Zero emission vehicle

Cryogenic automotive propulsion: zero emission vehicle

ABSTRACT
Cryogens are effective thermal storage media which when used for automotive purposes
offer significant advantages over current and proposed electrochemical !attery
technologies !oth in performance and economy" An automotive propulsion concept is
presented which utilizes li#uid nitrogen as the wor$ing fluid for an open Ran$ine cycle"
%hen the only heat input to the engine is supplied !y am!ient heat e&changers an
automo!ile can readily !e propelled while satisfying stringent tailpipe emission
standards"
'itrogen propulsive systems can provide automotive ranges of nearly ()) $ilometers in
the zero emission mode with lower operating costs than those of the electric vehicles
currently !eing considered for mass production" *n geographical regions that allow ultra
low emission vehicles the range and performance of the li#uid nitrogen automo!ile can
!e significantly e&tended !y the addition of a small efficient !urner" Some of the
advantages of a transportation infrastructure !ased on li#uid nitrogen are that recharging
the energy storage system only re#uires minutes and there are minimal environmental
hazards associated with the manufacture and utilization of the cryogenic +fuel"+
This paper descri!es the fundamental concepts of cryogenic automotive propulsion" This
includes the thermodynamic theory wor$ing cycle individual system components
,inally conclusions which shows that zero emission vehicle -./01 is the !est alternative
to replace e&isting gasoline vehicle" Also re#uirement of nitrogen as a fuel lowers the cost
of fuel and improves overall efficiency"
*'TR234CT*2'
*n Septem!er of 566) in an effort to improve local air #uality the California Air
Resources Board enacted the 7ow /mission 0ehicle -7/01 program" The 7/0 program
esta!lished several categories of emission standards for cars and light truc$s" The most
stringent of these categories was for the zero8emission vehicle -./01" The 7/0 program
re#uires that !y 9)): each of the seven largest automo!ile manufacturers -Chrysler
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Zero emission vehicle
,ord ;eneral <otors =onda <azda 'issan and Toyota1 produce and offer for sale
./0s at a rate e#ual to 5)> of the automo!ile sales each company has in the state or
a!out 55)))) cars per year" Similar mandates have also !een adopted !y 'ew ?or$ and
<assachusetts"
The impetus for the 7/0 legislation is the desire to reduce air pollution" *n ur!an areas of
southern California vehicles account for over @)> of the air pollution emitted" *n 566@
the South Coast Basin -which includes 7os Angeles 2range and parts of San Bernardino
and Riverside counties1 e&perienced 6A days in which the /BA health standard for
ground8level ozone was e&ceeded" ;round8level ozone can cause aching lungs
wheezing coughing and headaches" Serious health pro!lems can also arise for those
people with asthma emphysema and chronic !ronchitis" Children appear to !e at
particular ris$" A 56A( study conducted at 4SC showed that children raised in the South
Coast Basin suffered a 5)> to 5@> decrease in lung function"
The deleterious effects of gasoline and diesel powered vehicles are not limited to air
#uality in southern California" *n half of the worldCs cities tailpipe emissions are the
single largest source of air pollution" %orldwide automo!iles account for half of the oil
consumed and a fifth of the greenhouse gases emitted" This situation is not e&pected to
improve in the near future as the num!er of cars and light truc$s in the world D over @))
million D is e&pected to dou!le in the ne&t thirty years" <ost of this growth will occur in
developing countries which have little or no emission controls"
Currently the !attery powered electric vehicle is the only commercially availa!le
technology that can meet ./0 standards" =owever electric vehicles have not sold well"
This is primarily due to their limited range although anemic performance slow recharge
and high initial costs are also contri!uting factors" All of these issues can !e traced
directly to the limitations of electrochemical energy storage particularly lead8acid
!atteries" 7ead8acid remains the dominant technology in the electric vehicle mar$et !ut
only e&hi!it energy densities in the range of :)8() %8hrE$g" This compares with a!out
:))) %8hrE$g for gasoline com!usted in an engine running at 9A> thermal efficiency"
7ead acid !atteries can ta$e hours to recharge and must !e replaced every 9D: years" This
