Hernández Xolocotzi. Maize and Man

Maize and Man in the Greater Southwest
Author(s): Efram Hernndez Xolocotzi

Source: Economic Botany, Vol. 39, No. 4 (Oct. - Dec., 1985), pp. 416-430
Published by: Springer on behalf of New York Botanical Garden Press
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Maize and Man in the Greater Southwest1
EFRAIM HERNANDEZ XOLOCOTZI2
In northwest Mexico, along
the Sierra Madre Occidental and the
adjacent slopes
and plains,
maize
forms
the center
of
a series
of
cultural traits illustrative of
the
interrelationships of
man and plants.
Here more than 20 racial
types
have been
collected. This
diversity
is related to the variation in climate and soil conditions,
to human
migrations
from
the Mesoamerican cultural center to the Greater South-
west area, and to the differential
selection
by
the ethnic
groups
in the
region.
The
agricultural practices of
the
farmers
are reviewed to illustrate how
different aspects
of environment, economic needs, food preference,
manner
of utilization, and cer-
emonial concepts constitute
continuing forces of
selection and motivation
for
in-
troduction of
varieties
from
other areas. It is
suggested
that color
of
the
grain
is
utilized as an indicator of physiological
characteristics. A
phenotypic
analysis of
more than 600 collections from
the area indicates the occurrence
of
constant in-
tercrossing among
maize populations.
Maize,
the basic subsistence element of Mesoamerican cultures, forms the center
of a series of cultural traits illustrative of the
interrelationships
of man and
plants.
Although
the
topic
of this
symposium
is limited to the Greater Southwest, the
maize
populations
of this
region
form a constellation of
closely
allied racial
groups
that
occupy
an immense arc from the northeastern United States to the semiarid
fields of Arizona and New
Mexico,
and then south
along
the Sierra Madre Oc-
cidental in western Mexico to the Tehuacan area in the southeastern end of the
Mexican Central Plateau.
According
to the map
included in the National
Geographic Society Magazine
(1972),
the Sierra Madre Occidental in Mexico is
occupied,
from the United States
border to the
south, by
the
following
Indian
groups
within the Greater Southwest:
Papago,
Pima Alto, Opata,
Pima
Bajo, Tarahumar, Tepehuan, Huichol, Tepecan,
Colotlan,
and a cluster of small
groups
around the Rio
Mayo
headwaters
(109W
long.,
27N
lat.).
A closer
study
of field data
gathered by
the author and collaborators
during
the
1968-1969
exploration
of the Sierra Madre Occidental and of published infor-
mation
(Bennett
and
Zingg, 1935;
Wellhausen et
al., 1952; Pennington, 1969;
Hemrnandez X. and Alanis F., 1970) permits
the identification of the racial com-
ponents
of maize in the Mexican part of the Greater Southwest. This
presentation
will be based on
general ecological regions (from
south to north and from east to
west).
The Eastern
Region
includes the northern limits of Michoacan, eastern Jalisco,
western
Guanajuato,
and the
plains and foothills of western Zacatecas, Durango,
and
Chihuahua;
it lies at an elevation of 1,600-2,000
m and has a mild
temperate,
1
Received 25 October 1984; accepted 17
May 1985.
Presented at the Symposium on
Ethnobotany of the Greater Southwest, Twenty-fifth Annual Meet-
ing, Society
for Economic Botany, Texas A&M
University, College Station, TX, 11-13 June 1984;
symposium organized and chaired by
Dr. Robert A. Bye, Jr.
2
Profesor-Investigador,
Centro de Botanica,
Colegio
de Postgraduados, 56230
Chapingo,
Mexico.
Economic
Botany, 39(4), 1985, pp.
416-430

1985, by the New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY 10458
HERNANDEZ X.: MAIZE & MAN
humid climate. The maize races found are: Dulce
(Fig.
l
a),
Bofo
(Pozolero),
Reventador
(Fig.
1
b),
C6nico Norteiio, Tablilla de Ocho,
Chalquefio,
Cristalino
Chihuahua
(Fig. 4k), Apachito (Fig. 5n),
Gordo
(Fig. 5m),
Blando
(Fig. 3i),
and
Palomero
Toluquefio (Fig. 41).
The Central
Region
is formed
by
the
valleys
and slopes
of the Sierra Madre
Occidental whose southern limits lie at the
Jalisco-Nayarit
state
boundary;
to the
north it extends
slightly
into New Mexico. Isolated
agricultural
fields are
generally
found at 2,000
m elevation and have a cool
temperate,
humid climate. In Chi-
huahua, the mountainous area
usually
receives snows in
winter, which
delay
maize
planting
in
spring
until
drying
and
warming
of the soil has occurred. From south
to north, the maize races are: Conico Nortefio, Jala (Fig. 2e), Tabloncillo,
Cris-
talino Chihuahua, Gordo, Apachito, Azul,
Onavefio
(Fig. 4j),
and Blando.
