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" Boyer's
The
American Nation
CONTENT REVIEWERS
William H. McNeill
Emeritus, University of Chicago
Richard D. Brown
University of Connecticut
Early America
Legal and constitutional history
History
Marilyn Young
Reid Mitchell
University of Maryland. Baltimore
John Buenker
University of Wisconsin, Parkside
County
Civil
Progressive era
War
Stanford Program on International and
Women and labor history
Asian American issues

Clifford Clark
Paul Hutton
Mary Neth
Carleton College
iinellectual history
South: late 19th-
and early
University of
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Social history:
John Milton Cooper. Jr.

University of Wisconsin. Madison
women 's
history
Carol Karlsen
University of Michigan
Northwestern University
Early American social and cultural
S.
University of California. Riverside

Multiculturalism; Latin America
Mary Odem
Emory University
Late 19th- and 20th-century
women 's
Southern Methodist University
University of Virginia
U. S.;
University of Wisconsin. Oshkosh
and American
war and memory
Religion
U.
S.
Lynn Dumenil
Colin Palmer
Occidental College
University of North Carolina
U.S.
African diaspora
B. Marie Perinbam
University of Maryland, College Park
West African history

York. Buffalo
Carla Rahn Phillips
University of Maryland
S.
African American history
Hawley
Morton Rothstein
University of Iowa
20th-century U.S.
University of California. Davis
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CONTRIBUTORS
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intellectual history
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J.
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'
Boyer's
The American Nation
PAUL BOYER
WINSTON
& Company
HOLT, RINEHART AND

Harcourt Brace
Austin
New
York
Orlando
Atlanta
San Francisco
Boston
Dallas
Toronto
London
About the Author
PAUL BOYER
M
aul
aul
Boyer
is
Merle Curti Professor of History
at the
University of
Wisconsin. Madison, and director of the university's Institute for Research
He
the Humanities.
is
also a
member
of the executive board of the Organization
of American Historians, of the national advisory board of the
Experience series and

to
is
in
PBS American
editor-in-chief of the forthcoming Oxford
Companion
United States History. Dr. Boyer has held visiting professorships
at
UCLA
and Northwestern University and received Guggenheim and Rockefeller

Foundation fellowships.
Awarded
numerous
a Ph.D. from Harvard in 1966, Dr.
articles, essays,
Boyer
is
the author of
reviews, and books. Salem Possessed: The Social
Origins of Witchcraft, which he co-authored with Stephen Nissenbaum,

the John H.
Dunning
prize of the
American
won
Historical Association.
Manager
Executive Editor
Bob
Sue Miller
Phyllis Salazar. Administrative Assistant
Managing Editor
Editorial Permissions
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Cover Photo:
Copyright
Team
Tony Stone Images, Reza Estakhrian.
1998 by Holt. Rinehart and Winston
All rights reser\ ed.
No
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may be reproduced
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For acknowledgments, see page 1091, which
Printed in the United States of
America
ISBN 0-03-050673-5
3 4 5
IV
6 7 8 9 032 00 99 98
is
Kim Anderson.
an extension of the copyright page.
PE and ATE Design and

The Quarasan Group.
Production.
Inc.
CONTENTS
Themes
Critical
in
American History
xviii
xx
Thinking and the Study of History
To the Reader
xxv
UNIT
lêginnings
Prehistory- 800
1
CHAPTER
"^^F"
THE WORLD BY 1500
Peopling the Americas
Native American Cultures

THEN AND NOW Sacred or Scientific
Europe in the Middle Ages
Asia and Africa
The Lure
in
I^^^S'k
^QHHH^^V<i^P
Prehistory- 1500
^^ ^^P
the Middle Ages
of Trade and Exploration
THE ENGLISH COLONIES
^JPP
^^
13
23
28
34
The New England Colonies

HISTORY
IN
EMPIRES OF THE
AMERICAS 1492-1800
Trials
70
Slavery and the Southern Colonies
74
The Colonies After the Restoration

The Frontier and the Struggle for Land
80
THEN AND
CHAPTER
66
THE MAKING
The Salem Witchcraft
^^
^^
64
1620-1763
17
AMERICA'S GEOGRAPHY
The Columbian Exchange
Quetzalcoat
CHAPTER
10
Sites?
Toltec carving of
NOW
The
Vanishing Forests
THROUGH OTHERS' EYES

The French and Indian War
86
89
91
36
AMERICAN LETTERS
1
2
3
Contact
THROUGH OTHERS'
38
First
EYES
The
Slave Trade
Conquest of the Mainland

The Spanish Settle the Americas
THEN AND NOW The Encomiendo's Legacy
The English in North America
42
45
50
54
Native American Creation Myths
96
STRATEGIES FOR SUCCESS

Interpreting the Visual
UNIT
Record
REVIEW
98
99
56
CONTENTS
UNIT
Creating a Ration
1763-1815
100
CHAPTER
INDEPENDENCE!
The Seeds
1763-1783
102
of Unrest
104
Mounting Tensions
109
The Shot Heard Round the World
113
CHANGING WAYS
115
Religion and the Revolution
Independence Declared
117
Sacagawea guiding Lewis and Clark
The
Declaration of Independence
HISTORICAL
119
CHAPTER
DOCUMENT
The Declaration
An American
of Independence
Victory
120
A STRONG START FOR THE
127
NATION
Federal
I789-I8IS
Government
Is
Established
Dealing with a Dangerous World
Federalists
The Nation Expands

niSTO^
Dominate Party
'-i:
-Av \G
The Coming
of the
190
195
Politics
200
Jeffefsons Image
205
207

The Louisiana Purchase
5
188
War
208
of 1812
211
Stamp Act protest
CHAPTER
FROM CONFEDERATION
TO FEDERAL UNION
136
1776-1789
The
Articles of Confederation
Drafting and Ratifying the Constitution
The American Experiment

3
The
Constitution:
Living
SÔRICAL
145
146
Document
CONSTITUTION HANDBOOK
-
138
American eagle
AMERICAN LETTERS
160
Revolutionary Literature
218
DCC-'E\
The Constitution
of the United States
of America
166
AMERICA'S GEOGRAPHY
The American West
VI
Painting of
153
CONTENTS
Recognizing Fallacies
UNIT
186
REVIEW
in
Reasoning
220
221
I
1
UNIT
QroiAFth
and Change
1815-1860
222
Covered wagons moving westward
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
WORKING FOR REFORM
NATIONALISM AND
ECONOMIC GROWTH
1
2
3
The Rise of Nationalism

The Challenges of Growth
The Rise of Jacksonian Democracy
THROUGH OTHERS' EYES American
THEN AND NOW Campaigning
224
1815-1845
280
820s- 860s
Politics
Jackson's Policies Define an Era
226
Religious Zeal and
Movements
New Communities
for Social
232
237
239
240
Reform
American Prisons
3
The Crusade
for Abolition
CHANGING WAYS The Amistod Mutiny

4
The Cause
of Women's Rights
282
286
287
292
295
297
242
AMERICA'S GEOGRAPHY
252
Early Industrialization
CHAPTER
EXPANSION AND CONFLICT
CHAPTER
SEPARATE SOCIETIES:
NORTH AND SOUTH
254
The North and the Middle West
256
260
Life
The Cotton Kingdom

The Slave System
-
MAK!.\c
306
311
The Mexican War
314
The Far West

The Rush to California
317
THROUGH
326
OTHERS' EYES
323
The Gold Rush
263
269
,^-^v,.-..
THE'.
The Lure of the West

American Expansionism
li
Immigrant
1820-1860
INK
304
1820-1860
AMERICAN LETTERS
The Natural World
330
Shouts Across the Ocean
276

Interpreting Editorial
'iJ^km
UNIT
Cartoons
REVIEW
332
333
nit
identification
blacl<
badge of
a free
person
CONTENTS
VII
Wat and Reunification

1845-1900
334
CHAPTER
SLAVERY'S EXPANSION
336
I84S-I86I
An Uneasy Balance
Compromise Comes
338
to an End
343
CHANGING WAYS
Southern Expansionists and the Filibusters
3
On
the Brink of War

Tccc c,^-
Harpers Ferry
346
350
354
AMERICAS GEOGRAPHY
360
Regionalism
CHAPTER
THE
The Union
WAR
362
Dissolves!
364
367
CIVIL
1861-1865
e:
The
Civil
War
The North and South Face Off

Eastern Campaigns and the War
in the West
_
376
Final Phase
CHANGING WAYS The Courageous 54th
students (1866)
CHAPTER
RECONSTRUCTION AND
THE NEW SOUTH
380
The
vsoth
371
MAKING
Remembering Gettysburg
4
Teacher
383
392
1865-1900
385
Presidential Reconstruction
The Emancipation Proclamation
394
Congressional Reconstruction
399
Reconstruction
in
the South
The New South
396
405
410
CHANGING WAYS
South Carolina Sea Islanders
412
AMERICAN LETTERS
The
Pain of Slavery and Civil
War
418

Comparing Points of View
UNIT
Painting
ViJi
889) of the
First Battle of Bull
CONTENTS
Run
REVIEW
420
421
UNIT
The Ration Transformed
1860-1910
422
CHAPTER
THE TRANSFORMATION
OF AMERICA
456
1865-1910
Industry's Golden Age

The New Immigrants
458
CHANGING WAYS Coming to America
466
468
Urban
472
Life

The Price of Industrialization
474
Building the transcontinental railroad
AMERICA'S GEOGRAPHY
482
Conquering Distance
CHAPTER
THE WESTERN CROSSROADS
424
1860-1910
Native American Resistance

HISTORY
IN
CHANGING WAYS
The Transcontinental
438
Railroad
Boom
Boom
OTHERS' EYES
484
Restoring Honest Government
THROUGH
436
OTHERS' EYES
Political
Patronage
486
487
Labor Strives to Organize
49
Farmers, Populism, and Depression
497
444
Cattle
THROUGH
430
AND PROTEST
1865-1910
THE MAKING
Western Farmers
A Mining
POLITICS
426
Will the Real Custer Please Stand?
The
CHAPTER
The Wild West
449
452
AMERICAN LETTERS
Mark
Twain's
504
America

Interpreting
UNIT
506
Economic Data
REVIEW
507
--w^-.~
']^
sta
The Scott
their
family outside
Nebraska home, 1889
CONTENTS
IX
UNIT
/I
World Power
I897>I920
508
^^^'
j^
^^^
'^^'^ÎHI^Bfc 'JU
||Uj W^
CHAPTER
THE AGE OF REFORM
510
1897-1920
The Progressive Movement

Reforming the
New
512
Industrial
Order
Immigrant Workers
Reforming Society
CHANGING WA
Hfl
The Orphan
Trains
517
520
Detail
73
'i
;^ H^^^H
fe^!l=^^
522
524
from Thomas Moran's Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone
CHAPTER
AMERICA AND THE WORLD
556
1898-1917
War with
558
Expansion
the Pacific
563
Expansion in Latin America

