change
periods to be extended. However the drain inter-
vals cannot be extended arbitrarily. Oil and filter
life must be verified by adequate monitoring sys-
tems. Refer to the Caterpillar Operation Guide for
recommended change periods.
LEBW1414-00 136
FUEL DELIVERY SYSTEM
System Description
The diesel engine fuel supply, delivery, and gov-
erning systems have one primary purpose to
deliver clean fuel at the precise quantity and time
needed to produce the required engine perform-
ance. To do this many precision components are
needed but the two major devices are the fuel
injection pump and the governor which controls
it. The fuel system supplied on a Cat Engine is
essentially complete, requiring only the hookup
of fuel supply and return lines to a fuel tank, and
connection of governor controls.
A complete fuel system includes all of the follow-
ing basic devices also shown by schematic below.
In addition to these basic features, other devices
are frequently used to provide additional func-
tions or to modify one of the basic functions.
Examples are fuel heaters, primary filters, duplex
filters, fuel coolers, air-fuel ratio controllers, load
limiters, ether aids, load indicators, flow meters,
gauges, and shutoffs.
A complete fuel system includes all of the fol-
lowing basic devices also shown by schematic
below:
1. Fuel Tank
2. Water Separator or Primary Filter
3. Transfer Pump
4. Secondary Filter
5. Injection Pump
6. Injection Lines
}
or unit fuel injector
7. Injection Valves
8. Fuel Pressure Regulator
9. Priming Pump
10. Fuel Pressure Gauge
11. Governor and Controls
12. Low Pressure Lines and Fittings
13. Fuel Cooler
Fuel is drawn from the tank (1) through the
optional water separator or primary fuel filter (2)
by the engine-driven fuel transfer pump (3) and
pumped through the secondary fuel filter (4) into
the injection pump housing reservoir (5) (or indi-
vidual cylinder unit injector) and maintained at
low pressure. It is injected by individual high pres-
sure pumps into each cylinder through special
high pressure fuel lines (6) to individual injectors
contained in the cylinder head (DI).
Fuel in excess of engine demand is bypassed
through a pressure regulating valve (8) where all
or part of it returns to the fuel tank along with
any air which may have been purged out of the
system. On modern, unit fuel injected engines,
the fuel flow also cools the injector. Fuel flow rate
is approximately 6 times the full load fuel con-
sumption rate. Fuel coolers (13) may be required
to prevent excessive fuel temperature.
For every 10F (6C) that the fuel temperature
rises above 100F (38C) the engine loses about
1% of the gross horsepower as a result of the
expansion of the fuel (low viscosity). With very
low viscosity, the fuel loses the capability to
lubricate and damage to the injection compo-
nents will occur. To avoid this, the maximum fuel
temperature should not at any time exceed
150F (66C).
If the system is drained, as during repair or filter
change, a hand-operated fuel priming pump (9)
is used to fill the system and expel the air. A pres-
sure gauge (10) shows pressure of filtered fuel
supplied to the injection pump. If filters become
plugged and require replacing, the gauge will
read low when the engine is operating at load.
The governor (11) controls the individual fuel
rates from shutoff to full delivery in order to
achieve desired engine speed, regardless of load.
Component Description and
Installation Requirements
Individual components of the fuel system are
described here more completely as to purpose,
recommended features, and installation require-
ments to achieve satisfactory performance
and life.
Fuel Tank
It provides fuel storage and should have the fol-
lowing features:
Adequate size for the intended application.
The capacity of a fuel tank or tank system can be
estimated by multiplying the average horse-
power demand by the hours of operation between
137 LEBW1414-00
refuelings, and divide the result by 16 for U.S.
gallons and by 4 for liters.
This calculation does not allow for any reserve
capacity which should be added to this basic
requirement.
Appropriate material. Steel, aluminum, stainless
steel, or copper clad steel is used successfully.
Fuel tanks are best made from low carbon
rolled steel.
Water in fuel produces a voluminous, white cor-
rosion product when in contact with zinc.
Do not use zinc on significant surface area items
such as fuel tanks and lines which have potential
for sitting in contact with stagnant pools of water
for long periods of time. Fittings made of brass or
coated with zinc should be acceptable because of
limited exposure to stagnant water and a lack of
sufficient surface area to produce enough corro-
sion product to cause plugging problems. Gal-
vanized steel is essentially the same as zinc
coated material.
The fuel tank must meet stringent corrosion pro-
tection and leak detection regulations.
Expansion volume must be adequate to allow for
expansion of stored fuel during temperature
change. Allowance of 5% of tank volume is ade-
quate. This can be provided by extending the
filler neck down into the tank enough to create
the required expansion volume. A small vent hole
(about 0.19 in. [4.81 mm] diameter) in filler tube,
just below top of tank, is required to make this
volume usable.
Venting to atmospheric pressure is necessary to
prevent pressure or vacuum buildup. A large tank
can be collapsed by vacuum or burst by pres-
sure if not vented properly. The vent should
include a filter.
Filler must be adequately sized and located for
convenient filling. It should also be lockable. Fuel
spillage must not reach hot parts. Also, fuel
spillage should not reach items which can soak
up or entrap fuel or be damaged by fuel.
A 2 sloping bottom helps collect sediment and
any major amounts of water, and a bottom drain
is necessary to permit periodic removal of these
contaminants.
Fuel supply pickup should be off the bottom
enough to leave 3% to 5% of the fuel in the tank.
This should leave sediment and water in the tank
until drained off periodically.
Fuel return line should normally enter the tank
at the top and extend downward, exiting above
the fuel level. Inlet and return lines should be sep-
arated in the tank by at least 12 in. (204.8 mm)
to avoid air pickup in the inlet line.
The fuel tank should be grounded.
REPRESENTATIVE BASIC FUEL SYSTEM
(CONSULT TMI SCHEMATICS FOR EACH SPECIFIC MODEL)
Figure 9.1
Tank Maintenance
Fuel has a finite storage life of approximately one
year, although this may vary widely depending
upon initial quality, contaminant levels and stor-
age conditions. Periodic exchange of fuel and fil-
tering/treating to remove water, scale and
bacteria growth will extend fuel life.
Water contamination of fuel during long-term
storage offers a medium for bacterial growth,
forming a dark slime which:
Plugs filters
Deposits on tank walls and pipes
Swells rubber products that it contacts
Sulfur compounds are natural antioxidants, so
the low sulfur fuels (0.05% by weight) now avail-
able will degrade quicker in storage. The diesel
fuel will oxidize and form gums and varnishes
which can plug fuel filters and injectors.
Because microorganism growth occurs in the
fuel/water layer, the tank should be designed to
minimize this interface, and water bottoms should
be drained regularly.
Microbiocide additives, either water- or fuel-sol-
uble, can be added to fresh fuel to inhibit microor-
ganism growth. Consult your local fuel supplier
for recommended additives.
In warm climates, large bulk storage diesel fuel
requires full filtering every six months to one year.
Every two years fuel should be completely
changed to remove water, scale, bacteria growth,
oxidized gums/resins, and minimize filter clog-
ging due to fuel separation into components such
as asphaltenes.
Fuel Coolers
A fuel cooler may be required on engines with
unit fuel injectors, such as the 3500 series.
Typical applications will be those where the fuel
tank is exposed to high ambient temperatures
or where there are restrictions to the size of the
tank. The fuel temperature must be kept below
150F (66C).
By reducing the temperature of fuel and remov-
ing harmful particles, coolers and filters improve
the quality of the fuel used by an engine.
The excess fuel returned from some engines
equipped with unit injectors (1.7 liter, and 3500
Family Engines) can absorb considerable heat
from the injectors and the surrounding jacket
water. Fuel coolers may be necessary for proper
engine performance. The following factors affect
the need for fuel cooling equipment:
Length of periods of continuous operation: If the
operating periods are short, the amount of heat
returned to the fuel tanks will be relatively small.
Fuel coolers are not generally required for
engines used in high performance applications,
such as fracturing.
Length of time between periods of operation: If
the time between periods of operation is long, the
heat will have an opportunity to dissipate.
Volume of the fuel tank: If the volume of the fuel
tank is large (larger than 3,000 gal. (11 000 L)
per engine, it will accept a great deal of heat
before the temperature of the fuel leaving the tank
increases significantly.
Local experience may modify these recommen-
dations, particularly in hot climates.
Offshore Rigs
Offshore rigs should have a fuel day tank installed
in the engine room, Figure 9.2. All engine fuel
supply and return lines (or manifolds) should be
connected to this tank. This allows for venting of
any air that may enter fuel delivery system.
The day tanks fuel level when full should not
exceed the top of the injection valves. If the full
level is higher, static pressure in the supply and
return lines may allow fuel to leak into combus-
tion chambers when the engine is not running.
Engine damage can result.
Where it is customary to install a large fuel
day tank at the top of the engine room, an aux-
iliary day tank should be mounted near the
engine room deck and float fed from the larger
tank Figure 9.2. A capacity of 100-300 gal.
(379-1136 L) is sufficient. The auxiliary day tank
isolates the pressure head of the day tank from
the engine fuel system.
Land Rigs
For land rigs the fuel day tank refill mark must not
be more than 12 ft. (3.65 m) below the engine
fuel transfer pump. If the fuel day tank is more
than 30 ft. (9.15 m) from the engines or if ambi-
ent temperature is extremely low, larger fuel sup-
ply and return lines should be used to ensure
adequate flow. The fuel day tank should have
LEBW1414-00 138
139 LEBW1414-00
Figure 9.3
provisions to vent air in case it enters the fuel
delivery system.
Elevated fuel tanks for land rigs should not exceed
the limitations, Figure 9.2.
Where a portion of the rig engines are elevated
on a substructure, 100 gal. (380 L) day tanks
installed next to each engine improve startabil-
ity and isolate ground level engines from high
static fuel pressure. This requires an electric fuel
transfer pump at the main fuel tank location to
provide low pressure fuel to these individual float
controlled day tanks, Figure 9.3.
Mobile Rigs
Adequate fuel tank structural strength is required
to avoid failure under application conditions
which may include shock loading and steady
vibration.
Baffles reduce sloshing and resulting air entrain-
ment. They also prevent sudden shifts in the
tanks center of gravity, when in motion, as on a
mobile machine.
Strong fastening of the fuel tank to the machine
is essential. This is especially important on a
mobile application where motion of a full tank
generates sizeable forces. It is good practice to
use some nonmetallic cushioning material
between the tank and support members to avoid
fretting and wear on the tank.
Filler must be adequately sized and located for
convenient filling. It should also be lockable. Fuel
spillage must not reach hot parts. Also, fuel
spillage should not reach items which can soak
up or entrap fuel or be damaged by fuel.
Filler should be located near center of tank so
that parking a mobile machine on a side tilt will
FUEL SUPPLY SYSTEMS
Figure 9.2
LEBW1414-00 140
not cause expanding fuel to back up into filler
pipe and overflow. This will also help avoid
spilling fuel from a full tank when operating on
a grade.
Fuel tanks should be shielded or located away
from major heat radiating sources such as hot
exhaust manifolds and turbochargers. Also, the
cooling fan blast picks up enough heat from the
radiator to raise fuel temperatures significantly if
the air is directed at the fuel tank. This will result
in some power loss because of the heated,
expanded fuel.
Water Separator and Primary Filter
Clean fuel meeting Caterpillars recommenda-
tions assures maximum engine service life and
performance; anything less is a compromise and
the risk is the users responsibility. Dirty fuel not
meeting Caterpillars minimum fuel specifications
will adversely affect combustion, filter life, starta-
bility and life of internal components.
Clean fuel is of utmost importance to fuel injec-
tion system components if long, trouble-free
service life is expected. All Caterpillar Engines
are equipped with a main micronic filter system
to protect the fuel injection pumps and valves.
These filters are not designed to cope with great
quantities of sediment and water. Both impuri-
ties should be removed by an optional primary
filter. A fuel centrifuge used in place of a water
separator is acceptable. A primary fuel filter
should still be used because of contaminants
that may be in the tank and piping as a result of
construction.
The system should be located ahead of any fuel
pumps since pumps have a tendency to emul-
sify the water with the fuel, which will reduce the
efficiency of the water trap. Give close attention
to the systems restriction since this will reduce
the fuel pump lift capability.
Any system can be damaged by water in the fuel;
so water should be removed. Fuel system dam-
age by water is always the responsibility of
the user.
The water separator should be sized adequately
to separate and store enough water between peri-
odic drainings to prevent overfilling and water
carryover into the engines fuel system.
The water separator should be mounted in a vis-
ible location. If the operator sees water, he is more
likely to drain it out periodically. If the device is
hard to see or difficult to service, it may not
receive regular attention.
The installation should include valves which can
isolate the separator and primary filter when ele-
ments are changed.
Excessive amounts of water, slimy material on
filters, corrosion of fuel system components, or
tank coatings may indicate fungus/bacteria in
the fuel. Contact your fuel supplier for test kits to
determine the degree of contamination and
chemical additives to prevent recurrence.
Because water can collect and freeze at low
points in fuel lines, filters, or other components
that contain fuel, a water separator should be
placed as close to the fuel tank as practical in a
visible, serviceable location. Usually, the sepa-
rator has a see-through feature that allows a
quick visual check for presence of water and a
quick-drain valve to let water out.
Lines and Fittings
Pipes, hoses, and fittings must be mechanically
strong, leak-tight, and resistant to deterioration
due to age or environmental conditions. Sizing
must be adequate to minimize flow loss. Routing
must be correct, and flex connections, such as
hose assemblies, must isolate engine motion
from the stationary members in the system.
The pipes should be of the same material as the
tank, black iron or steel to avoid reaction with
the fuel.
Copper pipe or tubing may be substituted in sizes
of 0.5 in. (13.0 mm) nominal pipe size or less.
Valves and fittings may be cast iron or bronze
(not brass).
Do not use zinc alloy or galvanized metal due to
its high chemical reaction with fuel.
The size of the pipe should be the same as the
size of the engine fuel inlet.
Piping and fittings must be sealed to prevent air
or dirt contamination. Air in the system causes
hard starting and erratic engine operation.
Determine the fuel line sizing by the supply and
return line restriction. The maximum allowable
restriction is published in the TMI. Supply and
return lines should be no smaller than the fittings
on the engine.
141 LEBW1414-00
Figures 9.4 and 9.5 provide useful frictional
loss data.
Engine fuel pressure measured in the fuel return
line should be kept below 4 psi (27 kPa), except
for the 3300 Engine Family, which is 3 psi
(20 kPa). A shutoff valve is not recommended,
for 3400 Series or smaller engines because dam-
aging pressure may result if the valve were left
closed when engine was started.
If the engine is above the fuel tank, consider
adding a check valve to the fuel supply line to
keep fuel from bleeding back to the fuel tank caus-
ing hard starting.
Fuel lines should be designed with the application
in mind. Especially on mobile, off-highway
equipment, effects of vibration, shock loads, and
motion of parts should be considered. Fuel lines
should be well routed and clipped, with flexible
hose connections where relative motion is pres-
ent. Lines should be routed away from hot
parts, like manifolds and turbochargers, to avoid
fuel heating and potential hazard if a fuel line
should fail.
Joints and fittings must be leak-tight to avoid
entry of air into the suction side of the fuel system.
A joint which is leak-tight to fuel can sometimes
allow air to enter the fuel system, causing erratic
running and loss of power. Pipe joint compound
should be used on pipe threads, taking care to
keep it out of the fuel system where it can cause
damage.
Routing
Whenever possible, route fuel lines under any
machinery so any leakage will be confined to
the bilges or drip pans under machinery. Leaks
from overhead fuel system components may fall
onto hot machinery, increasing the likelihood of
fire danger.
Fuel lines should also be routed to avoid forma-
tion of traps which can catch sediment or pock-
ets of water which will freeze in cold weather.
All connecting lines, valves, and tanks should be
thoroughly cleaned before making final connec-
tions to the engine. The entire fuel supply sys-
tem should be flushed prior to engine startup.
Transfer Pump
This engine driven pump delivers low pressure
(15 psi to 30 psi [103 kPa to 207 kPa]) fuel from
the tank to the injection pump housing reservoir
(60 psi [414 kPa] on 3508, 3512, and 3516). It
Figure 9.4. Frictional head loss, pipes.
Figure 9.5. Frictional loss in pipe fittings.
Frictional Loss in Pipe Fittings in Terms of Equivalent Feet (Meters) of Straight Pipe
Pipe Ball 45 Std. Std. Check Angle Globe Diaphragm
Size Valve Elbow Elbow Tee Valve Valve Valve Valve
(in.) ft. (m) ft. (m) ft. (m) ft. (m) ft. (m) ft. (m) ft. (m) ft. (m)
3/8 0.28 (0.085) 0.70 (0.213) 1.4 (0.427) 2.6 (0.792) 3.6 (1.1) 8.6 (2.62) 16.5 (5.03)
1/2 0.35 (0.107) 0.78 (0.238) 1.7 (0.518) 3.3 (1.01) 4.3 (1.31) 9.3 (2.83) 18.6 (5.67) 40 (12.19)
3/4 0.44 (0.134) 0.97 (0.296) 2.1 (0.64) 4.2 (1.28) 5.3 (1.62) 11.5 (3.51) 23.1 (7.04)
1 0.56 (0.171) 1.23 (0.375) 2.6 (0.792) 5.3 (1.62) 6.8 (2.07) 14.7 (4.48) 29.4 (8.96)
1-1/4 0.74 (0.226) 1.6 (0.488) 3.5 (1.07) 7.0 (2.13) 8.9 (2.71) 19.3 (5.88) 38.6 (11.77)
1-1/2 0.86 (0.262) 1.9 (0.579) 4.1 (1.25) 8.1 (2.47) 10.4 (3.17) 22.6 (6.89) 45.2 (13.78)
2 1.10 (0.335) 2.4 (0.732) 5.2 (1.58) 10.4 (3.17) 13.4 (4.08) 29.0 (8.84) 58.0 (17.67)
Frictional Head Loss [ft. (m)] for 100 Feet (30.5 Meters) of Standard Weight Pipe
at 60F (15.5C) at Seal Level Diesel Fuel
GPM (L/min) Pipe Size
3/8 1/2 3/4 1 1-1/4 1-1/2 2
2 (7.57) 15.2 (4.63) 5.5 (1.67) 1.1 (0.34) 0.5 (0.15) 0.2 (0.06)
4 (15.14) 55.5 (16.92) 20.3 (6.18) 5.1 (1.55) 1.4 (0.43) 0.5 (0.15) 0.2 (0.06)
7 (26.5) 61.0 (18.59) 15.3 (4.66) 4.6 (1.4) 1.2 (0.36) 0.5 (0.15)
10 (37.85) 26.3 (8.01) 8.5 (2.6) 2.5 (0.76) 0.9 (0.27) 0.2 (0.06)
19 (71.92) 28.5 (8.68) 7.5 (2.28) 3.5 (1.07) 1.2 (0.36)
is a gear-type pump with some limited priming
capability when the pumping gears are full of fuel.
This pump should be protected from abrasive
wear and corrosion by a water separator or pri-
mary fuel filter.
Secondary Filter
Because fuel injection pumps and injectors are
precision devices with extremely close clearances
between working parts, particles which can cause
damage must be removed in the secondary fil-
ter. This filter is standard equipment on all Cat
Diesel Engines. When a secondary filter gets
plugged, an engine typically loses power or may
run erratically. The fuel pressure gauge will indi-
cate low fuel pressure under these conditions.
Filter media in Caterpillar fuel filters is developed
and carefully controlled to conform with Cat spec-
ifications on filtration efficiency and durability. Use
of filters of unknown capability may not protect
the precision fuel system from contamination.
Fuel Pressure Regulator
Somewhere in the fuel path, before or at the injec-
tion pump, there is a pressure regulating valve
which limits the pressure of fuel supplied to the
injection pump housing reservoir. This pressure
must be enough to fill the individual injection
pump assemblies, but would become excessive
if the transfer pump could not pump excess fuel
through a relief circuit back to the fuel tank. A
shutoff valve should never be placed in the fuel
return line because pressure may quickly build to
damaging levels, depending upon the engine
model. The return line also allows air to escape
from the system.
3500 Series engines include a transfer pump
relief valve that protects the system if a return
line fuel shutoff valve is accidentally closed.
Priming Pump
When a fuel system has air in it, the hand prim-