The Western
Region
includes the
plains along
the Pacific Ocean and the Gulf
of
Baja
California and the flood
plains
and
slopes along
the western limits of the
Sierra Madre. The
agricultural
lands are
generally
below 500 m elevation and
have a warm, humid climate up
to the southern limits of Sonora. Farther north
the coastal
plains
are semiarid and arid, restricting
maize cultivation to the flood
plains and the areas closer to the mountains. The maize races are: Dulce, from
Jalisco to northern
Sinaloa;
Dulcillo del Noroeste
(Fig. 3h);
Harinoso de Ocho
(Fig. 3g) only
in Sonora and
Nayarit;
Blando in
Sonora; Bofo
(Fig. 2d,
a form of
which is called Pozolero in northeastern
Jalisco)
from
Nayarit
to Sonora; Tab-
loncillo Perla
(Fig.
1
c)
from Jalisco to Sonora; Onavefio, only
in
Sonora;
Reven-
tador,
from Jalisco to northern
Sinaloa; Chapalote (Fig. 2f)
in
Sinaloa,
and Sonora.
We
might
now visualize the distribution of the races
along
latitudinal bands
indicating
the texture of the
grain.
This would
give
us:
Along
a southern band
(northern Jalisco, Nayarit,
southern
Zacatecas)
dents: Tabloncillo, Jala,
Conico
Nortefio, Chalqueiio
flints: Tabloncillo Perla
floury: Bofo,
Pozolero
pops:
Reventador
sweet: Dulce
Along
a central band
(Sinaloa,
northern Zacatecas, Durango)
dent: Conico Norteio
flint: Tabloncillo Perla
floury:
Bofo
(ceremonial maize)
pop: Reventador, Chapalote
sweet: Dulce
Along
a northern band
(Sonora, Chihuahua)
dent: C6nico Nortefio
flints:
Onavefio, Azul, Cristalino Chihuahua, Apachito
floury: Blando, Gordo,
Harinoso de Ocho
pops: Chapalote,
Palomero
Toluquefio, Lady Finger
sweets: Dulcillo
Noroeste, Dulce
The south-north
regions might give
us an idea of the
migration
routes followed
by
cultural traits from the Mesoamerican center to the northwest of Mexico. The
latitudinal sections should
give
an idea of the
ecological
variations encountered.
1985]
417
ECONOMIC BOTANY
To understand what these raw data
represent,
we should
recognize
that maize
has been the basic food of the Mesoamerican ethnic
groups
since the
origin
and
spread
of
agriculture.
Before the introduction of domesticated
animals,
all
parts
of the maize
plant
were used: the
grain
and the male inflorescence for
food;
the
cane of the earless
plants
for sweet
juice;
the leaves and corn husks for
wrapping
tamales
(small
loaves of maize
dough
and other
ingredients);
the
dry
canes for
construction material or for
fuel;
the
cobs, stumps,
and roots for
fuel;
corn smut
for food. With the introduction of farm animals the
vegetative parts
and
grain
of
maize have become
important for their feed but human
consumption
is still
by
far the dominant
purpose
of
production.
As a result of this
relationship, deep-
rooted ceremonial beliefs will show their influence in the
production practices,
seed
selection,
and
resulting plant populations
of maize. We will work under the
assumption
that the
migration
of this domesticated
plant
northward has occurred
with a
high proportion
of the cultural traits related to its
cultivation, use, and
ceremonial
practices.
We
might
now ask some ethnobotanical
questions related to:
1. the farmer's
understanding
of his environment in
regard
to the
production
of
maize;
2. the existence of maize
populations of
practically
all
types
of texture of
grain;
3. the maintenance of the
seedstock;
4. the artificial selection
by
the
farmer; and
5. the
migration
of maize
populations.
In case
you expect
the full answers
now, may
I
anticipate that the
purpose
of this
exercise is to call attention to some relevant
points
of
ethnobotany
in need of
further
inquiry,
not to
give
solutions.
Our field observations in
fairly
isolated
regions
indicate that the Indian farmers
know the climatic
regimes
and their
vagaries
in their
territories, the soils and their
qualities, especially
in
regard
to water retention and
fertility,
and an
ample spec-
trum of the
biological
nature of the maize
populations they handle. For instance
in Bahia de
Banderas, Jalisco, at 40 m elevation with a warm humid
climate, we
found the
following agricultural habitats, method of
use, and reasons:
Rainfed lands, plowed, spring plantings: Tabloncillo Perla (human consumption); "Criollo de
Ocho,"
early
for
forage and human
consumption of corn on the cob. Criollo is a term used to indicate a local
variety; Criollo de Ocho is similar to Tabloncillo.
Fig. 1. Races of maize found in northwest Mexico: a. Dulce (1
=
1.5),* Jalisco, Zacatecas, Sinaloa;
b. Reventador
(1
=
2.11), Jalisco; c. Tabloncillo sub-race Perla (1
=
1.65), Nayarit, Sinaloa.