CHANGING WAYS
A Path Between the Seas
THROUGH OTHERS EYE' Yankee Imperialism
569
Conflict with Mexico
575
Souvenirs from the

Bull
Spain
Moose campaign
in
571
573
AMERICA'S GEOGRAPHY
CHAPTER
The United
THE PROGRESSIVE
PRESIDENTS
I900-I920
States and the
World
582
532
CHAPTER
Reforming Government
534
Roosevelt and the Square Deal
538
THEiNANDiNOv
National Parks
541
Reform Under
Taft
543
Wilson's "New Freedom"

CHANGING WA
The 9 3 Armory Show
THROUGH OTHERS EYES Women's Suffrage
WORLD WAR
World War
548
550
55
584
1914-1920
The
2
Breaks Out
586
592
Sinking of the Lusitania
The United
States Goes to
HISTORY iN TmE MAKING
The Doughboy's Pack
The War at Home

The League of Nations
War
593
596
601
606
AMERICAN LETTERS
The Spanish-American War
614

Recognizing Stereotypes
Red Cross
unit
CONTENTS
UNIT
REVIEW
616
617
UNIT
Pirosperitij
and
1919-1945
Crisis
618
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
^nF"
A TURBULENT DECADE
1919-1929
620
Postwar Troubles
The Republicans
A Nation
622
in
THE
Power
Restoring
636
Hope
694

The Greatest Man of the Age
695
New
700
Life in
634
THROUGH OTHERS" EYES

The Back-to-Africa Movement
692
1933-1940
628
Divided
NEW DEAL
Challenges
HISTORY
the
IN
New Deal
Era
708
THE MAKING
712
Photographing the Depression
AMERICA'S GEOGRAPHY
Land Use
642
The New Deal and the Arts
716
BETWEEN THE WARS

722
I92I-I94I
L/fe
magazine cover
1
The Search
for Peace
(1926)
Relations with Latin
The Road
CHAPTER
Boom Times
Hitting the
Road
646
649
the Twenties
THROUGH OTHERS' EYES The Twenties
THEN AND NOW Censorship
652
654
657
A Creative
659
Life in
Era
WAR
668
Prosperity Shattered
670
Hard Times
675
OTHERS' EYES
Depression Worldwide
THEN AND NOW BasebaH
677
Hoover
683
Fails
IN
WORLD
742
1941-1945
II
Early Difficulties
OTHERS' EYES
Japan Declares
War
744
745
The Home Front
751
Defeat of the Axis Powers

CHANGING vvATb
The Navajo Code Talkers
759
The
766
THE GREAT DEPRESSION
THROUGH
734
CHAPTER
732
AMERICANS
THROUGH
War
CHAPTER
1929-1933
728
644
1920-1930
CHANGING WAYS
America

The Spanish Civil War
THE JAZZ AGE
to
724
Price of Victory
763
AMERICAN LETTERS
Songs of the Cities
772

Recognizing Propaganda
774
681
UNIT
REVIEW
775
CONTENTS
XI
UNIT
/Postwar /Imenca
1945-1975
776
CHAPTER
THE SIXTIES
The New
Frontier
THROUGH OTHERS ''
World War
homecoming
1960-1970
830
832
Cuban
Missile CrIsis
838
Johnson's Great Society
839
The
844
Culture and Counterculture
Civil Rights
HISTORY
II
IN
Movement
THE MAKING
Social History
852
855
AMERICA'S GEOGRAPHY
CHAPTER
Urban America
860
THE POSTWAR YEARS

778
1945-1952
2
3
Healing the
Wounds
of
War
The Challenges of Peace

The Cold War Begins
The Cold War Turns Hot
THROUGH
OTHERS' EYES
The Arab Response
780
784
789
796
798
CHAPTER
LBJ taking the presidential oath,
DECADE OF CONTRASTS
1950-1960
Americans
CHAPTER
806
808
862
864
The War
Escalates
870
Americans Divided
875
War at
879
The Cease-Fire and After
Pesticides
Voices of Dissent
VIETNAM
Background to Conflict
Go Underground
NOW
IN
1954-1975
The Affluent Society

THEN AND
963
804
WAR
Cold War Fears
The Nuclear Arms Race
CHANGING WAYS
Full
Tide

Remembering Vietnam
THEN AND NOvV
No More Vietnams
884
885
888
AMERICAN LETTERS
Voices of Change
892

Conducting an Interview
894
Elizabeth Eckford at Little
Rock's Central High School

XII
CONTENTS
UNIT
REVIEW
895
1
1 9
UNIT
Modem îmes
1
970-the Present
896
CHAPTER
FROM NIXON TO CARTER

1970-1980
The Nixon Years

From Watergate
THROUGH
898
900
to Ford
Watergate
OTHERS' EYES
The Outsider as President

Decade of Social Change
906
907
Carter:
912
918
Challenger crew,
986
CHAPTER
^WW^
AMERICA
1
A New
HISTORY
TODAY'S
IN
WORLD
970-the Present
956
Era
IN
958
THE MAKING
The Freedom of Information Act

Mao and Nixon
961
962
Negotiating with Terrorists
CHAPTER
A Global Economy
964
REAGAN, BUSH, AND CLINTON
Energy and the Environment
969
926
Addressing Global Ills

THEN AND NOW The Peace Corps
975
The Reagan Movement

From Bush to Clinton
THROUGH
980-the Present
OTHER'S EYES
978
928
The Gulf War
America
in the 1990s
CHANGING WAYS
American Indian Renewal:
Case Study
936
938
AMERICAN LETTERS
945

Evaluating News Stories
984
948
UNIT
AMERICA'S GEOGRAPHY
A Diverse Country
982
Stories of Diversity
REVIEW
985
954
Reference Section
Presidents of the U.S.
1021
Glossary
1045
Historical
1003
Leading Supreme Court Cases
1022
Index
1061
Atlas
1012
Gazetteer
1036
Acknowledgments
1091
Skills
Handbook
Documents
988
CONTENTS
xiil
JeatuKes
American Letters
Thomas Edison
Addams
Native American Creation
Myths
Revolutionary Literature
The Natural World

The Pain of Slavery and
Civil
War
Mark Twain's America

The Spanish-American War
Songs of the Cities
Voices of Change
Stories of Diversity
461
476
493
514
526
537
538
566
594
626
654
660
678
709
715
725
755
762
Jane
96
218
330
Mary Harris Jones

Ida Tarbell
WE.B. Du
Bois
Robert M. La
418
504
614
772
892
982
Follette
Theodore Roosevelt
Queen
Liliuokalani
Jeannette Rankin
Emma Goldman
Thorpe
Rose McClendon
Jim
Josefina Fierro de Bright
^^^^
America's ueograpny ^^
The Columbian Exchange
The American West
Regionalism
Conquering Distance
The United States and

the World
Land Use
Urban America
A Diverse Country
34
Mary McLeod Bethune

Dorothea Lange
Charles Evans Hughes
186
Norman
252
360
482
Douglas MacArthur
Mineta
^^1^^
and the Filibusters
The Courageous 54th

South Carolina Sea Islanders
The Transcontinental Railroad

Coming to America
The Orphan Trains
The 1913 Armory Show
A Path Between the Seas
Hitting the Road
The Navajo Code Talkers
Americans Go Underground
American Indian Renewal:
A Case Study
a^^tiSi^^^^
^^^H^^^^^
^j/^^^^^ *
II
Olaudah Equiano
Samuel Adams
George Washington
38
46
73
78
16
Tecumseh
Juan Seguin
212
239
242
258
272
286
294
310
Abraham
351
Sarah G. Bagley
Nat Turner
Dorothea Dix
Sojourner Truth
Robert
E.
Lincoln
Lee
Ida Wells-Barnett
Sarah
Winnemucca
Hamlin Garland
XiV
CONTENTS
~ -
133
Women
140
and Republicanism
Democracy
Participated
Expansion
192
368
415
433
443
in
the
in
Perspective
Using the Atomic

791
Rosa Parks
Malcolm X
Gloria Steinem
Robert McNamara
807
823
849
856
878
Barbara Jordan
911
Wilma
948
950
970
Bill
Gates
Chico Mendes
579
664
Psychological Impact
of the Depression
Mankiller
152
24!
Rights
Standardized Culture?
The
Douglas MacArthur
George C. Marshall
Margaret Chase Smith
118
Movement? 30!
409
Reconstruction Perspectives
Western Myths
453
The Progressive Legacy
553
114
147
Sequoya
>
Whom?
Consequences of the
American Revolution
Jacksonian
107
James Madison
Alexander Hamilton
Andrew Jackson
^'
948
43
Evaluating the Constitution
Biography
30
524
550
57
649
763
809
Cultural Contacts
Women's
Henry of Portugal
Christopher Columbus
Moctezuma
Anne Hutchinson
468
The Columbian Legacy
Who
Prince
346
385
412
438
Commentary
Independence for
jîit
582
642
860
954
Southern Expansionists
Bomb
Why
Did the North

The Larger Meaning
Prevail?
of
908
Watergate
America's Role
New
679
769
886
in
979
Era
TTs?o?icarDocumerSs'"^|
The Declaration
of
Independence
120
The Constitution of the
Changing Ways
^^^H
Religion and the Revolution
115
The Amistad Mutiny
295
United States of America
Thomas Jefferson's
66
First
Inaugural Address
The Monroe Doctrine
1003
1004
The Seneca
Falls
Then and Now
Declaration
of Sentiments
1005
Sacred or Scientific Sites?
13
1007
The Encomienda's Legacy

The Vanishing Forests
54
1008
Campaigning
Shouts Across the Ocean
The Emancipation
Proclamation
Abraham
Lincoln's
Gettysburg Address
The Fourteen
Martin Luther King,

"I
Have
History
Jr.'s
Dream" Speech
Trials
Image
The Mexican War

Remembering Gettysburg
The Doughboy's Pack

Photographing the Depression
Social History
The Freedom
70
207
314
380
430
596
712
855
of
Information Act
Mess equipment from
961
Harry S. Truman
Dwight D. Eisenhower
788
813
834
John F Kennedy
Lyndon B.Johnson
Richard M. Nixon
Gerald
R.
841
901
Ford
910
913
929
940
942
Ronald Reagan
Presidential Lives
George Bush
George Washington
193
Adams
Thomas Jefferson
20!
Bill
Clinton
Warren G. Harding
210
213
230
238
246
247
248
249
312
339
342
344
357
374
397
403
488
489
489
490
490
500
539
544
549
629
Recognizing Stereotypes
Calvin Coolidge
63
Recognizing Propaganda
Herbert Hoover
672
697
Conducting an Interview
774
894
984
James Madison
James Monroe
John Quincy Adams
Andrew Jackson
Martin Van Buren
William Henry Harrison
John Tyler
James K. Polk
Zachary Taylor
Millard Fillmore
Franklin Pierce
James Buchanan
Abraham Lincoln
Andrew Johnson
Grant
Rutherford B. Hayes
James A. Garfield
Chester A. Arthur
Grover Cleveland
Ulysses
S.
Benjamin Harrison
William McKinley
Theodore Roosevelt
William H. Taft
Woodrow
Wilson
Franklin D. Roosevelt
Baseball
681
Pesticides
819
888
978
Through Others* Eyes
doughboy's pack
Jimmy Carter
John
541
657
No More Vietnams
The Peace Corps
Will the Real Custer