ing pump is used to fill the system with fuel and
purge air. Once this has been done, the priming
pump will not likely be used again until the fuel
system is emptied for adjustment or repair.
Injection Pump
Fuel is pumped at a very high pressure to each
cylinder unit injector. The fuel volume pumped
on each stroke is controlled by the rack (scroll
system) or electric solenoid which determines
the effective pumping stroke. The governor con-
trols fuel delivery to produce a governed speed,
regardless of load.
Injection Lines
On some smaller engines, individual fuel lines
carry fuel at the very high pressure required for
injection, from individual injection pumps to each
cylinder injector. These lines are heavy-walled,
strong, specially extruded tubing made only for
this purpose. Because injection lines carry such
high pressure, they should not be bent or dam-
aged during installation or operation.
Injectors
The purpose of the injector valve is to spray the
correct pattern of atomized fuel into the com-
bustion chamber (DI). It has a spring-loaded
valve which requires that the pressure rise to
some elevated level before valve opens at start
of injection. This is necessary for a precision-
timed fuel delivery and assures a sharp cutoff of
fuel at the end of each injection period.
Most emissions certified engines utilize unit injec-
tors. No high pressure injection lines are required.
Fuel System Attachments
Duplex Fuel Filter System
Oilfield engines that require marine classification
society certification must be capable of fuel filter
change while running. The optional Caterpillar
duplex fuel filter system (available for 3406,
3408, 3412, 3508, 3512, and 3516 Engines)
meets the requirements of the engine and marine
societies, Figure 9.6. Main and auxiliary filter sys-
tems are combined in one housing. The system
provides for changing either main or auxiliary fil-
ter elements with the engine running at any load
and speed. A vent position in the control valve
allows purging of air trapped in the housing when
installing new elements. Both main and auxiliary
sections can be used simultaneously to extend
running time in an emergency. The auxiliary sys-
tem provides at least 100 hours full load running
time with reasonably clean fuel.
This system can be used when engine driven
radiators are used, but only to select the standby
filter. Filter changing during engine operation is
not recommended due to safety concerns around
hot surfaces and due to fuel being blown around
by the radiator fan air flow.
LEBW1414-00 142
143 LEBW1414-00
DUPLEX FUEL FILTER
1. Fuel Filter Housing
2. Priming Pump
3. Changeover Valve Handle
Figure 9.6
Double-Wall Fuel Lines
On engines without unit injectors, double-wall fuel
lines are required by marine classification soci-
eties for unmanned engine rooms and other
national association regulations on fire prevention.
The system contains high pressure steel fuel lines
inside steel tubes. The fuel line assembly bleeds
off fuel that may have leaked from the main
injector line to a collecting tank.
The tank contains a float switch which can be
wired to a warning alarm that activates when the
tank fills. The tank can be connected to a larger
reservoir.
Fuel Specifications
Clean fuel meeting Caterpillars fuel recommen-
dations assures maximum engine service life and
performance; anything less is a compromise and
the risk is the users responsibility. Dirty fuel and
fuels not meeting Caterpillars minimum fuel
specifications will adversely affect combustion,
filter life, injection system performance and serv-
ice life, startability and/or, perhaps, service life
of valves, pistons, rings, liners, and bearings.
Fuel costs can represent 80% or more of total
engine operating costs; it is good economics to
carefully consider proper fuel selection.
Fuel normally recommended for diesel genera-
tor sets is No. 2 furnace oil or No. 2D diesel fuel.
Caterpillar Engines burn a variety of fuels.
Generally, use the lowest priced distillate fuel
which meets the following requirements (fuel
condition as delivered to engine fuel filters).
Fuel specifications meeting the above require-
ments include:
ASTM D396 No. 1 and No. 2 Fuels
(Burner Fuels)
ASTM D975 No. 1-D and No. 2-D Diesel
Fuel Oil
BS2869 Class A1, A2, B1, and B2 Engine
Fuels
DIN51601 Diesel Fuel
DIN51603 EL Heating Oil
Preferred Fuels
Distillate fuels which meet the following require-
ments are the preferred fuels for Caterpillar
Engines:
Complete information on diesel fuels is in Diesel
Fuels and Your Engine, form SEBD0717.
(Contd)
Caterpillar Specifications for Distillate Diesel Fuel
ASTM
Specifications Requirements Test
Aromatics 35% maximum D1319
Ash 0.02% maximum (weight) D482
Carbon Residue 0.35% maximum (weight) D524
on 10% Bottoms
Cetane Number 40 minimum (DI engines) D613
35 minimum (PC engines)
Cloud Point The cloud point must not
exceed the lowest expected
ambient temperature
Copper Strip No. 3 maximum D130
Corrosion
Distillation 10% at 540F (282C) D86
maximum
90% at 680F (360C)
maximum
Flash Point Legal limit D93
API Gravity 30 minimum D287
45 maximum
FUEL
FILTER
OIL
FILTER
LEBW1414-00 144
Figure 9.7
*A higher cetane number fuel may be required for
operation at a high altitude or in cold weather.
Permissible Fuels
There are exceptions to the distillate only
Caterpillar recommendation for a suitable fuel.
With the addition of special equipment, 3500
Series low speed Cat Engines will perform satis-
factorily on some crude oils and blended fuels.
Since the composition of crude oils varies greatly
and since worldwide specifications of blended
fuels are very broad, special care must be taken
before using such fuels in Cat Engines. Unsuit-
able characteristics of such fuels and precondi-
tioning requirements are discussed later.
Caterpillar has established the following guide-
lines for fuel, as delivered to the fuel injection sys-
tem, to determine the suitability of a fuel having
physical and chemical properties not meeting
Caterpillar Diesel preferred fuel requirements.
Fuel Properties
Cetane Number (ASTM D613) Measure of the
ignition quality of a diesel fuel as determined in
an engine. The higher the cetane number the bet-
ter the ignition quality and the less the tendency
to knock.
Ignition delay also causes poor fuel economy, a
loss of power and sometimes engine damage. A
low cetane number fuel can also cause white
smoke and odor at start-up on colder days.
Engines running on fuels with low cetane num-
bers may need to be started and stopped using
a good distillate fuel.
Blended fuels or additives can change the cetane
number. The cetane number is difficult and
expensive to establish for blended fuels due to
the complexity of the required test.
White exhaust smoke is made up of fuel vapors
and aldehydes created by incomplete engine
combustion. Ignition delay during cold weather
is often the cause. There is not enough heat in
the combustion chamber to ignite the fuel.
Therefore, the fuel does not burn completely.
Using a cetane improver additive can often
reduce white smoke during engine start-up in
cold weather. It increases the cetane number of
diesel fuel which improves ignition quality and
makes it easier for fuel to ignite and burn. Contact
your local fuel supplier for information on where
to obtain cetane improvers.
Cetane number is usually calculated or approx-
imated using a cetane index due to the cost of
more accurate testing. Be cautious when obtain-
ing cetane numbers from fuel suppliers.
Higher cetane numbers indicate a shorter igni-
tion lag and are associated with better all-around
performance in most diesel engines, especially in
high speed engines.
Specific Gravity (ASTM D287)
The specific gravity of diesel fuel is the weight of
a fixed volume of fuel compared to the weight of
the same volume of water (at the same temper-
ature). The higher the specific gravity, the heav-
ier the fuel. Heavier fuels have more energy or
power (per volume) for the engine to use.
Lighter fuels like kerosene will not produce rated
power. (Specification sheets usually show ratings
when using fuel having 35 API density, at 85F
(29C), weighing 7.001 pounds per gallon, and
having 18,390 BTUs per pound. The same fuel
of 35 API density weights 7.076 pounds per gal-
lon at 60F (15C). When comparing fuel con-
sumption or engine performance, always know
the temperature of the fuel measurement for cor-
rect gravity and density.
Engine fuel settings should not be adjusted to
compensate for a power loss with lighter fuels
Caterpillar Specifications for Distillate Diesel Fuel
ASTM
Specifications Requirements Test
Pour Point 10F (6C) minimum below D97
ambient temperature
Sulfur 3% maximum D3605
or
D1552
Kinematic 1.4 cSt minimum and D445
Viscosity 20.0 cSt maximum at
104F (40C)
Water and 0.1% maximum D1796
Sediment
Water 0.1% maximum D1744
Sediment 0.05% maximum (weight) D473
Gums and 10 mg per 100 mL D381
Resins maximum
Lubricity 3100 g minimum D6708
0.018 in. (0.45 mm) D6079
maximum at 140F (60C)
0.015 in. (0.38 mm)
maximum at 77F (25C)
145 LEBW1414-00
(with a density number higher than 35 API). Fuel
system component life can be decreased with
very light fuels because lubrication will be less
effective (due to low viscosity).
Lighter fuels may also be a blend of ethanol or
methanol with diesel fuel. Blending of alcohol
(ethanol or methanol) or gasoline into a diesel
fuel will create an explosive atmosphere in the
fuel tank. In addition, water condensation in the
tank can cause the alcohol to separate and strat-
ify in the tank. Caterpillar recommends against
such blends.
Viscosity (ASTM D445 Kinematic Viscosity)
Measure of a fluids resistance to flow. It is ordi-
narily expressed in terms of the time required for
a standard quantity of the fluid at a certain tem-
perature to flow under gravity through a cali-
brated glass capillary viscosimeter. The higher
the value, the more viscous the fluid. Since vis-
cosity varies inversely with temperature, its value
is meaningless unless accompanied by the tem-
perature at which it is determined. With petro-
leum oils, viscosity is commonly reported in
centistokes (CST). Other viscosity units used are
Saybolt seconds, universalsus or, Saybolt sec-
onds, furol-SSF. Less common are the Engler
and redwood viscosity scales, whose principal
applications are outside the U.S.A.
High viscosity fuel will increase gear train, cam
and follower wear on the fuel pump assembly
because of the higher injection pressure. Fuel
atomizes less efficiently and the engine will be
more difficult to start.
Low viscosity fuel may not provide adequate
lubrication to plungers, barrels, and injectors; its
use should be evaluated carefully.
Flash Point (ASTM D93) Lowest temperature
fuel will give off sufficient vapor to ignite when
flame is applied.
Pour Point (ASTM D97) Lowest temperature
at which fuel will flow, a factor of significance in
cold weather startup and operation. A pour point
of 5F (3C) lower than the ambient temperature
at which the engine will be expected to start and
operate should provide freedom from fuel filter
plugging. If the fuel contains a pour point depres-
sant, the cloud point is the significant temperature.
Cloud Point Lowest temperature at which the
sample becomes clouded by the formation of
wax crystals. If this temperature is no higher than
the lowest ambient temperature at which the
engine will be expected to start and operate, fuel
filter wax plugging will not be a problem.
Sulfur (ASTM D1522 or D3605) Fuel sulfur
forms compounds during combustion which
react chemically with the lubricating oil. They
reduce the oils effectiveness in preventing the
formation and accumulation of deposits on the
piston and piston rings. Sulfur compounds also
promote corrosion and corrosive wear.
When diesel fuel containing sulfur is burned in
an engines combustion chamber, oxides of sul-
fur form and react with water vapor to create sul-
furic acid. If these acid vapors condense, they
chemically attack the metal surfaces of valve
guides, cylinder liners, and may affect bearings.
For example, when the temperature of the cylin-
der liners is lower than the dew point of sulfuric
acid, and the lubricating oil does not have suffi-
cient alkalinity reserve (TBN) to neutralize the
acid, liners can wear ten times more quickly.
When fuel sulfur damage occurs, there will be
very little change in engine power. But, frequently,
corrosive wear will lead to excessive oil con-
sumption and blowby, causing a premature,
expensive overhaul.
Maintain the crankcase breather system to pre-
vent condensation in the crankcase oil which will
cause rapid TBN depletion.
Maintain a regular Scheduled Oil Sampling
(SOS) oil analysis program. Infrared (IR)
analysis is valuable as well.
Follow standard oil change intervals unless SOS
or known sulfur content indicates differently.
Caterpillar recommends reducing the length of
oil change periods or increasing crankcase
capacities or raising the operating water tem-
perature to offset the effects of higher quantities
of sulfur.
Water and Sediment (ASTM D1796) The per-
centage, by volume, of water and foreign matter
which can be removed from fuel by centrifug-
ing. These materials affect the rate of fuel filter
plugging.
Salt water is the greatest single source of fouling
deposits and corrosion. Salt water can cause fuel
injector and piston ring groove deposits and wear
in fuel system plunger and barrel assemblies.
The coalescing type of separator is recom-
mended because often the water in the fuel is
mixed or broken into small particles which do
not settle. This separator is used if particles are
so fine they make the fuel cloudy.
A coalescing type separator will separate all
water from fuel. It can be put anywhere in the fuel
line, such as next to the components that need
the most protection from water. The elements are
composed of two-stage paper media that are
replaceable. The element is plugged when there
is a lack of fuel pressure.
Make sure you know the percentage of sediment
in the fuel you purchase. If the sediment or water
for distillate fuels exceeds 0.05% to the engine,
consider other sources for fuel, or special filtra-
tion, centrifuging or settling procedures. Fuel
should be tested often for both sediment and
water. Testing is the only way you can be assured
that you are actually getting the quality of fuel
you paid for.
Sediment will gradually be caught in the fuel fil-
ter, but this will cause added expense in more
periodic filter changes. Very small sediment will
get through the filters and can result in fuel sys-
tem wear. It is important to remove as much sed-
iment as possible before the fuel goes into your
engine. This will reduce the ash and particulate
contamination which causes deposits, corrosion
and abrasive wear.
Allow time for sediment to settle to the bottom
of the tank. Your engine will use the cleaner fuel
at the top and you can drain the sediment from
the bottom. However, as the specific gravity
becomes higher, the settling method of removing
sediment becomes less effective.
Sludge and Fibers
Both sludge and fibers can contaminate fuel dur-
ing handling and storage. Storage tanks, fuel pipe
lines and barge transportation all contribute to
these contaminants.
Fibers cannot be removed except by filtering.
Sludge will rapidly foul the centrifugal purifiers.
Both of these contaminants will clog strainers
and fuel filters. If fuel with sludge is burned in the
engine, it will cause filter fouling.
The only solution to a sludge or fiber problem is
to replace (or clean) the filters often until the con-
taminating fuel supply is completely used, then
clean the fuel tank and use clean fuel.
Microorganisms in Fuel
All water and fuel offer a medium for bacterial
growth. These simple life forms live in the water
and feed on fuel.
Microorganisms or fungi in fuel cause corrosion
and filter plugging. Bacteria may be any color,
but is usually black, green or brown. Bacteria
grows in long strings and has a slimy appear-
ance. A biocide added to the fuel will kill the
growth and/or slow its formation. Filtering the
fuel, or proper disposal after using the biocide, is
required to eliminate filter plugging.
Copper Strip Corrosion
Corrosion (ASTM Test D130), is a discoloration
formed on a polished copper strip when immersed
in fuel for three hours at 212F (100C). Any fuel
showing more than slight discoloration should
be rejected.
Many types of engine parts are of copper or cop-
per alloys. It is essential that any fuel in contact
with these parts be noncorrosive to them. There
are certain sulfur derivatives in the fuel that are
likely sources of corrosion.
Carbon Residue (ASTM D524) Percentage by
weight of dry carbon remaining when fuel is
burned until no liquid remains.
Ash (ASTM D482) Percentage by weight of
dirt, dust, sand, and other foreign matter remain-
ing after combustion.
Fuel Stability
Gums and Resins
The gums and resins that occur in diesel fuel are
the result of dissolved oxidation products that do
not evaporate easily or burn cleanly. Excessive
gum in the fuel will coat fuel injection lines,
pumps and injectors and will interfere with the
close tolerances of the fuel systems moving
parts. They will also cause rapid filter plugging.
During fuel storage the fuel will oxidize and form
more gums and resins. Reducing fuel storage
periods (maximum of one year) will minimize the
formation of gums and resins.
LEBW1414-00 146
147 LEBW1414-00
Fuel Separation
Fuel must remain stable in storage. If not prop-
erly refined, incorrect stability additives are used;
or if fuel gets old, it can change its characteris-
tics of being totally mixed to separating into com-
ponents like asphaltenes. This will cause rapid
fuel filter plugging and low engine power. To min-
imize the occurrence of fuel separation, use good
quality fuel with the correct additives from a rep-
utable supplier, and minimize the length of time
the fuel is stored. Do not store fuel for over a year.
Fuel Storage
Diesel fuel is more prone to oxidative attack in
storage and to thermal degradation in use than
gasoline because of more sulfur and nitrogen and
higher molecular weight components with higher
distillation end points. The sulfur removal process
helps stabilize the fuel by reducing sediment
forming products. But the use of cracked stocks
(more unstable) has created the need for addi-
tional treatment.
Commercial diesel fuels will usually contain a
variety of additives that improve or add desirable
properties. Fuel stability additives are extensively
used in diesel fuels to prevent oxidative break-
down of the fuel into gums and polymeric sedi-
ment during storage.
But the fuel still has a finite storage life which is
usually limited to about one year. Care should
also be used to prevent water and other con-
taminants from getting into the storage tanks to
reduce the effectiveness of built-in resistance.
Mixing Used Crankcase Oil with Diesel Fuel
It is necessary to collect, store, and dispose of
used crankcase oil from engines due to legisla-
tion and ecological considerations. It is no longer
acceptable to dump used crankcase oil into the
oceans, rivers, and harbors from vessels or off-
shore drilling and production platform installa-
tions. It may be necessary for engine operators
to consider burning crankcase oil in their Cat
Engines. This can be done providing the pre-
cautions below are carefully followed.
1. Only diesel engine crankcase oils can be
mixed with the diesel engine fuel supply. The
ratio of used oil to fuel must not exceed 5%.
Premature filter plugging will occur at higher
ratios. Under no circumstances should
gasoline engine crankcase oils, transmission
oils, special hydraulic oils not covered by
Caterpillar recommendations, greases, clean-
ing solvents, etc., be mixed with the diesel
fuel. Also, do not use crankcase oils con-
taining water or antifreeze from engine
coolant leaks or from poor storage practices.
2. Adequate mixing is essential. Lube oil and
fuel oil, once mixed, will combine and not
separate. 1. Mix used crankcase oil with an
equal amount of fuel, 2. filter, and 3. then add
the 50-50 blend to the supply tank before
new fuel is added. This procedure should nor-
mally provide sufficient mixing. Failure to
achieve adequate mixing will result in pre-
mature filter plugging by slugs of undiluted
lube oil.
3. Filter or centrifuge used oil prior to putting it
in the fuel tanks to prevent premature fuel
filter plugging or accelerated wear or plug-
ging of fuel system parts. Soot, dirt, metal,
and residue particles larger than 5 microns
should be removed by this process. If filter-
ing or centrifuging is not used prior to adding
the oil to the fuel, primary filters with
5 microns capability must be located between
the fuel supply and engine. These will require
frequent servicing.
4. Clean handling techniques of the used crank-
case oils are essential to prevent introducing
contaminants from outside sources into the
diesel fuel supply. Care must be taken in col-
lecting, storing, and transporting the used
crankcase oil to the diesel fuel tanks.
Diesel fuel day tank sight glasses may become
blackened in time due to the carbon content in
the crankcase oil. Ash content of the lube oil
added to the fuel may also cause more rapid
accumulation of turbocharger and valve deposits
than normal.
Crude Oil Fuel System
Where economics justify or where limited fuel sup-
plies necessitate, crude oil and heavier fuels (i.e.,
distillate-residual blends) can be permissible fuels
for Caterpillar 3500 Series low speed Engines.
Caterpillar does not recommend using any of the
heavier fractions such as residuals or bottoms.
Residual fuels or blended fuels with high (above
