Pali

1
Pali
Pali
Pi
Pronunciation Sanskrit pronunciation:[pali]
Spoken in Cambodia, Bangladesh, India, Laos, Burma,
Nepal, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam
Language extinction No native speakers, used as a literary and liturgical language only
Language family Indo-European
Indo-Iranian
Indo-Aryan
Pali
Writing system Brhm and derived scripts and Latin alphabet (refer to article)
Language codes
ISO 639-1 pi
ISO 639-2 pli
ISO 639-3 pli
This page contains Indic text. Without rendering support you may see
irregular vowel positioning and a lack of conjuncts. More...
Pali
2
Plate 10 from C. Faulmann: Illustrirte Geschichte der Schrift
[1]
(1880). The upper half
shows a text in Sanskrit (praise of Vishnu), written in Devanagari. For the script, while
the lower half shows a text in Pali from a Buddhist ceremonial scripture called
"Kammuwa" from Burma (probably in old Mon script). pp.485f.
[2]
of that book.
Pli (also Pi) is a Middle Indo-Aryan
language (or Prakrit) of the Indian
subcontinent. It is best known as the
language of many of the earliest extant
Buddhist scriptures, as collected in the
Pi Canon or Tipitaka, and as the
liturgical language of Theravada
Buddhism.
Origin and development
Etymology of the name
The word Pali itself signifies "line" or
"(canonical) text". This name for the
language seems to have its origins in
commentarial traditions, wherein the
Pali (in the sense of the line of original
text quoted) was distinguished from the commentary or vernacular translation that followed it in the manuscript. As
such, the name of the language has caused some debate among scholars of all ages; the spelling of the name also
varies, being found with both long "" [] and short "a" [a], and also with either a retroflex [] or non-retroflex [l] "l"
sound, as in the ISO 15919/ALA-LC rendering, Pi. To this day, there is no single, standard spelling of the term; all
four spellings can be found in textbooks. R.C. Childers translates the word as "series" and states that the language
"bears the epithet in consequence of the perfection of its grammatical structure".
[3]
Classification
Pali is a literary language of the Prakrit language family. When the canonical texts were written down in Sri Lanka in
the first century BCE, Pali stood close to a living language; this is not the case for the commentaries.
[4]
Despite
excellent scholarship on this problem, there is persistent confusion as to the relation of Pi to the vernacular spoken
in the ancient kingdom of Magadha, which was located around modern-day Bihr.
Pali as a Middle Indo-Aryan language is different from Sanskrit not so much with regard to the time of its origin as
to its dialectal base, since a number of its morphological and lexical features betray the fact that it is not a direct
continuation of gvedic Vedic Sanskrit; rather it descends from a dialect (or a number of dialects) that was, despite
many similarities, different from gvedic.
[5]
Early history
In Theravada Buddhism
Many Theravada sources refer to the Pali language as "Magadhan" or the "language of Magadha". This identification
first appears in the commentaries, and may have been an attempt by Buddhists to associate themselves more closely
with the Mauryans. The Buddha taught in Magadha, but the four most important places in his life are all outside of it.
It is likely that he taught in several closely related dialects of Middle Indo-Aryan, which had a very high degree of
mutual intelligibility. There is no attested dialect of Middle Indo-Aryan with all the features of Pali. Pali has some
commonalities with both the Ashokan inscriptions at Girnar in the West of India, and at Hathigumpha, Bhubaneswar,
Odisha in the East. Similarities to the Western inscription may be misleading, because the inscription suggests that
the Ashokan scribe may not have translated the material he received from Magadha into the vernacular of the people
Pali
3
there. Whatever the relationship of the Buddha's speech to Pali, the Canon was eventually transcribed and preserved
entirely in it, while the commentarial tradition that accompanied it (according to the information provided by
Buddhaghosa) was translated into Sinhalese and preserved in local languages for several generations.
In Sri Lanka, Pali is thought to have entered into a period of decline ending around the 4th or 5th century (as Sanskrit
rose in prominence, and simultaneously, as Buddhism's adherents became a smaller portion of the subcontinent), but
ultimately survived. The work of Buddhaghosa was largely responsible for its reemergence as an important scholarly
language in Buddhist thought. The Visuddhimagga and the other commentaries that Buddhaghosa compiled codified
and condensed the Sinhalese commentarial tradition that had been preserved and expanded in Sri Lanka since the 3rd
century BCE.
Early western views
T.W. Rhys Davids in his book Buddhist India,
[6]
and Wilhelm Geiger in his book Pali Literature and Language,
suggested that Pali may have originated as a form of lingua franca or common language of culture among people
who used differing dialects in North India, used at the time of the Buddha and employed by him. Another scholar
states that at that time it was "a refined and elegant vernacular of all Aryan-speaking people."
[7]
Modern scholarship
has not arrived at a consensus on the issue; there are a variety of conflicting theories with supporters and
detractors.
[8]
After the death of the Buddha, Pali may have evolved among Buddhists out of the language of the
Buddha as a new artificial language.
[9]
R.C. Childers, who held to the theory that Pali was Old Magadhi, wrote: "Had
Gautama never preached, it is unlikely that Magadhese would have been distinguished from the many other
vernaculars of Hindustan, except perhaps by an inherent grace and strength which make it a sort of Tuscan among
the Prakrits."
[10]
According to K.R. Norman, it is likely that the viharas in North India had separate collections of material, preserved
in the local dialect. In the early period it is likely that no degree of translation was necessary in communicating this
material to other areas. Around the time of Ashoka there had been more linguistic divergence, and an attempt was
made to assemble all the material. It is possible that a language quite close to the Pali of the canon emerged as a
result of this process as a compromise of the various dialects in which the earliest material had been preserved, and
this language functioned as a lingua franca among Eastern Buddhists in India from then on. Following this period,
the language underwent a small degree of Sanskritisation (i.e., MIA bamhana -> brahmana, tta -> tva in some
cases).
[11]
Modern scholarship
Bhikkhu Bodhi, summarizing the current state of scholarship, states that the language is "closely related to the
language (or, more likely, the various regional dialects) that the Buddha himself spoke." He goes on to write:
Scholars regard this language as a hybrid showing features of several Prakrit dialects used around the third
century BCE, subjected to a partial process of Sanskritization. While the language is not identical with any the
Buddha himself would have spoken, it belongs to the same broad linguistic family as those he might have used
and originates from the same conceptual matrix. This language thus reflects the thought-world that the Buddha
inherited from the wider Indian culture into which he was born, so that its words capture the subtle nuances of
that thought-world.
[12]
According to A.K. Warder, the Pali language is a Prakrit language used in a region of western India.
[13]
Warder
associates Pali with the Indian realm (janapada) of Avanti, where the Sthavira sect was centered.