Please Stand?
National Parks
Censorship
1010
the Making
in
The Salem Witchcraft

Jefferson's
1008
Points
Skills
Handbook
Identifying the
Identifying
Main Idea
Cause and Effect
988
989
Distinguishing Fact from
Opinion
Reading a Time Line
Building Vocabulary
Reviewing Map Basics
Reading Charts and Graphs
990
99
991
992
996
Studying Primary and
Secondary Sources
998
999
Creating an Outline
Doing Research
1000
Writing a Paper
1001
Taking a Test
1002
The Slave Trade

The French and Indian War
The Declaration of
Independence
The American Experiment

The Louisiana Purchase
Record
98
42
91
19
146
208
239
Immigrant Life
260
American Prisons
287
The Gold Rush
326
Harpers Ferry
354
The Civil War
367
The Emancipation Proclamation 396
The Wild West
452
The Price of Industrialization
474
Political Patronage
487
Immigrant Workers
520
American
Politics
Women's
Suffrage
55
Yankee Imperialism
573
The Sinking of the Lusitania

The Back-to-Africa Movement
The Twenties
Depression Worldwide
The Greatest Man of the Age
The Spanish Civil War
592
636
654
677
695
734
745
798
808
838
885
907
938
962
Japan Declares
War
The Arab Response

The Nuclear Arms Race
Cuban Missile Crisis
Remembering Vietnam
Watergate
Strategies for Success

Interpreting the Visual
89
240
276
The Gulf War

Negotiating with Terrorists
Reasoning
220
Cartoons 332
Comparing Points of View
420
Interpreting Economic Data
506
in
Interpreting Editorial
Evaluating
News
Stories
CONTENTS
XV
Charts and Maps

Charts
Chinese Living
Crops
1618-1700
Nutritional Value of
Tobacco
Prices,
African Population
in
North America,
35
76
British
650- 760
1
79
Protecting the Colonies,
1750-1770
The Power of the
1763-1776
106
Purse,
III
Concurrent Powers
Amending the Constitution
Amendments
154
163
164
Constitution
Population of the
West
187
The
Bill
of Rights
American Words
Growth in Urban Population,
1800-1860
Public Land Sales, 1820-1845
U.S.
19!
U.S. Imperialism
227
U.S.
235
243
U.S. Foreign Investment,
The Second Great Awakening

Population of the North
in
in
360
I860
36!
1870
Resources of the North
1861-1865
389
Produced, 1880-1900
Production of
Raw
Immigration to the
XVI
CONTENTS
729
American Exports to
the U.S., 1920-1940
Fortunes 939 Survey on War:
Should the U.S. Do?
98 1-199
Crime in the 1980s

The Growth of Single-Parent
Families. 1970-1991
Top Ten Contributors to U.S.
Immigration, 1981-1990
United States.
70 1-18 10
U.S. Immigration
1
99
Poverty and Nutrition
902
933
937
947
955
955
955
966
977
467
Decision-Making Bodies of
482
the United Nations

Major Events of the Cold
War
Americas Landscape Map

Native American Culture Areas
Aztec. Maya, and Inca Empires
Viking and Crusade Routes
Asia
in
the Middle Ages
African Trading
729
Trade Routes
Black
Kingdoms
735
The Movement
752
767
The
II
6
15
15
19
19
25
26
the Middle Ages 29
in
32
Mesa
of Plants and
34
Animals
1940-1945
Deaths in World
U.S.,
1860-1910
Spanish Reconquista. 1492
459
Total Immigration to the U.S.,
1860-1900
703
Defense Expenditures,
Steel,
1880-1910
671
Deal Programs
America, 1929
What
1973-1981
Total Federal Debt,
Beringia
642
647
416
Oil,
Maps
Latin
Goods
902
on Foreign
633
Production
New
Prices,
World War 1611
Agricultural Production.
Selected
U.S. Expenditure
Balance of Trade.
Female Labor Force,
Electrical
871
871
U.S. Battle
Contributions to
589
in
860
1990
in
Troops in Vietnam,
1964-1972
African Slave Arrivals to the
U.S. Investment in Latin
367
Casualties of the Civil War,
Value of Cotton
I9I4-I9I8
The Crash
361
and South, 1861
519
530
530
546
568
583
I9I0-I99I
Population of the South

in
Deaths
The Energy Crisis: Oil
1973-1981
583
1890-1930
Population of the South

in
518
and Central Resources,
Military Losses
West
I860
U.S.
Foreign Investment
1900-1910
Allied
860
514
582
1910
858
the
Ethnic Population of
British Foreign Investment,
360
I860
Population of the
1900-1910
in
817
of
502
574
Expansion
259
267
284
Los Angeles
810
20th Century
Trade and Territorial
in
Growth
Los Angeles
Labor Union Membership,

1900-1920
German
the South, I860
483
Threat,
1955-1960
Changes in Material Standards
of Living, 1940-1955
Urban Drug Arrests.
1960-1970
Population
at Universities,
1900-1920
Wages of White Urban
Rise of the Socialist Party
252
1830-1860
Omaha
187
Immigration to the U.S.,
in
Population of
482
483
Western Population Growth,

1860-1910
Membership in the Knights
of Labor, 1880-1890
Average Daily Hours

Average Hourly Wage
Manufacturing
Centers, I860
Population
Chinese American Areas

of Residence
187
Population of the
& Northeast
482
Workers
to the
Population of the Midwest
in
San Francisco
Women
Delegated, Reserved, and
South
The Nuclear
Percentage of California
Voyage of Columbus
Later Voyages
Magellan-Elcano Expedition
45
52
52
First
782
Spanish America
War 800
Spanish Missions
in
1785
European Exploration of North

America
New
England
The Chesapeake
The Thirteen Colonies
North America in 1754
The South Before the

The South After the
81
The Union and the
88
1776-1781
92
129
139
141
142
790
845
West Today
186
Louisiana Purchase
209
212
214
Barbary Coast
War
States
of
U.S. Boundaries, 1820

Latin
187
187
Formed from
the Louisiana Purchase
American Nations, 1830
1840
Indian
Compromise
216
229
231
233
237
Removal from the
Southeast, 1830s
The Cotton Kingdom

The Underground Railroad
Reform Movement
Organizations
The Texas Revolution

The Mexican War
U.S. Boundaries, 1853
Routes to the West
Water Routes to California

The California Gold Rush
244
252
264
273
303
308
313
315
319
319
325
Slave vs. Free Territory,
1850 and 1854

of 1850
Kansas-Nebraska Act, 1854

Election of I860
War
War
Reconstruction
in
the South
Battles, to
387
World War
400
402
World War
428
Railroads and Cattle Trails,
the
In
Europe,
Pacific,
II
746
1942-1945
748
Landings,
Japanese American Relocation
748
755
Bataan Death March
771
June
6,
1944
Election of 1896
501
Alaska and Hawaii
Compulsory Education
Lynchings, 1889-1918
523
527
National Parks and
Conservation
Alaska
National Parks Hawaii
National Parks Puerto Rico
and Virgin Islands
Election of 1912
920
Spanish-American War, 1898
Suffrage,
542
542
542
Occupation Zones, 1945 780

787
Election of 1948
793
Europe After World War
797
Israel. 1949
797
UN Partition
799
The Korean War
Allied
II
Election of I960
Cuban Missile Crisis

The Freedom Rides
Los Angeles Area,
Los Angeles Area,
Los Angeles Area,
920s
950s
980s
Indochina
542
547
552
The Vietnam War

Indochina Review
The Middle
Map
East
561
Election of 1980
U.S. Territories in the Pacific
564
U.S. Population Increase,
Panama Canal Zone
571
1970-1980
Central America and the
America
U.S. Interests in Latin
The
U.S.
578
and the World,
1900-1914
World War
World War
I,
9 14-1916
Caribbean, 1980s
582
588
The Western
I9I7-I9I8
Europe and the Middle East
599
World War
608
I:
Front,
Hispanic Population, 1930
After
Changes, 1920-1930
Election of 1988
Desert Storm, 1991

Predominant Ethnic
Background, 1980s
811
816
829
833
837
845
860
86
86
865
873
890
905
917
925
931
937
939
954
Contributions to
U.S. Immigration
The Breakup
955
of the Soviet
959
Land Use, 1980
635
638
642
643
643
The Global Environment

The State of the World
Food Supplies in Africa
The World: Political
1012
Harlem Renaissance, 1920s
661
U.S.A.: Physical
1014
Manhattan
661
U.S.A.: Political
1016
Land Use Before 1492
360
in
Cold War Defenses

America on the Move,
1950-1960
355
360
74
II
445
The Mining Boom
450
Growth of Cities, 880- 900 473
Conquering Distance Overseas 482
From Across the Pacific to
the Atlantic Coast
482
Conquering Distance
Across the West
483
495
Labor Strikes. 870- 900
Agricultural Regions, 1900
498
1
739
940
Normandy
890
71
Invasion of France,
1941-1945
1865-1871
African American Population
The West Before the

Civil
German
I93I-I94I
345
345
345
The North Before the

Civil
382
Aid for Freedpeople,
Women's
340
Compromise
Japanese Expansion,
676
698
736
736
1935-1941
377
the West,
National Parks
African American Population,
1850
in
The Dust Bowl, 1930s

German and Italian Expansion,
Ethiopia
1861-1863
Roads, Canals, and Railroads,

Missouri
the East,
1870-1893
159
in
Indian Reservations and
Ratification of the Constitution
366
Confederacy, 1861
1862-1863
The Final Campaigns,
1864-1865

Western Land Claims,
1781-1802
The Northwest Territory
West,
West,
361
112
114
Tennessee Valley Authority
War
The War
129
The
The
The
The
The
The
Civil
361
105
Battle of Saratoga
by State
Civil
The War
French and Indian War,
1754-1763
Quebec Act of 1774
Lexington and Concord
The Fight for Independence,
War
57
69
75
673
The Global Depression