20%) percentages of residuals are unsuitable
because they have a high viscosity range, low igni-
tion quality and vanadium and sodium contents
LEBW1414-00 148
that shorten engine life. Such fuels may cause
high wear rates in the fuel system, on the piston
rings, cylinder liners, and exhaust valves. Also, fil-
ter problems and deposits in the piston ringbelt
may be evidenced.
Special fuel pretreatment equipment may be
required and is available from suppliers of fuel
treatment equipment. Also, it may be essential
to start and stop the engine on a better quality,
ASTM No. 2-D type fuel to prevent plugging and
sticking fuel system components and to permit
satisfactory startability.
The same diesel power ratings may not always
apply for Caterpillar engines burning crude oil or
heavy fuels. Reasonable engine service life can
be achieved when proper procedures are fol-
lowed. However, the greater risks involved make
it good practice to include slightly higher than
normal maintenance costs when figuring the
overall economics to be gained.
A fuel analysis should be performed (see Fig-
ure 9.8.). Include a distillation curve. Operation
at light load is not recommended. On occasion,
operation at 50% load has reportedly caused
smoking.
PPM = parts per million
Figure 9.8
Crude Oil Chart
Fuel Properties and Characteristics Permissible Fuels as Delivered to the Fuel System
Cetane number or cetane index Minimum 35
(ASTM D613 or calculated index)
(PC Engines)
(DI Engines) Minimum 40
Water and sediment % volume (ASTM D1796) Maximum 0.5%
Pour point (ASTM D97) Minimum 10F (6C) below ambient temperature
Cloud point (ASTM D97) Not higher than ambient temperature
Sulfur (ASTM D2788 or D3605 or D1552) Maximum 0.5% See page 133 to adjust oil TBN
for higher sulfur content
Viscosity at 100F (38C) Minimum 1.4 cSt
(ASTM D445) Maximum 20 cSt
API gravity (ASTM D287) Maximum 45
Minimum 30
Specific gravity (ASTM D287) Minimum 0.8017
Maximum 0.875
Gasoline and naphtha fraction Maximum 35%
(fractions boiled off below 200C)
Kerosene and distillate fraction (fractions boiled off Minimum 30%
between 200C and cracking point)
Carbon residue (ramsbottom) (ASTM D524) Maximum 3.5%
Distillation 10% Maximum 540F (282C)
90% Maximum 716F (380F)
cracking % Minimum 60%
Distillation residue (ASTM D86, D158 or D285) Maximum 10%
Reid vapor pressure (ASTM D323) Maximum 20 psi (kPa)
Salt (ASTM D3230) Maximum 100 lb/1,000 barrels
Gums and Resins (ASTM D381) Maximum 10 mg/100 mL
Copper strip corrosion 3 hrs @ 100C (ASTM D130) Maximum No. 3
Flashpoint F C (ASTM D93) Maximum Must be legal limit
Ash % weight (ASTM D482) Maximum 0.1%
Aromatics % (ASTM D1319) Maximum 35%
Vanadium PPM (ASTM D2788 or D3605) Maximum 4 PPM
Sodium PPM (ASTM D2788 or D3605) Maximum 10 PPM
Nickel PPM (ASTM D2788 or D3605) Maximum 1 PPM
Aluminum PPM (ASTM D2788 or D3605) Maximum 1 PPM
Silicon (ASTM D2788 or D3605) Maximum 1 PPM
149 LEBW1414-00
Engines for crude fuel operation should be
equipped with higher temperature thermostats,
bypass centrifugal oil filter, and fuel injector
pushrod keepers.
Pretreatment of Crude Oils
First The crude may contain excessive
amounts of sediment and water that will require
removal before they get to the engine. This can
usually be accomplished with a settling tank,
Figure 9.9, a centrifuge or special filtering equip-
ment or a combination of these methods. The
crude may also contain solid particles of wax at
ambient temperature that would plug the filters
rapidly. It is impractical to try to remove the wax,
but the crude can be heated sufficiently to dis-
solve it. The amount of heat needed will vary from
one crude to another and will, therefore, have to
be determined in each situation. Frequently,
jacket-water heated fuel filters, available from
fuel equipment suppliers, are adequate. If not, an
external heating system will be necessary.
Second The crude oil must not have too high
a viscosity. For maximum life and minimum
maintenance of the fuel pumping and injection
systems, the viscosity of the crude oil in these
systems should be within 1.4 to 20 cSt at 100F
(38C). If the crudes natural viscosity is higher
than this, it may be heated or diluted to reduce it.
The degree of heating required will vary from one
crude to another and will have to be estab-
lished in each case. Another method of reducing
viscosity is to blend the original crude with a suf-
ficient amount of lighter distillate material. Again,
the blending proportions would have to be
determined for each crude.
Third The crude must have a cetane number
of at least 40. This brings its distillation charac-
teristics into the picture. The cetane number
should be determined by actual engine test
because calculated numbers of crude oils are
unreliable.
The cetane number of a crude is a function of its
composition. Crude is generally subdivided into
fractions by boiling temperatures. The combina-
tion of the gasoline and naphtha fractions, which
have low cetane numbers, should not exceed
35% of the total crude. The kerosene, distillate
and gas oil fractions combined should make up
at least 30% of the total because they have high
cetane numbers.
Fourth Another problem created by highly
volatile crudes (low initial boiling points) is vapor
locking of the fuel system. This situation can be
handled by an air eliminator. This, in some cases,
can be an ordinary float-type steam trap inverted,
but it should be made of corrosion-resistant
materials. It should be located after the auxiliary
filters. If the engine is stopped occasionally and
allowed to cool, coagulation may build up in this
vapor trap and cause it to be inoperative.
Fifth The proper oil change recommendation
must be made in each case. Many crude oils con-
tain large amounts of material that accelerate
lube oil deterioration. For this reason, the stan-
dard change period with recommended oils
should be reduced one-half. From this point, the
length of change period with crude is determined
by sulfur content the same as with distillate fuels.
With 0.4-1.0% sulfur, the change period should
again be reduced one-half. When sulfur content
exceeds 1.0%, still further reduction is recom-
mended. In many cases, it may be desirable to
install a larger capacity lube oil system to avoid
short oil changes.
Crude Oil Settling Tanks
A great deal of sludge can be removed from
crude oil by proper settling. A recommended set-
tling system consists of two cone-bottomed
tanks, Figure 9.9, each holding a little more than
four days usable supply of fuel. Sludge in the bot-
tom third is discarded before refilling. The tanks
must be housed in a heated building, and each fit-
ted with heating coils. Immediately after filling,
hot water is circulated through the heating coil
until the tank is heated to 100F (38C). The heat
is then shut off and the fuel allowed to settle
undisturbed for four days. During this time, fuel
is being used from a second tank. Temperature
inside the settling tank building should be main-
tained above 70F (21C), and the tanks must
be vented outside the building.
A two-day supply of diesel fuel should be main-
tained for emergency use and to start and stop
engine when the crude fuel is highly viscous or
heavy with paraffins.
LEBW1414-00 150
Figure 9.9
151 LEBW1414-00
Exhaust systems collect exhaust gases from
engine cylinders and discharge them as quickly
and silently as possible. A primary design con-
sideration of the exhaust system is to minimize
backpressure. Backpressure will indirectly raise
the exhaust temperature which will reduce exhaust
valve and turbocharger life. A well designed
exhaust system will have minimum backpressure.
All internal combustion engines generate heat as
a result of combustion. The temperatures in
Caterpillar engines combustion chambers can
reach 3,500F (1927C). 30% of this total heat
is expelled through exhaust.
For safety reasons an exhaust system must be
gas tight. It should also be insulated, shielded, or
isolated to avoid damage, injury, or distress from
exposure to, or contact with, its high tempera-
tures. Uninsulated exhausts greatly increase the
heat rejection into an enclosed engine room. To
prevent excessive engine room temperatures, the
exhaust system should be properly insulated.
CAUTION: Dry exhaust manifolds may require
guards when the work space makes it easier for
a person to fall against the exhaust system.
OSHA and other government bodies may have
regulations concerning this. The user is respon-
sible to provide such guards where required but
not factory supplied.
Flexible Connections
The exhaust pipe must be isolated from the
engine with flexible connections, Figure 10.1.
They should be installed as close to the engines
exhaust outlet as possible. A flexible exhaust con-
nection has three primary functions:
1. isolate the weight of the exhaust piping from
the engine. No more than 60 lbs (28 kg) of
exhaust piping weight should be supported
by 3400 and 3500 Series engines. The limit
is 25 lbs. (11.3 kg) on smaller engines.
2. relieve exhaust components of excessive
vibrational fatigue stresses;
3. allow for relative shifting between reference
points on engine exhaust components. This
shifting has numerous causes. It may result
from expansion and contraction of compo-
nents due to temperature changes or by slow
but continual creep processes that take place
throughout the life of any structure.
In order to take care of vibratory stresses, soft-
ness or flexibility of the flexible connection is of
prime concern. The connector must have high
fatigue life to withstand normal stresses for indef-
inite periods. Softness prevents transmission of
vibration beyond the connection. Resistance to
fatigue keeps it from breaking under vibratory or
recycling stresses.
Optional Caterpillar flexible exhaust couplings
meet these requirements. See Figures 10.1 and
10.5. See Figures 10.3 and 10.4 for installation
limitations for these flexible connections.
On land rigs, exhaust piping or muffler should
not be supported by brackets, etc., connected to
the engine, Figures 10.1, 10.5, 10.6.
Growth and shrinkage of the exhaust pipe must
be planned, otherwise it will create excessive
loads on exhaust piping and supporting struc-
ture. Long runs of dry exhaust pipes can be sub-
jected to very severe stresses from expansion
and contraction. From its cold state, a steel
exhaust pipe will expand about 0.0076 inch per
foot of pipe for each 100F rise of exhaust tem-
perature (0.11 mm/m for each 100C). This
amounts to about 0.65 inch expansion for each
10 feet of pipe from 100F to 950F (52 mm/m
per meter from 35C to 510C).
It is of utmost importance that flexible pipe, when
insulated, be insulated in such a way that the flex-
ible pipe can expand and contract freely within
the insulation. This generally requires either a
soft material or an insulated sleeve to encase the
flexible pipe.
Long runs of exhaust pipe should be divided into
sections having expansion joints between sec-
tions. Each section should be fixed at one end and
be allowed to expand at the other. Figure 10.7 illus-
trates methods for connecting exhaust systems.
EXHAUST SYSTEM
LEBW1414-00 152
Installation Limits of Bellows-Type Flexible Exhaust Fittings
A B C
Maximum Offset Maximum Compression MaximumExtension
Hose
Between Flanges From Free Length From Free Length
Diameter in. mm in. mm in. mm
8 & 12 in. 0.75 19.05 1.50 38.1 1.00 25.40
14 in. 0.75 19.05 3.00 76.2 1.00 25.40
18 in. 0.90 22.86 3.00 76.2 1.75 44.45
PROPER MUFFLER MOUNTING
Figure 10.1
Four (4) small straps can be tack-welded between
the two end flanges to hold the engine exhaust
flexible connection in a rigid position during
exhaust piping installation. This will prevent the
fitting from being installed in a flexed condition.
Attach a warning tag to the fitting noting that the
weld straps must be removed prior to starting the
engine.
For maximum durability, allow the flexible con-
nection to operate as close as possible to its free
state.
Figure 10.2
Flanges must
be parallel
Free length
L
A
B or C
L = 457 (457 mm I.D.)
Installation Limits of Flexible Metal Hose-Type Exhaust Fittings
A B C
Maximum Offset Maximum Compression MaximumExtension
Hose
Between Flanges From Free Length From Free Length
Diameter in. mm in. mm in. mm
4 & 5 in. 1.0 25.4 0.25 6.25 0.25 6.25
6 in. 1.5 38.1 0.25 6.25 0.25 6.25
Figure 10.3. Installation limits for bellows and flexible connections.
153 LEBW1414-00
Figure 10.4. Spring rates.
Piping
Physical characteristics of the equipment room on
offshore rigs determine exhaust system layouts.
Arrangements with minimum backpressures are
favored. Securely support pipes and rubber
dampers or springs installed in the exhaust pipe
bracing to isolate vibrations.
Piping must be designed with engine service in
mind. In many cases, an overhead crane will be
used to service the heavier engine components.
For both installation economy and operating effi-
ciency, engine location should make the exhaust
piping as short as possible with minimum bends
and restrictions. There should be a sleeve in wall
openings to absorb vibration and an expansion
joint(s) in the pipe to compensate for lengthways
thermal expansion or contraction.
Install piping with 9 in. (229 mm) minimum clear-
ance from combustible materials.
Exhaust heat must be discharged without caus-
ing discomfort to personnel or hazards to struc-
tures or equipment.
Extend exhaust stacks to avoid heat, fumes and
odors. Also, the exhaust pipes should not be in
close proximity to the air intake system for
the engine or the crankcase ventilation system.
Engine air cleaners, turbochargers, and after-
coolers clogged with exhaust products can cause
premature failures. Pipe outlets cut at 30 to 45
angles will reduce gas turbulence and noise. Rain
caps forced open by exhaust pressure will keep
water from entering.
Muffler placement greatly affects silencing abil-
ity. See Figure 10.8. Locating it near the engine
minimizes transmission of sound to the exhaust
piping. Higher exhaust temperatures near the
engine also reduces carbon buildup in the muf-
fler; a drain removes condensation.
During repowers, engine hp may be increased.
Larger mufflers and/or piping may be required.
Avoid sudden changes in diameter if existing
exhaust piping is retained. These act as orifices
and their pressure drop is hard to predict, but can
be very high.
Spring Rate for
Bellows-Type Flexible Fittings
Spring Rate Axial
Diameter lb/in. kN/m
8 in. 170 29.7
12 in. 194 33.9
14 in. 391 68.5
18 in. 110 19.3
EXHAUST SYSTEM
Figure 10.5
LEBW1414-00 154
EXHAUST SYSTEM
Figure 10.6
1. Engine exhaust outlet. 6. Anchor point for vertical run of pipe.
2. Flexible pipe connection. 6.
NOTE: Allowance for expansion must be made on either side of
3. Long sweep elbow. 6.
anchor. If muffler is used, it should be installed as section of pipe.
4. Longitudinal and lateral pipe support, fixing location of end pipe.
5. Lateral pipe support, allowing for longitudinal expansion. 7. Expansion sleeve with spray shield.
8. Condensate trap (removable for cleanout).
Figure 10.7
155 LEBW1414-00
Mufflers
For muffler location instructions see Figure 10.8.
Exhaust noise attenuation is best performed with
a quality muffler; however, attenuation charac-
teristics of a muffler are not the same for all fre-
quencies. Therefore, the effect of a given muffler
upon a naturally aspirated or a turbocharged
engine could be different. The effect of a given
muffler could be quite different if the engine runs
at two different speeds.The manufacturer must
be contacted for any specific muffling charac-
teristics. As an additional noise attenuation aid,
the exit opening of the exhaust pipe should be cut
at a 30 angle (0.52 rad), Figures 10.5 and 10.6.
Consult the TMI for engine exhaust noise data.
Figure 10.8
Spark arresting mufflers are available. These are
many times specified when the owner judges
them to be beneficial.
Mufflers are rated according to their degree of
silencing and commonly referred to by such terms
as residential or critical and supercritical.
Residential Suitable for industrial areas
where background noise level is relatively
high or for remote areas where partly muffled
noise is permissible.
Critical Reduces exhaust noise to an
acceptable level in localities where moderately
effective silencing is required such as
semi-residential areas where a moderate
background noise is always present.
Supercritical Provides maximum silenc-
ing for residential, hospital, school, hotel,
store, apartment building and other areas
where background noise level is low and gen-
erator set noise must be kept to a minimum.
At least 5 diameters of straight pipe upstream of
the muffler and 2.5 diameters downstream are
required to minimize turbulence and backpressure.
Piping
Combined engine exhaust systems can allow
operating engines to force exhaust gases into
engines which are not operating. This is not an
acceptable installation practice.
Recirculated exhaust gas will cause several prob-
lems. Gas will condense an appreciable amount
of water which can cause engine damage. Also,
soot can clog the turbocharger, aftercooler, or
plug air cleaner elements.
Use of an exhaust isolating valve has not been
successful. Deterioration at exhaust temperatures
tends to be high plus soot buildup causes the
valve to leak. If the valve is not gas tight, it is
ineffective.
Check that generator power and control cables
are not mounted too close to the exhaust.
When moving a land-rig engine, exhaust outlets
should face opposite forward movement. If headed
forward, the turbocharger could rotate from the
air forced into it, resulting in engine failure shortly
after spudding the next well.
Rain Protection
The exhaust end should be sloped and the pipe
end angled to prevent water entering the pipe.
Alternatively, some form of rain cap should be
fitted to the vertical exhaust system.
Cleanliness
Install an identifiable blanking plate to prevent
debris from falling into the turbocharger during
installation. The Caterpillar shipping cover can
be used for this purpose. Install it directly on top
of the turbine housing. Attach a warning tag to
the plate indicating it must be removed prior to
starting the engine.
LEBW1414-00 156
Slobber
Extended engine operation at no load or lightly
loaded conditions (less than 15% load) may
result in exhaust manifold slobber. Exhaust man-
ifold slobber is the black oily fluid than can leak
from exhaust system joints. The presence of
exhaust manifold slobber does not necessarily
indicate an engine problem. Engines are designed
to operate at loaded conditions.
At no load or lightly loaded conditions, the seal-
ing capability function of some integral engine
components may be adversely affected. Exhaust
manifold slobber is not usually harmful to the
engine; the results can be unsightly and objec-
tionable in some cases.
Exhaust manifold slobber consists of fuel and/or
oil mixed with soot from the inside of the exhaust
manifold. Common sources of oil slobber are
worn valve guides, worn piston rings, worn turbo-
charger seals or light load poor combustion. Fuel
slobber usually occurs with combustion problems.
A normally operating engine should be expected
to run for at least one hour at light loads without
significant slobber. Some engines may run for as
long as three, four or more hours before slob-
bering. However, all engines will eventually slob-
ber if run at light loads. External signs of slobber
will be evident unless the exhaust system is com-
pletely sealed.
If extended idle or slight load periods of engine
operation are mandatory, the objectionable effect
of the engine slobber can be avoided by loading
the engine to at least 30% load for approximately
ten minutes every four hours. This will remove
any fluids that have accumulated in the exhaust
manifold. To minimize exhaust manifold slobber,
it is important that the engine is correctly sized for
each application.
Exhaust Gas Recirculation
Exhaust stacks must be designed so engine
exhaust is discharged high enough and in a direc-
tion to keep it clear of air turbulence and eddy
currents created by wind, radiators, and the rigs
fresh air supply system. Engine air cleaners, tur-
bochargers, and aftercoolers clogged with
exhaust products will cause engine failures,
Figures 10.5 and 10.6.
Exhaust Backpressure
Backpressure limits recommended are 27 in.
(685 mm and 6.7 kPa) of water for turbocharged
engines and 34 in. (865 mm and 8.5 kPa) of
water for naturally aspirated engines, measured
at the fitting in the exhaust elbow provided for
this purpose. There is no minimum backpressure
requirement.
To avoid excessive exhaust temperature, loss of
power, increased fuel consumption, and soot
from incomplete combustion caused by back-
pressure, a method of approximating the back-
pressure of the system in the design phase is
provided. (See Exhaust Backpressure Calcula-
tion Worksheet, Figure 10.10). Figure 10.9 con-
tains the data required to calculate exhaust
backpressure. The chart is calculated with an
exhaust temperature of 900F (482C). This
should be increased/decreased 7% for every
100F/55C increase/decrease from 900F
(482C).
To ensure the above limits are not exceeded dur-
ing operation, it is recommended the design limit
be one-half of the above backpressure limits.
Pressure drop includes losses due to piping, muf-
fler, and rain cap, and is measured in a straight
length of pipe 3 to 5 diameters from the last tran-
sition change after the turbocharger outlet. The
backpressure should be measured as close to the
engine as possible.
157 LEBW1414-00
Figure 10.9
2,000
(3320)
4,000
(6640)
6,000
(9960)
8,000
(13 280)
10,000
(16 660)
12,000
(19 920)
0
.04
(1)
.08
(2)
P
R
E
S
S
U
R
E