raises the specter of increased heavy metal pollution were a lead8acid powered electric
fleet ever to come to pass"
/ven advanced !attery systems such as nic$el8metal hydride zinc8air and lithium8ion
suffer from slow recharge and high initial cost" 'ic$el8metal hydride !atteries often
touted as the heir8apparent of lead8acid still contain a heavy metal and must realize
dramatic reductions in cost in order to !e truly competitive" 7ithium8ion !atteries
considered !y many to !e the third8generation solution must also contend with cost and
demonstrate their safety to a wary pu!lic"
Another energy storage medium will !e re#uired to ma$e ./0s the non-mandated
automo!ile choice of the car8!uying pu!lic" *f certain technical challenges can !e
overcome that energy storage medium may well !e li#uid nitrogen" Since 566: the
4niversity of %ashington has !een researching the technical challenges involved in
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Zero emission vehicle
!uilding and operating a vehicle powered !y li#uid nitrogen" *ssues pertaining to frost8
free heat e&changer performance cryogenic e#uipment cycle analysis drive train
selection and vehicle configuration are !eing investigated"
CR?2;/'*C A4T2<2T*0/ BR2B47S*2'
The cryogenic automo!ile is a zero8emission vehicle" *t operates on the thermodynamic
potential !etween the am!ient atmosphere and a reservoir of li#uid nitrogen" 2ne way to
utilize that potential is through an open Ran$ine cycle" The li#uid nitrogen is drawn from
a tan$ pumped up to the system pressure then vaporized and superheated in a two8stage
heat e&change system" The resulting high pressure near8am!ient temperature gas is
inFected into a #uasi8isothermal e&pander which produces the systemCs motive wor$" The
spent low pressure gas is e&hausted !ac$ to the atmosphere" Because a zero emission
vehicle is re#uired to produce no smog8forming tailpipe or evaporative pollutants and
!ecause nitrogen gas is its only emission the cryogenic automo!ile meets CaliforniaCs
./0 guidelines"
Although the concept of a nitrogen powered automo!ile has !een studied in the past

there are two $ey technologies that have yet to !e demonstrated: the #uasi8isothermal
e&pander and a frost8free li#uid nitrogen heat e&change system" *t is this heat e&change
system that is the primary su!Fect of this paper
%2RG*'; C?C7/
There are many thermodynamic cycles availa!le for utilizing the thermal potential of
li#uid nitrogen" These range from the Brayton cycle to using two8 and even three8fluid
topping cycles to employing a hydrocar!on8fueled !oiler for superheating !eyond
atmospheric temperatures" The easiest to implement however and the one chosen for this
study is shown in ,ig" 5" This system uses an open Ran$ine cycle" *t !egins with a tan$
of li#uid nitrogen stored at HH G and 5 !ar" The nitrogen is pumped as a li#uid to the
systemCs wor$ing pressure" This high pressure li#uid flows into the economizer" The
economizer is a shell8and8tu!e heat e&changer where the shell8side fluid is the e&haust
from the e&pander" %hile this step is not necessary from an energy point of view it does
have the advantage of providing a frost8free pre8heat to the incoming li#uid"
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Zero emission vehicle
,ig" 5: 7i#uid nitrogen propulsion system"
2nce through the economizer the vaporized nitrogen enters the heat e&changer which
has a multi8element tu!e8in8crossflow configuration" The e&terior fluid is the am!ient
atmosphere which is drawn through the core of the heat e&changer either !y the motion
of the vehicle or !y a fan depending on the operating regime" This heat e&changer must
!e a!le to operate across most of the spectrum of environmental and operating conditions
without suffering the adverse effects of frost !uildup"
4pon leaving the heat e&changer the wor$ing fluid is a high pressure near8am!ient
temperature gas" *t is inFected into the e&pander which provides all of the motive wor$ for
the system" This can !e either a positive displacement or tur!ine engine" ,ollowing
e&pansion the low8pressure e&haust is warm enough to !e used in an economizer where
it preheats the incoming li#uid !efore finally !eing vented to the atmosphere"
The temperature8entropy diagram for the open Ran$ine cycle operated at critical
pressure is shown in ,ig" 9" 7a!els 589 indicate the pumping process" Because
pressurization is occurring in the li#uid phase of the fluid the wor$ re#uired is small in