Unemployment Relief
Land Use, 1910
Island
Sphere, 1991
CONTENTS
971
976
981
XVII
I?
M^m oyer
's
The American Nation begins every chapter with a
drawn from seven broad themes
questions. These questions are
American
set
of theme
central to
history: global relations, our Constitutional heritage, democratic val-
ues, technology
society, cultural diversity, geographic diversity,
and
nomic development. They provide

chapter. This context will help
cal events
how
and see
and eco-
a context for the historical events in each
you understand the connections between
histori-
past events are relevant to today's social, political, and
economic concerns.
As you begin each
own
based on your
you
will be
asked to answer another
critical
you have
examine the theme questions and answer them
experiences or prior knowledge. At the end of each chapter,

set
thinking skills and encourage you to synthesize the information
learned. In addition, by tracing the
be able to see
how each theme
GLOBAL RELATIONS
which
the United States exists.
themes through the book, you
will
has developed over time.
government. The Constitutional Heritage theme
This theme asks you to explore the global context

in
of theme questions, this time using spe-
from studying the chapter. This process will help you
cific facts learned
develop
chapter,
From
its settle-
questions ask you to think about the origin of the
Constitution
and the
ways
in
which the
amended
ment by Asian immigrants tens of thousands of
Constitution has been interpreted and
years ago to the
over time. You will explore
and
later
first arrival
Asian immigrants
of European, African,
to today.
America has
ernment
how
the laws and gov-
institutions established in the 18th century
influenced and been influenced by other parts of the
have evolved through amendments. Supreme Court
world. Your exploration of the Global Relations
rulings,
theme
will help
you understand how the relations
the United States has maintained with other countries
over time have affected our nation's
social,
and economic development.
you appreciate the problems and
It
political,
also will help
and congressional actions. Your exam-
ination of this theme will encourage you to

understand the part individuals play
the goals
in
promoting
such as justice and democratic rights
enshrined in the Constitution's preamble.
possibilities of liv-
ing in an interdependent world community.
DEMOCRATIC VALUES
This theme concerns the continuing struggle to
CONSTITUTIONAL HERITAGE
The study of American
history
would not be com-
plete without an exploration of the Constitution,
XVIII
the legal
framework
THEMES
IN
that structures
AMERICAN HISTORY
our democratic
define and protect such democratic values as individual liberty, political representation, freedom of
religion,
and freedom of speech. The Democratic
Values theme questions ask you to consider the
impact of changing social, economic, and political
and English
conditions on these values. For example, in the
for immigrants from
settlers to its status
today as a haven
over the world.
all
years before the Civil War. enslavement of African
Americans
individual liberty
Some
GEOGRAPHIC DIVERSITY
violation of the democratic value of
was
The majestic old-growth
practiced in the South.
slaveholders justified this practice by argu-
forests of the Pacific
Northwest, the rich coal deposits of the Appalachian
of Texas and
ing that the democratic value of right to property
and Rocky mountains, the
should be the overriding concern.
Alaska, and the tropical plantations on the volcanic
war
civil
ratic
and
It
took a bloody
to settle the issue. Conflicts
over democ-
islands of
values recur throughout American history,
this
theme explores the attempts
Hawaii have enriched the U.S. economy.

Diversity theme questions ask you
The Geographic
to consider
at resolution.
oil fields
how
the development of the nation's
diverse natural resources has shaped U.S. society,
TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY
and the economy. The questions also
politics,
From computers
in
communications
satellites orbiting the earth, tech-
your homes and classrooms to
how government and
public awareness of
the effects of natural resource
development on the
explore
nology influences many aspects of society. The
environment has changed over time.
Technology and Society theme questions ask you

to trace technological
their influence
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
developments and explore
on the economy and our
The United States has developed one of the

world's strongest economies. The Economic
lives.
CULTURAL DIVERSITY
Development theme explores
Different ethnic, racial, and religious groups have

all
nation's
contributed to the creation of America's rich
life
and unique culture. The Cultural Diversity theme

questions ask you to explore
how
and on international
tions ask
you
encounters between Native Americans and Spanish
relations.
I'l i i'
and expan-
government regulation, and
the status of workers.
The Chapter Review

theme questions recast
the introductory theme
Chapter Opener
1789-1815
and social
The theme ques-
as trade, depression
sion, poverty, taxation,
first
politics
to explore the implications of such
economic issues
the United States
has dealt with diversity from the days of the
the influence of the
economy on domestic
imjiyju^
Or
iJtf^tMK
questions
A STRONG START
FORTHE NATION
in
terms of
chapter content.
REVIEWING THEMES
1.
How
Constitutional Heritage
does the U.S.
Constitution address possible conflicts between

individual rights
2.
and those of a society?
Economic Development
Describe
how
Hamilton's financial program affected the economy.

3.
Geographic Diversity
In
what ways
did the
Louisiana Purchase provide both benefits and challenges for the United States?
4.
Democratic Values How does

encourage the formation of
democracy
political parties?
from the Chapter Review
THEMES
IN
AMERICAN HISTORY
XIX
and the
Critical thinking
Study of Historfj
throughout
Boyer's The American Nation, you are asked to think critically
about the events and issues that have shaped U.S. history. Critical thinking
judgment of information and
the reasoned
study information to determine
its
who
ideas. People
is
think critically
They evaluate arguments and ana-
accuracy.
lyze conclusions before accepting them. Critical thinkers are able to recognize
and define problems and develop strategies for resolving them.
The development of critical thinking
skills is essential to effective citizen-
empower you
your civic rights and responsibilities.
Such
ship.
skills
For example,
critical
to exercise
thinking skills equip you to judge the messages of candi-
dates for office and to evaluate
Helping you develop
news
critical
reports.
thinking skills
Boyer's The American Nation. The following 14
found
in
thinking skills appear
critical
reviews and chapter reviews. Additional
in the section
an important goal of
is
skills strategies
can be
each unit's Strategies for Success and in the Skills Handbook, which
begins on page 988.
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WRITING A SUMMARY
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STRATEGY FOR SUCCESS

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UNDERSTANDING NAM X>EAS
1.
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PraparaiiTiich
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XX
oa
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molvd few
I.
THMKINC CRmCAa.Y
of )K>unf men and l#t

much o< Europe in
ruins.
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to 5 Scudr cha
from
dutribuied ihe
will,
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ahich
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J M WiMet nowd. The oU ordn
fcMKfted fU
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PileVinc
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REVIEWING CHRONOLOGY
1917.
tkclarint Bniiih tuppon
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CRITICAL THINKING AND THE STUDY OF HISTORY
^
I.
REV1EWMC THEMES
"iilu'li'iT'i
ScxM to dadara
What boorr
Mr
I9l7>
Do
lad (ha
UMaad
you (hMk
US
CRITICAL THINKING
the Americas.
settled
They encountered
a land already
by people with rich cultures.
Recognizing Point of View means

identifying the factors that color the out-
look of an individual or group.
person's point
of view includes beliefs and attitudes that are
shaped by factors such as age, gender, religion,
and economic
race,
This thinking
status.
why people
helps us examine
skill
see things as they
do and reinforces the realization that people's

views
may change
circumstances.
Union mortar battery
over time, or with a change
When
a point of
view
is
in
highly
personal or based on unreasoned judgment,
it
is
considered bias.
Using Historical Imagination

tally
is
Comparing and Contrasting
men-
is
ex-
stepping into the past to consider an
amining events, situations, or points of
time would have
In putting yourself in their place,
you
view for their similarities and differences.

Comparing focuses on both the similarities and
might note whether they lived before or after
his-
the differences. Contrasting focuses on only the
event or situation as people
considered
it.
torical turning points.
Ask
ple live before or after
at the
yourself:
Did these peo-
differences. For example, a
major medical advances
Irish
comparison of early
and Chinese immigrants
to the
United States
such as penicillin? before or after technological
would point out
advances such as the automobile? before or after
to help build the transcontinental railroad
World War
time
II?
knew and
Keep
in
mind what
wounded
in the Civil
was known then about
difficulties in finding
trast,
War, you need to understand that

little
groups were recruited
and
that
both groups faced discrimination and experienced
the people of the
did not know. For example, to grasp
the experience of a soldier
that both
well-paying jobs. In con-
language and racial barriers generally
proved more of
problem for Chinese immi-
grants. Other factors to
the
compare and contrast
could include reasons for immigrating
causes of disease and infection.
to the
United States.
Gaining an Appreciation of Diversity
means viewing
events
ways
and
historical
situations
that are fair
tive to all cultural
affected.
in
and sensi-
groups
multicultural
perspective broadens your
understanding of American
history while deepening your
appreciation of the nation's

diversity.
For example, study-
ing Native American cultures
before the arrival of
Columbus
helps you understand that the
Europeans did not "discover"
Railroad laborers
CR ITICAL THINKING AND THE STUDY OF HISTORY
XXI
example, you might study a
on
this page.
map
such as the one
Analyzing the results
shows how Woodrow Wilson won
state
by
state
a majority in
the electoral college without winning a majority
of the popular vole.
Assessing Consequences means studying an action, an event, or a trend to predict
long-term effects
its
and
to
judge the desirabil-
of those effects. Consequences often are
ity
effects that are indirect and unintended.
They
may appear long after the event that led to them.

An example of assessing consequences is the federal
government's weighing of the positive and
negative elements of a
new drug
cedure before permitting
its
or medical pro-
Consequences
use.
include side effects and other possible risks, as

Struggle at
Identifying
Effect
is
Cause and
part of interpret-
ing the relationships between
historical events.
cause
is
any
action that leads to an event; the
Concord Bridge
well as benefits.
Election of 1912
WILSON'S STRENGTH
Wilson's strength was
in
the South. Although he
won
the electoral vote by a landslide, the only states outside the old Confederacy where
he
won
at least half the popular vote
LOCATION
outcome of that action is an

effect. To explain historical
developments, historians may
Which
were Kentucky, Maryland and Oklahoma.
state split
its
electoral vote?
point out multiple causes and

effects.
For instance, the actions
of the colonists as well as those
of
the
British
government
brought about the American

Revolution, which in turn had
many far-reaching effects. (For a

more detailed discussion of
Identifying Cause and Effect, see
page 989.)
Analyzing is the process

of breaking something
down
into
its
parts
and examin-
ing the relationships between
Popular
Vote
Vote
435*
6.296,547
41.9%
88
4.118,571
27.4
3.486.720
23.2
900,672
6.0
235,025
1.6
Wilson
T.
Roosevelt
Taft
them. Analysis enables you

to better understand the whole.
To analyze
the
outcome of
the
Debs
Other parties
'Two
tkaon m
1912 presidential election, for

XXII
Eleaoral
California
of
HH
HB
Pop. Vote
voied lor Wilson.
Wilson
(Democratic)
1
Kooseveit
(Progressive)
^Hlaft
^^1 (Republican)
1
"^
CRITICAL THINKING
Distinguishing Fact from Opinion

means separating
the facts about something
from what people say about
it.
fact
can be
proved or observed; an opinion, on the other hand,

is
a personal belief or conclusion.
facts
tion
and
and opinions mixed
We
often hear
everyday conversa-
in
as well as in advertising, in political debate,
in historical sources.
can be supported by
do not carry
as
Although some opinions
facts, in
an argument opinions
much weight
as facts. (For a
more
detailed discussion of Distinguishing Fact from
Opinion, see page 990.)
Identifying Values involves recognizing
American
buffalo
the core beliefs that a person or group holds.
Values are more deeply held than opinions and are

less likely to change. Values
matters of right and
commonly concern
wrong and may be viewed
desirable in and of themselves.
freedom and
justice, for
as
The values of
example, motivated the
problem.
fact.
Rather
A
it
is
hypothesis
is
not a proven
an "educated guess" based on
available evidence and tested against

evidence.
historian, for instance,
esize that the Civil
War was
new
might hypoth-
primarily the result
struggle to abolish slavery, just as the value of
of a power struggle between the ruling classes of
equality has been a foundation of the civil rights
the North and the South over control of the
and women's movements.
United States' western
would then organize
Hypothesizing
is
forming
possible
explanation for an event, a situation, or
frontier.
The historian
the evidence to support this
hypothesis and challenge other explanations of

the war's causes.
L.
J.
Cranstone's
painting depicting
a slave auction
XXIII
You would then propose and evaluate possible

solutions or courses of action, selecting the
one you think best and giving the reasons for

your choice.
Evaluating
assessing the significance
is
or overall importance of something, such
as
the success of a
reform movement or
the legacy of a president.
You should base
Mr PRESIDENT
your judgment on
PfFOR
VVHAT
standards that others

will understand
^'LL YOU
DO
and
are likely to share.
An
evaluation of
UFFRAGE
women's
movement, for ex-
the early
ample, might assess