D
R
O
P

P
E
R

F
O
O
T

(
M
E
T
E
R
)
O
F

S
T
R
A
I
G
H
T

P
I
P
E

A
T

9
0
0

F

(
4
8
2

C
)
EXHAUST FLOW (CFM/m
3
H)
NOTE: With 800F (427C), pressure drop increases 7%.
16" (400 m
m
) dia
1
4
" (3
5
0
m
m
) d
ia
1
2
"

(
3
0
0

m
m
)

d
ia
1
0
"

(
2
5
0

m
m
)

d
i
a
8
"

(
2
0
0

m
m
)

d
i
a
6
"

(
1
5
0

m
m
)

d
i
a
5
"

(
1
2
5

m
m
)

d
i
a
4
"

(
1
0
0

m
m
)

d
i
a
LEBW1414-00 158
EXHAUST BACKPRESSURE CALCULATION WORKSHEET
General Data
Calculation for Backpressure:
I. Straight Pipe Resistance
Total Length of Straight
Sections of Exhaust Pipe Pressure Drop Resistance
_______________ ft. (m) X _______________ inch H2O/ft = _______________ inch of H2O
:______________ (mm H2O/m) :______________ (mm of H2O)
II. Elbow Resistance
Inside Diameter of Elbows Quantity of Elbows Equivalent Length
____________ in. (mm) X _________ std. 90 X 2.75 (0.033) = _____ ft. (mm)
____________ in. (mm) X _________ long sweep 90 X 1.67 (0.02) = _____ ft. (mm)
____________ in. (mm) X _________ 45elbow X 1.25 (0.015) = _____ ft. (mm)
____________ in. (mm) X _________ square elbow X 5.50 (0.066) = _____ ft. (mm)
Total Equivalent Length _____________________ ft. (mm)
Pressure Drop Total Equivalent Length Resistance
_______________ inch H2O/ft X _______________ ft. (m) = _______________ inch of H2O
:______________ (mm H2O/m) :______________ (mm of H2O)
III. Muffler Resistance
Obtain from manufacturer; based on muffler data and exhaust Resistance
flow data.
_______________ inch of H2O
:______________ (mm of H2O)
IV. Total Exhaust System Resistance
Straight Pipe Resistance Elbow Resistance Muffler Resistance System Resistance
+ + = inch of H2O*
(mm of H
2O)
NOTE: Use additional pages for each pipe size. *kPa = inch of H2O X 0.249
Figure 10.10
Engine Model __________________________________
Power: ________________ HP @ _____________ RPM
PIPE DATA
Exh. Pipe Inside Diameter _______________ in. (mm)
Pressure Drop ____________________ inch H2O/ft
(mm H2O/m)
(See Figure 9.9)
EXHAUST FLOW DATA
__________________________________ CFM (m
3
/HR)
________________________________ lbs/min (kg/min)
__________________________________ F (C) Stack
(See TMI or Engine Performance book)
MUFFLER DATA
Manufacturer _________________________________
Model _____________________________________
Muffler Pipe Connection
Size _________________________________ in. (mm)
159 LEBW1414-00
Engine Room Ventilation
Engine room ventilation must accomplish two
things:
1. Provide an environment which permits the
machinery and equipment to function prop-
erly with dependable service life.
2. Provide an environment in which person-
nel can work comfortably and, therefore,
effectively.
An engine not enclosed does not present venti-
lation problems; therefore, this discussion applies
to engine rooms only.
About five percent of fuel consumed by an engine
is lost as heat radiated to the surrounding air. In
addition, heat from generator inefficiencies and
exhaust piping can easily equal engine radiated
heat. Any resulting elevated temperatures in
the engine room may adversely affect mainte-
nance personnel, switchgear, and generator set
performance.
General Information
There are three aspects to ventilation:
Ventilation Air
The flow of air required to carry away the radiated
heat of the engine(s) and other engine room
machinery.
Combustion Air
The flow of air required to burn the fuel in the
engine.
Crankcase Fumes Disposal
The crankcase fumes of the engine must be
either ingested by the engine or piped out of the
engine room.
Engine Room Temperature
A properly designed engine room ventilation sys-
tem will maintain engine room air temperatures
within 15F (9C) above the ambient air tem-
perature (ambient air temperature refers to the
air temperature surrounding the vessel). In gen-
eral, engine room temperature should not exceed
120F (49C).
Offshore Rig Ventilation
In modern offshore installations, natural draft ven-
tilation is too bulky for practical consideration.
Adequate quantities of fresh air are best supplied
by powered (fan-assisted) systems.
Correct routing of ventilation air is vital. Without
it, air flow will not adequately maintain comfort-
able engine room temperatures.
All engine room radiated heat is eventually
absorbed by engine room surfaces. Some is
transferred to the air or water through the enclo-
sure. The remainder must be carried away by a
flow of cool ventilating air which picks up the heat
through contact with these surfaces.
Ventilating systems must be designed to provide
safe working temperatures and adequate air flow
for machinery, equipment, and personnel at all
times, but especially when the rigs hatches are
closed for bad weather operations.
For personal comfort, air movement of at least
five feet per second should be maintained in
working area adjacent to sources of heat or where
air temperature exceeds 100F (38C).
Long runs of hot, uninsulated exhaust pipe can
dissipate more heat into an engine room than all
machinery surfaces combined. It is, therefore,
important to completely insulate the exhaust sys-
tem within the engine rooms work area. Hot
pipes and other hot surfaces within the engine
room should also be insulated if localized high
air temperatures are created because of them.
CAUTION: When refrigeration equipment is
installed within engine room space, ensure its
location is such that any refrigerant leakage will
not be drawn into the engines combustion air.
Severe engine damage will occur if refrigerants,
such as Freon or ammonia, get drawn into the
engines air intake system. Locating refrigerant
compressors near an engine room air discharge
area is appropriate.
Offshore Rig Ventilation Systems
Recommended ventilating systems are described
below:
1. Bring outside air into the engine room through
a system of ducts. These ducts should be
routed between engines, at floor level, and
AIR INTAKE SYSTEMS
LEBW1414-00 160
discharge air up at the engines and genera-
tors. The most economical method is to use
the service platform built up around the
engines as the top of this duct, Figure 11.1
Type 1.
This requires the service platform to be con-
structed of solid, nonskid plate rather than
perforated or expanded grating. The duct
outlet will be the clearance between the deck-
ing and oilfield base.
Ventilation air discharge fans should be
mounted or ducted at the highest point in the
engine room. They should be directly over
heat sources.
This system provides the best ventilation with
the least amount of air required. In addition,
the upward flow of air around the engine
serves as a shield which minimizes the
amount of heat released into the engine
room. Air temperature in the air discharge
duct will be higher than engine room air
temperature.
If System No. 1 is not feasible, the following
method is recommended:
2. Bring outside air into the engine room as far
away as practical from heat sources, utiliz-
ing fans or large intake ducts. Discharge this
air into the engine room as low as possible,
Figure 11.2 Type 2.
Allow air to flow across the engine room from
the cool air entry point(s) toward sources of
engine heat such as the engine, exposed
exhaust components, generators, or other
large sources of heat.
Ventilation air discharge fans should be
mounted or ducted at the highest point in the
engine room. They should be directly over
heat sources.
Engine heat will be dissipated with this sys-
tem, but a certain amount of heat will still
radiate and heat up all adjacent engine room
surfaces.
If the air is not properly routed, it will rise to
the ceiling before it gets to the engines,
Figures 11.3 A and B.
This system will work only where the air inlets
circulate the air between the engines. Air
inlets located at the end of the engine room
will provide adequate ventilation to only the
engine closest to the inlet. Figure 11.3 B
shows this incorrect system.
3. If System 1 or 2 is not feasible, the following
method can be used; however, it provides the
least efficient ventilation.
Bring outside air into the engine room and
discharge it directly down on the engines with
inlet fans, Figure 11.4 Type 3.
VENTILATION TYPE 1
Figure 11.1
161 LEBW1414-00
Ventilation exhaust fans should be mounted
or ducted from the corners of the engine room.
This system mixes the hottest air in the
engine room with the incoming cool air, rais-
ing the temperature of all air in the engine
room. It also interferes with the natural con-
vection flow of hot air rising to exhaust fans.
Engine rooms can be ventilated this way, but
it requires extra large capacity ventilating fans.
VENTILATION TYPE 2
Figure 11.2
INCORRECT VENTILATION
Figure 11.3A
LEBW1414-00 162
INCORRECT AIR FLOW
Figure 11.3B
Air Quantity Required for Ventilation
A method of calculating the quantity of air
needed to reach any predetermined temperature
in the engine room is determined by the follow-
ing formulas:
It is recommended the engine room temperature
should generally be less than 100F (38C).
Engine room work areas temperature should not
exceed 120F (49C). Where ambient tempera-
tures exceed these values, Tr should be main-
tained at 15F (9C).
1. For use with ventilating flow System 1,
Figure 11.1
C = + Ca (English)
C = + Ca (Metric)
C = cfm (m
3
/hr) ventilating air required
He = Engine heat (Btu/min or kW) released
to engine room per engine at maximum
desired engine room temperature,
Figure 11.5.
Ha = Auxiliary or driven equipment heat
(Btu/min or kW) released to engine
room per each power module. If exact
heat rejection data is not available,
an estimated value is one-third of
the engine heat rejection for each
generator.
W = Density (lbs/ft
3
or kg/m
3
) of air at max-
imum outside ambient temperature,
Figure 11.6.
Tr = Maximum desired temperature rise (F
or C) from outside ambient tempera-
ture to air temperature in engine room.
He + Ha
0.00168 WTr
He + Ha
1.4 WTr
POWER UNIT
POWER UNIT
POWER UNIT
NO AIR
BETWEEN
ENGINE
VENTILATION TYPE 3
Figure 11.4
163 LEBW1414-00
Ca = Combustion air requirements of engine,
refer to TMI or Engine Performance
book.
2. For use with ventilating System 2, Figure 11.2
C = + Ca (English)
C = + Ca (Metric)
3. For use with ventilating System 3, Figure 11.4
C = + Ca (English)
C = + Ca (Metric)
Radiator Cooled Engines
Engine driven blower fans on Caterpillar radiators
have an air flow in excess of that required for
engine room ventilation.
Radiator cooling fans are sensitive to air flow
restriction. Restriction in either inlet or outlet duct-
ing should generally be less than 0.5 in. H
2O
(0.13 kPa). The radiator supplier should be con-
tacted for the exact value.
Emergency/Standby Generator Set Ventilation
Emergency/Standby generator sets are normally
radiator cooled. The following additional guide-
lines should be followed:
Radiator air inlet and outlet ports should each be
at least 1.25 times the radiator frontal area.
Resistance of louvers should be considered when
calculating air flow restriction on the radiator fan.
Additionally, these ports must be so arranged or
deflected so air recirculation does not occur. The
engine exhaust outlet must be arranged so
exhaust gas does not recirculate into the radia-
tor air inlet.
If ventilation ports of the engine room are covered
by watertight doors, it is recommended the engine
air cleaner be ducted outside of the engine room.
Otherwise, starting of the engine with the doors
closed will result in a vacuum in the engine room.
Total duct air flow restriction, including air clean-
ers, should not exceed 10 in. (2.49 kPa) of water
measured while the engine is producing full rated
power. It is good design practice to design com-
bustion air ducts to give the lowest practical restric-
tion to air flow, since this will result in longer times
between filter element service or replacement.
He + Ha
0.00048 WTr
He + Ha
0.4 WTr
He + Ha
0.00084 WTr
He + Ha
0.7 WTr
Figure 11.5
Figure 11.6
Density of Air at Various Temperatures
F/C lb./cu. ft. (kg/m
3
) F (C) lb./cu. ft. (kg/m
3
)
0/18 0.086 (1.38) 70 (21) 0.075 (1.20)
10/12 0.084 (1.35) 80 (27) 0.074 (1.18)
20/7 0.083 (1.33) 90 (32) 0.072 (1.15)
30/1 0.081 (1.30) 100 (38) 0.071 (1.14)
40/4 0.079 (1.27) 110 (43) 0.070 (1.12)
50/10 0.078 (1.25) 120 (49) 0.068 (1.09)
60/16 0.076 (1.22) 130 (54) 0.067 (1.07)
Heat Rejection to Atmosphere
Btu/min. (kW) Rejection at Various Engine Room Ambient Temperatures
Consult TMI for Actual Values
Engine Model 85F/29C 100F/38C 115F/46C
3304 910 (16) 775 (14) 637 (11)
3306 1375 (24) 1170 (21) 963 (17)
3406 2100 (37) 1785 (31) 1470 (26)
3408 3900 (68) 3300 (58) 2730 (48)
3412 4200 (73) 3570 (62) 2940 (51)
3508 5100 (90) 4350 (77) 3600 (63)
3512 7690 (135) 6550 (115) 5390 (95)
3516 10,200 (180) 8660 (152) 7100 (125)
LEBW1414-00 164
Combustion air duct velocity should not exceed
2,000 ft./min. (610 m/min). Higher velocities will
cause unacceptable noise levels and excessive
flow restriction.
EMERGENCY GEN SET OR
PRODUCTION POWER HOUSE
Figure 11.7
Land SCR Rig Ventilation Systems
Land SCR rig engines equipped with suction or
blower fan radiators have an air flow in excess of
that required for recommended engine ventila-
tion. As long as radiator air flow is not obstructed,
no further ventilation requirements are needed.
Land rig engine installations with remote radia-
tors or vertical discharge radiators should be
inspected to determine if sufficient engine ven-
tilation is provided.
Figure 11.8 illustrates a land rig installation where
ventilation should be considered. Natural draft
ventilation is almost completely blocked by roofs,
SCR house, tool room, and vertical discharge radi-
ators. Warm weather operation may result in unac-
ceptable engine and generator temperatures.
LAND RIG ENGINES REQUIRING VENTILATION
Figure 11.8
Figure 11.9 shows an engine room designed to
provide a combination of ventilation and engine/
generator air inlet ducting.
Ventilation is provided by the air discharged from
the generator. In warm weather, the air source
valve is positioned to provide outside air to the
generator ventilation air inlet. Air discharged from
the generator exits through the roof vent door
and open rear of base, providing engine ventila-
tion as a secondary result.
Figure 11.9
165 LEBW1414-00
In cold weather, the air source valve will be posi-
tioned to provide partial or total generator venti-
lation air from within engine room.
If doors are added to rear of base, make sure that
total enclosure is not airtight. This prevents pres-
surizing engine room (reducing generator venti-
lation air flow) when doors are closed and air
source valve is positioned to provide outside air
to generator.
An air duct size of 2.0 sq. ft. (0.19 m
2
) is ade-
quate for 3508, 3512, and 3516s on up to 40 ft.
(12.2 m) bases. The ducting to the air cleaners
from air source valve can match the sizes of the
optional air cleaner inlet rectangular adapters.
Combustion Air Intake
A diesel engine uses large quantities of air for
combustion and requires that air enter its intake
system with minimum restriction. Normal require-
ments for combustion will fall very close to
2.5 cfm (0.07 m
3
/min) per bhp for a Caterpillar
Diesel Engine. High intake air temperature or
high intake restriction raises engine exhaust tem-
perature. Engine damage may result.
The air cleaner service indicator is actuated when
the restriction reaches 30 in. H
2O (762 mm and
7.5 kPa). Above this value, engine performance
begins to be noticeably affected. This restriction
also includes any air inlet piping pressure drop.
Thus, air inlet duct restriction should be held to
a minimum to prevent undue shortening of the air
cleaner service intervals. An air intake duct
restriction of less than 3 in. (76 mm and 0.75 kPa)
H
2O is suggested.
Air entering the engine air cleaners should not
be more than 10F (5.6C) above ambient air
temperature. If it is not practical to design the
engine room ventilation system to allow air with
10F (5.6C) or less temperature rise to reach
engine air intakes directly, it is advisable to run
ducts from air cleaners to points where fresh, cool
air enters the engine room.
Combustion air inlet ducting, if used, should be
so placed that it is in the path of the cool air
inflow. It should not be directly in front of the air
intake ducts or close enough to allow salt spray
or mist entering the engine room to enter engine
intake ducts. Presence of salt in the intake air can
damage an engine. Its presence in any significant
quantity should be carefully avoided.
Wire-reinforced, flexible hose must not be used
as ductwork since it is susceptible to abrasion
and abuse.
Figures 11.10 and 11.11 suggest ways of arrang-
ing air intakes to take full advantage of the engine
rooms ventilating system. The air inlet must
be located so exhaust fumes do not enter the
engine. These fumes cause premature plugging
of air cleaner elements and reduce combustion
efficiency.
On land rigs, also see Section Land Rig Ventila-
tion Systems.
Air Cleaners
The standard Caterpillar petroleum engine
arrangements include dry paper, element-type
air cleaners, Figure 2.10. (A dry paper element
is the only type air cleaner which may be used.)
Figure 11.10 Figure 10.11
ENGINE ROOM AIR FLOW
1. Engine 5. Ventilating cold air vertical stack-type discharge
2. Air cleaner with duct connection 6. Ventilating cold air peripheral slotted
3. Intake air duct 6. duct-type discharge
4. Ventilating cold air intake 7. Engine intake air pickup
LEBW1414-00 166
Their filtration efficiency exceeds 99%, providing
good protection to the engine.
Pressure drop across a typical air cleaner will be
6.0 in. H
2O (1.5 kPa) when clean. The on-engine
piping system might typically add another
3.0 in. H
2O (0.75 kPa) pressure drop.
Soot filters are included with electric drill rig
engines. Soot filters extend the dry paper ele-
ment life and reusability by catching the major-
ity of oily, sooty deposits which would plug the
dry paper element.
Heavy-duty air cleaners are recommended for
desert or dusty atmosphere, Figure 11.12. Heavy-
duty air cleaners have a mechanical precleaning
section that lengthens the air cleaner life under
dusty conditions. Check that the additional size
of heavy-duty air cleaners do not cause physical
interference with other equipment.
Heavy-duty air cleaners with exhaust-powered
dust ejectors are available on 3400 Series and
smaller engines. No changes should be made to
exhaust system, such as adding mufflers, because
they reduce or nullify dust ejector efficiency.
Oil bath and oil-soaked screen-type air cleaners
are not acceptable since filtration efficiency rarely
exceeds 95%. There is the constant danger of
improper servicing resulting in even lower filtra-
tion efficiency or oil carryover into the engine air
intake system. Oil carryover causes aftercooler
plugging and possible turbocharger failure due
to increased exhaust temperatures.
Figure 11.12
CAUTION: Under no circumstances should the
engines be operated without air cleaners.
The air inlet should be shielded against direct
entrance of rain or show. The most common
practice is to provide a cap or inlet hood which
incorporates a coarse screen to keep out large
objects. This cap should be designed to keep air
flow restriction to a minimum. Some users have
piped to a front air intake location which gives a
direct air inlet and an internal means of achiev-
ing water separation.
Precleaners and prescreeners incorporated into
the intake cap design are also available. They
can be used where special conditions prevail or
to increase the air cleaner service life. These
devices can remove 70% to 80% of the dirt. The
prescreener is designed to protect the inlet sys-
tem when trash is encountered.
Ducting for Remote Air Cleaners
Ducting: Ducting should be constructed of
formed steel or aluminum tubing. Elbows may
be of these materials or molded rubber. Where
vibration could present a fatigue problem, hump-
type connections of rubber or other flexible syn-
thetic material must be used. The hump-type joint
allows vibration isolation as well as minor mis-
alignment due to manufacturing tolerances and
engine or air cleaner movement.
Piping diameter should be equal to or larger than
the air cleaner inlet and outlet and the engine
air inlet. A rough guide for pipe size selection
would be to keep maximum air velocity in the
piping in the 2,000 fpm to 3,000 fpm (10 m/s to
15 m/s) range.
Consideration must be given to wall thickness of
metallic components to ensure the clamp load
of rubber joints will not deform piping. Sealing
surfaces must be smooth to ensure proper fit
and achieve a good airtight seal with mating
parts. Fiberglass and molded plastic elbows are
acceptable if they have sufficient strength to
accept clamping loads and provide airtight leak
proof ducting.
Remote-Mounted Air Cleaners
Air Inlet: CAUTION: When air cleaners are
remote-mounted and air is piped to the turbo-
charger inlet, care must be taken to ensure air
flow is introduced uniformly into the turbocharger
compressor. Air striking the compressor wheel
167 LEBW1414-00
at an angle can result in pulsations causing pre-
mature failure. Air flow must enter the turbo-
charger through a smooth, straight pipe. Allow
at least 2 in. of pipe (51 mm) between the point
of attachment to the turbocharger and the bend
radius center point, Figure 11.13.
Figure 11.13
When fabricated elbows are required, they should
be constructed of sections not exceeding 15
(0.1745 rad) to allow a smooth flow of inlet air.
To protect turbocharger components, care must
be taken to remove all welding slag and splatter
from the inside surface.
When rubber elbows or joints are used, they
should always be double clamped. T bolt type
clamps providing 360 seal are recommended
because of their higher clamping load capability.
CAUTION: When using rubber or synthetic
elbows or joints, review location to ensure that
temperatures do not exceed the capability of
the material.
Where there is a width restriction, a plenum
chamber can be fabricated as a space saver,
Figure 11.14.
Figure 11.14
LEBW1414-00 168
Normal combustion pressures of an internal com-
bustion engine cause a certain amount of blowby
past piston rings into the crankcase. To prevent
pressure buildup within the crankcase, vent tubes
are provided to allow gas to escape.
Caterpillar does not recommend venting crank-
case fumes into the engine room. Fumes will clog
air filters and increase air inlet temperature with
resulting engine damage. They can also cause
problems with electrical equipment.
Crankcase fumes should be discharged through
venting systems to atmosphere. A separate vent
line for each engine is required.
Crankcase fumes vent pipes must be large
enough to minimize backpressure. If the equiv-
alent length of straight pipe is equal to 20 ft.
(6.1 m) or less, the size used for the fumes out-
let on the engine will be satisfactory. For lengths
greater than 20 ft. (6.1 m) use the next larger
size pipe. As a general rule, the 3508, 3512, and
3516 Engines require a 2 in. (50 mm) I.D.
crankcase fumes disposal line. Over 100 ft. of
length (30.5 m), a 3 in. (75 mm) I.D. crankcase
fumes disposal line is used.
Loops or low spots in a crankcase vent pipe must
be avoided to prevent condensation in the pipe
and restriction of normal discharge of fumes.
Where horizontal runs are required, install the pipe
with a gradual slope from engine (1/2 in. per ft.
[41.7 mm/m]), Figure 12.1.
All offshore rigs should have crankcase venting
systems. Land rigs with engine driven blower
fans, generators driven off the front of the engine,
or cold weather enclosures should also have
crankcase fumes venting systems, Figure 12.2.
Crankcase fumes must not be discharged into
air ventilating ducts or exhaust pipes. They will
become coated with oily deposits creating a fire
hazard.
The crankcase pipe should vent directly to the
atmosphere and be so directed that rain or spray
cannot enter and run back into the engine.
Figure 12.2
CRANKCASE VENTILATION
Figure 12.1
169 LEBW1414-00
To minimize the amount of oil discharge through
the vent pipe, a drip collector with drain may be
installed near the engine, Figure 12.3.
Under no circumstances should crankcase pres-
sure vary more than 1 in. (25.4 mm) of water from
ambient barometric pressure. Higher crankcase
pressures will tend to worsen any existing oil
leaks. Measurement should be made with engine
at 180200F (6879C) at engine dipstick.
Figure 12.3
LEBW1414-00 170
Figure 12.4 illustrates a powered fumes disposal
system. The valves with each engine should be
adjusted to provide no more than 1 in. (25.4 mm)
of water column crankcase vacuum. Adjust valves
with only one engine operating. Fan capacity pro-
vides a 4:1 dilution of fumes volume. A backup
fan should be available.
A damper could be placed at the end of the
manifold at the cleanout port and set to provide
1 in. H
2O (25.4 mm H2O) vacuum in engine
crankcase instead of bleed valve at each engine.
Figure 12.4
171 LEBW1414-00
DC drives are used on some older electric drill
rigs. The following information is useful when con-
sidering repowers on these rigs.
DC drives consist of an engine, DC generator,
DC motor, and control equipment. Under certain
conditions, the DC motor can become a gener-
ator and drive the engine-driven generator as a
motor, preventing safety shutoffs from stopping
the engine. This can occur when two generators
are paralleled on a drawworks motor or when two
engines are driving each of two motors on a mud
pump or drawworks.
To protect against these possibilities, the engine
must be equipped with low oil pressure, high
water temperature, and overspeed switches con-
nected to the DC control system generator exci-
tation cutout section. One set of contactors is
sufficient regardless of the number of DC gener-
ators driven per engine, Figure 13.1.
DC POWER SYSTEMS CONTROLS
Figure 13.1
HIGH WATER
TEMPERATURE
LOW OIL
PRESSURE
LEBW1414-00 172
When tripping pipe in or out of the hole, regen-
erative power surges can occur as the traveling
block nears the crown block. These power surges
drive the generator and engine above the engine
governed speed (overrun).
Regenerative power surges can cause nuisance
tripping of the engine overspeed device. Overrun
can be kept below the engine overspeed shutoff
setting by controlling the rate of drop-off of DC
generator excitation. The rate of excitation drop-
off should be spread over as much as five sec-
onds to minimize this power surge.
It is recommended that a separate engine be
operated for each drawworks motor. This pro-
vides more engine frictional hp to help resist these
power surges during tripping.
To conserve fuel and increase engine life, the
drillers console controls can be equipped to sig-
nal the air actuated governor to return to low
speed when the generators on that engine arent
being used, Figure 13.2.
Figure 13.2
173 LEBW1414-00
The following items, normally supplied by oth-
ers, are not all-inclusive but generally have an
influence on engine operation.
Voltage Regulators
Operation characteristics of voltage regulators
affect engine performance when the AC loads
are dominant, such as jacking an offshore rig or
during load bank testing. The DC load controls
(SCR modules) include DC excitation controls
that are adjusted to match load application to
engine capability.
Where the AC loads can be dominant, Caterpillar
recommends the volts-per-hertz type regulator
rather than the constant voltage type. When run-
ning at rated speed, there is no difference in oper-
ating characteristics of the two types of voltage
regulators; however, during overload conditions,
the constant voltage type tends to stall the engine
while the volts-per-hertz regulator allows the
engine to lug. Because of this characteristic, con-
stant voltage regulators are sometimes referred
to as hard regulators.
A hard regulator maintains constant voltage as
generator frequency varies. When an engine is
subject to an overload, it begins to slow down.
Constant line voltage keeps the electrical load
above the engines capability, and the engine
generally will not recover. Thus, the constant
voltage regulator works against the engine and
prevents engine recovery.
The volts-per-hertz regulator maintains a voltage
level proportional to frequency. Thus, as the
engine slows down due to an overload, reduction
in generator voltage reduces electrical load. This
assists engine recovery. An engine-generator set
equipped with a volts-per-hertz regulator can also
pick up larger block loads with a smaller fre-
quency dip.
Parallel operation requires the generators to be
equipped with either a voltage droop or cross-
current compensation system. A voltage droop
system is standard on the optional Caterpillar
voltage regulators.
Voltage droop or cross-current compensation
systems must operate effectively, particularly on
rectified drill rigs, with a very low power factor.
Circulating current will proportionately reduce the
load sharing accuracy of the Woodward 2301A
electric governor.
Electrical Instruments
Frequency meter: A dial-type meter is preferred
for accuracy of frequency readings below rated
speed. Reed-type instruments are susceptible to
frequency harmonics.
Voltmeter: Where three or more generating units
are in an installation, it is recommended only one
voltmeter per system be used. Individual gener-
ators can be connected to this single meter
through the synchroscope switch at the time of