*
Scale
in
centimeters, i.e., 1 cm in
Fig. la
=
1.5 cm in
actuality;
1 cm in
Fig. lb
=
2.11 cm in
reality, etc.
Fig.
2. Races of maize found in northwest Mexico: d. Bofo (1
=
1.
7),* Jalisco, Nayarit and
Durango;
e. Jala (1
=
2.30), Nayarit;
f.
Chapalote (1
=
1), Nayarit and Sinaloa.
*
Scale in centimeters-see above
for
explanation.
Fig.
3. Races of maize found in northwest Mexico:
g. Harinoso de Ocho (1
=
1.25),* Sonora; h.
Dulcillo del Noroeste (1
=
1.7), Sonora and Sinaloa; i. Blando de Sonora (1
=
1.27), Sonora.
*
Scale
in centimeters-see above for explanation.
418
[VOL.
39
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1985] 419
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1985]
421
h i
g
ECONOMIC BOTANY
i
k
422
[VOL.
39
I
Soils with high water table, plowed, winter plantings: "Criollo Amarillo"
(early),
Criollo de Ocho
early
commercial production. Criollo Amarillo is a
yellow-grained
form of Criollo de Ocho.
Irrigated, plowed: "Arriaga" introduced from
Chiapas;
commercial crop. Arriaga is a
variety similar
to Tuxpenio.
Old slash-bum fields, spring planting: Tabloncillo; subsistence.
New slash-bum fields, spring planting:
Criollo Amarillo; early,
subsistence.
Fields with drier soils, spring planting: Criollo Amarillo; early,
subsistence.
These observations appear repeatedly
where various microhabitats occur. In
Valparaiso, Zacatecas,
where humid winds
penetrate
from the Pacific, early plant-
ings
are made at 2,090
m elevation in
Jan.-Feb.; regular
rain-fed
plantings
are
made in
June-July.
At
Madera, Chihuahua, 2,000
m
elev.,
when rains are
delayed,
Apachito
is
planted
because it is
fast-growing.
It should be mentioned that the best indications of an
understanding by
the
farmer of the
ecological
conditions available for his
agricultural
activities are the
decisions he makes in
regard
to the best combination of seed and conditions. This
in turn is related to the choices of seed available.
With
regard
to the seed found in the various areas,
this includes not
only
representatives
of the main variants in
texture, but also a color series of
glassy
white,
enamel white, yellow, pink, red, dark blue, and black
(Table 1).
The main-
tenance of the various textures is related to the constant consumption
of maize
and the need for
variety
in the monotonous diet.
Capsicum
has a similar reason
for
being (Hernandez X., 1970).
Several studies
(Bennett
and
Zingg, 1935; Kelly
and Anderson, 1943; Anderson, 1944; Foster, 1946; Beals, 1946; West, 1946;
Pennington, 1969; Echeverria and Arroyo, 1982),
have
given ample
information
on maize
recipes.
I shall limit
myself
to a few
examples
from the area,
as recorded
in
my
field notes:
dents: Tabloncillo: tortillas, piznate (flint grain
with
floury capping, cooked in water until it
pops,
dried, roasted over a
clay grill, ground,
the flour screened,
water
added, allowed to
ferment)
(colors: glassy white; yellow)
flints: Amarillo Cristalino: elotes (corn on the
cob), tortillas, animal feed
Tab.-Perla: tortillas, pinole (flour
maize roasted, ground, sugar
or cinnamon added)
Azul: "el
mejor para tesgtiino" (maize grains germinated
under fresh pine leaves, young plants
dried,
boiled in water, cooled,
fermented in
clay pots used
previously
for same
purpose).
Cristalino Chihuahua: tortillas
(colors: white, yellow, blue)
floury:
Blando:
pinole,
coricos (cookies of various
shapes made of
floury maize)
Pozolero: pinole, elotes, huachales (cooked
corn on the cob, dried, stored for later use), pozole
(floury, usually pink maize, cooked until it
bursts)
Bofo: gordas (floury maize, uncooked grains ground, cookies made
adding brown sugar and putting
in oven), huajatole (grains
broken in
large pieces, these and the cobs put in water until they sour;
cooked; cobs removed and liquid drunk
cold), pozole
(colors:
enamel white, yellow, pink, red, blue, black)
pops: Chapalote: pinole, ponteduro (popped
maize
grains
made into balls by adding
brown sugar),
flores (pop corn), esquite,
coricos
Palomero
Toluquefio:
flores
Reventador: flores, ponteduro
Fig.
4. Races of maize found in northwest Mexico:
j.
Onavefio (1
=
2.23),* Sonora; k. Cristalino
de Chihuahua
(1
=
1.97), Durango
and Chihuahua;
1. Palomero
Toluquefno (1
=
1), Durango and
Chihuahua.
*
Scale in centimeters-see above for explanation.
1985]
423
ECONOMIC BOTANY
m
I
[VOL.