Migrant Mother, photographed by Dorothea Lange
the short- and long-
during the Great Depression
term effects of the

focus on
Synthesizing
is
combining information
and ideas from several sources or points

time to gain a
Much
event.
new understanding of
Nation
synthesis.
is
chronological story of our nation.
Synthesizing the history of the Great Depression,
for
might
example,
involve
photographs and economic
who
of Americans
statistics
with
together
1930s,
Woman
suffragist
It
from many sources
pulls together historical data

a
in
a topic or
of the narrative writing in Boyer's
The American
into
women's
suffrage.
studying
from the
interviews
through
lived
Taking a Stand
is
identifying an issue,
deciding what you think about
it.
suasively expressing your position. Your stand
should be based on specific information. In taking

a
stand, even on controversial
or emotional issues, state
your position clearly and give

reasons to support
the period.
Problem Solving
is
and per-
it.
process of reviewing a
situation and
making deci-
sions and recommendations

for improving or correcting
it.
the
Before beginning, however,

problem must be identified and
stated.
For instance,
in
considering a
solution to the nation's drug-abuse

crisis,
in
you might
problem
terms of the relationship of
drug addiction
XXIV
state the
to violent crime.
Progressive reformer
Robert M. La Follette
PAUL BOYER
To
the
Reader of Boyer's The American Nation
When
studied
David
American
Muzzey.
S.
history in high school,
My teacher called him
style, but his history
was
limited.
a textbook by a historian
Muzzey wrote
"'Fuzzy Muzzey."
He focused mainly on
in a lively
and
the British Isles or northern
far richer in social texture, including not just elites but all
is
named
politicians, military leaders,
whose ancestors had come from
other notables, most of them white males
Europe. Today's history
we used
Americans:
and women. Native Americans, and immigrants from Europe, Latin America, Africa, Asia, and
men
all
other parts of the world.
my
But
introduction to history did not
learned history from grandparents
Grandfather Boyer once told
me how
My father remembered World War

beliefs against war. he
was forced
I.
who
with herbs. Aunt
family
line.
These are
But why study history

without
vital
and
memory
is
of those
I
far
we have
this
book
1894, told
probe and explore. This
But above
all,
American
that vivid reality.
first
1870s and 1880s.
My
origins
who
held religious
who
suspected
stories of her grandfather, a 19th-century healer
history,
American Indian ancestor
and they begin
in family
our
in
memories.
is to a nation what memory is to an individual. A person

A society that ignores its past and lives only in the present loses
Through
history
can
tell
we can
us
how
far
we have come
as a nation
see the achievements, as well as the failures,
before.
you a
really
is
lifelong interest in the past. Its
is
the appeal
vital for
aim
is
not to provide
in concrete.
There
is
all
no
and sometimes the frustration of historical research.
them
The experiences of Americans of earlier generations
as our lives are for us. History
When you move beyond the
films and recordings, the past
not something fixed forever
happened." Historians continually find new dimensions of the past to
history can be fascinating.
were as gripping and
in the
History
will help spur for
"what
me
also spoke proudly of an
the answers, but to raise questions. History

single version of
Ohio
Pledge of Allegiance by fellow workers
call civilization. History
yet to go.
who have gone
hope
at all?
sad and tragic.
element of what we
how
Ann
strands of our
all
in
As a young man of German immigrant
to recite the
My Aunt Ann, bom in
ill
a textbook. History begins in stories.
he heard of the assassination of President James Garfield in 1881
him of disloyalty.
treated the
come from
who recalled their childhoods
comes
alive as
textbook to original documents,
comes even more sharply
we
begin to grasp
letters, diaries,
and
alive.
This book brings the story of our national experience near to the present. The next chapter will
be written by you and your generation. As you write that chapter, a knowledge of the past will
provide guidance and perspective.
Sincerely,
Paul Boyer
TO THE READER
XXV
rMmM (^
mû^HH iii
^^''s^^Wkmmm r
m^Chapter
EMPIRES OF THE
AMERICAS 1492-1800
THE WORLD BY
Prehistory -1 500
i^^-Ui.-
^m
1500
\'\ i^"^
rss.
i*-i
<.
vi
UNIT
am
L he first Americans migrated from Asia
to
North America thousands of years ago,
spreading throughout the Americas and

developing distinct cultures. Then in the
1400s,
Europeans began undertaking
voyages of exploration that ultimately led

to
tl
new migrations
Spanish and,
later,
to the
Americas. The
the English built
empires in the lands they claimed. In the

process, they drove Native
from
their lands
Americans
and established the
practice of enslaving Africans. In the

1700s,
European nations drew
their
colonies into a series of wars. Victorious,
Britain gained control of North
America
east of the Mississippi.
The Towne ofPomeiock, watercolor by John White,
^.:^'
Chapters
^^^^.,

1620-1763
<..:-
'':W
585
Chapter
Prehistory-1500
THE WORLD BY
1500
UNDERSTANDING
THE MAIN IDEA
For thousands of years great
tior)s
rose
and
of these
fell
and the
Asia, Africa,
civiliza-
^roughout Europe,
civilizations
Anêricas.
had
little
Some
or no
contact with one anoêr. During the
Middle Ages, however, people from

diverse cultures increasingly
together to
came
Hade goods. By the
400s
the desire for an all-sea route to Asia

inspired
Europeans to explore beyond
the frontiers of their
known
world.
CULTURAL DIVERSITY
In
what ways might
a culture be
affected by contact with other
cultures?
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT How might extensive

contact with other societies
both benefit and harm a society's
economic development?
TECHNOLOGY AND
SOCIETY What
impact might
technological advances have
on
trade and exploration?
.3500
Rise of farming
in
desert
Southwest.
C.I
000
B.C.
Kush founded.
A.D. 6
Muhamniad
founds Islam.
1096
Crusades begin.
1324
1498
Mansa Musa
makes pilgrimage
Vasco da
to Mecca.
to India.
Gama
sails
World maps of the 1400$ showed only three coritinents
BLINK TO THE fUrURE
Africa, Asia,
and Europe. Many Europeans had some idea of the geography of

Africa
and Asia and had probably heard fabulous
many Africans and
continents' riches. Likewise,
other and of Europeans. Until the late 1400s,

that two other inhabited landmasses
his chapter
book.
Why
Age
knew of each
however, few knew
Asians
the Americas existed.
may seem an odd way
discuss the Ice
to begin an
who
hunters
North America tens of thousands of years ago?

their descendants,
who wove
over two continents?

the
Why
about the
stories
American
history
crossed from Asia to
Why
a tapestry of Native
tell
the story of
American
cultures
examine Europe, Asia, and Africa during
Middle Ages?
We
before the time of written records,
start in prehistory,
because American history
more than
is
and economic changes.
politics,
It is
a chronicle of wars, laws,
the story of a continent and
its
people and their rich cultures. That story begins with the Ice
Age
hunters
the
first
Americans
and
their Native
American
descendants.
We
focus on Europe, Asia, and Africa in the Middle Ages
in order to
Europe was
In 1492,
free of
understand what drove early explorers into the unknown.
its
dawn
at the
geographic isolation.
of a
new
age, ready to break
'vat,ona,^,3
As Europeans reached out

beyond
their borders, they
met
Asians and Africans engaged

in trade.
in
this
The
desire to share
trade
launched
Europeans on a remarkable
journey of exploration that
eventually brought them to
the shores of the Americas.
World
Incan ruins at
Machu
Picchu, Peru
THE
WORLD
BY
500
Sect ion
PEOPLING THE AMERICAS
c u s
When and how did the first people arrive in the Americas?
How did the changing environment influence the first Americans?
What were some of the effects of the Agricultural

What do the five themes of geography explore?
fong after Europe, Africa,
Revolution?
and Asia were populated,
American continents remained empty of human

frozen lands of the Arctic to the southernmost
lift.
tip
the
From
the
of South
America, no human voice had ever echoed through the

wilderness; no
human foot had ever left a print
Sometime during the
last Ice
began crossing from Asia
Age, however,
into
men and women
North America. Over
they spread throughout the Americas, adopting
were suitable
that
to the
in the soil.
time,
ways of life
Prehistoric rock carving of
hunter, found
environments they found.
in
Michigan
archaeologists call Paieo-Indians. probably fol-
iHE
FIRST
AMERICANS
lowed animal herds across Beringia
home
Most archaeologists
the scientists
agree
who
or in
how many waves
came
to
Beringia land bridge
toddy
.^^
SIBERIA
^
ALASKA
Shorel:rie
today
during
Ice
Age
flZ
OCEAN
between 12,000 and 50.000
around 10,000 years ago. Some archaeologists
America, and Europe.
believe that
The
beneath the rising waters of the Bering
glaciers locked
much
of the
up so
world's
years ago.
boats or
in winter.
feet.
This drop
in
land bridge
Beringia
between Siberia and

what is now Alaska. The
Americans,
whom
the land bridge disappeared
wooden dugouts
water that the sea level
dred
when
Asian immigrants paddled
dropped by several hun-
first
CHAPTER
for the first arrivals
northern Asia, North
ice,
sea level exposed a wide