paralleling. A single voltmeter minimizes meter
errors. A voltmeter continuously monitoring the
bus voltage should also be included.
Ammeter: No special requirements other than at
least one ammeter and a three-phase selector
switch should be included per generator.
kW meter: A kW meter is recommended for par-
allel operation involving either rectified systems
or larger generator sets.
PF meter (power factor): PF meters are recom-
mended under certain conditions of parallel oper-
ation; for example, where operating personnel
frequently adjusts generator controls. Tinkering
results in generator misadjustment and subse-
quent high ampere readings. When this happens,
adjusting the generator controls until the amperes
are rebalanced does not necessarily bring the
generators back into balance.
With a PF meter, proper generator voltage adjust-
ment procedure is as follows:
1. In single-unit operation, use volt meter to deter-
mine proper generator voltage adjustment.
2. In parallel operation, use PF meter instead of
a voltmeter or ammeter because generator
voltages are properly adjusted only when all
units show the same power factor.
KVAR meters perform the same function as
PF meters. However, when the governors are not
adjusted to carry the same kW load (or different
size generating units are used), calculation is
required to determine proper readings.
PF meters are also recommended for rectified
power systems.
AC POWER SYSTEMS CONTROLS
LEBW1414-00 174
Safety Considerations
Reverse Power Relay (RPR): This system is
required for parallel operation. The RPR opens
the circuit breaker when generating units draw
power from the line rather than supplying power
to it.
Reverse power can occur due to improper gov-
ernor settings or an engine safety shutoff signal.
CAUTION: shutting off the fuel of an engine oper-
ating in parallel does not stop it because the gen-
erator becomes a motor as soon as it tries to run
slower than other paralleled generators.
As a general rule, the RPR setting should be 68%
of the generator kW rating. At this value, the time
delay should be less than two seconds. Caterpillar
Diesel Engines require a larger amount to motor-
ize at rated speed. Exact frictional horsepower
data is available if required.
Setting the RPR for a lower activation point usu-
ally causes nuisance trips when paralleling. Also,
many Reverse Power Relays are really Reverse
Current Relays, and, as such, their effective kW
activation point is reduced by any circulating cur-
rent between generating units. In fact, with high
circulating current (caused by generator misad-
justment), it is possible to have a reverse current
trip while generating power.
kW overload protection on SCR rigs: Engines on
AC rectified drill rigs must have some type of kW
overload protection. This protection should not
open the generator circuit breaker, but rather
operate circuitry that reduces DC electrical load;
otherwise, loss of one generating unit can result
in power outages due to underfrequency of the
remaining generating units tripping their circuit
breakers.
Devices that sense kW loads above the engine-
generator rating will not provide complete pro-
tection. Although these devices would actuate
during a gradual overload, they cannot protect
against a large sudden overload resulting from a
paralleled generator set shutting down due to a
fault. Remaining generating units would be
slowed down in rpm so fast that a kW overload
would not be detected.
If other means of overload protection are not pro-
vided, Caterpillar recommends that an underfre-
quency sensor be connected to the switchgear
bus. It should be set for 5 Hz below rated fre-
quency and include a two-second time delay so
short transients will not actuate the system. This
device should signal the load reduction system.
Disconnecting the AC load on an SCR drill rig
usually does not remove an overload because
the major electrical load is the SCR powered
equipment. Load reduction can be accomplished
by selectively phasing-back noncritical SCR-
powered loads or by reducing the power output
setting of all SCR-powered equipment.
Ampere overload protection: The ampere over-
load device of the circuit breaker should be over-
sized if the protection system is temperature
sensitive. Loose connections or high switchgear
ambient temperatures can cause premature trip-
ping of temperature sensitive circuit breakers. An
oversizing of 15% is suggested. (Consult appli-
cable electrical codes.)
Automatic tripping mechanism of the circuit
breaker: Breakers may be tripped electrically by
either a shunt trip or an undervoltage release
device. Caterpillar recommends the undervolt-
age release on electrically operated circuit break-
ers. A shunt trip will open the circuit breaker as
long as AC power is still available. If only one
engine is running and it stops due to a nonelec-
trical fault, the circuit breaker will not open.
(Reverse power has not occurred.) Damage to
electrical equipment can occur if another gener-
ator is put on the line without first opening this
circuit breaker.
Battery voltage alarm: Where electric governors
are used, the control battery should be protected
with a low battery voltage alarm. Battery voltage
lower than 22 volts on a 24 volt system can cause
governor instability or loss of power. (Do not use
a battery which will have other high electrical
loads such as engine starting as an elec-
tric governor power supply.)
Paralleling check relay: Such relay prevents
untrained people from paralleling generators out
of phase. Extensive electrical and/or mechanical
damage can occur due to paralleling out of phase.
Emergency Generator Considerations
Automatic start-stop arrangements and cranking
panels are available for all Caterpillar Engines.
The Caterpillar automatic start-stop group con-
tains the electric starting motor(s), engine shutoff
device, high water temperature and low oil pres-
sure shutoff contactors (overspeed is available),
175 LEBW1414-00
and wiring of the above controls to a junction box
(all mounted on the engine).
Caterpillar cranking panels are required with non-
electronic engines and provide an electrical sig-
nal to crank the engine, disconnect starter when
engine starts, and stops engine if a fault occurs or
if the power outage is over (to be mounted by cus-
tomer). Electronic engines contain this circuitry.
A cranking panel does not contain the AC power
failure relay which determines when to start or stop
the engine automatically. This relay is usually a
part of the customers automatic transfer switch.
Jacket water heaters are also available from
Caterpillar. They provide fast and reliable start-
ing in ambient temperatures below 70F (21C).
Electrical equipment required to support opera-
tion of the emergency generator set should be
powered off the emergency bus. This includes
such things as fuel transfer pumps, ventilating
fans, battery chargers and cooling pumps.
If an emergency stop control is on the drillers
console, the stop signal from this emergency stop
control must prevent the emergency generator
from starting as well as stop the main power plant.
The best method to assure the reliability of an
emergency system is to periodically test the
entire system. A simulated power failure should
be conducted monthly, with actual transfer switch
operation to connect the full emergency power
demand to the generator set. The emergency sys-
temshould function for one hour in the presence
of an authorized mechanic.
After completion of the run, the system should be
readied for automatic operation and rechecks of
fuel level and battery condition should be made.
Generator Sizing
SCR Drill Rigs
AC generators on SCR drill rigs frequently oper-
ate at power factors less than 0.8. This can occur
when DC motors operate at high DC amps and
low DC volts. This may occur when beginning to
hoist (especially when the mud pumps are left
on), reaming the hole, low pump strokes, etc.
To allow engine capability to be more efficiently
utilized, generators should be specified with a
high kVA rating. The SCR system supplier can
provide information on oversizing required with
a given SCR system. Caterpillar SR 4B Generators
for SCR service provide generous oversizing.
Approximate sizing for good performance
requires kVA equivalent to 0.6 PF. See the fol-
lowing chart.
Generator kVA sizing (at 0.6 PF) for various
engine hps are shown below:
An undersized generator does not harm the
engine but the rig operation will require the
running of more engines than would otherwise
be required when low PF conditions are encoun-
tered. This increases fuel consumption and puts
unnecessary hours on the engines. While drilling
the larger diameter portions of the well, genera-
tor limitations are usually not encountered.
(During this time, the PF is near 0.8 PF because
the mud pumps are operated quite fast high
pump strokes.)
Generator limitations are normally encountered
during the deeper sections of the well. This is
where the mud pumps are run at lower speeds
(lower pump strokes) with a resultant low PF
on the generator. If the generator is not oversized,
it will be necessary to run an extra engine in order
to provide sufficient generator capacity.
Drillers have also commented that oversize gen-
erators improve the drawworks response. Many
times, hoisting from the deep hole can be just as
fast with one less engine running as compared
to engines with smaller generators. (The over-
size generators allow the drawworks motors to
develop more torque, when the DC motors are
at low speeds.)
(Many offshore rigs have propulsion machinery
that raises the total load to levels far greater than
the drilling machinery alone requires. This propul-
sion machinery typically operates at higher power
factors. Combining these loads improves the
(D379) 610 hp 720 kVA
(3508) 860 hp 1016 kVA
(D398, 3508B) 912 hp 1075 kVA
(3512) 1100 hp 1240 kVA
(D399, 3512) 1215 hp 1435 kVA
(D399, 3512, 3516) 1325 hp 1565 kVA
(3512) 1435 hp 1695 kVA
(3512B) 1476 hp 1743 kVA
(3516) 1650 hp 1948 kVA
(3516B) 1855 hp 2190 kVA
(3516B HD) 2150 hp 2550 kVA
LEBW1414-00 176
system PF. Generators on these larger rigs there-
fore may not be as oversize as shown above.)
AC Variable Frequency Drill Rigs
If the variable frequency drive is of the Diode front
end style, oversizing of the AC generator is not
required. High kVA on the AC generator will not
occur. The special requirements for generator
construction to withstand voltage spikes and cur-
rent stresses do still apply.
Generator Space Heaters
Generators must be kept clean and dry to provide
acceptable service life. Generators can have
winding failures when shutdown in humid areas.
Space heaters are available for generators. They
are installed within the generator and are to be
energized when the generator is not on-line to
repel moisture. They must be connected to a
power source. Caterpillar SCR generators have
space heaters as standard equipment. They are
also available for auxiliary or lite plant generators.
Serious consideration should be given to install-
ing and using generator space heaters.
Generator Location
It is recommended that the rig layout place gen-
erator sets as far as practical from mud tanks
because some dust acts as a desiccant (attracts
moisture). Moisture and chemicals can cause
premature generator failure. Drillers should con-
sider wind direction when making a setup also.
Generator space heaters should be considered
as an aid where moisture and dust cannot oth-
erwise be controlled. NOTE: Heaters can only
aid moisture control for a stand-by or at rest gen-
erator.
Generators should be protected from direct rain.
177 LEBW1414-00
Instrumentation and control systems are an inte-
gral part of the oilfield installation. Attention to
design, installation, and testing ensures a reliable
installation that reduces maintenance costs.
Suitable instrumentation enables the operator to
monitor oilfield engine systems and make cor-
rections before failures occur.
Premium Oilfield Instrument Panel
This engine-mounted oilfield instrument panel,
available on 3508, 3512, and 3516 engines,
monitors five critical engine systems for non-elec-
tronic engines, Figure 15.1. All instruments were
selected for reliability, durability and accuracy
under engine room environmental conditions.
The panel offers calibrated mechanical gauges
plus a pyrometer and a self-contained electrical
tachometer. It allows the operator to:
(1) Monitor essential systems for normal oper-
ating conditions.
(2) Determine trends of changing conditions
which could be due to deterioration of one or
more engine systems.
(3) Troubleshoot essential engine systems.
Periodic monitoring and recording of data, begin-
ning with initial service, provides an engine his-
tory. As normal engine operating conditions
change, preventive maintenance can eliminate
potential failures and downtime.
The operator can determine operating limits by
referring to the operating limit plate attached to
the instrument panel. These limits are based on
the engine running at oilfield continuous rated
speed and load after warm-up and using SAE30,
API-CH-4, oil. At initial startup, gauge readings
should be well within stated limits. If gauges reg-
ister at or outside operating limits, any malfunc-
tion or installation problem should be corrected.
Information required to diagnose and correct any
malfunction or installation problem is contained
in the Service Manual for each engine model.
Routine operating instructions are contained in
the Operation Guide for each engine model.
3508, 3512, 3516
Figure 15.1
Premium Oilfield Instrument Panels
for 3500B Engines
3500B engines incorporate both analog gauges
and digital readout of selected values.
The two modules included with every instrument
panel are the main display module and gauge
cluster module. The main display module con-
trols all the instruments and gauge cluster mod-
ule displays:
Engine oil pressure
Engine coolant temperature
System voltage
Engine fuel pressure
The second gauge cluster module displays:
Right hand and left hand air inlet restriction
Right hand and left hand exhaust temperature
Fuel filter differential pressure
Oil filter differential pressure
There is an option to add a third gauge cluster
module. The third gauge cluster module displays:
Inlet air pressure (boost)
Separate circuit aftercooler coolant tem-
perature
Engine oil temperature
Inlet air temperature
The optional individual cylinder exhaust pyrom-
eter group comes with the third gauge cluster.
START
CONTROL &
SHUTOFF
OVERRIDE
OPERATING LIMIT PLATE
OILFIELD INSTRUMENTS
LEBW1414-00 178
Instruments
Following is a description of the various standard
and optional gauges.
Tachometer
The tachometer indicates engine rpm.
Jacket Water Temperature Gauge
This gauge indicates the temperature of the
jacket water as it leaves the engine. Jacket water
temperature must be maintained between mini-
mum and maximum limits.
Temperature gauge capillary tubes must be
routed to avoid hot spots, such as manifolds or
turbochargers, which will cause false readings.
Aftercooler Water Temperature Gauge
This gauge indicates the temperatures of the
water entering the aftercooler circuit. Emissions
compliant engines may monitor this.
Intake Manifold Air Temperature Gauge
This gauge indicates air temperature between
the aftercooler and the cylinder. The limits will
vary by engine rating. Jacket water aftercooled
engines operate at a significantly higher inlet
manifold air temperature than do separate cir-
cuit cooled engines.
Exhaust Temperature Gauge (Pyrometer)
The pyrometer measures exhaust gas tempera-
tures, normally after the turbocharger. On Vee
engines with two turbochargers, a single instru-
ment is supplied with dual temperature readout
for both banks. On engines with single tur-
bochargers, one instrument with a single read-
out is provided. DO NOT USE EXHAUST
TEMPERATURE AS A LOAD SETTING INDI-
CATOR WITH TURBOCHARGED AND TURBO-
CHARGED/AFTERCOOLED ENGINES. The
pyrometer should be used only to monitor
changes in the combustion system and to warn
of required maintenance.
The optional exhaust temperature gauge system,
where available, adds the readings at each cylin-
der exhaust outlet.
3500B ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT PANEL
Figure 15.2
179 LEBW1414-00
Engine Oil Temperature Gauge
This gauge indicates oil temperature after the
lube oil cooler. On most engines, the oil is cooled
by engine jacket water. A high jacket water tem-
perature or a clogged oil cooler will prevent the
engine lube oil from being properly cooled.
Engine Oil Pressure Gauge
This gauge indicates the pressure of the filtered
oil. Oil pressure will be greatest after starting a
cold engine and will decrease slightly as the oil
warms up. Oil pressure is greater at operating
speeds than at low idle rpm. The specified min-
imum oil pressure is for an engine running at con-
tinuous rated speed. Plugged oil filter elements
will decrease engine oil pressure. The oil filter
service indicator (where provided) should be
checked regularly for premature filter plugging.
STOP THE ENGINE IMMEDIATELY IF OIL PRES-
SURE DROPS RAPIDLY.
Fuel Pressure Gauge
The fuel pressure gauge indicates the pressure
of the filtered fuel. A power reduction will occur
if the fuel pressure drops too low. Plugged fuel
filters decrease fuel pressure. High fuel pressure
can burst fuel filter housings, damage gaskets,
and cause erratic speed control because of
increased friction drag in injection pumps.
Air Restriction Gauge
The air restriction gauge measures the vacuum
caused by the air filter restriction. Clogged air
cleaners will result in reduced air flow causing
high exhaust temperature and sometimes exces-
sive smoke. The air restriction gauge should be
checked regularly, and air filters should be
changed when restriction limits are reached.
Oil Filter Differential Gauge
This gauge measures the difference in pressure
between the filtered and unfiltered sides of the oil
filter; a high reading will indicate plugged oil filters.
Where supplied, this gauge should be checked
regularly.
Ammeter
Where supplied, an ammeter measures electri-
cal current to or from the battery.
LEBW1414-00 180
Shutoffs
3508, 3512, and 3516 oilfield engines that are
non-electronic controlled are equipped with a
hydramechanical low oil pressure, high water
temperature and overspeed shutoff. Shutdown is
accomplished by moving the fuel rack to shutoff
position.
The high water temperature shutoff will not pro-
vide protection when the water level is below the
sensing element.
These engines include an air inlet shutoff. During
an overspeed or when the remote shutoff is actu-
ated, this device shuts off the air inlet at the same
time the fuel rack is moved to the off position.
This provides protection when operating in a
gaseous fuel atmosphere, Figure 16.1.
A monitoring gauge is included that will indicate
shutoff is operable.
Remote shutoff provisions are also available. A
routine shutoff option shuts only the fuel off. The
engine can then be restarted remotely after a sev-
eral minute delay. An emergency shutoff option
shuts off both fuel and air. The air inlet shutoff
must be manually reset before the engine can be
restarted.
Other Non-Electronic Engines
A mechanical shutoff is available for most other
engine configurations. It will automatically shut
down the engine is case of low oil pressure or
high water temperature. This system is hydrauli-
cally operated and contains a shutoff control
group which forces the engine fuel control to
shutoff if an extreme limit is reached.
It may be necessary to manually override the
shutoff when starting engine.
CAUTION: Sensing devices must not trigger
engine shutdown in applications where engine
provides equipment mobility.
3508, 3512, 3516
Figure 16.1
Electronic Engine Shutoffs
Shutoff systems for electronic engines are incor-
porated within the Engine Control Module (ECM).
Shutoff of fuel is accomplished internally, and air
inlet shutoff utilizes air inlet shutoff valves.
Compound Drives
For compound drives, an engine oil pressure
actuated 3-way valve may be added to discon-
nect the air clutch from the compound. This pre-
vents motoring of the engine by other engine(s)
on the compound, Figure 16.2.
If air clutches are not used, this dump valve may
be used to actuate the torque converter or fluid
coupling dump valve. An air cylinder will also be
required, Figure 16.2.
The 3-way valve should be an Amot model
4057-CE or equivalent. It will actuate on 20 psi
(137.9 kPa) oil pressure and includes an emer-
gency manual override in case engine is to be
started through the compound. This will not be
activated by overspeed or the emergency shut-
off button.
EMERGENCY SHUTOFF
LOCAL REMOTE
MONITOR
GAUGE
SHUTOFFS AND ALARM SYSTEMS
181 LEBW1414-00
Alarm Contactors
Low oil pressure and high water temperature
alarms are most commonly used and are rec-
ommended for every engine. These are preset
temperature and pressure switches to be con-
nected to the rigs electrical system. They will
activate a customer-supplied audio or visual
alarm when extreme temperature and pressure
limits are reached. Engines equipped with expan-
sion tanks for heat exchanger cooling contain a
low water level alarm switch.
Practically any additional engine function involv-
ing speed, temperature, and pressure control can
be sensed at extreme limits by special alarm or
shutoff systems. Extent of usage should depend
entirely on the type and extent of monitoring and
automation desired.
Switches normally available from Caterpillar will
operate on AC or DC voltage from 6 volts to
240 volts, Figure 16.3. See also section on DC
Power Systems for alarm contactors required when
driving DC generators. These contactors (SPDT
switches) disconnect the generators excitation.
Figure 16.2
Contactor Switch Ratings
Figure 16.3
Alarm Panels
The most common type of user supplied alarm
panel contains alarm indicating lights for all
engines. Caterpillar recommends the following
features in alarm panels:
1. Fault light lock-in circuitry keeps fault light
on when intermittent faults occur.
2. Lockout of additional alarm lights prevents
subsequent alarm lights from going on after
the activated engine shutoff stops the engine.
This aids in troubleshooting.
3. Alarm silence allows engineman to
acknowledge the alarm without having to
continually listen to the alarm horn. Alarm
light is left on.
4. If more than one engine is connected to an
alarm panel, a fault in a second engine should
activate the alarm, even though the alarm
horn may have been silenced after a fault on
another engine.
5. Circuit Test provides for periodic checking
of alarm panel functions.
Recommended Minimum Alarms
Radiator cooled engines:
(Jacket water aftercooled)
A. Low oil pressure Figure 16.5
B. High water temperature Figure 16.4
C. Overspeed Figure 16.6
Heat exchanger or grid-cooler cooled engines:
(Jacket water aftercooled)
A. Low oil pressure
B. High water temperature
C. Overspeed
D. Low water level
Engines equipped with electric governors should
have a low control battery voltage alarm. A reverse
power alarm or circuit breaker tripped alarm
should be considered on AC generating units. A
low sea water pressure alarm for the engine cool-
ing systems should be included. If any other
engine room function is monitored, the fault indi-
cator should be built into this control panel or
located next to it.
World Class Contactors
Pressure and temperature contactors are avail-
able. They meet the requirements of the marine
classification societies. They are adjustable,
Figure 16.7.
TEMPERATURE CONTACTOR
Figure 16.4
Temperature Sensing
Rating with alarm or switch:
115-volt AC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5A
230-volt AC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5A
600-volt AC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1A
120-volt DC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5A
240-volt DC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25 A
48-volt DC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.25A
32-volt DC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.9A
24-volt DC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5A
12-volt DC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5A
Pressure Sensing
Rating with alarm or switch:
125, 250, or 480-volt AC . . . . . . . . . 20A
250-volt DC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25A
Speed Sensing*
Rating with alarm or switch:
Mechanical Switch
28-volt DC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5A
115-volt DC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1A
120, 240, 480-volt AC . . . . . . . . . . . 10A
125-volt DC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5A
*Terminals are not under a cover.
Electronic Switch
12-32-volt DC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3A
LEBW1414-00 182
183 LEBW1414-00
PRESSURE CONTACTOR
Figure 16.5
OVERSPEED CONTACTOR
Figure 16.6
SOCIETY APPROVED CONTACTOR
Figure 16.7
WATER TEMPERATURE
OIL PRESSURE
LEBW1414-00 184
An engine starting system must be able to crank
the engine at sufficient speed for fuel combustion
to begin normal firing and keep engine running.
These are two common types of engine starting
systems:
A. Electric
B. Air
Hydraulic starting is usable with Cat engines,
but is not available from Caterpillar.
The choice of systems depends upon availabil-
ity of the energy source, availability of space for
storage of energy, and ease of recharging the
energy banks.
Startability of a diesel engine is affected primar-
ily by ambient temperature, lubricating oil vis-
cosity, and size of the cranking system. The diesel
relies on the heat of compression to ignite fuel.
This heat is a result of both the cranking speed
and length of time for cranking. When the engine
is cold, a longer period of cranking is required to
develop this ignition temperature.
Heavy oil imposes the greatest load on the crank-
ing motor. Both the type of oil and temperature
can drastically alter its viscosity. An SAE 30 oil
will, for example, approach the consistency of
grease at temperatures below 32F (0C). Proper
engine oil viscosity should be provided accord-
ing to recommendations in the engine operation
manual.
Electric Starting
Electric starting is the most convenient to use.
Storage of energy is compact, however, charging
the system is slow and difficult in case of emer-
gency. Electric starting becomes less effective as
temperature drops due to loss of battery charge
capacity and an increase in an engines resistance
to cranking under those conditions. It is the least
expensive system and is most adaptable to remote
control and automation, Figs. 17.1 and 17.2.
Do NOT crank the engine more than 30 seconds,
or the starter will overheat.
Damage can result if water enters and is retained
in the starting motor solenoid. To prevent this,
engines stored outside should be provided with a
flywheel housing cover. If possible, the starting
motor should be mounted with the solenoid in an
up position which would provide drainage and
prevent water from collecting in the solenoid.
Engines which are subject to heavy driven load
during cold start-up should be provided with a
heavy-duty starting motor.
Batteries
Batteries provide sufficient power to crank engines
long and fast enough to start. Lead-acid types
are common, have high output capabilities, and
lowest first cost. Nickel-cadmium batteries are
costly, but have long shelf life and require mini-
mum maintenance. Nickel-cadmium types are
designed for long life and may incorporate thick
plates which decrease high discharge capability.
Consult the battery supplier for specific recom-
mendations.
Ambient temperatures drastically affect battery
performance and charging efficiencies. Maintain
90F (32C) maximum temperature to assure
rated output. Impact of colder temperatures is
described, Figures 17.3 and 17.4.
Locate cranking batteries for easy visual inspec-
tion and maintenance, away from flame or spark
sources and isolated from vibration. Mount level
on nonconducting material and protect from
splash and dirt. Use short slack cable lengths and
minimize voltage drops by positioning batteries
near the starting motor.
Charging Systems
Normally, engine-driven alternators are used for
battery charging. When selecting an alternator,
give consideration to current draw of electrical
accessories to be used and to the conditions in
which the alternator will be operating. An alter-
nator must be chosen which has adequate capa-
bility to power accessories and charge the battery.
If the alternator will be operating in a dusty, dirty
environment, a heavy-duty alternator should be
selected.
STARTING SYSTEMS
185 LEBW1414-00
Engine-driven alternators have the disadvantage
of charging batteries only while the engine is run-
ning. Trickle chargers are available but require
an AC power source. Battery chargers using
AC power sources must be capable of limiting
peak currents during the cranking cycle or must
have a relay to disconnect the battery charger dur-
ing the cranking cycle. In applications where an
engine-driven alternator and a battery trickle
charger are both used, the disconnect relay must
be controlled to disconnect the trickle charger dur-
ing cranking and running periods of the engine.
DIRECT INJECTION COMBUSTION SYSTEM
TYPICAL WIRING DIAGRAM (Mobile Equipment)
Figure 17.2
+