39 424
m n
TABLE 1. USE OF COLOR OF GRAIN AS INDICATOR OF ECOLOGICAL, DIETARY, AND MEDICINAL
CHARACTERISTICS.
Medicinal-ceremonial
Color of grain Ecological adaptation Dietary use and characteristics significance
yellow early;
for drier oily, good
for
hogs and
areas; for poorer chickens
soils
pink on floury intermediate or sweet corn on the cob;
background late-growing
pe-
sweet pinole; sweet
riod canes
dark purple on
intermediate-grow-
blue tortillas, softer and
floury back- ing period tastier; atole; best for
ground tesguino; coloring other
dishes
red on floury intermediate-grow-
pozolero, the grain pops
background ing
period
on boiling
white, yellow, red,
guardians of the milpa
black, all floury among
the Huicholes
with enameled
color
red on different protection of the milpa
backgrounds against disease, hail,
drought and "eclipse"
dark red on
floury remedy against "pujos"
background (dysentery),
for luck
Lady Finger: flores
(colors: glassy white, yellow, dark brown, red)
sweets: Dulce: roasted, esquite, pinole
Dulcillo Noroeste: pinole, esquite
(colors: glassy yellow, pink, red)
Farmers in all areas cultivate a
type
suitable for tortillas and
accepted for sale.
In isolated communities the
floury, pop and sweet
types
are cultivated in a few
rows
separate from, but
adjacent to, the main varieties.
They
are considered
very
ancient varieties that are fast
disappearing.
On
slopes, the colored and sweet
varieties are
grown along
the upper limits of cultivation to
prevent out-crossing
to the
prevailing
dents or flints.
If one observes the
piles
of maize harvested in different
places,
one can
appre-
ciate some
very heterogeneous
mixtures and some
surprisingly
uniform lots. With
the
special
color and texture
types
there is
usually
less mixture. It is understood
that there are both careful and careless Indian farmers. If one has the
privilege
of
examining
the maize
granary
of a farmer
reputed
to be
careful,
one will see
maize ears
separated
in
piles according
to race, color, and texture, and clusters
of ears
hung separately
for
seed, including
a sufficient
quantity
of
red-grained
ears
for
safeguarding
the fields. Since the
rainy
season varies, a series of varieties must
be available to meet the
particular
conditions of a
given year: very early, white;
Fig. 5. Races of maize found in northwest Mexico: m. Gordo (1
=
2),* Chihuahua; n. Apachito
(1
=
2), Chihuahua.
*
Scale in centimeters -see above for explanation.
1985]
425
ECONOMIC BOTANY
early, yellow; intermediate,
various
colors; late,
white. That this
relationship
holds
true has been shown
experimentally
in the Puebla-Tlaxcala area of the Central
Mexican Plateau
(Lopez Herrera, 1975).
But the farmer can
manipulate part
of the environmental factors so that he
may give
his
plants
a
longer growing
season
by early plantings
in soils that have
stored
moisture,
and in this
way separate
the
flowering periods
of his maize
varieties, fostering genetic
isolation between varieties. The reason for
seeking
longer periods
of
growth
seems to be related to an
understanding
that this is
correlated with a
higher yield (Bucio Alanis, 1954).
This has been demonstrated
by
the
planting
of the
late-maturing, higher-yielding Chalqueiio
at
Valparaiso,
Zacatecas, and
Victoria, Durango.
Basic to the maintenance of seed
pure (homozygous)
in color and texture is the
farmer's
appreciation
and
response
to the
phenomenon
of xenia in the kernel.
Weatherwax
(1942) reports that Indians in New
England apparently
had no un-
derstanding
of
pollination.
I am not in a
position
to
say
that the farmer knows
the full
process of
pollination. Present-day
farmers
say
that when one color
type
affects another
color,
it has been
"married," and,
in
selecting
their seed of the
color and texture
varieties, they
shell the ears and select
grains
with the full
expression
of the character desired.
Apparently
the
specific needs of the ethnic
groups
are not
fully
met in certain
cases,
or the human trait of
curiosity
lies behind the constant introductions of
new varieties from short and from
long
distances. Some
examples:
1. sweet
corn,
from San
Joaquin, California, to
Sahuaripa, Sonora; "didn't
do so well."
2.
pop corn, from U.S. to Yecora and
Sahuaripa, Sonora.
3. Palomero
Toluqueiio (pop)
from the Mesa
Central, to Las
Varas, Madera,
and
Guachochic, Chihuahua.
4.
Chalquefno,
from Mexico
State,
to Zacatecas and
Durango.
5.
Tabloncillo, from the coast of
Nayarit, to Amatlan de
Jara, Nayarit.
6.
Dulce,
from central Jalisco
northward, to southern Sonora.
7.
Tuxpeiio, in
Amatlan, Nayarit, from
Torreon, Coahuila, and
Tampico,
Tamaulipas;
in Ixtlan del Rio, Nayarit, from
Tampico, Tamaulipas; "Tor-
reon" at Puente
Camotlan, Nayarit, from
Bolanios, Jalisco.
