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1.

writings in which expression and form, in connection with ideas ofpermanent and universal interest, are characteristic or essentialf
eatures, as poetry, novels, history, biography, and essays.
2. the entire body of writings of a specific language, period, people, etc.
3. the writings dealing with a particular subject:
4. the profession of a writer or author.
5. literary work or production.
6. any kind of printed material, as circulars, leaflets, or handbills:
7. Archaic. Polite learning; literary culture; appreciation of letters andbooks.

"Literature adds to reality, it does not simply describe it. It enriches the necessary competencies that daily life requires and provides;
and in this respect, it irrigates the deserts that our lives have already become." - C.S. Lewis, a British scholar and novelist.
This adage is perhaps the most appropriate description of the importance of literature in our lives. Literature reminds us of stories,
epics, sacred scriptures and classical works of the ancient and modern times. Literature is defined as the body of written works of a
language, period or culture, produced by scholars and researchers, specialized in a given field. Why is literature important? Let us
see.
As stated in the quotation by C.S. Lewis, literature not only describes reality but also adds to it. Yes, literature is not merely a
depiction of reality; it is rather a value-addition. Literary works are portrayals of the thinking patterns and social norms prevalent in
society. They are a depiction of the different facets of common man's life. Classical literary works serve as a food for thought and a
tonic for imagination and creativity. Exposing an individual to good literary works, is equivalent to providing him/her with the finest
of educational opportunities. On the other hand, the lack of exposure to classic literary works is equal to depriving an individual
from an opportunity to grow as an individual.

Standards of literature
ARTISTRY-This is a quality which appeals to our sense of beauty.
INTELLECTUAL VALUE-A literary work that stimulates thought.
SUGGESTIVENESS- Associated with the emotion of a literary piece.
SPIRITUAL VALUE- Elevates the spirit by bringing out the moral values of a person or situation.
PERMANENCE-A great work of literature endures
UNIVERSALITY-Great literature is timeless.
STYLE-This is the peculiar way in which a writer sees life, forms his ideas and expresses them.

There are two divisions of literature: prose and poetry.
Prose is writing that resembles everyday speech. The word prose is derived from the Latin prosa which literally
means straightforward. Prose is adopted for the discussion of facts and topical reading and does not adhere to any particular formal
structures other than simple grammar.
Poetry is any writing in verse form. The word poetry is derived from the Greek poiesis which literally means creating or creating.
Poetry relies heavily on imagery, precise word choice and figures and speech.

Types of Prose
1. Prose Drama a drama in prose form. It consists entirely dialogues in prose, and is meant to be act on stage.
2. Essay a short literary composition which is expository in nature. The author shares his thoughts feelings, experiences, or
observations on some aspects of life that has interested him.
3. Prose Fiction something invented, imagined, or feigned to be true)


1. Novel a long fiction narrative with a complicated plot. It may have one main plot and one or more sub plots that
develop with the main plot. It is made up of chapters.
2. Short Story a fictitious narrative compressed into one unit of time, place and action. It deals with single character
interest, a single emotion or series of emotions called forth by a single. It is distinguished from the novel by its
compression.
4. Biography and Autobiography


1. Biography a story of a certain persons life written by another who knows the subject well.
2. Autobiography a written account of mans life written by himself.
5. Letter a written message which displays aspects of an authors physiological make-up not immediately apparent in his
more public writings. It is a prose form which by the force of its style and the importance of its statements becomes an
object of interest in its own right.
6. Diary a daily written record of account of the writers own experiences, thoughts, activities or observations.
7. Journal a magazine or periodical especially of serious or learned nature. It is the reflection, opinion of a read material.

Types of Poetry
Narrative Poetry a poem that tells a story.

1. Epic a long narrative poem of the largest proportions. Epic is a tale mainly about a hero concerning the
beginning, continuance, and the end of events of great significance on tribal or national significance.
2. Metrical Poem a narrative poem that tells a story of adventure, love and chivalry. The Typical hero is a knight on
a quest.
3. Metrical Tale a narrative poem consisting usually a single series connective events that are simple, and generally
do not form a plot. Examples of these are simple idylls or home tales, love tales, tales of the supernatural or tales
written for a strong moral purpose in verse form.
4. Ballad the simplest type of narrative poetry. It is s short narrative poem telling a single incident in simple meter
and stanzas. It is meant to be sung.
5. Popular ballad a ballad of wide workman ship telling some simple incidents of adventure, cruelty, passion, or
superstition, an incident that shows the primary instincts of man influenced by the restraint of modern civilization.
6. Modern or artistic created by poet in imitation of the folk ballad, makes use of many of its devices and
conventions.
7. Metrical Allegory an extended narrative that carries a second meaning along worth the surface story.
Lyric Poetry a poem that is very personal in nature. It expresses the authors own thoughts, feelings, moods and
reflections in musical language. It derived its name from the musical instrument, the lyre.