S*ioreline'
North America. Estimates place the date
covered much of
of
Shoreline
know exactly when

these men and women
Nor do scientists know whether the

migration ended when the glaciers began to melt
glaciers, or thick sheets
---
North America.
that the first peo-
ple
new
Archaeologists do not
study the
who discovered the vast American wilderness

came from Asia during the last Ice Age, when
remains of past cultures
in
to their
Why
is it
to
America
Strait.
in skin
or walked across the ice
not possible to talk with certainty
about the Paleo-Indians? With no written records to

guide them, archaeologists must rely on
animal remains and on

tools, pots,
artifacts
and jewelry for
human and
such as weapons,
clues.
The methods
for
analyzing these clues are not precise. Thus.
scholars can painl a broad picture

cultures, but details are often
Paleo-lndian
ot"
beyond
Fern
fossil
their grasp.
^'^'^r
^'^' y^-'
r.;X'''-'^:-!:^^J^f^-
'^
'.
-y'-''
Most scholars agree that during

the
last Ice
Age, the first Amerfrom Asia to North
icans crossed
America by way of a land bridge

called Beringia.
JLlFE IN
A NEW LAND
Archaeologists have learned that the PaleoIndians brought with them skills that were well
ings, of their
make
fire
Coniferous and broadleaf forests spread over
environment, or physical surround-
suited to the
new homeland. They knew how
and how
to find
food and shelter
to
in a
much
of the land between the foothills of the
Rockies westward
some soaring more than 150
harsh environment.
trees,
The Paleo-Indians were hunter-gatherers

who stalked whatever game their stone-tipped
ground, grew
weapons could
mals.
kill
-bears, bison, and other mam-
The animals provided them with food
as well
weeks of summer, when the vegetation of the tundra briefly flourished, the Paleo-Indians gathered
roots, berries,
and other edible
plants.
Like other
hunter-gatherers, they lived as nomads,
moving
in the north.
To
fir
above the
feet
the south, in present-
day northern California, there were forests of red-
woods, with some trees

diameter and as
tall
as large as
30 feet
in
as a 30-story building.
way
Farther south, the coastal forests gave
and skins for clothing. In the few
as with furs
Giant
to the Pacific coast.
to
scrub forests of small trees and bushes. This land-
scape contrasted starkly with the bare desert of what

is
today the southwestern United States and northern
Mexico. There, only
cacti, sparse grasses,
and small
from place to place in search of food. They

camped in caves or beneath rock overhangs on the
hardy plants could survive in the dry climate.
vast treeless plains of the tundra.
present-day southern
Mexico and Central America
as well as northern
and eastern South America.
The changing environment.

between 10,000 and 5000
B.C.. the
Americas grew hotter and
drier.
Sometime
climate of the
America, giving way

stretch of scrub forest
appeared to the
pine,
as
first
much
to a vast
through
region were the majestic Andes Mountains,
as
North America.
trees
what
is
today southern Florida, lush
the climate
moved
many thousands of
changed, groups of Paleo-Indians slowly

south. In a migration that took
of the area between the Mississippi
River and the Rocky Mountains became

land where
Cultural adaptations. As
years, they spread throughout the Americas.
vegetation thrived.
Much
broken
west
desert. Cutting
higher than the Appalachian Mountains of eastern
trees
of North America east of the Mississippi
swamp
in the far
and
European explorers (see map
Conifers
fir,
River. In
of central South
with peaks reaching 20,000 feet and foothills rising
as they
such
evergreen
and spruce and broadleaf
such
oak, hickory, and maple eventually covered
6).
this
much
must have
leaving the continents
on page
Flat grasslands covered
This climatic
change dramatically transformed the landscape,
much
Tropical forests dominated the landscape of
tall
prairie grasses
in places
meadow-
and flowers grew,
by cottonwood
trees
marking
courses of rivers. Closer to the mountains, mead-
ows gave way
to the flat, treeless lands of the
Great Plains. The Rockies, a snow-covered range

with peaks rising more than 10,000
the western edge of the Great Plains.
feet,
marked
Fish fossil
THE
WORLD
BY 1500
Americas Landscape Map

CLIMATE
KB
The type of vegetation that
PLACE
is
found
Which vegetation regions found
in
in
a region depends largely on
its
climate.
North America are not widely found
in
South America?
ARCTIC OCEAN
'J^f
Bering
Strait
Dwarf shrubs, grasses, and lichens of the

tundra are able to survive the severe
winten and short growing season, which
in
some areas
only two weeks.
is
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
Mixed forests include both coniferous
trees
and broadleaf
trees,
which shed
their leaves in winter. These forests
Gulf of
Mexico
Tropic
o^Caotef
support a wide vanety of animal
Scale at
equator
500
1.000
MilM
Water-conserving cacti and thorny

shrubs grow
SOO
PACIFIC
the deserts of south-
in
Azimuihal
OCEAN
western North America.
1,000 Klkxneters
EqiiaJ
fw* Proiectio "
Equator
w~
ram
largest
torest
the
SOUTH
AMERICA
wonas
supports a remarkable
number
of plant species.
Tropical forest
Desert
Scrub forest
Grassland
Coniferous forest
Broadleaf forest
A vast grassland
huge herds
Mixed forest
Tundra
in
North America was
of buffalo.
which means "plains"
in
across northern South
Amenca. To the south,
Spanish, also stretched
no
Argentina's grasslands, ailed
onginally covered with trees.
or
to
Grasslands called llanos,
vegetation
Little
home
pampas, were
sow
CHAPTER
life.
20N
These men and

wildlife.
women
found lands rich
formed fast-flowing rivers and huge lakes teeming

with
Musk-oxen, reindeer, mammoths, and
fish.
giant bison
the hills
roamed
the vast lowland regions, while
and mountains abounded with saber-
toothed tigers, mountain lions, and bears.
Many
Eventually the
in
Water from the melting glaciers had
of the Paleo-Indians throughout North
game
mammoths and
other big
died out. perhaps hunted to extinction.
Consequently, the Paleo-Indians had to develop
new
skills to help
environment. The
them adjust
to the
men and women
changing
of the eastern
woodlands, for example, burned large areas of

forest to make it easier to spot and
game such as rabbit and deer. They
track small
also broad-
America and Central America hunted with spears
ened their food-gathering activities to include
Named
trapping fish and birds and collecting a wider
armed with stone
New
after Clovis.
first
tips called
Clo\
points.
is
Mexico, where archaeologists
variety of plants.
found them, these points were more effective
against large
wildlife
game
than earlier spear
tips.
Abundant
and an effective method of hunting pro-
vided a plentiful and reliable supply of food for the

Paleo-Indians.
The
Paleo-Indians responded to
changing
environment by
the
adapting their hunting and
gathering methods.
4 The
Imperial Mammoth was

one of several species of elephants
that inhabited Europe, Asia, and
North America during the Ice
Age.
Paleo-Indians used spears
Clovis points to hunt large
points ranged
one and a
in size
armed with
game. Clovis
from approximately
half to five inches.
4 inches = actual size
THE
WORLD
BY 1500
The agricultural revolution

The most revolutionary change made by Paleowas
Indians. however,
from hunting and
the shift
gathering to the domestication, or adaptation and

control, of plants
and animals. This
worldwide as the big game died
occurred
shift
out. first in Africa,
Asia, and Europe, and finally in the Americas.
Some historians speculate that the first peomove from gathering seeds to planting them
the ground were women. Because women did
ple to
in
they were the most familiar with plants and the
The corn we eat today (left) evolved from

The five cobs at the right
were excavated from Bat Cave, Mexico, and date
most
from as
the bulk of gathering in hunter-gatherer societies,
likely to notice that the seeds that fell to the
ground sprouted new
smaller, earlier hybrids.

far
back as 2000
B.C. to
around
a.d. 250.
plants.
Archaeologists continue to debate the dates
most people practiced subsistence farming
for the spread of agriculture, but they generally
first
believe that people in southwestern Asia had
growing
just
domesticated wheat and barley by 8000
many groups developed
that those in southeastern
by about 6000
first
B.C.
gists
B.C.
and
though,
Asia were growing
rice
as using animals to pull
No one knows
Americans turned
when
exactly
the
to farming, but archaeolo-
have found evidence
by 8000
that
B.C.
com-
munities in Mexico were growing maize (com),
and by 2000
B.C.
people
Andes region were
in the
growing potatoes. By 1500

established throughout
their
for survival.
plows
food production. As a
Asia about 3500
B.C.
Over
the next few thousand
years, this "urban revolution" took place in other

parts of Asia as well as in northern Africa, south-
em
Europe, and the Americas.
With the
B.C.
rise
division of labor.
of cities
came
Some men
learned about farming techniques from their south-
scholars, physicians, priests,
The process of spreading
cultural
practices or beliefs from one group to another
is
Cultivating crops and domesticating animals
grow
own
their
CHAPTER
it
human
down to
possible for
As people
settled
food, small villages formed. At
Paleo-lndians ground maize on

stone slabs, or metates.
cials.
more elaborate
farmed, while others
artisans, soldiers, laborers, merchants,
Women
and govemment
offi-
took on such important tasks as spin-
ning, weaving, baking,
and raising children. As a
result, the basic equality that characterized hunter-
called cultural diff'usion.
and made
popula-
As populations grew, villages gave way to

cities. The first cities appeared in southwestern
became
life
such
that increased
farming was well
Southwest began farming around 3500
populations to increase.
result, village
Archaeologists believe that the desert people
transformed
techniques
time,
tions rose.
Farther to the north, the people of the desert
ern neighbors.
Over
of Mexico, Central
B.C.
much
America, and the Andes region.
enough crops
gatherer and simple farming societies gave

the
development of
men became more

small
number of
social classes. In
most
way
to
societies
powerful than women; and the
priests,
govemment
officials,
and
successful merchants
became more powerful than
describes the position of a
the masses of farmers, laborers, and artisans.
Lake Michigan or
the southwest shore of
The
Agricultural Revolution led

to the rise of cities, an elaborate
division of labor, and the development of social classes.
other
site in relation to
Chicago's relative location might be given as
sites.
as about
355 miles south-southeast of Minneapolis.
Place refers to the physical features and
human
ferent
influences that define a site and
from other
make
it
dif-
areas. Physical features include
landscape, climate, and vegetation.
Human
influ-
ences include land use, architecture, and popula-
HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY
tion size.
Human-environment interaction deals with
Many
to a
terms in this section
may seem
better suited
all
geography book. But history and geography
the
human
the present day.
story
from the
human beings
is
Movement
as they travel,
unfolding drama of people and
events without placing

tings
how
affect their surroundings. Therefore,
to present the
them
services.
To
Geographers
have developed a number of themes to help them

organize information. Five
location, place,
common themes
human-environment
cities.
irri-
This theme
are shaped
by
is
it
their
describes the
way people
interact
communicate, and trade goods and
Movement
includes
human migration
as
well as the exchange of goods and ideas.
in their physical set-
to tell only part of the story.
interact with their
surroundings.
physical
environments influence human events and
which people
shows how people shape and
Geography, especially the branch
how
in
especially important to the study of history since
earliest times to
called cultural geography, describes
ways
gating the land, and building
are closely linked. History describes the events that
make up
the
natural environments, such as clearing forests,
better study and understand the earth,
geographers divide
it
into regions.
Geographers
are
might distinguish one region from another by com-
interaction,
paring physical characteristics, such as landforms
movement, and region.
or climate, or by comparing cultural features like
Location describes a
site's
dominant languages or
position and can
religions.
be expressed in two ways: absolute location and

relative location. Absolute location describes the
The geographic themes
exact point on the earth that a site occupies.
tion, place,
most often presented

tude.
The absolute
ple, is
4r52'
in
It is
interaction,
terms of latitude and longi-
human-environment
movement, and
region explore the interplay
exam8737'
west
north latitude and
location of Chicago, for
betvyêen people and their

environment.
longitude. Relative location, on the other hand,
SECTION
IDENTIFY and
of loca-
REVIEW
explain the significance of the following: Paleo-indians, environment, hunter-gatherers,
domestication, cultural diffusion, subsistence farming.
LOCATE
I.
and explain the importance of the following: Beringia.
MAIN IDEA
Americas?
According to most scholars, when might the
What
first
people have arrived
in
the
route did they probably follow?
MAIN IDEA How did the Paleo-lndians respond to the changing environment?
LINKING HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY What are the five themes of geography? How do
they help explain historical events?
WRITING TO EXPLAIN
Write
changed the structure of ancient
EVALUATING How did
a paragraph explaining
how
the Agricultural Revolution
societies.
the development of the Clovis point alter the culture of the Paleo-
lndians?
THE
WORLD
BY 1500
Section 2
NATIVE AMERICAN CULTURES
c u s
What were the
characteristics of the Aztec and Incan cultures?
Why was there
so
much
variation
among
early
North American
cultures?
Why
do some scholars believe that there was contact between

the Americas and other cultures before the late 1400s?
t_jy 1200
intrigue
B.C. the
Native American societies that would one day
European explorers were already forming.
America and South America, advanced farming

beautiful cities that were
Farther north,
in
what
is
home
now
to tens
In Central
societies created
of thousands of people.
the southwestern United States, fann-
ers built impressive cliff dwellings high
above the desert floor Over
much of North America
the
enabled large groups
support themselves through hunting, fishing,
to
abundance of wild animals and plants

