Nervous System

Functions:

1. The nervous system carries out

the following functions

2. It perceives the changes around

us through our senses.

3. It controls and coordinates all the

activities of the muscles in response
to the changes outside.

4. It also maintains the internal

environment of the body by coordinating
the functions of the various internal
organs and the involuntary muscles.

5. It stores the previous experiences as

memory that helps us to think and
analyseanalyze our reactions.It conducts
messages between different parts of the body.

The Human Nervous System.

Blue is PNS while red is CNS.
Reflexes

1. Reflexes Arc
A reflex arc is the neural pathway that mediates a
reflex action. In higher animals, most sensory neurons
do not pass directly into the brain, but synapse in the
spinal cord. This characteristic allows reflex actions to
occur relatively quickly by activating spinal motor neurons
without the delay of routing signals through the brain,
although the brain will receive sensory input while the
reflex action occurs. The main source of the reflex action
is through the bottom muscles.

2. Withdrawal reflex
The nociceptive withdrawal reflex (NWR) is a spinal reflex intended to protect the body from damaging
stimuli. The classic example is when a person touches something hot and withdraws their hand from the hot
object. The heat stimulates temperature and pain receptors in the skin, triggering a sensory impulse that travels
to the central nervous system. The sensory neuron then synapses with interneurons that connect to motor
neurons. Some of these send motor impulses to the flexors to allow withdrawal; some motor neurons send
inhibitory impulses to the extensors so flexion is not inhibited - this is referred to as reciprocal innervation.
While all of this occurs, other interneurons relay the sensory information up to the brain so that the person
becomes aware of the pain and what happened. The NWR is also known as the flexion reflex.
3. Patellar or knee-jerk Reflex
The patellar reflex or knee-jerk is a deep tendon reflex and is a myotatic reflexStriking the patellar
ligament with a tendon hammer just below the patella stretches the quadriceps muscles in the thigh. This
stimulates stretch sensory receptors (most importantly, muscle spindles) that trigger an afferent impulse in a
sensory nerve fiber of the femoral nerve leading to the lumbar region of the spinal cord. There, the sensory
neuron synapses directly with a motor neuron that conducts an efferent impulse to the quadriceps femoris
muscle, triggering contraction. This contraction, coordinated with the relaxation of the antagonistic flexor
hamstring muscle causes the leg to kick. This reflex helps maintain posture and balance, allowing one to walk
without consciously thinking about each step.

The patellar reflex is a clinical and classic example of the monosynaptic reflex arc. There is no interneuron in
the pathway leading to contraction of the quadriceps muscle. Instead the bipolar sensory neuron synapses
directly on a motor neuron in the spinal cord. However, there is an inhibitory interneuron used to relax the
antagonistic hamstring muscle.

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Structures of the Nervous System
Central Nervous System (CNS).The part of the nervous system that functions to coordinate the activity
of all parts of the bodies of bilaterian animals—that is, all animals more advanced than sponges or jellyfish.
In vertebrates, the central nervous system is enclosed in the meninges. It contains the majority of the
nervous system and consists of the brain and the spinal cord. Together with the peripheral nervous system it
has a fundamental role in the control of behavior. The CNS is contained within the dorsal cavity, with the
brain in the cranial cavity and the spinal cord in the spinal cavity. The brain is protected by the skull, while
the spinal cord is protected by the vertebrae.

A diagram showing the CNS:

1. Brain
2. Central nervous system
(brain and spinal cord)
3. Spinal cord

Brain: Central nervous system

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) It resides or extends outside the central nervous system (CNS), which
consists of the brain and spinal cord.[1] The main function of the PNS is to connect the CNS to the limbs and
organs. Unlike the central nervous system, the PNS is not protected by bone or by the blood-brain barrier,
leaving it exposed to toxins and mechanical injuries. The peripheral nervous system is divided into the somatic
nervous system and the autonomic nervous system; some textbooks also include sensory systems.[2]

Somatic Nervous System (Voluntary) The somatic nervous system (SNS) is the part of the peripheral nervous
system[1] associated with the voluntary control of body movements through the action of skeletal muscles, and
with reception of external stimuli, which helps keep the body in touch with its surroundings (e.g., touch,
hearing, and sight).

The system includes all the neurons connected with skeletal muscles, skin and sense organs. The somatic
nervous system consists of efferent nerves responsible for sending brain signals for muscle contraction.

 Two types: Sensory (or afferent) In the nervous system, afferent neurons (otherwise
known as sensory or receptor neurons), carry nerve impulses from receptors or sense
organs toward the central nervous system. This term can also be used to describe relative
connections between structures. Afferent neurons communicate with specialized
interneurons. The opposite activity of direction or flow is efferent.
 motor (or efferent) nerves In the nervous system, efferent nerves – otherwise known as
motor or effector neurons – carry nerve impulses away from the central nervous system
to effectors such as muscles or glands (and also the ciliated cells of the inner ear). The
term can also be used to describe relative connections between nervous structures (for
example, a neuron's efferent synapse provides input to another neuron, and not vice-
versa). The opposite activity of direction or flow is afferent.
Autonomic Nervous System (Involuntary) The autonomic nervous system (ANS or visceral
nervous system) is the part of the peripheral nervous system that acts as a control system
functioning largely below the level of consciousness, and controls visceral functions.[1] The ANS
affects heart rate, digestion, respiration rate, salivation, perspiration, diameter of the pupils,
micturition (urination), and sexual arousal. Whereas most of its actions are involuntary, some, such
as breathing, work in tandem with the conscious mind.

 Sympathetic The Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS) is a branch of the autonomic

nervous system along with the enteric nervous system and parasympathetic nervous
system. It is always active at a basal level (called sympathetic tone) and becomes more
active during times of stress. Its actions during the stress response comprise the fight-or-
flight response.
 Activated by stress
 Increase heart rate, breathing rate, pupil size, sweating
 Parasympathetic The parasympathetic nervous system (PSNS) is a division of the
autonomic nervous system (ANS), along with the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) and
enteric nervous system (ENS or "bowels NS"). The ANS is a subdivision of the
peripheral nervous system (PNS). ANS sends fibers to three tissues: cardiac muscle,
smooth muscle, or glandular tissue. This stimulation, sympathetic or parasympathetic, is
to control smooth muscle contraction, regulate cardiac muscle, or stimulate or inhibit
glandular secretion. The actions of the parasympathetic nervous system can be
summarized as "rest and digest" (as opposed to the "fight-or-flight" effects of the
sympathetic nervous system). It is also quite the opposite for the sympathetic nervous
system.
 Maintains body functions; in control when relaxed.
 Restores body to pre-stress state