Bilingual Education in the Ancient and Modern World

Alaa Abd-El-Hafez
May 18, 2014
EDD 1104: Bilingual and Second Language Acquisition

Chapter 1 by Lessow-Hurley discussed how bilingualism was common in the ancient
world and in the modern world. The relationship between politics and language was also
discussed. They are almost inseparable. The distinction between official bilingualism and
bilingualism was made. Dual language instruction in several countries such as China, Canada,
and Sweden and the U.S. was discussed. Two types of dual language instructional programs
were mentioned and discussed. Some dual language instructional programs were created to
transit children from their native languages to English. Other programs were established to
preserve and restore primary and native languages. Support for dual language instructional
programs really depended on the political climate especially in the United States.
It was interesting to read the section on bilingualism among Jews as I was only familiar
with Bilingualism among Muslims. Dispersed around the world, Jews have learned many
languages, while simultaneously maintaining a home or community language (p. 2). Muslims
are in themselves very diverse and come from many countries around the world. Even though
less than 10% of Muslims are Arabs, that is speak Arabic, the majority of Muslims learn Arabic
to be able to read their holy book which is in Arabic. So, in a way Arabic connects all Muslims
the same way that Hebrew connects Jews. I felt like that should have been in the chapter.
The United States does not have an official language so one would think that bilingual
education should not only be encouraged and promoted but there should be laws requiring it in
school. I was disappointed to read that only three decades following Lau v. Nichols, states like
California eliminated its mandate for bilingual education. In a way, English is the official
language then. However, I do agree that the history of bilingual education is mainly the struggle
for equal status for a minority language. Besides mandating bilingual education in schools, what
are some other ways of preserving and restoring childrens primary/native languages? Should
this be the job of schools or solely the home?

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Individual Differences in Second Language Learning
Alaa Abd-El-Hafez
June 1
st
, 2014
EDD 1104: Bilingual and Second Language Acquisition

Chapter 3 by Patsy Lightbown and Nina Spada discussed the different variables and
characteristics that may account for the differences in learning a second language. Some of the
characteristics believed to predict language learning are intelligence, ability, motivation, learning
styles, personality, social factors, learner beliefs, and the age at which learning begins. However,
the extent of the impact of each of those characteristics on successful language learning is
difficult to predict. First, questionnaires measuring traits such as motivation and intelligence are
unreliable and some lack validity. Second, some traits or variables maybe interrelated and so
difficult to examine their individual impact. Third, correlation does not imply causation. For
example, just because higher ability was found to be correlated with success in language learning
does not mean that higher ability causes success in second language learning.
This chapter was very interesting to read because I felt that it was speaking to me. I am
one year older than my sister. I came to the U.S. in seventh grade and she came in sixth grade.
We both speak English fluently now but I have an accent and she doesnt. I always wondered
why? Did that one year make a difference? Had I came in 6
th
grade, would I have lost my
accent? Reading about the critical period for second language acquisition, I realized that maybe I
missed that critical period. However, my dad is the perfect counterexample to the work of
Patkowski. He came to the U.S in his early twenties and now speaks English fluently with no
accent. As was stated in the chapter, there will always be support for and against the Critical
Period Hypothesis for second language acquisition.
Advocates for bilingual education are pushing for the teaching of languages at an earlier
age. However, it was interesting to read in this chapter that early intensive exposure to the
second language may entail the loss or incomplete development of the childs first language. So,
there is certainly a downside of teaching a second language at an early age. It was also stated that
one or two hours a week will not produce advanced second language learners, no matter how
young they were when they began (pg. 74). Advocates might want to take this into
consideration when at best a language is being taught for only forty minutes a day in schools.

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Primary Language Instruction for Limited English Proficient Students
Alaa Abd-El-Hafez
June 8, 2014
EDD 1104: Bilingual and Second Language Acquisition

Chapter 6 by Judith Lessow-Hurley discussed the importance of primary language
instruction for students with limited English proficiency and the research surrounding such
programs. Although the research on Primary Language instruction is inconclusive, there is some
evidence that it will help limited English proficient students. This was interesting to me because
coming to the U.S with limited English; I was told to watch a lot of cartoons in English and try to
speak English only.
The chapter also discussed how students, who excel in their primary language, will also
be likely to excel in their secondary language. I actually have seen this first hand. My sister and I
are roughly the same age, one year apart. She excelled in Arabic and she excelled in learning
English. I struggled in learning Arabic and struggled in learning English as Well. So, I think this
is a valid argument to make in pushing for primary language instruction.
There were several statements/ideas that I disagreed or did not understand in this chapter.
First, how are schools suppose to carry out primary language instruction? I understand the
chapter gave some suggestions but let us say that we have some students who speak Spanish,
others that speak Urdu or Chinese, how is the school suppose to provide primary language
instruction for all those students? I have never seen such a program in my school as I was
growing up or in any school that I have taught or student-taught in. I have only seen ESL
programs where all limited English Proficient students were put into one classroom and the
teacher taught in English.
It was stated in the chapter that primary languages are used for social studies and art
while English is reserved for science and mathematics. This is language stereotyping and should
be avoided, because it damages the prestige of the minority language (p. 84). While I agree with
this statement, I believe that it is more realistic to teach mathematics in English because it is a
universal language and it would be easier for students with limited English to understand it.
The chapter also discussed how cooperative learning strategies can help with primary
language instruction. I think perhaps the author meant to say collaborative learning rather than
cooperative learning. There is a clear difference between the two. Cooperative learning does not
necessary facilitate communication between groups as students usually divide the work and work
on their parts individually. However, with collaborative learning, 1 + 1 is more than just 2. In
collaborative learning, students should have a hard time completing any task individually and
they depend on each other for the final product.