Toltec-carved figurine of
and gathering or by combining
these activities with farming.
VARIED CULTURES
Historians do not
the
Columbus
late 14(X)s
in
The cultures of mesoamerica
know how many people
Americas before the
lived in
arrival of Christopher
1492. Population estimates for the
range from 8.4 million to 112.5 million.
regions of
some of
mated
lation of
first
taken hold
supported the largest populations.

the population of the Western
More
it is
common
Hemisphere may
their descendants as
Native Americans or American Indians. They did

not.
By
however, consider themselves a single people.

the 14(X)s there were probably over
650 groups
living in the Americas, each with a distinct culture
and language.
CHAPTER
the area archaeologists call
was home
the largest of the early cultures.
that at
its
It is
to
esti-
height the region boasted a popu-
some 25
who
million
shared a
common
cultural heritage.
The Olmecs and the Mayas.

great
to refer to the early peo-
Americas and
ple of the
than half
in these regions.
Today
Mexico
Mesoamerica. or Middle America
Historians do know, however, that the areas where
Mexico, Central America, and the Andes region
10
Central America and the southern and central
the Agricultural Revolution had
have lived
plumed serpent QuetzalcoacI
Mesoamerican culture was
Olmecs, who thrived on the

lands along the Gulf of
400
it
it
first
that of the
fertile coastal
Mexico from about
B.C. Historians call
Mesoamerica because
The
low-
200
to
the mother culture of
so strongly influenced
later societies.
Like the Mesoamerican people
who
followed
them, the Olmecs were farmers. They practiced
Mayan
scholars developed a form of glyph, or
ideograms charac and phonograms
picture, writing that included

ters that
represented ideas
characters that represented words or syllables.
The Mayas
also
improved upon Olmec farm-
ing techniques. For example, they developed an

intricate
water-management system
that ensured a
steady supply of water even during the dry season.
This allowed the Mayas to produce more food and

support a larger population. In Guatemala the great
ceremonial center Tikal (tl-KAHL)
with
its
six
magnificent temple-pyramids and more than 3,000
The Olmecs carved these jade and serpentine

and buried them at La Venta. The figures
were found in this arrangement.
other structures
figures
some 100,000
By
is
believed to have been
slash-and-bum agriculture: toward the end of the
Olmecs
tions of the jungle.
cut
down and burned
Then, before the rainy season
came, they planted maize, beans,

squash in the ash-enriched
Olmec farms
sec-
chili peppers,
earth.
Mayan
Olmec
civilization declined.
Toltecs and the Aztecs.
tury before the
In the cen-
Mayas' decline, invading groups
priests probably
Adopting the customs of the peoples they con-
Monuments
quered, the Toltecs built a great city-state at Tula in
officials,
used the
mound
at these
centers also included large stone heads
as a place of worship.
central
Olmec rulers.
Excavations of Olmec sites have revealed that
the Olmecs worshipped many gods
who were
usually portrayed with a combination of human and
animal features and that the Olmec played a form
of the sacred ball game, which became an impor-
beheved
the
which stood
center included a raised courtyard on
pyramid of packed
As
why
with the Olmec, archaeologists are unsure
from the north descended upon the Valley of

Mexico. About a.d. 900, one of these groups, the
Toltecs (TOHL-teks), came to dominate the area.
government
merchants, and artisans lived. The ceremonial
Over time
they merged with other cultures in the area.
The
soil.
priests,
their other cities.
and
usually surrounded a large cere-
monial center where
to
about a.d. 900, however, the Mayas had
abandoned Tikal and
dry season, the
home
people.
to portray
Mexico. Under the leadership of a warrior
class, the Toltecs gradually
extended their domain.
During the 12th century, however, internal con-
weakened
flicts
soon
fell to
the Toltec empire.
As
a result,
it
invading groups from the north.
tant feature of later
They
Mesoamerican
civilizations.
also developed the beginnings of a calendar
and writing.
B.C., for
to archaeologists, the
reasons that are unclear
Olmec
civilization
However, the Olmec way of
enced others
in
life
began
had
to
influ-
Mesoamerica. The Mayas, who
rose to prominence about a.d. 300, were probably

the direct descendants of the
flourished for
more than 500
Olmecs. The
Maya
years, primarily in
present-day Mexico and Guatemala.
The Mayas improved upon the Olmecs'

accomplishments. Mayan astronomers developed a
calendar that was more accurate than the one used
in
Europe.
This photograph shows part of the ruins of the

ancient Toltec city of Tula in the present-day state
of Hidalgo, Mexico. The inset shows one of the
pillars
About 400
fade.
Mayan mathematicians
devised a num-
ber system that included zero long before
Europeans adopted the concept from the Arabs.
atop the ruin.
The conquerors of
among
a great
Within 35 years the Incas controlled an immense
themselves
realm that covered much of present-day Chile,
the Aztecs,
until
one group,
emerged
victo-
Although they were
rious.
warrior society,
the
Aztecs, or Mexicas, as they
Peru, Bolivia, and Ecuador. Until the arrival of the
Spanish,
Americas
people
down and adopted

ways of
They
the
the local people.
built their capital,
Tenochtitlan (tay-nav/ch-
tee-TLAHN)
the
Aztecs created artwork

with colorful figures and
glyphs, such as this piece
depicting the rain god TIaloc
was
largest empire
the
with an estimated
who spoke more
their subjects to
their labor.
and
Like
With
pay
tribute, but they did require
this labor they filled their
many
other advanced agricultural soci-
classes.
The working
laborers,
city
the noble class

priests, teachers,
military leaders, and
dominate Aztec
government
life.
supreme
boring kingdoms. Over a period of two centuries,

the Aztecs gained control of an empire of five mil-
silver,
The Aztecs demanded
officials.
At the top was the
Huge, well-trained Aztec armies conquered neigh-
lion people.
the
Above them was
hundreds of
mated population of 300,000.

to
the
bulk of Incan society.
buildings, an elaborate system of canals, and an esti-
Warfare continued
strict social
farmers,
made up
class
and artisans
Eventually Tenochtitlan
with
armies
and the thou-
Incan society was organized into
eties,
in Lake
Texcoco (tay-SKOH-koh).
into a magnificent
six to nine million
sands of miles of roads that linked their empire.
on an island
grew
the
in
than 20 languages.
built palaces, temples, bridges,
of
site
present-day Mexico City
it
Unlike the Aztecs, the Incas did not force
called themselves, settled
campaign of expansion and conquest.
the Toltecs fought
Incan silver llama
tribute in gold,
the
ruler,
"Sapa Inca," who represented the Sun God.
with gold trim
and precious stones from those they con-
quered.
They
also took thousands of captives as
sacrifices to their
war god, Huitzilopochtli (wee-
religion.
Incas of South America, like
of Mesoamerica,
tsee-loh-POHCH-tlee).
Human
The
their contemporaries the Aztecs
sacrifice
was
central to the Aztec
The Aztecs believed
that the
were empire
builders.
world had
been destroyed four times, each time by the death

of a sun. To keep the present sun from dying, the
Aztecs sacrificed captives to nourish

time of the Spanish conquest
it.
in the early
By
the
1500s,
thousands of prisoners had been sacrificed on
t ARLY CULTURES OF
NORTH AMERICA
The population of North America was too small
and spread over too large an area
Tenochtitlan's altars.
of the size found
eties
America.
The incas of south America
Few groups
in
to support soci-
Mesoamerica and South
north of Mesoamerica
num-
bered more than a few thousand people. But

because tribes living
in the
same region made
Mesoamerica were developing,
similar adaptations to the environment and often
similar advances were taking place in South
traded with one another, they generally shared
America. Farming cultures arose on the Pacific
many
coastal plains, in the high valleys of the Andes,
southwestern region and peoples in the eastern half
and along the upper Amazon. By the mid- 1400s
of the present-day United States developed distinct
one group, the Incas, had gained control of the
regional cultures.
As
the cultures of
characteristics.
For example, peoples
in the
whole region.
The Incan
state,
based
Cuzco (KOO-skoh). high

in the 11th century.
12
CHAPTER
in the capital city of
in the
Andes, was founded
Around 1440,
the Incas began
Southwestern cultures.
Native Americans
who
and deserts of the
settled in the barren hills
Southwest began
to cultivate
maize and other
OW
SACRED OR SCIENTIFIC
and the objects buried with
them
Early Native Americans
customs
ticed a variety of burial
and
rituals
prac-
to honor their dead.
The Navajos,
for example,
unknown. For example, the

amulets (charms), prayer
with the deceased so that they
religious
would be content
Indians.
graves and not return to haunt

living.
their
dead
The Hurons placed

mass graves
in
with beaver robes and
encouraged the
living
life
light
turbed.
bones
to exist
in
traditions.
skeletons
even those
provide
cal
They
of
show
diseases.
unearthed and even destroyed
effects of diet, pollution,
also
single
Mexico
There
asks:
Why
"Why
not dig up
a growing respect
is
American point
for the Native
of view. Through recent lawsuits,
some
the
Native Americans have
succeeded
and
other factors on health. This
artifacts are
New
everybody's ancestors?"
many
these burial sites have been
for
in
a physi-
record tracing the develop-
ment and spread
As an attorney
an American Indian tribe
out Indians?
that are
centuries old
believe that
a disregard for their cultural
Researchers also argue
Bones
They
dis-
excavation of the sites shows
made.
human
sites are
sacred places not to be
can promote medical research.
Over the years many of
bones and
Americans, the burial
on the
of early American
that analyses of
harmony.
as
But to many Native
kinds of foods they ate and the
lined
gifts.
their departed relatives'
from our conclusions."
sticks,
Other objects show the
utensils they
They believed that mingling
one
"Indians living today," argues
anthropologist, "stand to benefit
and figurines found buried with
their
useful in prevent-
is
and treating diseases today.
might otherwise remain
the corpses shed
the
ing
Native American cultures that
buried treasured possessions
in
information
much about
reveals
SITES?
in
obtaining the
return of their ancestors'
removed from graves for
remains for reburial. They have
research. This practice has led
also successfully applied political
to a bitter conflict between
pressure to close
some American
exhibits displaying certain Indian
Indians and the
anthropologists and archaeologists
relics.
To these researchers,
grave sites are
American
been assisted
doing the digging.
windows
in
museum
Indians have
their efforts by
the Native American Grave