[14]
Following the
initial split in the Buddhist community, the Sthavira branch of Buddhism became influential in western and southern
India, while the Mahsghika branch became influential in central and eastern India.
[15]
Akira Hirakawa and Paul
Groner also associate Pali with west India and the Sthavira sect, citing inscriptions at Girnar in Gujarat, India, which
are linguistically closest to the Pali language.
[16]
Pali
4
Pali today
Today Pali is studied mainly to gain access to Buddhist scriptures, and is frequently chanted in a ritual context. The
secular literature of Pali historical chronicles, medical texts, and inscriptions is also of great historical importance.
The great centers of Pali learning remain in the Theravada nations of Southeast Asia: Burma, Sri Lanka, Thailand,
Laos, and Cambodia. Since the 19th century, various societies for the revival of Pali studies in India have promoted
awareness of the language and its literature, perhaps most notably the Maha Bodhi Society founded by Anagarika
Dhammapala.
In Europe, the Pali Text Society has been a major force in promoting the study of Pali by Western scholars since its
founding in 1881. Based in the United Kingdom, the society publishes romanized Pali editions, along with many
English translations of these sources. In 1869, the first Pali Dictionary was published using the research of Robert
Caesar Childers, one of the founding members of the Pali Text Society. It was the first Pali translated text in English
and was published in 1872. Childers's dictionary later received the Volney Prize in 1876.
The Pali Text Society was in part founded to compensate for the very low level of funds allocated to Indology in late
19th-century England and the rest of the UK; incongruously, the citizens of the UK were not nearly so robust in
Sanskrit and Prakrit language studies as Germany, Russia, and even Denmark. Without the inspiration of colonial
holdings such as the former British occupation of Sri Lanka and Burma, institutions such as the Danish Royal
Library have built up major collections of Pali manuscripts, and major traditions of Pali studies.
Lexicon
Virtually every word in Pi has cognates in the other Prakritic Middle Indo-Aryan languages, e.g., the Jain Prakrits.
The relationship to earlier Sanskrit (e.g., Vedic language) is less direct and more complicated. Historically, influence
between Pali and Sanskrit has been felt in both directions. The Pali language's resemblance to Sanskrit is often
exaggerated by comparing it to later Sanskrit compositions which were written centuries after Sanskrit ceased to
be a living language, and are influenced by developments in Middle Indic, including the direct borrowing of a
portion of the Middle Indic lexicon; whereas, a good deal of later Pali technical terminology has been borrowed from
the vocabulary of equivalent disciplines in Sanskrit, either directly or with certain phonological adaptations.
Post-canonical Pali also possesses a few loan-words from local languages where Pali was used (e.g. Sri Lankans
adding Sinhalese words to Pali). These usages differentiate the Pali found in the Suttapiaka from later compositions
such as the Pali commentaries on the canon and folklore (e.g., the stories of the Jtaka commentaries), and
comparative study (and dating) of texts on the basis of such loan-words is now a specialized field unto itself.
Pali was not exclusively used to convey the teachings of the Buddha, as can be deduced from the existence of a
number of secular texts, such as books of medical science/instruction, in Pali. However, scholarly interest in the
language has been focused upon religious and philosophical literature, because of the unique window it opens on one
phase in the development of Buddhism.
Emic views of Pali
Although Sanskrit was said in the Brahmanical tradition to be the unchanging language spoken by the gods, in which
each word had an inherent significance, this view of language was not shared in the early Buddhist tradition, in
which words were only conventional and mutable signs.
[17]
Neither the Buddha nor his early followers shared the
Brahmins' reverence for the Vedic language or its sacred texts. This view of language naturally extended to Pali, and
may have contributed to its usage (as an approximation or standardization of local Middle Indic dialects) in place of
Sanskrit. However, by the time of the compilation of the Pali commentaries (4th or 5th century), Pali was regarded
as the natural language, the root language of all beings.
[18]
Comparable to Ancient Egyptian, Latin or Hebrew in the mystic traditions of the West, Pali recitations were often
thought to have a supernatural power (which could be attributed to their meaning, the character of the reciter, or the
Pali
5
qualities of the language itself), and in the early strata of Buddhist literature we can already see Pali dhras used as
charms, e.g. against the bite of snakes. Many people in Theravada cultures still believe that taking a vow in Pali has a
special significance, and, as one example of the supernatural power assigned to chanting in the language, the
recitation of the vows of Agulimla are believed to alleviate the pain of childbirth in Sri Lanka. In Thailand, the
chanting of a portion of the Abhidhammapiaka is believed to be beneficial to the recently departed, and this
ceremony routinely occupies as much as seven working days. Interestingly, there is nothing in the latter text that
relates to this subject, and the origins of the custom are unclear.
Phonology
With regard to its phonology, R.C. Childers compared Pali to Italian: "Like Italian, Pali is at once flowing and
sonorous: it is a characteristic of both languages that nearly every word ends in a vowel, and that all harsh
conjunctions are softened down by assimilation, elision, or crasis, while on the other hand both lend themselves
easily to the expression of sublime and vigorous thought."
[19]
Vowels
Height Backness
Front Central Back
High i [i] [i] u [u] [u]
Mid e [e], [e] a [] o [o], [o]
Low [a]
Long and short vowels are only contrastive in open syllables; in closed syllables, all vowels are always short. Short
and long e and o are in complementary distribution: the short variants occur only in closed syllables, the long
variants occur only in open syllables. Short and long e and o are therefore not distinct phonemes.
A sound called anusvra (Skt.; Pali: nigghahita), represented by the letter (ISO 15919) or (ALA-LC) in
romanization, and by a raised dot in most traditional alphabets, originally marked the fact that the preceding vowel
was nasalized. That is, a, i and u represented [], [] and []. In many traditional pronunciations, however, the
anusvra is pronounced more strongly, like the velar nasal [], so that these sounds are pronounced instead [], []
and []. However pronounced, never follows a long vowel; , and are converted to the corresponding short
vowels when is added to a stem ending in a long vowel, e.g. kath + becomes katha, not *kath, dev +
becomes devi, not *dev.
Consonants
The table below lists the consonants of Pali. In bold is the transliteration of the letter in traditional romanization, and
in square brackets its pronunciation transcribed in the IPA.
Pali
6
Labial Dental Alveolar Retroflex Palatal Velar Glottal
(bilabial) (labiodental) central lateral central lateral
Stop Nasal m [m] n [n] [] [] ( [])
voiceless unaspirated p [p] t [t] [] c [t] k [k]
aspirated ph [p] th [t] h [] ch[t] kh [k]
voiced unaspirated b [b] d [d] [] j [d] g []
aspirated bh [b] dh [d] h [] jh [d] gh []
Fricative s [s] h [h]
Approximant unaspirated v [] l [l] r [] ( []) y [j]
aspirated (h [])
Of the sounds listed above only the three consonants in parentheses, , , and h, are not distinct phonemes in Pali:
only occurs before velar stops and , and h are allophones of single , and h between vowels.