1. Ode a lyric poem of some length, serious in subject and dignified in style. It is most majestic of the lyric poems. It
is written in a spirit of praise of some persons or things.
2. Elegy a poem written on the death of a friend of the poet. The ostensible purpose is to praise the friend. But in
the end of the poem, however, we can expect that poet will have come to terms with his grief.
3. Song a lyric poem in a regular metrical pattern set to music. These have twelve syllables and slowly sung to the
accompaniment of a guitar or banduria.
4. Sonnet a lyric poem containing four iambic pentameter lines, and a complicated rhyme.

POINT OF
COMPARISON
PROSE POETRY
Form Paragraph Verse
Language
Words and rhythms of ordinary and everyday
language
Metrical, rhythmical, figurative language
Appeal Intellect Emotions
Aim
Convince, Inform, Instruct Stirs the readers imagination, present an ideal of
how life should be and how life can be


Literary devices
Allegory
Definition: An allegory is a symbolism device where the meaning of a greater, often abstract, concept is conveyed with the aid of a
more corporeal object or idea being used as an example. Usually a rhetoric device, an allegory suggests a meaning via metaphoric
examples.
Example: Faith is like a stony uphill climb: a single stumble might send you sprawling but belief and steadfastness will see you to the
very top.

Alliteration
Definition: Alliteration is a literary device where words are used in quick succession and begin with letters belonging to the same
sound group. Whether it is the consonant sound or a specific vowel group, the alliteration involves creating a repetition of similar
sounds in the sentence. Alliterations are also created when the words all begin with the same letter. Alliterations are used to add
character to the writing and often add an element of fun to the piece..
Example: The Wicked Witch of the West went her own way. (The W sound is highlighted and repeated throughout the sentence.)

Allusion
Definition: An allusion is a figure of speech whereby the author refers to a subject matter such as a place, event, or literary work by
way of a passing reference. It is up to the reader to make a connection to the subject being mentioned.
Example: Its no wonder everyone refers to Mary as another Mother Teresa in the making; she loves to help and care after people
everywhere- from the streets to her own friends. In the example the author uses the mention of Mother Teresa to indicate the sort
of qualities that Mary has.

Amplification
Definition: Amplification refers to a literary practice wherein the writer embellishes the sentence by adding more information to it in
order to increase its worth and understandability. When a plain sentence is too abrupt and fails to convey the full implications
desired, amplification comes into play when the writer adds more to the structure to give it more meaning.
Example: Original sentence- The thesis paper was difficult. After amplification- The thesis paper was difficult: it required extensive
research, data collection, sample surveys, interviews and a lot of fieldwork.

Anagram
Definition: Anagrams are an extremely popular form of literary device wherein the writer jumbles up parts of the word to create a
new word. From the syllables of a phrase to the individual letters of a word, any fraction can be jumbled to create a new form.
Anagram is a form of wordplay that allows the writer to infuse mystery and a little interactive fun in the writing so that the reader
can decipher the actual word on their own and discover a depth of meaning to the writing.
Example: An anagram for "debit card" is "bad credit". As you can see, both phrases use the same letters. By mixing the letters a bit
of humor is created.

Analogy
Definition: An analogy is a literary device that helps to establish a relationship based on similarities between two concepts or ideas.
By using an analogy we can convey a new idea by using the blueprint of an old one as a basis for understanding. With a mental
linkage between the two, one can create understanding regarding the new concept in a simple and succinct manner.
Example: In the same way as one cannot have the rainbow without the rain, one cannot achieve success and riches without hard
work.

Anastrophe
Definition: Anastrophe is a form of literary device wherein the order of the noun and the adjective in the sentence is exchanged. In
standard parlance and writing the adjective comes before the noun but when one is employing an anastrophe the noun is followed
by the adjective. This reversed order creates a dramatic impact and lends weight to the description offered by the adjective.
Example: He spoke of times past and future, and dreamt of things to be.