ALTERNATOR
GAUGES, ETC.
LIGHTS, ETC.
AMMETER
KEY
SWITCH
MAGNETIC
SWITCH
STARTING
MOTOR
BATTERY
12V
DC DUAL STARTING SYSTEM
Figure 17.1

+
BATTERY
STARTING
MOTORS
MAG
SWITCH
OIL PRESS
SWITCH
START
SWITCH
Figure 17.3
Figure 17.4
Figure 17.5
Figure 17.6
NOTE: Use aids below 0F (18C)
Suggested Minimum Battery Cold Cranking Amps
Battery Voltage 12 24-32 1-motor
Minimum F 20 30 60 20 0 60
3304 1450 1225 925 725
3306 1450 1225 925 725
3406 1225 925
3408 1300 1225 925
3412 1300 1225 925
3508 1300 1225 925
Maximum Recommended Total Battery Cable Length
Cable Size Direct Electric Starting
AWG MM
2
12 Volt 24-32 Volt
Feet Meters Feet Meters
0 50 4.0 1.22 15.0 4.57
00 70 5.0 1.52 18.0 5.49
000 95 6.0 1.83 21.0 6.40
0000 120 7.5 2.29 27.0 8.24
Temperature vs. Output
F (C) % 80F Ampere Hours Output Rating
80 (27) 100
32 (0) 65
0 (18) 40
Battery Performance
Specific Gravity vs. Voltage
Sp. Gravity % Charge V per Cell Freezes F (C)
1.260 100 2.10 70 (94)
1.230 75 2.07 39 (56)
1.200 50 2.04 16 (27)
1.170 25 2.01 2 (19)
1.110 Discharged 1.95 +17 (8)
LEBW1414-00 186
187 LEBW1414-00
Starting System Wiring
Power carrying capability and serviceability are
primary concerns of the wiring system.
Select starter and battery cable size, Figure 17.5.
For correct size and correct circuit for starting
system components, see typical wiring diagrams.
Wiring should be protected by fuses or a manual
reset circuit breaker (not shown on the wiring
diagrams). Fuses and circuit breakers should
have sufficient capacity and be readily accessi-
ble for service.
Other preferred wiring practices are:
Minimum number of connections, especially
with battery cables.
Positive mechanical connections.
Permanently labeled or color-coded wires.
Short cables to minimize voltage drop.
Ground cable from battery to starter is pre-
ferred. If frame connections are used, tin
the contact surface. Current path should
not include high resistance points such as
painted, bolted, or riveted joints.
Protect battery cables from rubbing against
sharp or abrasive surfaces.
Air Starting
Air starting, Figure 17.7, offers higher cranking
speeds than electric starting and is the most com-
mon system used on drill rigs. It usually results
in faster starts with less cranking time. Remote
controls and automation are more complex and
cumbersome. Storage of energy is bulky, but
recharging the system is relatively fast. Air for
recharging is always available. A small emergency
receiver (not supplied by Caterpillar) can be hand
pumped to starting pressure under emergency
conditions or an auxiliary diesel engine-driven
air compressor package can be used. System
repairs can often be done on site with minimum
tool requirement. Moisture condensation may
take place within the air system, causing inter-
nal corrosion and freezing. Figures 17.8 and 17.9
contain information required to size air starting
systems.
Recommended air pressure range is 90-150 psi
(620-1034 kPa).
AIR STARTING SYSTEM WITH PRELUBE
Figure 17.7
LEBW1414-00 188
NOTE: Add to the 3516 1 cu. ft./sec. (0.0283 m
3
/s) of air consumption for the air operated oil prelubrication pump.
This pump will normally operate 2 to 10 seconds before the engine begins to crank.
*Minimum air storage tank pressure required to sustain cranking at 100 rpm. Higher pressure required to initiate cranking.
Figure 17.8
Figure 17.9
Air Receiver Volume Required For One Second of Cranking Time
With Pressure Drop From 250 to 125 psi (1724 to 862 kPa)
Engine Model cu. ft./sec. (m
3
/s) Engine Model cu. ft./sec. (m
3
/s)
3304 0.535/0.0151 3508 1.42/0.0402
3306 0.506/0.0143 3512 1.33/0.0376
3516 1.30/0.0368
3406 0.518/0.0147
3408 1.90/0.054
3412 1.82/0.051
Free Air Consumption f
3
/s (m
3
/s)
For a Bare Engine at 50F (10C)
100 psig 125 psig 150 psig
Engine (690 kPa) (862 kPa) (1034 kPa) P min psig*
Model To Starter To Starter To Starter (kPa)
3304 5.8 (0.1641) 6.8 (0.1924) 7.7 (0.2179) 35 (242)
3306 5.9 (0.1670) 6.9 (0.1953) 7.8 (0.2207) 36 (248)
3406 6.2 (0.1755) 7.3 (0.2066) 8.3 (0.2349) 40 (276)
3408 6.4 (0.1811) 7.5 (0.2122) 8.6 (0.2434) 39 (269)
3412 9.0 (0.2601) 10.3 (0.2914) 11.8 (0.3339) 30 (207)
3508 9.3 (0.26) 10.8 (0.30) 12.6 (0.36) 45 (310)
3512 9.8 (0.28) 11.4 (0.32) 13.3 (0.38) 50 (344)
3516 10.5 (0.30) 12.1 (0.34) 14.1 (0.40) 65 (448)
The air supply line between storage tank and air
motor should be short and direct, and of a size
equal to the discharge opening of the air receiver.
Black iron pipe is preferable and must be prop-
erly supported to avoid vibration damage to the
compressor. Flexible connections between com-
pressor outlet and piping are required.
The shipyard or rigup yard must thoroughly clean
the air piping prior to first engine start. Rust or
debris can destroy the air starter.
Air storage tank should meet American Society
of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) or other rec-
ognized source of specifications pressure ves-
sel specifications and should be equipped with a
safety valve and pressure gauge. Safety valves
should be regularly checked to guard against
possible malfunction. A drain cock must be pro-
vided in the lowest part of the air receiver tank
for draining condensation.
Many applications require sizing air receivers to
provide a specified number of starts. This can be
accomplished using the following equation:
English System
Vt =
Vs T 14.7 psi
__________________
Pt Pm
SI System
Vt =
Vs T 101 kPa
__________________
Pt Pm
Vs = Starter air consumption (ft
3
/sec or m
3
/sec),
Figure 17.8.
Vt = Air storage tank capacity (cubic feet or
cubic meters)
Pt = Air storage tank pressure (psig or kPa)
T = Cranking time
Pm = 90 psig (620 kPa) when sequential
crank cycles are used. Use P minimum,
Figure 17.8, when a single crank cycle is
used.
189 LEBW1414-00
The quantity of free air required per start (Vs)
depends on three factors:
A. Cranking time required per start
Cranking time per start depends on engine
model, engine condition, ambient air temper-
ature, oil viscosity, fuel type, and design crank-
ing speed. Five to seven seconds is typical
for an engine at 80F (26C). Restarts of hot
engines usually take less than two seconds.
B. Rate of free air consumption
Rate of free air consumption depends on
these same variables, and also on pressure
regulator setting. Correct pressure regulator
setting is 90 to 150 psi (620 to 1033 kPa),
with the higher pressure used to improve
starting under adverse conditions. 5 to 15 ft
3
/s
(0.14 to 0.42 m
3
/s) is typical for engines
from 50 to 1200 hp (37 to 895 kW).
C. Operation
The air supply must be shut off as soon as
engine starts or the sensing system must
close the solenoid air valve to prevent wast-
ing starting air pressure.
Water vapor in the compressed air supply may
freeze as air is expanded below 32F (0C). A
dryer at the compressor outlet or a small quan-
tity of alcohol in the starter tank is suggested.
This formula may be used to estimate the time
required for an air compressor to raise the pres-
sure in an air receiver to a specified limit:
T =
Pt R
________
Pa N
T = Time in minutes
Pt = Final pressure of tank (psia or kPa)
Pa = Atmospheric pressure (psia or kPa)
R = Volume of air receiver (ft
3
or m
3
)
N = Net free air delivery of compressor (ft
3
/min
or m
3
/min)
Starting Aids
The diesel engine depends on heat of compres-
sion of air in the cylinder to ignite fuel. Below
some minimum temperature, even a reasonably
sized cranking system will not turn the engine
fast enough or long enough to ignite fuel without
one or more commonly used starting aids such
as jacket water heaters and/or ether.
Adequate starts can usually be obtained with
properly maintained systems above 60F (15C)
ambient temperatures without aids.
Jacket water heaters maintain water at a tem-
perature high enough to start engine. kW rating
of the jacket water heater depends on Cooling
Systems Jacket Water Heaters for additional
details.
Ether is a volatile and highly combustible agent.
Small quantities of ether fumes added to the
engines intake air during cranking reduce com-
pression temperature required for engine start-
ing. This method can be used for starting of an
engine at practically any ambient temperature.
Ether starting aids are available on the smaller
Caterpillar engines.
CAUTION: When other than fully sealed ether
systems are used, ensure adequate ventilation
for venting fumes to the atmosphere to prevent
accidental explosion and danger to operating
personnel.
The high pressure metallic capsule-type is rec-
ommended for mobile applications. When placed
in an injection device and pierced, ether passes
into the intake manifold. This has proven to be
the best system since few special precautions are
required for handling, shipping, or storage.
Ether must be used only as directed by the man-
ufacturer of the starting aid device. The ether sys-
tem must be such that a maximum of 3.0 cc of
ether will be released each time the button is
pushed. Caterpillar ether systems are designed
to release 2.25 cc of ether each time the system
is activated. Excessive injection of ether can
damage an engine. Ether should not be released
into a running engine.
Lighter fuels, such as kerosene, can ease the
unaided cranking requirements slightly by low-
ering the compression temperature required for
starting. These lighter fuels also slightly reduce
horsepower delivered at any given fuel rack setting.
Excessive parasitic loads should be disconnected
during engine cranking.
Prelubrication Systems
If the 3516 engine is started or operated at low
idle until oil pressure is attained, prelubrication
is NOT required.
The 3516 oilfield engine includes a prelubrica-
tion system to provide lubricating oil to critical
components before cranking and starting the
engine. Caterpillar furnishes an air cranking/air
prelubricating system, Figure 17.7 and 17.10.
This consists of an air-driven prelubrication pump
that draws oil from the engine sump and forces
it into the engine. This pump is driven by an air
motor which, through sequence valving, runs
until a predetermined engine oil pressure shuts it
off and turns on the air cranking motor.
Oilfield engine applications that use the 2301A
Electric Governor do not require prelubrication
pumps because a properly wired 2301A Governor
maintains engine speed at low idle speed until
adequate oil pressure is in the lube system. When
the engine starts and accelerates to low idle, it
will stay at that speed until an electric switch is
closed by engine oil pressure. The engine will
then accelerate to rated speed.
Any solenoids used in the starting system must
be DC to ensure starting during an AC power
outage.
Driven Load Reduction Devices
Effect of driven equipment loads during cold
weather engine starting must be considered.
Hydraulic pumps, air compressors, and other
mechanically driven devices typically demand
more horsepower when they are extremely cold
at start-up. The effect of this horsepower demand
may be overcome by providing a means of
declutching driven loads until the engine has
been started and warmed up for a few minutes.
This is not always easy or practical, so other
means of relieving the load at cold start-up may
be required if the engine-load combination can-
not be started with sufficient ease using engine
starting aids described earlier.
Some air compressors provide for shutoff of
the air compressor air inlet during cold starting.
This greatly decreases drag on the engine and
improves cold startability. This approach can only
be used when the air compressor manufacturer
provides this system and fully approves of its use.
Otherwise, air compressor damage could result.
LEBW1414-00 190
Figure 17.10
AIR START
AIR PRELUBE
191 LEBW1414-00
Introduction
Electrolytic and galvanic activity can cause serious
damage to an engine. Troubleshooting requires
highly skilled personnel. The best procedure is
to attempt to provide adequate safeguards for
engines during rig construction. Troubleshooting
is further complicated by the fact that damage
done by electrolytic or galvanic activity is usu-
ally identical, but required solutions for either
cause usually aggravates the other.
Electrical systems should be so designed that no
continuous electrical potential is imposed upon
any cooling system components. Presence of any
electrical potential may cause cooling system
materials to be damaged by electrolytic processes.
Galvanic activity in salt water circuits produces a
corrosive action with metal, resulting in deteriora-
tion of system components. Proper material selec-
tion and cathodic protection should be employed
by installing sacrificial zinc rods in sea water flow
passages at numerous locations. In order to main-
tain this protection, zinc rods must be inspected
regularly and replaced when deteriorated.
Large amounts of electrical current are present
on offshore electric drilling rigs. Minute stray cur-
rents should be minimized to protect engines.
DC and AC circuits should have insulated (float-
ing) grounds.
The recommended floating circuit has no con-
nection to ground and it can be described as
insulated from ground.
The two-wire circuit has an insulated return wire
from the load to source as well as the lead wire
from the source to load, Figure 18.1. Frames of
various electrical devices should be connected
to the hull if mounting of the device to the hull
does not provide a sufficient ground.
Be aware that the ground between the hull and a
metallic item resting on the hull can be weak-
ened or destroyed by moisture, corrosion or poor
area of contact.
PLANNED ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
Figure 18.1
S
G
LOAD
+