Morphology
Pali is a highly inflected language, in which almost every word contains, besides the root conveying the basic
meaning, one or more affixes (usually suffixes) which modify the meaning in some way. Nouns are inflected for
gender, number, and case; verbal inflections convey information about person, number, tense and mood.
Nominal inflection
Pali nouns inflect for three grammatical genders (masculine, feminine, neuter) and two numbers (singular, and
plural). The nouns also, in principle, display eight cases: nominative or paccatta case, vocative, accusative or
upayoga case, instrumental or karaa case, dative or sampadna case, ablative, genitive or smin case, and
locative or bhumma case; however, in many instances, two or more of these cases are identical in form; this is
especially true of the genitive and dative cases.
a-stems
a-stems, whose uninflected stem ends in short a (//), are either masculine or neuter. The masculine and neuter forms
differ only in the nominative, vocative, and accusative cases.
Masculine (loka- "world") Neuter (yna- "carriage")
Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nominative loko lok yna ynni
Vocative loka
Accusative loka loke
Instrumental lokena lokehi ynena ynehi
Ablative lok (lokamh, lokasm; lokato) yn (ynamh, ynasm; ynato)
Dative lokassa (lokya) lokna ynassa (ynya) ynna
Genitive lokassa ynassa
Locative loke (lokasmi) lokesu yne (ynasmi) ynesu
Pali
7
-stems
Nouns ending in (/a/) are almost always feminine.
Feminine (kath- "story")
Singular Plural
Nominative kath kathyo
Vocative kathe
Accusative katha
Instrumental kathya kathhi
Ablative
Dative kathna
Genitive
Locative kathya, kathya kathsu
i-stems and u-stems
i-stems and u-stems are either masculine or neuter. The masculine and neuter forms differ only in the nominative and
accusative cases. The vocative has the same form as the nominative.
Masculine (isi- "seer") Neuter (akkhi- "fire")
Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nominative isi isayo, is akkhi, akkhi akkh, akkhni
Vocative
Accusative isi
Instrumental isin isihi, ishi akkhin akkhihi, akkhhi
Ablative isin, isito akkhin, akkhito
Dative isino isina, isna akkhino akkhina, akkhna
Genitive isissa, isino akkhissa, akkhino
Locative isismi isisu, issu akkhismi akkhisu, akkhsu
Masculine (bhikkhu- "monk") Neuter (cakkhu- "eye")
Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nominative bhikkhu bhikkhavo, bhikkh cakkhu, cakkhu cakkhni
Vocative
Accusative bhikkhu
Instrumental bhikkhun bhikkhhi cakkhun cakkhhi
Ablative
Dative bhikkhuno bhikkhna cakkhuno cakkhna
Genitive bhikkhussa, bhikkhuno bhikkhna, bhikkhunna cakkhussa, cakkhuno cakkhna, cakkhunna
Locative bhikkhusmi bhikkhsu cakkhusmi cakkhsu
Pali
8
Linguistic analysis of a Pali Text
From the opening of the Dhammapada:
Manopubbagam dhamm, manoseh manomay;
Manas ce paduhena, bhsati v karoti v,
Tato nam dukkha anveti, cakka'va vahato pada.
Element for element gloss:
Mano-pubba-gam= dhamm=, mano-seh= mano-may=;
Mind-before-going=m.pl.nom. dharma=m.pl.nom., mind-foremost=m.pl.nom. mind-made=m.pl.nom.
Manas= ce paduh=ena, bhsa=ti v karo=ti v,
Mind=n.sg.inst. if corrupted=n.sg.inst. speak=3.sg.pr. either act=3.sg.pr. or,
Ta=to na dukkha anv-e=ti, cakka 'va vahat=o pad=a.
That=from him suffering after-go=3.sg.pr., wheel as carrying(beast)=m.sg.gen. foot=n.sg.acc.
The three compounds in the first line literally mean:
manopubbagama "whose precursor is mind", "having mind as a fore-goer or leader"
manoseha "whose foremost member is mind", "having mind as chief"
manomaya "consisting of mind" or "made by mind"
The literal meaning is therefore: "The dharmas have mind as their leader, mind as their chief, are made of/by mind. If
[someone] either speaks or acts with a corrupted mind, from that [cause] suffering goes after him, as the wheel [of a
cart follows] the foot of a draught animal."
A slightly freer translation by Acharya Buddharakkhita
Mind precedes all mental states. Mind is their chief; they are all mind-wrought.
If with an impure mind a person speaks or acts suffering follows him
like the wheel that follows the foot of the ox.
Pali and Ardha-Magadhi
The most archaic of the Middle Indo-Aryan languages are the inscriptional Aokan Prakrit on the one hand and Pli
and Ardhamgadh on the other, both literary languages.
The Indo-Aryan languages are commonly assigned to three major groups - Old, Middle and New Indo-Aryan -, a
linguistic and not strictly chronological classification as the MIA languages are not younger than ('Classical')
Sanskrit. And a number of their morphophonological and lexical features betray the fact that they are not direct
continuations of gvedic Sanskrit, the main base of 'Classical' Sanskrit; rather they descend from dialects which,
despite many similarities, were different from gvedic and in some regards even more archaic.
MIA languages, though individually distinct, share features of phonology and morphology which characterize them
as parallel descendants of Old Indo-Aryan. Various sound changes are typical of the MIA phonology:
(1) The vocalic liquids '' and '' are replaced by 'a', 'i' or 'u'; (2) the diphthongs 'ai' and 'au' are monophthongized to 'e'
and 'o'; (3) long vowels before two or more consonants are shortened; (4) the three sibilants of OIA are reduced to
one, either '' or 's'; (5) the often complex consonant clusters of OIA are reduced to more readily pronounceable
forms, either by assimilation or by splitting; (6) single intervocalic stops are progressively weakened; (7) dentals are
palatalized by a following '-y-'; (8) all final consonants except '-' are dropped unless they are retained in 'sandhi'
junctions.
The most conspicuous features of the morphological system of these languages are: loss of the dual; thematicization
of consonantal stems; merger of the f. 'i-/u-' and '-/-' in one '-/-' inflexion, elimination of the dative, whose
Pali
9
functions are taken over by the genitive, simultaneous use of different case-endings in one paradigm; employment of
'mahya' and 'tubhya' as genitives and 'me' and 'te' as instrumentals; gradual disappearance of the middle voice;
coexistence of historical and new verbal forms based on the present stem; and use of active endings for the passive.
In the vocabulary, the MIA languages are mostly dependent on Old Indo-Aryan, with addition of a few so-called
'de' words of (often) uncertain origin.