Anecdote
Definition: The word anecdote, phonetically pronounced an.ik.doht, means a short verbal accounting of a funny, amusing,
interesting event or incident. The story is usually a reminiscence from the teller's life but at best is a related story of fact, as opposed
to a contrived work of fiction. The origin of the word anecdote comes from the Greek Byzantine period, A.D. 527 to 565 during the
reign of emperor Justinian. In his court, Justinian had a historian named Procopius who was a gifted writer who wrote many witty,
amusing and somewhat bawdy accounts of court life. Never intending for this stories to become public he entitled his writings as
Anecdota which was Greek for unpublished and kept secret. After his secret writings did indeed become public and published, the
term anecdote became commonly used for similar accounts.
Example: Amusing anecdotes many times find their way into wedding receptions, family reunions and any other gathering of people
who know each other well. Teachers and educators often tell classrooms of pupils anecdotes about famous people. The anecdotes
are not always flattering, but are usually revealing of character and invariably amusing. Here is an example of an anecdote about
Winston Churchill:
Winston Churchill was very fond of his pet dog Rufus. He ate in the dining room with the family on a special cloth and was treated
with utmost respect. When enjoying movies, Rufus had the best seat in the house; on Winston Churchill's lap. While watching
Oliver Twist, Churchill put his hands over Rufus' eyes during the scene where Bill Sike's intends to drown his dog. Churchill is
believed to have said to Rufus: don't look now, dear. I'll tell you about it later.
Anthropomorphism
Definition: Anthropomorphism can be understood to be the act of lending a human quality, emotion or ambition to a non-human
object or being. This act of lending a human element to a non-human subject is often employed in order to endear the latter to the
readers or audience and increase the level of relativity between the two while also lending character to the subject.
Example: The raging storm brought with it howling winds and fierce lightning as the residents of the village looked up at the angry
skies in alarm.

Antithesis
Definition: An antithesis is used when the writer employs two sentences of contrasting meanings in close proximity to one another.
Whether they are words or phrases of the same sentence, an antithesis is used to create a stark contrast using two divergent
elements that come together to create one uniform whole. An antithesis plays on the complementary property of opposites to
create one vivid picture. The purpose of using an antithesis in literature is to create a balance between opposite qualities and lend a
greater insight into the subject.
Example: When Neil Armstrong walked on the moon it might have been one small step for a man but it was one giant leap for
mankind.


Literary conventions
Allegory
story, play, or picture in which characters are used as symbols; fable
Allusion
a reference to something literary, mythological, or historical that the author assumes the reader will recognize
Aside
A piece of dialogue intended for the audience and supposedly not heard by the other actors on stage
Convention
A characteristic of a literary genre (often unrealistic) that is understood and accepted by audiences because it has come, through
usage and time, to be recognized as a familiar technique. For example, the division of a play into acts and scenes is a dramatic
convention, as are soliloquies and asides. flashbacks and foreshadowing are examples of literary conventions.
Dialogue
a literary composition in the form of a conversation between two people
Deus ex machina
In literature, the use of an artificial device or gimmick to solve a problem.
Flashback
a scene or event from the past that appears in a narrative out of chronological order, to fill in information or explain something in
the present
Foreshadowing
An author's use of hints or clues to suggest events that will occur later in the story
In media res
technique of starting a story in the middle and then using a flashback to tell what happened earlier
Satire
form of literature in which irony, sarcasm, and ridicule are employed to attack human vice and folly
Soliquy
Speech in a dramatic work in which a character speaks his or her thoughts aloud.
Sonnet
a short poem with fourteen lines, usually ten-syllable rhyming lines, divided into two, three, or four sections
Truism
a statement the truth of which is obvious or well known

Plotting a Short Story

1. Exposition: The Beginning
Every story must have a beginning. The start, or exposition, is where the characters and setting are established. During this part of
the novel, the conflict or main problem is also introduced.
2. Rising Action: Introduction of the Problem or Conflict
After the characters and main problem have been established, the main problem or conflict is dealt with by some kind of action. In
this part of the story, the main character is in crisis. This is the place for tension and excitement. The complication can arise through
a character's conflict with society, nature, fate, or a number of themes. In this part of the story the main character is aware a conflict
has arisen and takes some kind of step to battle this crisis.
3.Climax: The High Point
The climax is the high point of the story. It is the main event or danger that the character faces. This is the darkest moment, the
worst challenge the character must oppose. At this point it looks as if the character will fail, and will never get what he/she wants.
The turning point may be either physical or emotional. In a romance, the girl may turn the hopeful lover down, in an action story, the
character may be surrounded by enemies with no chance of escape.
4. Falling Action: Winding Down
Following the climax, the story begins to slowly wind down. Falling action, one of the two final story elements, shows the result of
the actions or decisions the character has made. This eventually leads to the final part of the novel, the crisis resolution.
5. Resolution: The End
The resolution, also often called denouement, which is French for "to untie" or "unraveling", is the conclusion of the story. Here, the
conflicts are resolved, all loose ends are tied up, and the story concludes with either a happy or sad ending.

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