A. SINGLE-WIRE GROUNDED
(NOT RECOMMENDED)
S
G
LOAD
+

B. TWO-WIRE GROUNDED
(NOT RECOMMENDED)
S
LOAD
+

C. TWO-WIRE FLOATING
(RECOMMENDED)
S = SOURCE
ELECTROLYTIC AND GALVANIC ACTIVITY PROTECTION
LEBW1414-00 192
Metallic items in contact with the hull must be
made of metal similar to that of the hull metal.
For example, a steel pump housing should be in
direct contact with the hull in order to be grounded
to the hull*. However, a dissimilar metal, such as
brass, should be isolated from the hull because
moisture between the brass and hull will cause
galvanic corrosion. The brass should be con-
nected to the hull via a wire.
*Unless the types of steels have a significant volt-
age potential difference (e.g. mild steel will cor-
rode if it is coupled to stainless steel).
Because engines are in direct contact with the
hull, the following procedure can be followed to
assure that stray currents return to the power
source with minimal travel through metallic com-
ponents, Figure 18.2.
The ground wire has a high resistance path back
to the battery because of the insulating material
between the metallic plate and battery. This helps
minimize the amount of current flow.
Insulating material between the metallic place
and hull prevents stray currents from returning
through the hull to the battery. These currents
must return through the ground wire.
Figure 18.2
193 LEBW1414-00
Rapidly increasing fuel prices coupled with
decreasing fuel availability is receiving increased
attention by contractors and oil companies.
Methods to reduce fuel consumption are under
three sections:
1. General Conservation Practices
2. Minimizing Prime Mover Fuel Consumption
3. Modifying Drilling Practices/Machinery to
Reduce Prime Mover Fuel Consumption
General Information
The amount of flywheel kilowatts (horsepower)
produced by burning a liter (gallon) of diesel fuel
depends on engine type, condition, and loading.
If an engine is operated at more than half load,
a liter (gallon) of diesel fuel can produce approx-
imately 3.34 kWh/l (1720 hp-h/gal). In
contrast, the same engine lightly loaded will
only produce approximately 2.73.6 kWh/L
(1418 hp-h/gal) or much less if operating at
no load.
Engine fuel consumption data is stated as:
Fuel quantity consumption per hour at vari-
ous loads. This is expressed in L/h or gal/h.
The engine burns fuel at no load due to the inter-
nal demands of water and oil pumps, friction
losses, other mechanical devices, etc.
This accounts for a major part of the slope
in B curve, Figure 19.1. These internal losses
become a smaller portion of the total as the engine
is loaded. Thus, the engine is more efficient.
Curve A, Figure 19.1, adds the power required to
operate the radiator fan. It is not normally included
in the engines fuel curve due to the wide selec-
tion of radiators used in the oil field.
Note that a radiator fan that takes 5% of the engine
fuel consumption to drive at full load may take
16% of the engine fuel consumption at 20%load.
The percentage would be much higher at no load.
Figure 19.1
General Conservation Practices
Fuel will be saved by converting small diesel
engine-driven auxiliaries, such as mud mix pumps,
superchargers, etc., to electric motor-driven units.
As an engine-driven device, these auxiliaries are
the only load on that particular engine. Thus,
when at light load, fuel consumption per flywheel
kilowatt (horsepower) delivered is high.
On rigs that require winterizing, engine exhaust
and jacket water heat can be recovered and reduce
boiler fuel consumption.
Take measures to prevent theft of fuel.
Eliminate spillage and leakage losses.
Turn off auxiliary loads when not needed. Oper-
ation of unneeded auxiliary loads may represent
up to 5-10% of total rig load.
Minimizing Prime Mover
Fuel Consumption
The following items should be considered in regard
to prime movers. The secret is to get all the
energy out of each drop of fuel and avoid fuel
waste due to poor maintenance and adjustment.
Engine should be maintained to assure optimum
fuel consumption. Exhaust smoke under steady-
state conditions indicates incomplete combus-
tion of fuel, hence, increased fuel consumption.
It could be caused by such things as dirty air
cleaner elements, dirty aftercooler cores, tur-
bocharger malfunctioning, incorrect fuel injec-
tion timing, faulty fuel injection nozzle, etc. A
qualified serviceman should be called upon to
provide a specific diagnosis.
FUEL CONSERVATION ON PETROLEUM ENGINES
LEBW1414-00 194
Turbochargers may also not be properly matched
to the engine. This can happen with engines that
are operating at a speed other than that shown on
the manufacturers nameplate.
In such cases an improper turbocharger match
increases fuel consumption by 15%, in addition
to creating other possible adverse operating con-
ditions, i.e., excessive exhaust temperature, slower
engine acceleration, etc.
Reduce radiator fan power requirements. Radia-
tors of the same ambient capability can have
great differences in fan power due to fan rpm and
fan diameter differences. A large diameter fan at
a lower rpm can deliver the same cfm, but at
greatly reduced power demand.
Radiators are available with fans which draw 1.5
to 6% of the engine rating. The effect of radiator
fan power is quantified, Figure 19.2.
Considering that drilling engines spend much of
their time at reduced load levels, a further reduc-
tion in fan power can be achieved by using a two-
speed drive (electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic)
to operate fan. This savings is illustrated in
Figure 19.2 under the column labeled Controlled
Speed Fans. This column also reflects the fact
that the engine does not operate all year round at
design ambient conditions.
Controlled speed fan would run continuously at
low speed until hot weather/high load conditions
cause engine water temperature to rise, signalling
the fan drive to run at high speed. CAUTION:
Controlled speed fans may be prohibited by some
emission regulations.
A single-speed fan drive that is turned on or off
may not be desirable. The radiator supplier would
have to be consulted to determine if the radiator
core can tolerate the repeated temperature cycling
that occurs. When the fan is off, the radiator out-
let water is at engine water temperature and will
be cooled toward ambient as the fan turns on
particularly at light load. This temperature reduc-
tion causes the radiator core to contract. Repeated
temperature fluctuations could result in prema-
ture core failure unless the radiator can accom-
modate these fluctuations.
When operating on cool or cold days, the radia-
tor ambient capacity, in the low speed operation,
will increase. A low temperature is always reached
where the engine can be cooled at full load with
the fan in low speed operation. Thus, during win-
ter operations (and most summer operations) the
fan may never operate in the high speed position.
Figure 19.3 shows these approximate values.
Figure 19.3
For additional assurance of reliability, the two-
speed drive can be arranged such that fan belts
can be reattached to the engine crankshaft pul-
ley if necessary.
Radiator louvers are a desirable feature in cold
climates, but they do not reduce the fan power
demand.
Use of a heavy distillate or crude fuel can reduce
fuel costs. Fuel consumption will reduce in an
approximate inverse proportion to the ratio of the
heat content of this fuel to regular fuel. However,
such a fuel cost reduction frequently results in
increased engine operating costs. Depending upon
contaminants or operational difficulties encoun-
tered, engine life could be severely reduced.
A fuel analysis is certainly recommended. This
should be compared to permissible and recom-
mended fuel specifications which can be provided
by the engine supplier. Fuel treatment equipment
Radiator Ambient Capability
Approximately
Engine Fan
Ambient
Load Speed
Capability
100% 100% 125F (52C)
100% 50% 80F (27C)
50% 50% 125F (52C)
Figure 19.2
Increase in Rig Fuel Consumption Due to Radiator Fan
Controlled Speed Fan (2:1)
Engine Load 5% Fan 2.5% Fan
5% 2.5%
2040% 1216% 68% 1% 0.5%
3050% 1014% 57% 1% 0.5%
4060% 810% 36% 1.5% 0.75%
60100% 58% 2.55% 1.53% 0.751.5%
195 LEBW1414-00
may be commercially available that conditions
fuel to meet permissible or recommended fuel
specifications. It may be necessary to start and
stop the engine on diesel fuel.
Used lube oil can be blended into the fuel supply
when proper precautions are taken. However, the
reduction of fuel consumption would be in the
range of 0.5% and, fuel filters would have to be
changed more frequently. It also discolors the fuel
so that it cannot be returned to the supplier.
Modifying Drilling Practices/
Machinery to Reduce Prime Mover
Fuel Consumption
The first drilling practice to be discussed is the
number and size of engines used to power a rig.
An SCR rig will be assumed.
The importance of engine sizing is shown by
engine fuel curves, Figure 19.1.
The curve is not flat. More importantly, this is a
curve for a given prime mover. Such curves are
not the same for all manufacturers and/or mod-
els. In a given engine family, a V8, V12, and V16
will not have identical fuel curves. Between engine
manufacturers, a V8, V12, and V16 will differ.
Fuel curves give testimony to engine configura-
tion differences such as: naturally aspirated, roots
blower, turbocharging, natural gas engines, diesel
engines, gas turbine engines, engine size, etc.
Figure 19.4 represents such variations. All these
engines, for purposes of dramatizing the compar-
ison, have the same full load fuel consumption.
Figure 19.4
An additional point is illustrated in Figure 19.5.
The left side shows that two engines have the
same fuel curve expressed as % load. The right
side illustrates that these same two engines are
different sizes hence, their fuel rates now are
dramatically different at specific load points.
This understanding of fuel curves leads to the fol-
lowing conclusion.
When using fuel consumption as one of the
criterions in selecting engine sizes, types, and
quantities, fuel consumption at normal oper-
ating loads, not at the rated full load point, is
of greatest importance. An approximation of
engine load versus time at various well depths
is also required.
Figure 19.5
Calculating or estimating fuel consumption requires
the following:
1. Engine fuel curves tabulated in the same
format (and down to no load operation).
2. An actual or typical well profile that plots
power required versus days of operation.
3. A format to calculate and display the required
information.
Fuel curves for Caterpillar Petroleum Engines are
in the TMI or Engine Performance Book.
LEBW1414-00 196
Well profile data is required to establish the basis
for estimating engine fuel consumption. Well
depth and fuel cost are values you provide.
The well profile itself can be based on your expe-
rience, on-site evaluation, documented by data
recording systems, or a combination of all of these.
It is suggested that separate drilling activities
should be tabulated for each diameter hole being
drilled, hoisting time, and a grouping for nondrilling
times such as logging, waiting on cement, etc.
Engine operating techniques reflect the fuel con-
sumption consequences of the number of engines
you operate. Granted that we recommend (and
hopefully the industry concurs with) operating
engines efficiently but what are the conse-
quences of operating more engines than required?
Engine operating techniques are tabulated under
three headings:
A. Run all engines regardless of need.
B. Run one engine more than required this
prevents a power interruption or reduction if
a generating unit should go off the line.
C. Run minimum number of engines realiz-
ing that a temporary power reduction or out-
age will occur if a generating unit should go
off the line.
DRILL RIG LOAD PROFILES
Top Hole days hp
Drilling days hp
Drilling days hp
Tripping days hp
Wait, Misc. days hp
Figure 19.6
As a general rule, tripping hp (tripping out, trip-
ping in, and running casing) for the entire well
averages 1020% of the drawworks rated hp. Any
operating auxiliary load has to be added.
Wait, Misc., is time spent, throughout the entire
well, waiting on cement, logging, etc.
The profile also assumes no generator limitations
were encountered which would have required
more engines running than indicated.
Finally, it is a known fact well profiles vary widely.
Specific well profiles should be utilized if more
accurate results are required. It may be neces-
sary to record kW and kVA values on some drill
rigs to gain reliable representative data.
Engine Sizing Versus Generator Sizing
As you reflect on what has been just presented,
two objections, or qualifications, may come to
mind. They will be discussed separately. The first
one is expressed in the following statement:
But my SCR rig already operates efficiently
because it operates in power limit.
This statement requires a word of caution the
SCR systems power limiter or overload control
activates for either kW or kVA overloads. A rig
operating with the power limiter light on does not
mean the engines are being efficiently operated.
Larger kVA generators (or other remedial action)
may be needed because generators may be at
kVA limit and engines at only 3050% load!
A difficulty in efficiently sizing and operating an
SCR (or DC) rig is the assumption made by most
people that x amperes represent y power.
This is not true.
This fact is represented by system power factor.
If power factor is 1.0, then x amperes represent
y power. At power factors below 1.0, power is
less than the amperes indicate.
Considering that power factor on a SCR rig can,
under steady-state conditions, be from 0.3 to 0.9,
generator sizing is important. During hoisting,
power factor varies from 0.0 to 0.95.
Nontechnically, the engine suppliers concern
regarding power factor is that engine power capa-
bility cannot be utilized due to generator limita-
tions during low power factor operation. This
necessitates running additional engines. Running
of additional engines increases rig fuel consump-
tion and unnecessarily increases annual hourly
usage of engines and total operating costs.
197 LEBW1414-00
There may be cases where the minimum num-
ber of engines cannot be operated because of a
high generator kVA requirement.
Before examining these variables, it is first neces-
sary to review some characteristics of DC motors.
DC Motor Characteristics
The rpm of DC motors is primarily controlled by
the voltage to the motor (recognizing that motor
type series, shunt and control system
field weakening, etc. are related factors).
Ampere draw of the motor controls torque out-
put of the motor. In other words, torque comes
from the interaction of magnetic fields, and the
strength of these fields is proportional to amperes,
not to DC voltage.
Thus, kilowatt (horsepower) load on a DC motor
is the product of volts and amperes:
kW
(DC Output)
=
V A
______
1000
hp
(DC Output)
=
V A
______________
[
0.746 1000
]
Input power would be higher in inverse proportion
to motor efficiency.
This leads to the realization that a DC motor can
work hard at low rpm (draw high amperage and
produce high torque) and not load the engine
(but load the generator) when operating at low
DC voltage/low rpm.
DC Motor Effects Upon Generator Selection
DC motors do not have power factor identified
with them. However, their DC amperes come
from an AC generator with an SCR system
providing rectification. This AC current does have
power factor (pf) associated with it.
The speed/voltage characteristic of the DC motor
is thus the major determinant of the systems
power factor. (System power factor is a weighted
average of the DC motor systems effect on the
generators power factor and that of the AC aux-
iliary load. The AC auxiliary load generally is only
about 20% of the DC load, so its effect on power
factor is minimal).
Figure 19.7 shows a method to calculate AC gen-
erator power factor due to current draw of a DC
motor powered through an SCR system.
METHOD TO CALCULATE AC GENERATOR pf DUE TO DC MOTORS
Figure 19.7
1. Determine DC kW
from meter
or formula kW
DC
=
V A
______
1000
2. Determine AC Amp of DC motor
use formula AC
amp
= DC
amp
0.816
3. Determine kVA
use formula kVA =
AC Volts AC amp 1.73
________________________
1000
4. Determine pf
use formula pf =
kW (from Step 1)
_______________
kVA (from Step 3)
LEBW1414-00 198
Figure 19.8
Figure 19.8 graphs the effect of motor rpm (or
DC voltage) on the power factor of the driving
AC generators. For a constant rpm (DC voltage),
power factor is the same from no load to full load.
Methods to Improve System Power Factor
The best way to improve system power factor is
to ensure that DC motors are run at as high an
rpm as possible.
Every DC ampere presents a 0.85 kVA load on
the generator, regardless of DC power. Operating
a DC motor at high rpm reduces ampere load,
hence kVA.
On the rotary table, this means keeping the draw-
works transmission in as low a gear as possible.
0
.2
.4
.6
.8
1.0
DC MOTOR SPEED
VERSUS AC GENERATOR POWER FACTOR
Power
Factor
DC Voltage (= Loaded rpm)
180 (200) 450 (600) 750 (1000)
ROTARY TABLE OPERATION
Figure 19.9
1600 hp (1194 kW) TRIPLEX MUD PUMP
140 Strokes Maximum
120 Strokes Rated
Customer Needs 300 gpm @ 2500 PSI = 515 hhp
(18.9 L/s @ 17237 kPa = 384 HkW)
Figure 19.10
DC Motors Geared DC Motors Geared
for 140 spm for 100 spm
Liner Required Motor AC AC Motor AC AC
Size Pump Strokes rpm pf kVA rpm pf kVA
5 (127) 97 690 .66 577 970 .92 419
5 1/2 (140) 81 579 .56 690 810 .76 502
6 (152) 68 486 .45 822 680 .64 598
6 1/2 (165) 58 414 .4 966 580 .55 701
6 3/4 (171) 54 385 .37 1035 540 .51 753
7 (178) 50 357 .34 1118 500 .47 813
7 1/4 (184) 47 336 .32 1189 470 .44 864
7 1/2 (191) 44 314 .30 1274 440 .35 1079
114 hp (85 kW) at DC Motor _______ rpm at _______ DC Amp = _______ pf at _______ kVA
960 118 .9 92
860 131 .8 104
750 151 .7 120
640 177 .6 140
530 214 .5 168
425 267 .4 208
325 349 .3 300
210 540 .2 420
150 756 .14 640
199 LEBW1414-00
To illustrate the effect of rpm, let us assume
a rotary table operating under the following
conditions:
rpm = 30
Torque = 20,000 lb-ft (27 138 Nm)
Power = 114 hp (85 kW)
Regardless of the rpm of the driving DC motor,
engine load will stay at 114 hp (neglecting losses).
But, motor rpm will change the kVA (pf) and,
hence, the size of generator required. This is illus-
trated in Figure 19.9.
In the extreme case of 150 rpm, it does not take
a large engine to produce 114 hp (85 kW), but it
does take a large generator to produce 640 kVA.
This phenomena of increasing AC generator kVA
as the DC motor slows down may seem to reek
of magic, but it is just another way of saying that
DC motor amperes are increasing as the DC
motor is required to provide the same power at
lower rpms (lower DC voltage).
If DC motors are operated at half DC voltage or
less, an alternative method of raising AC gener-
ator power factor is to operate both drawworks
motors in series (assuming this option is avail-
able from the SCR system supplier). This dou-
bles the voltage out of the SCR system and
proportionally raises the power factor. System
speed, however, is limited to half motor speed.
The same considerations apply to mud pumps.
Operating speed should be as high as possible.
If pumps must be operated at less than half speed
(rather than putting in smaller liners) the SCR
system supplier may be able to supply equip-
ment to allow the motors to operate in series.
When mud pumps are purposely oversized to
reduce cost of fluid end maintenance, the mud
pump will run much lower than rated strokes. In
that case specify a motor drive system ratio such
that motors run at or near their rated rpm. Both
mud pump drive types are shown in Figure 19.10.
In summary, Figure 19.11 shows that required
engine power can be determined by knowing only
load demand (based on Figures 19.9 and 19.10).
However, generator sizing also requires knowing
equipment speed. The kVA values in Figure 19.12
are for constant power levels but with various
equipment rpms.
Figure 19.11
Accordingly, ironclad rules for sizing generators
cannot be given. Estimates of generator sizing
are shown, Figure 19.16.
Figure 19.12
This discussion illustrates that operating a rig in
power limit does not ensure efficient engine uti-
lization. The goal is to operate the minimum num-
ber of engines without encountering generator
limitations.
Drawworks Capability
Let us now turn to the second objection or qualifi-
cation. It is expressed by the following statement:
My rig cannot operate on one engine dur-
ing deep drilling as one engine underpowers
the drawworks.
Many times rig operating personnel are reluctant
to operate a minimum number of engines under
deep hole conditions. They express the concern
that, should they need to operate the drawworks
in a hurry, one engine would not be able to come
off bottom, and time would be lost while start-
ing additional engines.
With proper equipment selection, this objection
can be, at least partially, overcome. The key to
understanding this possibility is to draw a dis-
tinction between drawworks power and draw-
works torque. Static hook load capacity is
determined by generator kVA, not engine power.
Generator Sizing
Engine Size Generator Size
600 hp (450 bkW) 750 1000 kVA
900 hp (670 bkW) 11001300 kVA
1200 hp (900 bkW) 15001800 kVA
1500 hp (1120 bkW) 16002000 kVA
2000 hp (1490 bkW) 20002500 kVA
Load While Drilling
kVA
hp/kW Minimum Average Maximum
Rt 114/85 92 209 640
MP1 515/384 577 966 1274
629 hp 669 1174 1914
(469 kW)
+ Aux. load
Rt = Rotary Table
MP1 = #1 Mud Pumps
LEBW1414-00 200
STARTING TORQUE COMPARISON
Torque When Engine Load
Drive Type Coming Off Slips When Coming Off Slips
Low High*
Direct Drive
Rated Rated
Torque Converter
Rated NIL**
Steam
Rated NIL**
DC/SCR
**Engine load is at the rated value for the engine at low idle but the load value is low compared to rated rpm.
**Engine load would be zero except for line losses, etc.
Figure 19.13
201 LEBW1414-00
This was discussed earlier under DC motor char-
acteristics where it was pointed out that motor
torque comes from the strength of motor mag-
netic fields.
To dramatize the stall torque characteristics, it is
useful to compare torque characteristics of sev-
eral drives when coming off the slips mechan-
ical, torque converter, steam, and DC (SCR). See
Figure 19.13.
The startling thing shown in Figure 19.13 is that
developing rated torque on a DC motor at the
moment when coming off the slips does not load
the engine. The engine is loaded in proportion to
the speed to which the motor is accelerating. Thus,
the electric drive is comparable to a steam rig.
Ideally an electric rig will initially accelerate the
traveling block, when coming off the slips, at a
constant rate regardless of power capability of the
engine. This constant rate is determined by gen-
erator kVA capacity. Motors will accelerate at this
constant rate to the rpm at which developed power
equals engine capability. The SCR system kW limit
will then begin to reduce motor ampere draw.
The motor will now accelerate at a slower rate or
maintain a constant rpm, depending on load.
These factors are illustrated by using a hypo-
thetical hoisting scheme. This drawworks has the
following characteristics:
1492 kW (2000 hp) Capacity
Two 746 kW (1000 hp) Motors
Each Motor
At Rated At Stall
rpm Conditions
DC amp 995 1200
AC amp 812 979
kVA 845 1020
kW (hp) 746 (1000) 0
Figure 19.14 plots drawworks current, power,
and hoisting time for a heavy load. Total time to
pull a stand of pipe is 45 seconds. (This is not
based on calculation but is sufficient to illustrate
the desired phenomena.)
In Part A of Figure 19.14, note that drawworks
DC amperes are indicated as doing three things:
1. Hold weight of pipe against gravity under
static or constant rpm conditions.
2. Overcome hole friction.
3. Accelerate pipe.
(Note that on a direct drive or torque converter
rig, it would also be necessary to accelerate the
engines.)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
400
800
Time
Constant Motor rpm
Motor
Acceleration
0
2000
1000
2
1
3
1000
1400
0
1492 kW
(2000 hp)
3
2
1
D
C