Pali and Sanskrit
Although Pali cannot be considered a direct descendant of either Classical Sanskrit or of the older Vedic dialect , the
languages are obviously very closely related and the common characteristics of Pali and Sanskrit were always easily
recognized by those in India who were familiar with both. Indeed, a very large proportion of Pali and Sanskrit
word-stems are identical in form, differing only in details of inflection.
The connections were sufficiently well-known that technical terms from Sanskrit were easily converted into Pali by a
set of conventional phonological transformations. These transformations mimicked a subset of the phonological
developments that had occurred in Proto-Pali. Because of the prevalence of these transformations, it is not always
possible to tell whether a given Pali word is a part of the old Prakrit lexicon, or a transformed borrowing from
Sanskrit. The existence of a Sanskrit word regularly corresponding to a Pali word is not always secure evidence of
the Pali etymology, since, in some cases, artificial Sanskrit words were created by back-formation from Prakrit
words.
The following phonological processes are not intended as an exhaustive description of the historical changes which
produced Pali from its Old Indic ancestor, but rather are a summary of the most common phonological equations
between Sanskrit and Pali, with no claim to completeness.
Vowels and diphthongs
Sanskrit ai and au always monophthongize to Pali e and o, respectively
Examples: maitr mett, auadha osadha
Sanskrit aya and ava likewise often reduce to Pali e and o
Examples: dhrayati dhreti, avatra otra, bhavati hoti
Sanskrit avi becomes Pali e (i.e. avi ai e)
Example: sthavira thera
Sanskrit appears in Pali as a, i or u, often agreeing with the vowel in the following syllable. also sometimes
becomes u after labial consonants.
Examples: kta kata, ta taha, smti sati, i isi, di dihi, ddhi iddhi, ju
uju, spa phuha, vddha vuddha
Sanskrit long vowels are shortened before a sequence of two following consonants.
Examples: knti khanti, rjya rajja, vara issara, tra tia, prva pubba
Pali
10
Consonants
Sound changes
The Sanskrit sibilants , , and s merge together as Pali s
Examples: araa saraa, doa dosa
The Sanskrit stops and h become and h between vowels (as in Vedic)
Example: cakrava cakkava, virha virha
Assimilations
General rules
Many assimilations of one consonant to a neighboring consonant occurred in the development of Pali, producing
a large number of geminate (double) consonants. Since aspiration of a geminate consonant is only phonetically
detectable on the last consonant of a cluster, geminate kh, gh, ch, jh, h, h, th, dh, ph and bh appear as kkh,
ggh, cch, jjh, h, h, tth, ddh, pph and bbh, not as khkh, ghgh etc.
When assimilation would produce a geminate consonant (or a sequence of unaspirated stop+aspirated stop) at the
beginning of a word, the initial geminate is simplified to a single consonant.
Examples: pra pa (not ppa), sthavira thera (not tthera), dhyna jhna (not jjhna),
jti ti (not ti)
When assimilation would produce a sequence of three consonants in the middle of a word, geminates are
simplified until there are only two consonants in sequence.
Examples: uttrsa uttsa (not utttsa), mantra manta (not mantta), indra inda (not indda),
vandhya vajha (not vajjha)
The sequence vv resulting from assimilation changes to bb
Example: sarva savva sabba, pravrajati pavvajati pabbajati, divya divva dibba
Total assimilation
Total assimilation, where one sound becomes identical to a neighboring sound, is of two types: progressive, where
the assimilated sound becomes identical to the following sound; and regressive, where it becomes identical to the
preceding sound.
Progressive assimilations
Internal visarga assimilates to a following voiceless stop or sibilant
Examples: dukta dukkata, dukha dukkha, dupraja duppaa, nikrodha
(=nikrodha) nikkodha, nipakva (=nipakva) nippakka, nioka nissoka, nisattva
nissatta
In a sequence of two dissimilar Sanskrit stops, the first stop assimilates to the second stop
Examples: vimukti vimutti, dugdha duddha, utpda uppda, pudgala puggala,
udghoa ugghosa, adbhuta abbhuta, abda sadda
In a sequence of two dissimilar nasals, the first nasal assimilates to the second nasal
Example: unmatta ummatta, pradyumna pajjunna
j assimilates to a following (i.e., j becomes )
Examples: praj pa, jti ti
The Sanskrit liquid consonants r and l assimilate to a following stop, nasal, sibilant, or v
Pali
11
Examples: mrga magga, karma kamma, vara vassa, kalpa kappa, sarva savva
sabba
r assimilates to a following l
Examples: durlabha dullabha, nirlopa nillopa
d sometimes assimilates to a following v, producing vv bb
Examples: udvigna uvvigga ubbigga, dvdaa brasa (beside dvdasa)
t and d may assimilate to a following s or y when a morpheme boundary intervenes
Examples: ut+sava ussava, ud+yna uyyna
Regressive assimilations
Nasals sometimes assimilate to a preceding stop (in other cases epenthesis occurs; see below)
Examples: agni aggi, tman atta, prpnoti pappoti, aknoti sakkoti
m assimilates to an initial sibilant
Examples: smarati sarati, smti sati
Nasals assimilate to a preceding stop+sibilant cluster, which then develops in the same way as such clusters
without following nasals (see Partial assimilations below)
Examples: tka tika tikkha, lakm lak lakkh
The Sanskrit liquid consonants r and l assimilate to a preceding stop, nasal, sibilant, or v
Examples: pra pa, grma gma, rvaka svaka, agra agga, indra inda,
pravrajati pavvajati pabbajati, aru assu
y assimilates to preceding non-dental/retroflex stops or nasals
Examples: cyavati cavati, jyoti joti, rjya rajja, matsya macchya maccha, lapsyate
lacchyate lacchati, abhygata abbhgata, khyti akkhti, sakhy sakh (but also
sakhy), ramya ramma
y assimilates to preceding non-initial v, producing vv bb
Example: divya divva dibba, veditavya veditavva veditabba, bhvya bhavva
bhabba
y and v assimilate to any preceding sibilant, producing ss
Examples: payati passati, yena sena, ava assa, vara issara, kariyati karissati,
tasya tassa, svmin sm
v sometimes assimilates to a preceding stop
Examples: pakva pakka, catvri cattri, sattva satta, dhvaja dhaja
Partial and mutual assimilation
Sanskrit sibilants before a stop assimilate to that stop, and if that stop is not already aspirated, it becomes
aspirated; e.g. c, st, and sp become cch, tth, h and pph
Examples: pact pacch, asti atthi, stava thava, reha seha, aa aha, spara
phassa
In sibilant-stop-liquid sequences, the liquid is assimilated to the preceding consonant, and the cluster behaves like
sibilant-stop sequences; e.g. str and r become tth and h
Examples: stra asta sattha, rra raa raha
Pali
12
t and p become c before s, and the sibilant assimilates to the preceding sound as an aspirate (i.e., the sequences ts
and ps become cch)
Examples: vatsa vaccha, apsaras acchar
A sibilant assimilates to a preceding k as an aspirate (i.e., the sequence k becomes kkh)
Examples: bhiku bhikkhu, knti khanti
Any dental or retroflex stop or nasal followed by y converts to the corresponding palatal sound, and the y
assimilates to this new consonant, i.e. ty, thy, dy, dhy, ny become cc, cch, jj, jjh, ; likewise y becomes .