8.
Celaya, the
variety "Argentino"
from southern
Guanajuato
to
Huazamota,
Durango.
9.
Chapalote, ca.
Culiacfan, Sinaloa, "Chapalote" from
Tamazula, Durango.
10
Cuarenteno, ca.
CuliacLan, Sinaloa from Mocorito ca. La
Angostura, Sonora.
11.
Hibrido, Badiraguato, Sinaloa, 600-800
m, from Los
Mochis, Sinaloa;
Tamazula, Durango, 500
m, H-503 from Mexico
City.
With the
presence of such a
large number of races and the introduction of a
few additional
ones,
it is not
surprising that an
analysis based on the
phenotypic
characters of the ears should
give
a
high number of
reciprocal hybrids, as shown
in Table 2 taken from Hemrnandez X.
(1973).
Apparently unsuccessful
migrations of maize
populations may nevertheless
donate
genes involving simple genetic characteristics of the
endosperm and be
selected
through
the
phenomenon of xenia.
Apparently
this
explains the probable
formation of Dulcillo del Noroeste from Dulce de
Jalisco; Gordo, Azul and Po-
426
[VOL.
39
TABLE 2. GENETIC VARIABILITY FOUND IN SIERRA MADRE OCCIDENTAL IN NORTHWEST
MEXICO, ACCORDING TO PHENOTYPIC CHARACTERS OF EARS OF 660 COLLECTIONS AND INDI-
CATED BY RACES AND RECOMBINATIONS.
Grain
texture Tablon- Reven- C6nico Cristalino
typeb Race Tuxpefio cillo tador Nortenio Chih. Bolita Apachito
1, 3 Tabloncillo + + + +
1, 3 C6nico Norteiio + + +
Ia
2 Bofo I |
+
5 Reventador +
1 San Juanc + + + +
4 Dulcillo N.O. I I I
5 Lady Finger
5 Dulce l I I
2 Harinoso-8
|
1 Tuxpenio
+ + +
1 Tablilla-8
I
3 Cristalino Chih. + +
I l l
2 Gordo
- +
5 Apachito
+
3 Azul | |
-
+
5 Palomero Tol. +
1, 3 Celaya
1, 3 Bolita (Cafime)
+
-
-
-
1, 3 Chalquefio
+
a
Vertical line refers to apparent genetic flow from a race in the upper row to a race in the left column; horizontal line to flow in
reciprocal manner. A + indicates genetic flow in both directions. This series is the one registered above 1500 m (Hernandez X., 1973).
bGrain types: 1, dent; 2, floury; 3, flint; 4, sweet; 5, pop.
c
San Juan, undescribed, early, 12-row; small white dented grain; like Nal-Tel, from southwestern Tamaulipas.
zolero from Bofo and this in turn from Harinoso de
Ocho;
the
presence
of sweet
and
floury
in
Onave-no,
which is
normally
a flint. Schuster and
Bye (1983) report
the results of an
experiment designed
to test the effect of
long
distance
transport
of exotic races to a new
geographic
area. Material from the Tarahumara
region
of Mexico and from southern Arizona was
grown
in southwestern Colorado.
Although
the maize
plants
had
problems
of
growth
in their new
setting they
shed
pollen
and all
produced
viable seed. From our
study
of the Mexican
northwest,
we emphasize the permanent contribution that
might
be made
through
the influ-
ence of
pollen by
the exotics on the local
population.
Bucio Alanis
(1954)
did a
study
with the Mexican races
comparing
the F1 of crosses
among
said races and
their
progenitors.
He indicates that in the
majority
of instances the
hybrids
tended
to be as
early
as the earlier
parent
and in various cases
they
were earlier. In
addition,
there was a marked effect on
yield:
the
hybrids
showed an
increase,
probably
due to heterosis.
Finally
we come to the
problem
of maize classification in the
area, initiated in
its modem, biosystematic approach by
Anderson and Cutler
(1942), Kelly
and
Anderson
(1943),
Anderson
(1944, 1946),
Carter and Anderson
(1954), Wellhau-
sen et al.
(1952),
and Hernandez X. and Alanis Flores
(1970).
The use of statistical
and chemical
analyses
has resulted in new efforts at
phylogenetic
classifications
(Goodman
and
Paterniani, 1969;
Goodman and
Bird, 1977; Benz, 1981;
Yakoleff
G. et
al., 1982).
There are several reasons for
continuing
this
important taxonomic
1985]
427
ECONOMIC BOTANY
TABLE 3. MAIN MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF RACES OF MAIZE FOUND IN NORTH-
WEST MEXICO.