comparison with the availa!le wor$" Brocess 98: is the pass through the economizer and
heat e&changer" Brocess :8( and :8(C are the isothermal and adia!atic modes of
e&pansion respectively" *f the shaded area represents the availa!le specific wor$ in the
cycle then these two processes provide the upper and lower limits to the e&panderCs
performance" Brocess (85 -or (C851 is the li#uefaction stage" This occurs remotely at an air
processing plant"
,ig" 9: Temperature8entropy diagram for the open Ran$ine
cycle"
The thermodynamic and economic performance of the adia!atic and isothermal modes of
the open Ran$ine cycle are shown in Ta!le 5" These figures are !ased on the
specifications of a modified =onda CRI for which performance data were availa!le" The
cost of 9"JK per $g87'9 was derived assuming only the energy cost of production"
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Zero emission vehicle
Ta!le 5: Berformance of the open Ran$ine cycle"
Brocess
Adia!atic *sothermal
Bump %or$:
J $LE$g87'9 J $LE$g87'9
'et %or$
2ut: 56( $LE$g8
7'9
:5( $LE$g8
7'9
=eat *nput:
(56 $LE$g8
7'9
H@) $LE$g8
7'9
/nergy
3ensity: @( %8hE$g8
7'9
AH %8hE$g8
7'9
7'9 ,low
Rate:M 5"@ $gE$m )"6: $gE$m
2perating
Cost:N :"6 K E$m 9"( K E$m
M Based on H"A $% for highway cruise at 6H $mEh"
N Based on 9"JK per $g87'9 production cost"
,igure : shows how a li#uid nitrogen !ased propulsion cycle fares against the various
electrochemical storage media mentioned earlier" Specific energy is a useful figure of
merit !ecause it correlates closely with range" /ven the ne&t generation nic$el8metal
hydride !attery only matches the performance of the isothermal open Ran$ine cycle" And
the open Ran$ine is not the highest performing cycle availa!le" By adding a methane
topping cycle upwards of 5J) %8hrE$g can !e achieved"
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Zero emission vehicle
,ig" :: Specific energy for various energy
storage media"
Comparisons of specific energy provide only a partial view of how a vehicle will !e
accepted !y the car8!uying pu!lic" According to a 566H L"3" Bower and Associates survey
titled +/lectric 0ehicles: The Consumer Berspective+ American drivers cited numerous
factors they felt were important in determining which vehicle to purchase" %hile these
included everything from cost to styling conspicuously a!sent was any reference to
environmental impact" Tim ;ohmann director of custom research at L"3" Bower and
Associates put it more succinctly: +The true success of the /0 will !e !ased on its
performance as a vehicle not as an environmental solution"+ *t is reasona!le to assume
the same argument applies to cryogenic automo!iles"
C2<B2'/'T 3/SCR*BT*2'
The e#uipment layout is shown in ,ig" (" <ost of the cryogenic plum!ing is stainless
steel !ut the components attached to the economizer are aluminum" 7ow pressure
plum!ing utilizes large diameter ru!!er hose where possi!le" /ach of the items pictured
is descri!ed !elow"
,ig" (: Schematic of vehicle e#uipment layout"
7i#uid 'itrogen Storage Tan$: The dewar chosen for this application can hold A) liters of
li#uid nitrogen at 9( !ar with a daily !oil8off rate of O:>" The primary protection against
over8pressure is a relief valve connected to the internal vessel" This valve also serves as
the !leed for the !oiloff gases which are vented to the outside !y a ru!!er hose" There
are several other safety devices providing multi8tiered protection against catastrophic
rupture" The dewar is held in place at five attachment points: one on the roof the other
four on the floor"
Bressurization System: The pressurization system consists of two high8pressure nitrogen
!ottles stored under the rear dec$ of the Gu!van" The !lowdown system has the
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Zero emission vehicle
advantage of mechanical simplicity at the cost of increased weight and volume" /ach of
the nitrogen !ottles has a mass of () $g" The volume of gas re#uired was calculated such
that the pressurant tan$s and the dewar get to within : !ar of e#uili!rium Fust as the last
of the li#uid nitrogen is drained out" The pressurant tan$s are initially filled to a starting
pressure of a!out 5:: !ar" This is regulated down to the system pressure of 9( !ar !efore
!eing inFected into the dewar" The hardware re#uired for filling !oth the pressurant
!ottles and the dewar is attached to the vehicle"
/conomizer: The economizer which will !e descri!ed in detail in Chapter *0 is actually