Nasals preceding a stop that becomes palatal share this change.
Examples: tyajati cyajati cajati, satya sacya sacca, mithy michy micch, vidy
vijy vijj, madhya majhya majjha, anya aya aa, puya puya pua,
vandhya vajhya vajjha vajha
The sequence mr becomes mb, via the epenthesis of a stop between the nasal and liquid, followed by assimilation
of the liquid to the stop and subsequent simplification of the resulting geminate.
Examples: mra ambra amba, tmra tamba
Epenthesis
An epenthetic vowel is sometimes inserted between certain consonant-sequences. As with , the vowel may be a, i,
or u, depending on the influence of a neighboring consonant or of the vowel in the following syllable. i is often
found near i, y, or palatal consonants; u is found near u, v, or labial consonants.
Sequences of stop + nasal are sometimes separated by a or u
Example: ratna ratana, padma paduma (u influenced by labial m)
The sequence sn may become sin initially
Examples: snna sinna, sneha sineha
i may be inserted between a consonant and l
Examples: klea kilesa, glna gilna, mlyati milyati, lghati silghati
An epenthetic vowel may be inserted between an initial sibilant and r
Example: r sir
The sequence ry generally becomes riy (i influenced by following y), but is still treated as a two-consonant
sequence for the purposes of vowel-shortening
Example: rya arya ariya, srya surya suriya, vrya virya viriya
a or i is inserted between r and h
Example: arhati arahati, garh garah, barhi barihisa
There is sporadic epenthesis between other consonant sequences
Examples: caitya cetiya (not cecca), vajra vajira (not vajja)
Pali
13
Other changes
Any Sanskrit sibilant before a nasal becomes a sequence of nasal followed by h, i.e. , sn and sm become h,
nh, and mh
Examples: ta taha, ua uhsa, asmi amhi
The sequence n becomes h, due to assimilation of the n to the preceding palatal sibilant
Example: prana praa paha
The sequences hy and hv undergo metathesis
Examples: jihv jivh, ghya gayha, guhya guyha
h undergoes metathesis with a following nasal
Example: ghti gahti
y is geminated between e and a vowel
Examples: reyas seyya, Maitreya Metteyya
Voiced aspirates such as bh and gh on rare occasions become h
Examples: bhavati hoti, -ebhi -ehi, laghu lahu
Dental and retroflex sounds sporadically change into one another
Examples: jna a (not na), dahati ahati (beside Pali dahati) na nla (not na),
sthna hna (not thna), dukta dukkaa (beside Pali dukkata)
Exceptions
There are several notable exceptions to the rules above; many of them are common Prakrit words rather than
borrowings from Sanskrit.
rya ayya (beside ariya)
guru garu (adj.) (beside guru (n.))
purua purisa (not purusa)
vka ruka rukkha (not vakkha)
Pali writing
Pali alphabet with diacritics
King Ashoka erected a number of pillars with his edicts in at least three regional Prakrit languages in Brahmi
script,
[20]
all of which are quite similar to Pali. Historically, the first written record of the Pali canon is believed to
have been composed in Sri Lanka, based on a prior oral tradition. As per the Mahavamsa (the chronicle of Sri
Lanka), due to a major famine in the country Buddhist monks wrote down the Pali canon during the time of King
Vattagamini in 100 BC. The transmission of written Pali has retained a universal system of alphabetic values, but has
expressed those values in a stunning variety of actual scripts.
In Sri Lanka, Pali texts were recorded in Sinhala script. Other local scripts, most prominently Khmer, Burmese, and
in modern times Thai (since 1893), Devangar and Mon script (Mon State, Myanmar) have been used to record Pali.
Since the 19th century, Pali has also been written in the Roman script. An alternate scheme devised by Frans
Velthuis allows for typing without diacritics using plain ASCII methods, but is arguably less readable than the
standard Rhys Davids system, which uses diacritical marks.
The Pali alphabetical order is as follows:
a i u e o k kh g gh c ch j jh h h t th d dh n p ph b bh m y r l v s h
h, although a single sound, is written with ligature of and h.
Pali
14
Pali transliteration on computers
There are several fonts to use for Pali transliteration. However, older ASCII fonts such as Leedsbit PaliTranslit,
Times_Norman, Times_CSX+, Skt Times, Vri RomanPali CN/CB etc., are not recommendable since they are not
compatible with one another and technically out of date. On the contrary, fonts based on the Unicode standard are
recommended because Unicode seems to be the future for all fonts and also because they are easily portable to one
another.
However, not all Unicode fonts contain the necessary characters. To properly display all the diacritic marks used for
romanized Pali (or for that matter, Sanskrit), a Unicode font must contain the following character ranges:
Basic Latin: U+0000 U+007F
Latin-1 Supplement: U+0080 U+00FF
Latin Extended-A: U+0100 U+017F
Latin Extended-B: U+0180 U+024F
Latin Extended Additional: U+1E00 U+1EFF
Some Unicode fonts freely available for typesetting Romanized Pali are as follows:
Google's Chrome OS has 3 font families which can be downloaded from Google Font Directory
[21]
. Even
better, they can be used as embedded in websites to show the Pali text that users can view without having the
fonts on their machines.
Tinos is a serif font. Regular, italic, bold and bold italic styles.
Arimo is a sans-serif font. Regular, italic, bold and bold italic styles.
Cousine is a monospaced font. Regular, italic, bold and bold italic styles.
The Pali Text Society
[22]
recommends VU-Times
[23]
and Gandhari Unicode
[24]
for Windows and Linux
Computers.
The Tibetan & Himalayan Digital Library
[25]
recommends Times Ext Roman
[26]
, and provides links to
several Unicode diacritic Windows
[27]
and Mac
[28]
fonts usable for typing Pali together with ratings and
installation instructions. It also provides macros
[25]
for typing diacritics in OpenOffice and MS Office.
SIL: International
[29]
provides Charis SIL and Charis SIL Compact
[30]
, Doulos SIL
[31]
, Gentium
[32]
,
Gentium Basic, Gentium Book Basic
[33]
fonts. Of them, Charis SIL, Gentium Basic and Gentium Book Basic
have all 4 styles (regular, italic, bold, bold-italic); so can provide publication quality typesetting.