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Aspects of Culture
Alaa Abd-El-Hafez
June 15, 2014
EDD 1104: Bilingual and Second Language Acquisition

Chapter 8 by Lessow-Hurley discussed the different characteristics of culture including it
being dynamic, creative, continuous, learned, shared, and struggle for survival. The chapter also
discussed the relationship between language and culture, language determines culture. When one
learns about a new language, one is also learning about that culture. Culture learning must
accompany language learning. The chapter also discussed how culture is manifested. Some
examples given where through clothing, housing, time orientation (for example: Muslim time),
spatial orientation, and values. The chapter also discussed how bilingual education and
multicultural education are different but yet also similar in that student empowerment is a key
concept in both. Also, a bilingual education is multicultural as well if it promotes bilingualism
and literacy.
Lessow-Hurley stated that language determines culture. However, this is not necessarily
true. For example, Muslims are very diverse group. They come from all parts of the words, have
different cultures, and speak different languages. However, all Muslims (or the majority) must
speak learn Arabic to be able to read the holy Quran. So a Pakistani Muslim, whose native
language is Urdu, must learn Arabic to recite and understand the Quran the same way an Arab
Muslim (whose native language is Arabic) does. However, a Pakistani Muslim and an Arab
Muslim have completely different cultures. So, just because someone learns a new language does
not necessarily mean that they will adopt the culture or that the language mirrors its speakers
attitudes and ideas as suggested in the chapter. Thus, second language learning does not
necessarily involve culture learning as well.
I wander what the relationship is between culture and religion, if there is one. When I
think of culture, I think of way of life. However, I also consider my religion, Islam, a way of life
as well. In it, I can find how to dress, what to eat, how to treat others, and how to behave. For
me, there is a clear distinction between culture and religion, but to others this may not be the
case. For example, Muslims are often viewed by others as one homogenous group of people.
What is the connection between religion and language? I always find it fascinating when diverse
Muslims are eager to learn Arabic or when diverse Jews are eager to learn Hebrew to better
understand their religion.

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Language Policy and Planning
Alaa Abd-El-Hafez
June 25, 2014
EDD 1104: Bilingual and Second Language Acquisition

Chapter 12 by Lessow-Hurley discussed the different ways in which a language can be
supported and suppressed. One way to suppress languages is by banning the use of minority
languages in the media and in public life. Another way is by promoting the idea that it is a
substandard dialect of a majority language. Yet another is by associating the minority languages
with negative images in the media so that people would develop stereotypes about those
languages. Language suppression will lead to the disappearance of languages. It was mentioned
in the chapter that if language suppression continued 90 percent of mankinds languages would
disappear! This is very alarming. The chapter did discuss briefly how language can be revitalized
in schools.
It was stated in the chapter that there may be little any individual teacher can do to turn
the tide of thinking about language in American educational policy (pg. 157). I dont understand
this. If that is the case, what is the point of learning about it? All this does is make me feel
helpless! Who wants to know that they are contributing to the detriment of a students first
language and cannot do anything about it individually. I would have loved for the chapter to
provide some suggestion on how to influence language planning and policy.
I think schooling in America subconsciously suppress students native languages. Thus, I
think it is important not only for teachers to understand the dynamics of language planning and
policy but for parents to understand this as well. If parents knew this, they will perhaps but more
effort in preserving their childrens native languages. Maybe, they would want to speak to them
more in their native language or perhaps provide other opportunities. The outcome of language
suppression is detrimental and every effort must be made to stop it.

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National Unity and Diversity
Alaa Abd-El-Hafez
June 25, 2014
EDD 1104: Bilingual and Second Language Acquisition

Chapter 11 by Lessow-Hurley discussed language resistance in the U.S including
language parochialism and language elitism. Language parochialism is the belief that
multilingualism is not useful and may even be harmful. Language elitism is the belief that
bilingualism should be reserved for individuals with elite status. The chapter dismissed language
parochialism and language elitism and discussed few of the benefits of multilingualism. One
benefit is to succeed in the international marketplace. Another benefit is for national security.
This chapter also discussed language restrictionism and how it restricts public service assistance
and free speech.
This chapter brought up several great points. First, it was mentioned that language
restrictionist legislation fails to recognize the need for many programs to assist newcomers in
learning English. Thus, it would be just as costly if not more as having bilingual programs. So,
schools and other public institutes would not be saving much. Even if such programs to facilitate
English learning were created, most likely they will not be successful. As we have discussed in
class, children often lose interest if they feel that they are forced to learn a language. Without a
doubt programs should be created to aid children in learning English. However, programs such
as English First and English for the Children have conflict of interest and do not serve this goal
in my opinion.
Another point discussed is that there is double standard when it comes to bilingualism. It
is considered an accomplishment when a student who is a native-English speaker masters a new
language. However, we insist that children lose their native language as part of their
Americanization. As stated in this chapter, bilingualism is valuable regardless of its source.
Unfortunately, this is not often the case. Many parents have to hide the fact that their child is
bilingual to avoid being put in special education classes or be classified as ELLs. Other countries
value bilingualism and almost all require a foreign language to be studied in schools. When is the
U.S going to catch up?

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