a pair of shell8and8tu!e heat e&changers as shown in ,ig" @" These heat e&changers
operate in parallel with the shell8side fluid !eing the e&haust from the e&pander" %hen
operating at ma&imum mass flow O:)) gEs the economizer is designed to !ring the
li#uid nitrogen to a #uality of a!out H@>" This represents appro&imately one #uarter of
the total enthalpy change the nitrogen will e&perience !efore !eing inFected into the
e&pander" At lower mass flows the vaporization will !e complete"
,ig" @: /conomizer units with and without shell"
Am!ient8Air =eat /&changer: The am!ient8air heat e&changer as will !e detailed in
Chapter 0 is made up of (@ finned8tu!e elements" These elements are manifolded
together as shown in ,ig" J to ma$e a staggered array of tu!es in crossflow with the
incoming air" /ither the motion of the vehicle or the two ducted fans located at the !ac$
of the van draw the air through the heat e&changer" The air inlet consists of a sheet8metal
scoop slung underneath the vehicle"
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Zero emission vehicle
,ig" J: Am!ient8air heat e&changer assem!ly"
/&pander: The e&pander chosen for the prototype vehicle is a 55"5 $% radial piston air
motor made !y Cooper Bower Tools" This motor pictured in ,ig" 5) has a cast8iron !loc$
with five H"@ cm cylinders" /ach cylinder holds a steel piston attached to the single8throw
cran$ shaft !y a connecting rod" 7u!rication is maintained !y splash and !y an oiler
located near the gas inlet" The motor is attached to the front8wheel drive @8speed manual
transmission !y a custom8made aluminum gear8!o&" The output shaft of the motor drives
a 5@"9( cm diametral pitch -3B1 spur gear" The input shaft to the clutch assem!ly has a
H"J9 cm" 3B spur gear giving a 5:9 speed ratio through the gear !o&" The running gear is
from a 56A( 0ol$swagen Ra!!it and is right8hand drive"
B/TT/R T=A' /7/CTR*C CAR
Batteries have to !e recharged for e&ample increasing the demands on power plants and
they use to&ic metals that have to !e carefully disposed of"
*f you spill li#uid nitrogen it Fust sits there in a pool and slowly evaporates !ac$ in to the
atmosphere from where it came"
The particularly e&cites is the potential to help clean up the atmosphere" 'itrogen can !e
e&tracted from the air and li#uefied in giant refrigeration plants" *n the same process
pollutants such as car!on dio&ide could !e removed from the air" And it could all !e done
cheaper than it costs to produce a compara!le amount of gasoline"
Thus it is not only !etter than electric car !ut also gasoline8powered car"
C2'C74S*2'
Applying 7'9 as a porta!le thermal storage medium to propel !oth commuter and fleet
vehicles appears to !e an attractive means to meeting the ./0 regulations soon to !e
implemented" Bressurizing the wor$ing fluid while it is at cryogenic temperatures
heating it up with am!ient air and e&panding it in reciprocating engines is a
straightforward approach for powering pollution free vehicles" Am!ient heat e&changers
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Zero emission vehicle
that will not suffer e&treme icing will have to !e developed to ena!le wide utility of this
propulsion system" Since the e&pansion engine operates at su!am!ient temperatures the
potential for attaining #uasi8isothermal operation appears promising" The specific energy
densities of 7'9 are @( and AH %8hE$g87'9 for the adia!atic and isothermal e&pansion
processes respectively and the corresponding amounts of cryogen to provide a :)) $m
driving range would !e (@) $g and 9A) $g" <any details of the application of 7'9
thermal storage to ground transportation remain to !e investigatedP however to date no
fundamental technological hurdles have yet !een discovered that might stand in the way
of fully realizing the potential offered !y this revolutionary propulsion concept"
R/,/R/'C/S
5"<cCosh 3" +/merging Technologies for the Supercar+ Popular Science Lune 566("
9" 7ead in the =uman /nvironment A Report Brepared !y the Committee on 7ead in the
=uman /nvironment 'ational Academy of Sciences %ashington 3"C" 56A)"
:" Gnowlen C" =ertz!erg A" and <attic$ A"T" +Automotive Bropulsion 4sing 7i#uid
'itrogen+ A*AA Baper 6(8::(6 Lune 566("
(" Bage L" +Cold Steam /ngines+ The Model Railroader 0ol" 5J 2cto!er 56(6"
@" ,uruhama S" 'a$aFima T" and =onda T" +Ran$ine Cycle /ngines for 4tilization of
7=98Car ,uel as a 7ow Temperature Source+ Broceedings of the Ath %orld =ydrogen
/nergy Conference =onolulu and %al$oloa =awaii Luly 566) 0ol" : pp" 5:6685()A"
9