Libertine Openfont Project
[34]
provides the Linux Libertine font (4 serif styles and many Opentype features)
and Linux Biolinum (4 sans-serif styles) at the Sourceforge
[35]
.
Junicode
[36]
(short for Junius-Unicode) is a Unicode font for medievalists, but it provides all diacritics for
typing Pali. It has 4 styles and some Opentype features such as Old Style for numerals.
Thryomanes
[37]
includes all the Roman-alphabet characters available in Unicode along with a subset of the
most commonly used Greek and Cyrillic characters, and is available in normal, italic, bold, and bold italic.
GUST
[38]
(Polish TeX User Group) provides Latin Modern
[39]
and TeX Gyre
[40]
fonts. Each font has 4
styles, with the former finding most acceptance among the LaTeX users while the latter is a relatively new
family. Of the latter, each typeface in the following families has nearly 1250 glyphs and is available in
PostScript, TeX and OpenType formats.
The TeX Gyre Adventor family of sans serif fonts is based on the URW Gothic L family. The original font,
ITC Avant Garde Gothic, was designed by Herb Lubalin and Tom Carnase in 1970.
The TeX Gyre Bonum family of serif fonts is based on the URW Bookman L family. The original font,
Bookman or Bookman Old Style, was designed by Alexander Phemister in 1860.
The TeX Gyre Chorus is a font based on the URW Chancery L Medium Italic font. The original, ITC Zapf
Chancery, was designed in 1979 by Hermann Zapf.
The TeX Gyre Cursor family of monospace serif fonts is based on the URW Nimbus Mono L family. The
original font, Courier, was designed by Howard G. (Bud) Kettler in 1955.
Pali
15
The TeX Gyre Heros family of sans serif fonts is based on the URW Nimbus Sans L family. The original
font, Helvetica, was designed in 1957 by Max Miedinger.
The TeX Gyre Pagella family of serif fonts is based on the URW Palladio L family. The original font,
Palatino, was designed by Hermann Zapf in the 1940's.
The TeX Gyre Schola family of serif fonts is based on the URW Century Schoolbook L family. The original
font, Century Schoolbook, was designed by Morris Fuller Benton in 1919.
The TeX Gyre Termes family of serif fonts is based on the Nimbus Roman No9 L family. The original font,
Times Roman, was designed by Stanley Morison together with Starling Burgess and Victor Lardent.
John Smith provides IndUni
[41]
Opentype fonts, based upon URW++ fonts. Of them:
IndUni-C is Courier-lookalike;
IndUni-H is Helvetica-lookalike;
IndUni-N is New Century Schoolbook-lookalike;
IndUni-P is Palatino-lookalike;
IndUni-T is Times-lookalike;
IndUni-CMono is Courier-lookalike but monospaced;
An English Buddhist monk titled Bhikkhu Pesala provides some Pali fonts
[42]
he has designed himself. Of
them:
Akkhara is a derivative of Gentium with low profile accents, reduced line-spacing and high accents
prevented from getting clipped. Maths symbols are the same width as figures. The additional arrows,
symbols, and dingbats are designed to match the Caps height.Regular & Italic styles.
Cankama is a Gothic, Black Letter script. Regular style only.
Garava was designed for body text with a generous x-height and economical copyfit. It includes Small
Caps, Bold Small Caps, and Heavy styles besides the usual four styles (regular, italic, bold, bold italic).
Guru is another font family for body text with OpenType features. Regular, italic, bold and bold italic
styles.
Hattha is a hand-writing font. Regular, italic, and bold styles.
Kabala is a distinctive Sans Serif typeface designed for display text or headings. Regular, italic, bold and
bold italic styles.
Lekhana is a Zapf Chancery clone, a flowing script that can be used for correspondence or body text.
Regular, italic, bold and bold italic styles.
Mandala is designed for display text or headings. Regular, italic, bold and bold italic styles.
Pali is a clone of Hermann Zapf's Palatino. Regular, italic, bold and bold italic styles.
Odana is a calligraphic brush font suitable for headlines, titles, or short texts where a less formal
appearance is wanted. Regular style only.
Talapanna and Talapatta are clones of Goudy Bertham, with decorative gothic capitals and extra ligatures
in the Private Use Area. These two are different only in decorative gothic capitals in the Private Use Area.
Regular and bold styles.
Veluvana is another brush calligraphic font but basic Greek glyphs are taken from Guru. Regular style only.
Verajja is derived from Bitstream Vera. Regular, italic, bold and bold italic styles.
VerajjaPDA is a cut-down version of Verajja without symbols. For use on PDA devices. Regular, italic,
bold and bold italic styles.
He also provides some Pali keyboards
[43]
for Windows XP.
The font section
[44]
of Alanwood's Unicode Resources have links to several general purpose fonts that can be
used for Pali typing if they cover the character ranges above.
Some of the latest fonts coming with Windows 7 can also be used to type transliterated Pali: Arial, Calibri, Cambria,
Courier New, Microsoft Sans Serif, Segoe UI, Segoe UI Light, Segoe UI Semibold, Tahoma, and Times New Roman.
Pali
16
And some of them have 4 styles each hence usable in professional typesetting: Arial, Calibri and Segoe UI are
sans-serif fonts, Cambria and Times New Roman are serif fonts and Courier New is a monospace font.
Pali text in ASCII
The Velthuis scheme was originally developed in 1991 by Frans Velthuis for use with his "devnag" Devangar font,
designed for the TeX typesetting system. This system of representing Pali diacritical marks has been used in some
websites and discussion lists. However, as the Web itself and email software slowly evolve towards the Unicode
encoding standard, this system has become almost not necessary and obsolete.
The following table compares various conventional renderings and shortcut key assignments:
character ASCII rendering character name Unicode number key combination HTML code
aa a macron U+0101 Alt+A ā
ii i macron U+012B Alt+I ī
uu u macron U+016B Alt+U ū
.m m dot-under U+1E43 ṁ
.n n dot-under U+1E47 Alt+N ṇ
~n n tilde U+00F1 Alt+Ctrl+N ñ
.t t dot-under U+1E6D Alt+T ṭ
.d d dot-under U+1E0D Alt+D ḍ
"n n dot-over U+1E45 Ctrl+N ṅ
.l l dot-under U+1E37 Alt+L ḷ
References
[1] http:/ / commons. wikimedia. org/ wiki/ Category:Illustrirte_Geschichte_der_Schrift_(Faulmann)
[2] http:/ / commons. wikimedia. org/ wiki/ File:Illustrirte_Geschichte_der_Schrift_(Faulmann)_554. jpg
[3] Hazra, Kanai Lal. Pali Language and Literature; a systematic survey and historical study. D.K. Printworld Lrd., New Delhi, 1994, page 19.