Length and diameter
Race Ear shapea of ear, cm Row number Grain textureb Grain color
Dulce 1 13.7-4.5 14.5 a yellow, red
Dulcillo del 2 16.1-3.4 10.0 a glassy yellow
Noroeste
Reventador 2 16.5-3.2 12.0 b glassy white, pink
Chapalote
2 11.0-2.9 12.3 b dark brown
Blando de 2 18.7-3.7 12.0 c enamel white
Sonora
Onavefio 2 20.0-4.4 12.0 d,
c
glassy
white
Bofo 2 18.0-3.8 14.0 c white, red, dark
purple
Cristalino 3 26.6-4.9 12.0 d white
Chihuahua
Harinoso de 3 11.9-3.8 8.0 c enamel white
Ocho
Gordo 3 16.0-4.0 14.0 c enamel white
Tabloncillo 3 16.4-4.1 9.0 e white, smoky
Tabloncillo Perla 3 17.0-3.7 8.3 d white
Tuxpefio
3 19.7-4.4 12.6 e white
Jala 3 30.5-5.9 14.7 e white
Palomero
Toluquefio
4 10.2-3.4 23.0 b glassy white
Chalquefio
4 16.0-4.9 16.6 e glassy white
C6nico 4 13.1-4.6 16.0 e glassy white
Nortefio
Apachito 5 15.0-3.5 12.0 d white, pink
a
Ear shape: 1, oblong; 2, ellipitcal; 3, cylindrical; 4, conical; 5, big butt.
b
Grain texture: a, shrunken; b, pop; c, floury; d, flint; e, dent.
task both at the micro and macro level: the need for a
logical
classification to
handle the populations
under
study,
the need for a basis for
analyzing possible
phylogenetic
trends and,
the need to monitor
genetic changes
in critical areas to
discover their
possible
causes
(Table 3).
In this
respect, probably
one of our errors has been to
disregard Edgar
Ander-
son's
(1946)
recommendation to undertake more
population
studies of maize in
the different
indigenous
areas of
production.
Such studies would
give
us a better
understanding
of the
crop
as
managed by
the local farmers and would
provide
periodic
records for
comparison.
This broad
analysis, plus
information derived
from
plant breeding programs,
would
help
to define the best material represen-
tative of a
given
race. This
might help
avoid the confusion created
by
the
similarity
of
phenotypic
characters on different
genetic backgrounds,
as
suggested by
some
of the results of research mentioned above.
Perhaps
a
study
similar to that conducted
by Ortega
Paczka
(1973)
in
Chiapas
should be
programmed
for
part
of the Sierra Madre Occidental. Since a rather
extensive collection had been obtained
by
Hernandez X. from
Chiapas
in 1946
and maintained in the
germplasm
bank in
Mexico,
a new collection was made in
1971 to evaluate the
changes
that had occurred in maize
(Ortega Paczka, 1973).
The same basic and
speciality types
found in 1946 were recovered 25
yr
later.
428 [VOL.
39
New
types
were found
corresponding
in
general
to recombinations of
regional
types
with introduced
populations
from
bordering
states and Guatemala. One
widespread type
in 1971 could be traced via Guatemala to an
improved open-
pollinated variety,
Rocamex
521,
released
during
the initial
years
of the Rocke-
feller Foundation
Agricultural Program
in Mexico and now found
very
suitable
for
newly opened
slash-bum areas. The new
populations
found were
occupying
newly
worked areas in the
Chiapas
Central Basin and the Lacandon
territory.
The
persistence
of the
original
races was due to the
apparent
cultural cohesion of the
Indian
groups
of the central
depression
and mountain areas of the state.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I wish to thank Dr. Robert D. Osler of the Centro Internacional para
el
Mejoramiento
de Maiz
y
Trigo (CIMMYT), L6ndres 40, Mexico, D.F. 06600, for all
photographs except Fig.
2d and
Fig.
5m
and n.
Fig.
1 a is reproduced by permission
from the Missouri Botanical Garden
(Kelly
and
Anderson,
1943).
LITERATURE CITED
Anderson, E. 1944. Maiz Reventador. Ann. Missouri Bot. Garden 31: 301-314.
1946. Maize in Mexico-A preliminary survey.
Ann. Missouri Bot. Garden 33: 147-247.
, and H. Cutler. 1942. Races of Zea
mays:
Their
recognition
and classification. Ann. Missouri
Bot. Garden 29: 69-89.
Beals, L. 1946. Cheran: A Sierra Tarascan
Village.
Inst. Soc.
Anthropol.
Publ. no. 2. Smithsonian
Inst., Washington, DC.
Bennett, W. C., and R. M.
Zingg. 1935. The
Tarahumara, an Indian Tribe of Northern Mexico.
Chicago
Univ.
Press, Chicago,
IL.
Benz, B. F. 1981. Five Modem Races of Maize from Northwestern Mexico:
Archaeological Impli-
cations. Master's Thesis, Dept. Anthropol., Univ. Colorado, Boulder, CO.
Bucio Alanis, L. 1954.
Algunas observaciones del
comportamiento de la
F,
de las cruzas entre las
razas de maiz descritas en Mexico. Tesis profesional, Escuela Nacional
Agricultura, Chapingo,
Mexico.