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A
B
C
Figure 19.14
LEBW1414-00 202
In this example 1000 amps are required to hold
the weight of the pipe. The remaining 1400 amps
are initially available to accelerate pipe.
In Part B, drawworks power is indicated as being
proportioned among the same three functions.
Note that drawworks power starts at zero and
reaches rated power after 15 seconds. Once the
drawworks motor reaches rated rpm, the kilo-
watts (horsepower) drop (and motor amps) to
that required for a constant speed condition.
If we accept 45 seconds as a reasonable estimate
of heavy load hoisting time, we can count the DC
motor revolutions as shown in Part C. For this
transmission gear and lines strung, it takes 632
turns of the motor to pull pipe the required 90 ft.
(27.4 m). Note that during acceleration, pipe is
being lifted, although at a slower rate.
To perform according to Figure 19.14, the draw-
works has to be fully powered both with horse-
power (kilowatts) and kVA (amps), which would
be two 3512s with 1250 kVA generators.
Figure 19.15 shows the drawworks under a lighter
load condition but in the same drawworks gear.
Note that acceleration time has been reduced
from 15 seconds to 7 seconds due to the combi-
nation of having 1800 amps available for accel-
eration as compared to the 1400 amps in the
previous example, and due to the lighter load to
accelerate. Hoisting time has been reduced only
3 seconds, from 45 seconds to 42 seconds. Part C
indicates this by counting motor revolutions.
Figure 19.16 shows an underpowered drawworks
with the same heavy load as in Figure 19.14. The
drawworks is now powered by one 3512 and a
1250 kVA generator.
1250 kVA translates into 1470 DC amps. Com-
paring Figure 19.14, Part A, to Figure 19.16,
Part A, we see that this undertorqued drawworks
has only 470 amps available for acceleration while
the fully powered drawworks has 1400 amps
available for acceleration. Hence, this under-
torqued drawworks will accelerate much slower
than before.
After an estimated 25 seconds, the horsepower
will build to the rating of the engine. Acceleration
will now continue at a slower rate as the SCR sys-
tem power limiter or overload control phases
back the SCR system. This reduces generator
amps sufficiently to hold generator and engine
at full load. Note the engine is not loaded for
approximately 25 seconds.
Figure 19.15
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
400
800
Time
0
2000
1000
2
1
1800
0
1492 kW
(2000 hp)
3
2
1
D
C

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600
3
A
B
C
203 LEBW1414-00
Thus, total trip time could be about 60 seconds.
This time is broken down as follows:
O X seconds Acceleration to engine
power limit
X Y Acceleration at slower rate
Y Z Constant rpm
Figure 19.17 overlays Figures 19.14, 19.15 and
18.16. Part A shows the important variable is the
percentage of available DC amperes available
for acceleration. Oversize generators provide
increased acceleration torque. Thus, the faster
the drawworks accelerates, the sooner the engine
can be loaded. Oversize generators come close
to providing identical drawworks performance as
that obtained with additional engines operating.
For these figures to be totally representative, avail-
able engine power and generator kVA should be
reduced by the on-line auxiliary loads left running.
In summary, oversized generators not only pro-
vided for operation of mud pumps at reduced
power factors, but they also reduce the need to
fully horsepower the drawworks, as long as the
drawworks is close to being fully torqued.
Concern Over Power Outages
An additional concern expressed by some drilling
personnel is the domino effect. That is, if the load
is equal to one and one-half engines, they prefer
to run three engines. It is felt that if only two
engines were operated, loss of either of two gen-
erator sets would overload and stall out the
remaining generator set.
This does not happen with modern SCR systems
due to the power limiter or overload control built
into the SCR system. This controller will phase-
back one or more of the SCR-controlled loads suf-
ficiently to prevent engine (or generator) overload.
Miscellaneous Considerations
With optimum usage, engines accumulate fewer
hours per year but at a somewhat heavier load.
This heavier load may result in a somewhat lower
time between overhauls as expressed in engine
service meter hours. However, time between
overhauls as expressed in calendar years will be
greater.
Additionally, there will be conditions where engines
are presently so lightly loaded that the increase in
load may still leave the engine moderately loaded
and service life will be only slightly affected.
A final benefit of increasing engine load is that
the resulting warmer jacket water temperatures
greatly aid in combating harmful effects of some
fuel contaminants.
Figure 19.16
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
400
800
Time
Slower Accel.
Motor Accel.
to Power Limit
0
2000
1000
2
1
3
0
1492 kW
(2000 hp)
2
1
D
C

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Constant
Motor
rpm
3
A
B
C
LEBW1414-00 204
During deep drilling, where the investment in the
well is accumulating to a considerable amount
and uncertainty regarding the exact nature of
down hole conditions is also increasing, it is a
general practice to operate with 80% or less
engine load.
Summary
The main means available to improve fuel con-
servation are:
Use electric motor-driven auxiliaries.
Use engine heat on winterized rigs.
Prevent theft of fuel.
Eliminate spillage and leakage losses.
Turn off unneeded auxiliaries.
Keep engines properly maintained.
Use proper turbocharger matches.
Reduce radiator fan power requirements.
Operate the minimum number of engines.
Size system for operating kVA.
Operate DC motors in series.
Increase motor rpm.
Utilize oversize generators for improved hoist-
ing and mud pump performance.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
400
800
Time
0
2000
1000
0
1492 kW
(2000 hp)
D
C

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O-X Max. Motor Accel.
X-Z Accel. Power Limited
Y-Z Constant Motor rpm
Z Z Z Z
Y Y
Y Y
X
X
X
2 3512 w/1250 kVA
1 3512 w/1250 kVA
1 3512 w/1500 kVA
1 3512 w/1800 kVA
1000
A
B
C
Figure 19.17
205 LEBW1414-00
RIG NO. LOCATION DATE
ENGINE NO. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
ENGINE IDENTIFICATION
Hours Run
Oil Added gal
Fuel Used gal
rpm
Air Temperature left
Air Temperature right
Exhaust Temperature left
Exhaust Temperature right
Oil Temperature
Jacket Water Temperature
Aftercooler Water Temperature
Oil Pressure
Fuel Pressure
Engineman Signature:
Hours Run
Oil Added gal
Fuel Used gal
rpm
Air Temperature left
Air Temperature right
Exhaust Temperature left
Exhaust Temperature right
Oil Temperature
Jacket Water Temperature
Aftercooler Water Temperature
Oil Pressure
Fuel Pressure
Engineman Signature:
Hours Run
Oil Added gal
Fuel Used gal
rpm
Air Temperature left
Air Temperature right
Exhaust Temperature left
Exhaust Temperature right
Oil Temperature
Jacket Water Temperature
Aftercooler Water Temperature
Oil Pressure
Fuel Pressure
Engineman Signature:
Remarks: Work done, parts used, cause of failure, periodic inspection, etc., identify each engine worked on.
Figure 20.1
DAILY ENGINE REPORT
LEBW1414-00 206
Figure 21.1
ENGINE SUPPORT SYSTEMS LAYOUTS
207 LEBW1414-00
A. Ducting widens as it descends to engine serv-
ice walkway.
B. Exhaust is only overhead engine connection
all others under engine.
C. Raised platform completely around engines.
Solid plate, with 1 in. (25 mm) clearance
around base.
D. Engines raised 1 ft. (0.3 m) to allow passage
underneath to be used for routing piping
fuel, air, water.
1. Pedestals and spring isolators at 3 point
locations.
2. Walkway
Diesel Fuel Day Tank mounted on outside
wall of module.
Engine bases supported at 3 point mount
location.
Figure 21.2
LEBW1414-00 208
SHUTOFF AND ALARM SYSTEMS
1401. Is air inlet shutoff used? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1402. Is alarm panel used? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1403. Are alarms used? LOP . . . . HWT . . . . OSS . . . .
1404. Can engine disengage from compound when failure occurs,
Figure 16.2? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
OILFIELD INSTRUMENTS
1301. Are premium panels used? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1302. How is engine load monitored? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CRANKCASE BREATHER
1001. Required with blower fan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1002. Diameter of pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1003. No low spot in line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1004. Powered disposal system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
AIR INTAKE SYSTEM
902. Can mud enter air cleaner? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
903. Are remote mounted air cleaners used? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
904. Are elbows proper size, Figure 11.13? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
905. Is ducting to air cleaner airtight? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
906. Are durable flexible connections used? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
VENTILATION
901. Radiator air ducted for space heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
EXHAUST
801. Expansion joint used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
802. Muffler used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
803. No exhaust recirculation to radiator/air cleaner . . . . . . . . . . .
804. Exhaust system supported separate from engine . . . . . . . . .
805. Outlet protected from rain entry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FUEL
701. Type of fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
702. Fuel line size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
703. Fuel centrifuge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
704. Shutoff/check valves used each engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
705. Return line goes back to fuel tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
706. Water trap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
707. Fuel cooler required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
LUBRICATION
601. Drain plug accessible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
602. Type oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
603. SOS to be used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
COOLING
501. Radiator manufacturer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
502. Type: Blower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Suction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vertical discharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
503. Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
504. Additional heat load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
505. Antifreeze required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
506. Expansion tank supplied . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
507. Rad. fan hp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . net engine hp . . . . . . . . . . . .
508. Water lines slope up to radiator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
509. Piping as large as engine connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
510. No air recirculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
511. Shutterstats used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
512. Radiators offset from engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
513. Rad. adequately supported by engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
514. Dual core radiator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
MAIN ENGINE AUXILIARY DRIVES
401. Auxiliary equip driven . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402. PTO location on engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
GOVERNOR
301. Hydra-mechanical with air throttle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
302. UG8L with air throttle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
303. 3161 with air throttle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
304. Cat electronic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
MOUNTING
208. Are substructure pin joints tight? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
209. Can engine twist or bend? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
210. Does engine overhang substructure? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
211. Is substructure laterally braced? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
DRIVE SYSTEM DATA
201. Torque converter model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
202. Fluid coupling model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
203. Air clutch model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
204. Transmission model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
205. Engine rpm on mud pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
206. Engine rpm on drawworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
207. Clutch air pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
GENERAL INFORMATION
A. Rig number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Owner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Rig-up performed by . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E. Rig-up location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F. First location at . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
G. Special conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
H. Selling dealer or OEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I. Engine model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . hp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . rpm
S/N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
J. Drive Type.
All engines in one compound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Independent mud pump drive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Independent rotary drive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chassis mounted drawworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Make . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
K. Reviewed by . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
At . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Date . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
L. Reviewed with . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
M. Auxiliary power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CATERPILLAR PETROLEUM ENGINE SYSTEM ANALYSIS DESIGN REVIEW
Reference: Cat Petroleum Engine Application and Installation Guide
LAND MECHANICAL RIG
209 LEBW1414-00
GOVERNORS Check type of governor and answer appropriate questions.
FUEL
701. Type of fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
702. Fuel tanks elevation above engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
703. Day tank used to relieve
pressure head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
704. Fuel line size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
705. Fuel centrifuge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
706. Water trap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
707. Return line goes back to tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
708. Shutoff/check valves used on
each engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
709. Crankcase oil mixed with fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
710. Fuel cooler required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
LUBRICATION
601. Drain manifold used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
602. Fill manifold used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
603. Type of oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
604. SOS to be used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
605. Duplex filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
COOLING HEAT EXCHANGER COOLING
501. Cooling Circuit Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
JWAC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
502. Full-load heat rejection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
503. Sea water temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
504. Sea water flow per engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
505. Sea water pump capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
506. Cat heat exchanger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
507. Cat H.E. piping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
508. Pressure at engine inlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
509. Pressure at engine outlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
510. Pipe size to engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
511. Sea water strainers used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
512. Pressure regulating valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
513. Pressure gauges at engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
514. Watermaker used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(answer 515-524)
515. Manufacturer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
516. Number of circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
517. Are engines interconnected? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
518. Circuit type: Figure 7.15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 7.16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 7.17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
519. Auxiliary JW pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
520. Auxiliary expansion tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
521. Used per Figure 7.25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
522. Piping free of air traps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
523. Piping below expansion tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
524. Who is modifying engine water lines? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Remote Radiator or Keel Cooler
525. Cooing circuit type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Remote radiator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Keel cooler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
526. Ambient temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
527. System external resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
528. Allowable external resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
529. Pressure at JW pump inlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
530. Are engines interconnected? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
531. Is piping free of air traps? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
532. Expansion provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
533. De-aeration provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
534. Dual core radiator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
301. Cat electronic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
302. Ross Hill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
303. 2301A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
304. Low idle speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . .rpm
0200 Ma control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Powered by control battery . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Low DC voltage alarm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Wiring per Figure 6.10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Installation in switchgear per
Cat recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Are units paralleled for AC? . . . . . . . . . . . . .
HOC control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Two battery chargers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Minimum 16 gauge stranded wire . . . . . . . .
BASE AND SUPPORT
101. Base manufacturer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
102. 3-point mounting used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
103. Spring isolators used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
104. Adequate substructure beams
under all 3 points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
GENERAL INFORMATION
A. Rig name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Type rig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Owner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E. Shipyard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F. Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
G. Selling dealer or OEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
H. First location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
J. Special conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
K. Engine model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . hp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . rpm
S/N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
L. DC or SCR system manufacturer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
M. Generator manufacturer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Type . . . . . . . . . .AC . . . . . . . . . . . . .DC . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Quantity . . . . . . .AC . . . . . . . . . . . . .DC . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rating . . . . . . . . .kW . . . . . . . . . . . . .Hz . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
N. Installation drawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
O. Connection drawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
P. Reviewed by . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
At . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Date . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CATERPILLAR PETROLEUM ENGINE SYSTEM ANALYSIS DESIGN REVIEW
Reference: Cat Petroleum Engine Application and Installation Guide
OFFSHORE ELECTRIC RIG
LEBW1414-00 210
EMERGENCY GENERATOR CONSIDERATIONS
2001. Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2002. Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2003. Governor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2004. Cooling: Radiator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Heat exchanger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2005. Jacket water heater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2006. Fuel day tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2007. Radiator ducts oversized . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(in and out) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2008. External obstructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2009. Will exhaust gas recirculate? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2010. Air inlet extension used if
engine can be started with
watertight doors closed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2011. Spring isolators used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2012. Emergency generator support equipment on
emergency circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2013. Starting: Electric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2014. Cranking panel used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2015. Auto transfer switch used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ELECTROLYTIC AND GALVANIC ACTIVITY PROTECTION
1601. Batteries grounded per Fig. 17.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SHUTOFF AND ALARM SYSTEMS
1401. Air inlet shutoff used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1402. Alarm panel used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1403. Alarms used: HWT . . . . . . . . , LOP . . . . . . . . , LWL . . . . . . ,
OSS . . . . . . . . . . . . , HOT . . . . . . . . . . . . , HIAT . . . . . . . . . . . .
1404. Additional alarms:
Low battery . . . . . . . . . . . , Low air pressure . . . . . . . . . . . ,
Low S.W. pressure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . , RPR. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
AC POWER SYSTEMS
1201. RPR Trip in 2 sec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1202. Overload protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1203. Generators oversized . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1204. Generator controls set for engine
capacity or generator capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
DC POWER SYSTEMS
1101. Engine alarm switches connected to DC panel . . . . . . . . . . . 1102. Does drillers console idle
engine when unloaded? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CRANKCASE BREATHER
1001. Separate line/engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1002. Line size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1003. Line sloped . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1004. Drip collector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
VENTILATION
901. Type ventilation Figure 10.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 10.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Figure 10.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
902. Ambient temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
903. Temperature rise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
904. Air required/engine (formula) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
905. Air supplied . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
EXHAUST
801. Individual exhaust runs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
802. Backpressure (Figure 10.10) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
803. Insulated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
804. Thermal exp. allowed:
Vertical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Horizontal . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
805. Rain-spray protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
806. No exhaust recirculation to air inlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
807. Will muffler water spray
enter engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
211 LEBW1414-00
GOVERNORS Check type of governor and answer appropriate questions.
SHUTOFF AND ALARM SYSTEMS
1401. Air inlet shutoff used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1402. Alarm panel used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1403. Alarms used: LOP . . . . , HWT . . . . , OSS . . . .
1404. Additional alarms:
Low battery . . . . . . . . . . . . , Low air pressure . . . . . . . . . . ,
RPR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
AC POWER SYSTEM
1201. RPR trip in two seconds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1202. Overload protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1203. Generators oversized . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1204. Generator controls set for NET engine hp or
generator capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
DC POWER SYSTEM
1101. Engine alarm switches connected to DC Panel . . . . . . . . . . . 1102. Does drillers console idle when unloaded? . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CRANKCASE BREATHER
1001. Required with blower fan or
front-mounted generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1002. No low spot in line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1003. Diameter of pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
AIR INTAKE SYSTEM
902. Remote-mounted air cleaners used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
903. Are elbows proper size, Figure 11.13? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
904. Is ducting to air cleaner airtight? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
905. Are durable flexible connections used? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
VENTILATION
901. Radiator air ducted for space heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
EXHAUST
801. Expansion joint used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
802. No exhaust recirculation to radiator/air cleaner . . . . . . . . . . .
803. Is exhaust system supported separate from engine? . . . . . .
804. Outlet protected from rain entry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FUEL
701. Type of fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
702. Fuel line size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
703. Fuel centrifuge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
704. Shutoff/check valves used each engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
705. Return line goes back to fuel tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
706. Water trap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
707. Fuel cooler required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
LUBRICATION
601. Drain plug accessible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
602. Type oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
603. SOS to be used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
COOLING
501. Radiator Manufacturer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
502. Types: Blower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Suction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vertical discharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
503. Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Altitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
504. Expansion tank supplied . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
505. Antifreeze required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
506. Radiator fan hp . . . . . . . . . . . NET engine hp . . . . . . . . . . .
507. Water lines slope up to radiator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
508. Piping as large as engine connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
509. No air recirculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
510. Dual core radiator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
301. Cat electronic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
302. 3161 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
303. Ross Hill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
304. 2301A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
305. Low idle speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . .rpm
0200 Ma control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Air supply pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Powered by control battery . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Powered by control battery . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Low DC voltage alarm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Wiring per Figure 6.10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Installation in switchgear per
Cat recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Are units paralleled for AC power? . . . . . . .
HOC control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Two battery chargers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Minimum 16 gauge stranded wire . . . . . . . .
BASE AND SUPPORT
101. Base manufacturer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
102. Coupling manufacturer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
103. Roof over engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
104. Service platform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
105. 3-point mounting used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
106. Base will be supported on: Planks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hard pan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
107. Subbase used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
108. Substructure used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
GENERAL INFORMATION
A. Rig number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Owner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Rig-up performed by . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E. Rig-up location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F. First location at . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
G. Special conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
H. Engine model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . hp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . rpm
S/N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I. DC or SCR system mfr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
J. Generator mfr . . . . . . . . .DC . . . . . . . . . . . . .AC . . . . . . . . . . .
Type . . . . . . . . . . . . .AC . . . . . . . . . . . . .DC . . . . . . . . . .
Quantity . . . . . . . . . . .AC . . . . . . . . . . . . .DC . . . . . . . . . .
Rating . . . . . . . kW . . . . . . , Hz . . . . . . . , pf . . . . . . . . . .
K. Installation Drawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
L. Connection Drawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
M. Reviewed by . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
At . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Date . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
N. Reviewed with . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
O. Selling dealer or OEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CATERPILLAR PETROLEUM ENGINE SYSTEM ANALYSIS DESIGN REVIEW
Reference: Cat Petroleum Engine Application and Installation Guide
LAND ELECTRIC RIG
Materials and specifications are
subject to change without notice.
LEBW1414-00
Supersedes LEBW5119
PRINTED IN U.S.A. CATERPILLAR and CAT are trademarks of Caterpillar Inc.
Available electronically in the Technical Information section of
https://oilandgas.cat.com