[4] Students' Britannica India, (http:/ / books.google.com/ books?id=ISFBJarYX7YC& pg=PA145& dq=history+ of+ the+ pali+ language&
sig=ACfU3U2P8niEMFn9ME8litgG1xbStvlmLA#PPA145,M1).
[5] Oberlies, Thomas Pali: A Grammar of the Language of the Theravda Tipiaka, Walter de Gruyter, 2001.
[6] Buddhist India, ch. 9 (http:/ / fsnow.com/ text/ buddhist-india/ chapter9. htm) Retrieved 14 June 2010.
[7] Hazra, Kanai Lal. Pali Language and Literature; a systematic survey and historical study. D.K. Printworld Lrd., New Delhi, 1994, page 11.
[8] Hazra, Kanai Lal. Pali Language and Literature; a systematic survey and historical study. D.K. Printworld Lrd., New Delhi, 1994, pages
1-44.
[9] Hazra, Kanai Lal. Pali Language and Literature; a systematic survey and historical study. D.K. Printworld Lrd., New Delhi, 1994, page 29.
[10] Hazra, Kanai Lal. Pali Language and Literature; a systematic survey and historical study. D.K. Printworld Lrd., New Delhi, 1994, page 20.
[11] K.R. Norman, Pali Literature. Otto Harrassowitz, 1983, pages 1-7.
[12] Bhikkhu Bodhi, In the Buddha's Words. Wisdom Publications, 2005, page 10.
[13] Warder, A.K. Indian Buddhism. 2000. p. 284
[14] Warder, A.K. Indian Buddhism. 2000. p. 284
[15] Hirakawa, Akira. Groner, Paul. A History of Indian Buddhism: From kyamuni to Early Mahyna. 2007. p. 119
[16] Hirakawa, Akira. Groner, Paul. A History of Indian Buddhism: From kyamuni to Early Mahyna. 2007. p. 119
[17] David Kalupahana, Nagarjuna: The Philosophy of the Middle Way. SUNY Press, 1986, page 19. The author refers specifically to the
thought of early Buddhism here.
[18] Dispeller of Delusion, Pali Text Society, volume II, pages 127f
[19] Robert Caesar Childers, A Dictionary of the Pali Language. Published by Trbner, 1875, pages xii-xiv. Republished by Asian Educational
Services, 1993.
[20] Inscriptions of Asoka by Alexander Cunningham, Eugen Hultzsch. Calcutta: Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing. Calcutta:
1877
[21] http:/ / code.google. com/ webfonts
[22] http:/ / www.palitext. com/ subpages/ PC_Unicode.htm
Pali
17
[23] http:/ / zencomp. com/ greatwisdom/ fonts/
[24] http:/ / www.ebmp.org/ p_dwnlds.php
[25] http:/ / www.thlib.org/ tools/ #wiki=/ access/ wiki/ site/ c06fa8cf-c49c-4ebc-007f-482de5382105/ diacritic%20fonts. html
[26] http:/ / www.bcca. org/ services/ fonts/
[27] http:/ / www.thlib.org/ tools/ #wiki=/ access/ wiki/ site/ c06fa8cf-c49c-4ebc-007f-482de5382105/
windows%20unicode%20diacritic%20fonts.html
[28] http:/ / www.thlib.org/ tools/ #wiki=/ access/ wiki/ site/ c06fa8cf-c49c-4ebc-007f-482de5382105/
macintosh%20unicode%20diacritic%20fonts.html
[29] http:/ / www.sil. org/
[30] http:/ / scripts.sil. org/ cms/ scripts/ page.php?site_id=nrsi& id=CharisSIL_download
[31] http:/ / scripts.sil. org/ cms/ scripts/ page.php?site_id=nrsi& cat_id=FontDownloadsDoulos
[32] http:/ / scripts.sil. org/ cms/ scripts/ page.php?site_id=nrsi& item_id=Gentium_download
[33] http:/ / scripts.sil. org/ cms/ scripts/ page.php?site_id=nrsi& item_id=Gentium_basic
[34] http:/ / www.linuxlibertine.org/
[35] http:/ / www.sourceforge. net/ projects/ linuxlibertine
[36] http:/ / junicode. sourceforge. net/
[37] http:/ / www.io. com/ ~hmiller/ lang/
[38] http:/ / www.gust. org.pl/
[39] http:/ / www.gust. org.pl/ projects/ e-foundry/ latin-modern/ download
[40] http:/ / www.gust. org.pl/ projects/ e-foundry/ tex-gyre
[41] http:/ / bombay.indology.info/ software/ fonts/ induni/ index. html
[42] http:/ / aimwell.org/ Fonts/ fonts. html
[43] http:/ / aimwell.org/ Fonts/ Keyboards/ keyboards.html
[44] http:/ / www.alanwood.net/ unicode/ fonts.html
See entries for "Pali" (written by K. R. Norman of the Pali Text Society) and "India--Buddhism" in The Concise
Encyclopedia of Language and Religion, (Sawyer ed.) ISBN 0-08-043167-4
Warder, A.K. (1991). Introduction to Pali (third edition ed.). Pali Text Society. ISBN0860131971.
de Silva, Lily (1994). Pali Primer (first edition ed.). Vipassana Research Institute Publications.
ISBN817414014X.
Mller, Edward (1884,1995). Simplified Grammar of the Pali Language. Asian Educational Services.
ISBN8120611039.
Further reading
Gupta, K. M. (2006). Linguistic approach to meaning in Pali. New Delhi: Sundeep Prakashan. ISBN
81-7574-170-8
Mller, E. (2003). The Pali language: a simplified grammar. Trubner's collection of simplified grammars.
London: Trubner. ISBN 1-84453-001-9
Oberlies, T., & Pischel, R. (2001). Pli: a grammar of the language of the Theravda Tipiaka. Indian philology
and South Asian studies, v. 3. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 3-11-016763-8
Hazra, K. L. (1994). Pli language and literature: a systematic survey and historical study. Emerging perceptions
in Buddhist studies, no. 4-5. New Delhi: D.K. Printworld. ISBN 81-246-0004-X
American National Standards Institute. (1979). American National Standard system for the romanization of Lao,
Khmer, and Pali. New York: The Institute.
Russell Webb (ed.) An Analysis of the Pali Canon, Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy; 1975, 1991 (see http:/ /
www. bps. lk/ reference. asp)
Soothill, W. E., & Hodous, L. (1937). A dictionary of Chinese Buddhist terms: with Sanskrit and English
equivalents and a Sanskrit-Pali index. London: K. Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co.
Collins, Steven (2006). A Pali Grammar for Students. Silkworm Press.