Carter, G. F., and E. Anderson. 1945. A
preliminary survey
of maize in the Southwestern United
States. Ann. Missouri Bot. Garden 32: 297-323.
Echeverria, Ma. E., and E.
Arroyo, coord. 1982. Recetario mexicano del maiz. Museo Nacional de
Culturas
Populares,
Secretaria Educaci6n
Pfiblica, Mexico, D.F.
Foster, G. 1946. Empire's Children: the People of Tzintzuntzan. Inst. Soc.
Anthropol. Publ. no. 6.
Smithsonian Inst., Washington, DC.
Goodman,
M.
M., and R. McK. Bird. 1977. The races of maize. IV: Tentative
grouping
of 219 Latin
American races. Econ. Bot. 31: 204-221.
,
and E. Paterniani. 1969. The races of maize: III. Choices of appropriate characters for racial
classification. Econ. Bot. 23: 265-273.
Hernmndez X., E. 1970. Exploraci6n etnobotanica y su metodologia. Rama Botanica, Colegio Post-
graduados, ENA, Chapingo, Mexico.
,
and G. Alanis Flores. 1970. Estudio
morfolo6gico
de cinco nuevas razas de maiz de la Sierra
Madre Occidental de Mexico. Implicaciones filogeneticas y fitogeograficas. Agrociencia 5: 3-
30.
1973. Genetic resources of primitive varieties of Mesoamerica: Zea spp., Phaseolus spp.,
Capsicum spp., and Cucurbita
spp.
In
Frankel, 0. H., ed, Survey of Crop Genetic Resources
in Their Center of
Diversity (first report), p. 76-115. FAO, Int. Board for Plant Genetic Re-
sources, Rome.
Kelly, I., and E. Anderson. 1943. Sweet corn in Jalisco. Ann. Missouri Bot. Garden 30: 403-412.
Lopez Herrera, A. 1975. Fechas de siembras en Valles Altos para comprobar la relaci6n de la
coloracion del grano de maiz con la precocidad y la produccion. Tesis profesional, Escuela
Nacional
Agricultura, Chapingo, Mexico.
1985]
429
ECONOMIC BOTANY ECONOMIC BOTANY
National Geographic Society. 1972. Indians of North America. Map supplement. Natl.
Geogr. Mag.
142: 739 A.
Ortega Paczka, R. 1973. Variaci6n en maiz
y
cambios socioecon6micos en
Chiapas,
Mex. 1946-
1971. M.C. tesis, Colegio Postgraduados, Chapingo,
Mexico.
Pennington, C. W. 1969. The Tepehuan of Chihuahua. Their Material Culture. Univ. Utah Press,
Salt Lake City,
UT.
Schuster, R. A., and R. A.
Bye, Jr. 1983. Patterns of variation in exotic races of maize (Zea mays,
Gramineae)
in a new
geographic
area. J. Ethnobiol. 3: 157-174.
Weatherwax, P. 1942. The Indian as a corn breeder. Proc. Indiana Acad. Sci. 51: 13-21.
Wellhausen, E. J., L. M. Roberts, and E. Hernmndez X. in collaboration with P. C. Mangelsdorf. 1952.
Races of Maize in Mexico, Their Origins, Characteristics and Distribution. Bussey Inst., Harvard
Univ., Cambridge,
MA.
West, R. C. 1946. Cultural Geography of the Modern Tarascan Area. Inst. Soc. Anthropol. Publ.
no. 7. Smithsonian Inst., Washington,
DC.
Yakoleff G., V., E. Hernmndez X., C. Rodjind de Cuadra, and C. Larralde. 1982.
Electrophoretic
and immunological characterization of pollen protein of Zea
mays
races. Econ. Bot. 36: 113-
123.
Book Review
Plant Chemosystematics. J. B. Harborne and B. L. Turner. Academic
Press, Orlando,
FL
32887. 1984. 562
pp.
$95.00.
When Biochemical
Systematics
was
published
in
1963,
R. E. Alston and B. L. Turner
wrote that ".. . no
significant
taxonomic dispositions
of
higher plants
rest
primarily upon
biochemical criteria. We consider that an
important objective
of this book is to
develop
... an
appreciation
of the
diversity
of
applications
of
biochemistry
to
systematics." Clearly
the authors achieved this
goal,
for in the decades
following publication
of their text one is
impressed by the large
numbers of biochemical articles
dealing
with
systematic problems
which have appeared
in botanical and other
journals.
Without doubt,
". . . the
plant sys-
tematist is
carrying
out the chemical work
necessary
to
help
resolve his
particular
taxonomic
problem,"
and this is the chief
objective
of the revised edition: to review the state and
potential of this approach
to
plant systematics through
1982.