Pali
18
External links
Glenn Wallis, Buddhavacana: A Pali Reader (http:/ / www. pariyatti. org/ Bookstore/ productdetails.
cfm?PC=1924)(Onalaska, Wash: Pariyatti Press, 2011).
Pali Text Society, London. The Pali Text Society's Pali-English dictionary (http:/ / dsal. uchicago. edu/
dictionaries/ pali/ ). Chipstead, 1921-1925.
Buddhist India by T.W. Rhys Davids, chapter IX, Language and Literature (http:/ / fsnow. com/ text/
buddhist-india/ chapter9. htm)
Pali at Ethnologue (http:/ / www. ethnologue. com/ show_language. asp?code=pli)
Pali Text Society (http:/ / www. palitext. com/ )
(http:/ / www. tipitaka. org) Free searchable online database of Pali literature, including the whole Canon
http:/ / pali. pratyeka. org/ Eisel Mazard's excellent website on Pali resources, including
Resources for reading & writing Pli in indigenous scripts: Burmese, Sri Lankan, & Cambodian (http:/ / www.
pratyeka. org/ pali/ )
A textbook to teach yourself Pali (by Narada Thera) (http:/ / www. pratyeka. org/ narada/ )
A reference work on the grammar of the Pali language (by G Duroiselle) (http:/ / www. pratyeka. org/
duroiselle/ )
Complete Pli Canon in romanized Pali and Sinhala, mostly also in English translation (metta.lk) (http:/ / www.
metta. lk/ tipitaka/ )
Pli Canon selection (http:/ / www. accesstoinsight. org/ canon/ index. html)
A guide to learning the Pli language (http:/ / accesstoinsight. org/ lib/ authors/ bullitt/ learningpali. html)
"Pali Primer" by Lily De Silva (requires installation of special fonts) (http:/ / www. vri. dhamma. org/
publications/ pali/ primer/ )
"Pali Primer" by Lily De Silva (UTF-8 encoded) (http:/ / www. saigon. com/ ~anson/ uni/ u-palicb/ e00. htm)
Free/Public-Domain Elementary Pli Course--PDF format (http:/ / www. buddhanet. net/ pdf_file/ ele_pali. pdf)
Free/Public-Domain Pli Course--html format (http:/ / www. orunla. org/ tm/ pali/ htpali/ pcourse. html)
Free/Public-Domain Pli Grammar (in PDF file) (http:/ / www. buddhanet. net/ pdf_file/ paligram. pdf)
Free/Public-Domain Pli Buddhist Dictionary (in PDF file) (http:/ / www. buddhanet. net/ pdf_file/ palidict. pdf)
Comprehensive list of Pli texts on Wikisource (http:/ / wikisource. org/ wiki/ Main_Page:Pali)
Buddhist Dictionary of Pali Proper Names (http:/ / www. metta. lk/ pali-utils/ Pali-Proper-Names/ index. html),
HTML version of the book by G.P. Malalasekera, 1937-8
Pali Text Reader (software) (http:/ / sourceforge. net/ projects/ palireader)
Jain Scriptures (http:/ / www. jainworld. com/ scriptures/ )
Pali help at Help.com Wiki (http:/ / help. com/ wiki/ Pli)
"A Course in the Pali Language," (http:/ / www. bodhimonastery. net/ bm/ programs/ pali-class-online. html)
audio lectures by Bhikkhu Bodhi based on Gair & Karunatilleke (1998).
(http:/ / www. bps. lk/ other_library/ pdf_pali_tables. zip) Pali Conjugation and Declension Tables for Students
(http:/ / www. bps. lk/ other_library/ reference_table_of_pali_literature. pdf) Comprehensive Reference Table of
Pali Literature
Article Sources and Contributors
19
Article Sources and Contributors
Pali Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=435132578 Contributors: 91okavas, Ahoerstemeier, Alarichus, Andries, Angr, Anupam, Arjun G. Menon, Arvindn, AshLin, Ashinpan,
Asrghasrhiojadrhr, Astral, AxelBoldt, Babajobu, Babbage, Barticus88, Brion VIBBER, Buddhipriya, Byrial, CALR, Calabraxthis, Chameleon, Charles Matthews, ChildersFamily, Chirags,
Circeus, Clasqm, Cmdrjameson, Cminard, Colonies Chris, DaGizza, DabMachine, Danceswithzerglings, Danielscottsmith, DopefishJustin, DuncanHill, Dysprosia, Echalon, Eclecticology,
Ejosse1, El C, Elagatis, Esteban.barahona, Eu.stefan, Eukesh, Fortdj33, GRuban, Gaia2767spm, Gene Nygaard, Gilgamesh, GlassFET, GoonerDP, Grammatical error, Helpsome, Hintha,
Hippopha, Hmains, IceKarma, Ihcoyc, Ikiroid, Imz, Indian Chronicles, Jagged 85, Jaggyjaggy, Jerrykhang, Jfpierce, Jijnasu Yakru, Johnpacklambert, JorisvS, Jpfagerback, Kingsleyj,
Kipholbeck, Koavf, Kripkenstein, Kukkurovaca, Kuldip1, Kwamikagami, Larry Rosenfeld, Le Anh-Huy, Leewonbum, Leglapower, Lerdsuwa, LilHelpa, Lolad321, Loosehenceir, Looxix, Lotus
in the hills, Mahaabaala, Maharaj Devraj, Make, Mandarax, Maqs, Marnen, Martinp23, Mejda, Menchi, Meursault2004, Mhss, Mitsube, Muladeva, Munge, Mxn, NE2, Nat Krause, NathanoNL,
Nichalp, Nikai, Ninly, Ninndthdroad, Nyanatusita, Pamanakara, Pawyilee, Paxsimius, Per Honor et Gloria, Peter jackson, Pineapple fez, Pratyeka, Prosfilaes, Psubhashish, R, RafaAzevedo,
Rama's Arrow, RandomCritic, RandomP, Rasoolpuri, Resurgent insurgent, Rodan44, Ronz, Rosiestep, Rudjek, Rjagha, Sacca, Sacha79, Samuel de mazarin, Sardanaphalus, Shandris,
Shantavira, SimonP, Singhalawap, Sjlain, Spasemunki, Srini81, Ssri1983, Stemonitis, Storkk, Suruena, Sylvain1972, T-W, Tanzeel, Taxman, Tb, Tdudkowski, Tengu800, Thehotelambush,
Tkynerd, Tom Radulovich, Tumblecat, Tuncrypt, Urhixidur, Usedbook, Usingha, Venu62, Verdy p, Vicki Rosenzweig, Vincent Ramos, Vssun, Waltpohl, Wclark, WereSpielChequers,
Wingspeed, Wmahan, Woohookitty, Zerokitsune, RYueli'o, , 255 anonymous edits
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
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reproduction of ancient documents derivative work: Hmbrger (talk)
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