And how
admirably
the authors accomplish their purpose. Divided into three parts,
Introduction, Secondary Metabolites, and Macromolecular Approaches, and 21 chapters,
they first outline the biochemical characters of application
in
plant systematics. Thus,
secondary metabolites which are volatiles
(e.g., sesquiterpenes,
aromatic volatiles), defence
agents (e.g., alkaloids, cyanogenes, steroids), pigments (e.g., anthocyanins, betalains, ca-
rotenoids),
and
storage
metabolites
(e.g., fatty acids, sugars, polyols), variations in metab-
olism
involving primary, secondary,
and
degradative pathways,
and macromolecules (pro-
teins,
nucleic acids, polysaccharides),
are all of
potential value towards
improving
classification and
phylogenetic schemes, particularly
at the
family
level and lower.
They
cite numerous
infraspecific, specific, generic,
and familial
examples
where
applications of
chemistry along
with
exomorphic
and other characters have been
important
in
improving,
highlighting,
and confirming existing systems. They
do this
succinctly
and
objectively with
an
unparalleled mastery
of their
subject.
This is a first-rate reference for all
biologists
who utilize or wish to refer to
biochemistry
as it
applies
to classification and
phylogeny/evolution
of
plants.
WALTER H. LEWIS, WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY, ST. Louis, MO 63130
National Geographic Society. 1972. Indians of North America. Map supplement. Natl.
Geogr. Mag.
142: 739 A.
Ortega Paczka, R. 1973. Variaci6n en maiz
y
cambios socioecon6micos en
Chiapas,
Mex. 1946-
1971. M.C. tesis, Colegio Postgraduados, Chapingo,
Mexico.
Pennington, C. W. 1969. The Tepehuan of Chihuahua. Their Material Culture. Univ. Utah Press,
Salt Lake City,
UT.
Schuster, R. A., and R. A.
Bye, Jr. 1983. Patterns of variation in exotic races of maize (Zea mays,
Gramineae)
in a new
geographic
area. J. Ethnobiol. 3: 157-174.
Weatherwax, P. 1942. The Indian as a corn breeder. Proc. Indiana Acad. Sci. 51: 13-21.
Wellhausen, E. J., L. M. Roberts, and E. Hernmndez X. in collaboration with P. C. Mangelsdorf. 1952.
Races of Maize in Mexico, Their Origins, Characteristics and Distribution. Bussey Inst., Harvard
Univ., Cambridge,
MA.
West, R. C. 1946. Cultural Geography of the Modern Tarascan Area. Inst. Soc. Anthropol. Publ.
no. 7. Smithsonian Inst., Washington,
DC.
Yakoleff G., V., E. Hernmndez X., C. Rodjind de Cuadra, and C. Larralde. 1982.
Electrophoretic
and immunological characterization of pollen protein of Zea
mays
races. Econ. Bot. 36: 113-
123.
Book Review
Plant Chemosystematics. J. B. Harborne and B. L. Turner. Academic
Press, Orlando,
FL
32887. 1984. 562
pp.
$95.00.
When Biochemical
Systematics
was
published
in
1963,
R. E. Alston and B. L. Turner
wrote that ".. . no
significant
taxonomic dispositions
of
higher plants
rest
primarily upon
biochemical criteria. We consider that an
important objective
of this book is to
develop
... an
appreciation
of the
diversity
of
applications
of
biochemistry
to
systematics." Clearly
the authors achieved this
goal,
for in the decades
following publication
of their text one is
impressed by the large
numbers of biochemical articles
dealing
with
systematic problems
which have appeared
in botanical and other
journals.
Without doubt,
". . . the
plant sys-
tematist is
carrying
out the chemical work
necessary
to
help
resolve his
particular
taxonomic
problem,"
and this is the chief
objective
of the revised edition: to review the state and
potential of this approach
to
plant systematics through
1982.
And how
admirably
the authors accomplish their purpose. Divided into three parts,
Introduction, Secondary Metabolites, and Macromolecular Approaches, and 21 chapters,
they first outline the biochemical characters of application
in
plant systematics. Thus,
secondary metabolites which are volatiles
(e.g., sesquiterpenes,
aromatic volatiles), defence
agents (e.g., alkaloids, cyanogenes, steroids), pigments (e.g., anthocyanins, betalains, ca-
rotenoids),
and
storage
metabolites
(e.g., fatty acids, sugars, polyols), variations in metab-
olism
involving primary, secondary,
and
degradative pathways,
and macromolecules (pro-
teins,
nucleic acids, polysaccharides),
are all of
potential value towards
improving
classification and
phylogenetic schemes, particularly
at the
family
level and lower.
They
cite numerous
infraspecific, specific, generic,
and familial
examples
where
applications of
chemistry along
with
exomorphic
and other characters have been
important
in
improving,
highlighting,
and confirming existing systems. They
do this
succinctly
and
objectively with
an
unparalleled mastery
of their
subject.
This is a first-rate reference for all
biologists
who utilize or wish to refer to
biochemistry
as it
applies
to classification and
phylogeny/evolution
of
plants.
WALTER H. LEWIS, WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY, ST. Louis, MO 63130
430 430
[VOL.
39
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39

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Maize and Man in the Greater Southwest

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