Protection and Repatriation Act,
into
history that provide a glimpse
which Congress passed
of past cultures and clues to
The act requires federally funded

museums to grant Indian tribes
changes
in
peoples' ways of
life
over time. Researchers argue

that studying skeletal remains
Bowl from a
New Mexico
crops about 3500 B.C. Their farming methods, pottery styles,
and social practices show very strong
Mesoamerican influences.
One
in
the opportunity to retrieve
burial site In
selected items.
later called these
huge buildings pueblos
(villages).
Each pueblo housed not only farmers but also

Archaeologists believe that a crisis of some
uh-SAHZ-ee). Between a.d. 800 and 1100 the
kind caused the Anasazi to abandon their
Anasazi began to construct multistory rock and
nities.
many
some containing
these
as
rooms served
nestled against cliffs and
many
990.
weavers, potters, builders, and storytellers.
of these groups was the Anasazi (ahn-
adobe dwellings
as
800 rooms. Some of
as living quarters
and others
as
ceremonial centers, or kivas. Spanish explorers
By
the mid- 1400s they
as a distinct people. Researchers believe,

that the
commu-
had ceased
to exist
however,
Anasazi were probably the ancestors of the
Pueblo Indians,
whom
the Spanish encountered in
the 1500s.
THE
WORLD
BY 1500
13
The Anasazi
built their
These ruins are located
in
homes against cliffs to provide defense against enemies.

Mesa Verde National Park in Colorado.
Eastern cultures. The Adena and Hopewell

cultures of the eastern woodlands and the
Valley, the Mississippian culture spread out to
Mississippian culture of the Southeast combined
occupy much of the Southeast and Midwest. Huge
hunting and gathering with farming to support
temple mounds, resembling Mesoamerican pyra-
rel-
the Hopewells,
who domi-
nated the eastern region for about 1.700 years, are

often called the
Mound
in the
lower Mississippi River
mids, dominated their villages. The largest
atively large populations.
The Adenas and
Beginning
Builders because of the dis-
Mississippian settlement was located
(kuh-HOH-kee-uh). near present-day
extended
six miles
at
St.
Cahokia
Louis.
It
and contained 85 burial and
tinctive earthworks they created. Originating in the
temple mounds, the largest of which covered 16
Ohio River Valley about 1000
acres and stood
Adenas
eventually occupied an area extending from
present-day Kentucky to
New
York. About 300
however, the Hopewells began

out of the region.
the area until the
ture replaced
it
B.C.. the
to
The Hopewell
B.C..
push the Adenas
culture
dominated
more advanced Mississippian
cul-
about a.d. 700.
By
more than 100
A.D. 1200. Cahokia's population
have numbered about 40.000.

a
feet high.
network of trade routes
Great Lakes
to the
Its
may
rulers controlled
that stretched
from the
Gulf of Mexico and into
Mesoamerica. Perhaps because of climate changes

or crop failures, the Mississippians
Cahokia during the 1200s. but

ued
to flourish
abandoned
their culture contin-
elsewhere for several centuries.
There was
American
great variety
in
North
cultures, in large part
because of the effect the environment had on diet, housing, and

social structure.
y\/0RTH AMERICAN
CULTURE AREAS
By the time of European contact, the Native
American population of North America was
The Adenas and Hopewells built elaborate earthen mounds
the shape of animals as burial places for their dead. This
aerial photograph shows the Great Serpent Mound, near
present-day Hillsboro, Ohio.
in
14
CHAPTER
divided into hundreds of different groups

large as the earlier
mound-building
none
societies.
as
For
the purposes of comparison, scholars often organize
Native American Culture Areas

CULTURAL DIVERSITY
They thrived
in
lush woodlands,
By 1500 Native Americans occupied every corner of the Americas.
vastly different geographic settings: frozen tundra, mountains, dry grasslands, deserts,
and
tropical forests.
H HUMAN-ENVIRONMENT
INTERACTION
Scholars often group Native Americans into
broad culture areas based on geographic location. They do
Why
influences a people's culture.
because they believe that environment
this
might environment influence culture?
ASIA
170E
ARCTIC OCEAN
180'
UNINHABITED
--^
now ^,
LAND
INUIT
PACIFIC
160"W
30"W
OCEAN
150"W
SLAVE
Arrtic
40W
140W
Hudson
Bay
BEAVER
Subarctic
SWAMPY
Northwest Coast
CREE
Plateau
PLAINS CREE
"KALISPEl
FCOLUMBIA
SPOKANE
AMERICA
NORTH
Great Plains
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California
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ESSELEN
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BANNOCK
WESTERN
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Circum-Caribbean
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SEMINOLE
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CALUSA
Gulf of Mexico
Tenochtitlan
ATLANTIC
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JTikal
%s:>.
OCEAN
T'aino-_
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Valley of
opan
Mexico
Yucatan
ISLAND
CARIB
Peninsula
Equator
CARIBBEAN SEA
pi-/ef,^-.
70W
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Picchu
MESOAMERICA
SOUTH
AMERICA
^'^^Cuzco
itfN
PACIFIC
OCEAN
T'
/(SjSa~--
SOUTH AMERICA
500
1,000
1,000
2,000 Milei
1,000 Kilometers
Azimuthal Equal-Area Projection
Equator
2,000 Kilometers
Lambert Equal-Area Projection
10O*W
THE
WORLD
BY 1500
15
of geographical location and shared characteristics:
Most scholars also believe that about a.d.IOOO.

Vikings Scandinavian people from Sweden.
Northwest Coast: coastal dwellers;
Norway, and Denmark
these groups into broad cultural areas on the basis
fishers; devel-
American coast
oped complex culture

Plateau: river dwellers; primarily fishers; rela-
low population
tively
Northeast: forest dwellers; primarily huntergatherers, but also fanners and tlshers
Great Basin: desen basin dwellers; primariK gatherto barren surroundings;
low population
California: desert, mountain, river, or coastal
Despite this consensus, however,
little
many
impact on Native American cultures. These
elements, such as the cultivation of
Southwest: canyon, mountain, and desert dwellers;
nomadic hunters
com
or similar
use of the wheel, that might indicate extensive

contact.
Other scholars. howe\er.

betw een American
gatherers and tlshers
common
scholars point to the lack of important
dwellers depending on location; primarily
either farmers or
Vinland (most likely present-
scholars assume that contacts were rare and had
hunters after introduction of the horse
due
the North
day Newfoundland, Canada) nearly 500 years

before Columbus.
Great Plains: grassland dwellers; nomadic buffalo
ers
at
reached
artifacts
insist that similarities
and those of other world
cultures suggest that significant transoceanic contacts
did occur. For example, both Indian potter> found in
Southeast: river-valley duellers; primarily farmers,

but also hunter-2atherers and fishers
the Pacific Northwest and that found in
Ecuador
bear striking resemblance to Japanese potten. dating
from the same

designs of
historical period. Furthermore, the
some Olmec
sculptures and the likeness
Commentary
between Mesoamerican and Eg>ptian p\ramids have
Cultural Contacts
to
led
Did Native Americans develop

tures in isolation, or
tacts
that
Asians probably continued to cross the Bering
North America for thousands of years
after the land bridge disappeared.
that ships plying the Atlantic
They
also accept
and Pacific oceans
misht have been blown bv storms
to the
Americas.
SECTION
IDENTIFY and
LOCATE
to suggest that .Africans
ma\ ha\ e \ o\ aged
in prehistoric times.
their varied cul-
were they influenced by con-
with the outside world? Most scholars agree
Strait into
some
Mesoamerica
Native American artifacts have

led some scholars to argue that
there was early contact between
the Americas and other world
cultures, while other scholars
insist that the lack of social similarities argues against interaction.
REVIEW
explain the significance of the following: Mesoamerica, Olmecs. glyph, Mayas, Toltecs.
and explain the Importance of the following: Mexico. Guatemala,
TIkal. Tenochtltlan. Peru,
Cuzco, Cahokia.
1.
2.
3.
MAIN IDEA How were
the Aztec and Incan cultures similar?
MAIN IDEA Why was there great variety in early North American cultures?
GEOGRAPHY: MOVEMENT How do the AnasazI and Mound Builder societies
provide evidence
of the spread of Mesoamerican culture?

4.
WRITING TO DESCRIBE
You are an archaeologist
investigating the possibility of prehistoric
contact between the Americas and other continents. Write a brief report describing the types of
evidence you might look for and

5.
SYNTHESIZING What were
how
that evidence might be interpreted.
the general traits of the early cultures of Mesoamerica, South
America, eastern North America, and southwestern North America?
CHAPTER
Section 3
EUROPE
c u
What led
IN
THE MIDDLE AGES
s
to the rise and
fall
of feudalism?
How did the Crusades affect European society?

What was the Renaissance?
What factors led to the rise of nations in Europe?
^hefall of the Roman Empire

cultural turmoil in Europe.
A.D.
in the fifth
century A.D. led to
During the Middle Ages (roughly
500-1500), Europe transformed
itselffrom
a warring
group of small, isolated kingdoms operating under a
strict
class system to a continent of powerful trading nations.
14th-century
Italian
moneylenders
and borrowers
feudalism. The nobles pledged their military assis-
The early middle ages
tance and their loyalty to the rulers in return for

land and protection.
By
500 the once-powerful Roman Empire
A.D.
in ruin in
by nomadic
In
its
tribes
from northern Europe and Asia.
place arose a multitude of small warring king-
doms. Within a few centuries most of the wonders

of the
Roman Empire
learning
disappeared.
its
Its
vast network of roads
into disrepair. Cities shrank
lawlessness
made
laws, literature, and

fell
and trade slowed as
travel dangerous. Fields
The land
lay
western Europe, victim of repeated attacks
noble received was called a
manor. Each manor was
a self-sufficient estate,
which included a manor house, pastures,

a village.
were
Most of those who
serfs,
lived
men and women bound
their labor. Serfs
were required
to
and
fields,
on the manor
to the land
work
by
their lord's
land in exchange for a share of the crops they grew
and for protection from attack by outsiders.
went
unplanted as peasants fled from the invaders.
Among
the Vikings.
the
most feared of the attackers were
These skilled seafarers sailed thou-
sands of miles to raid and colonize. About a.d. 800

the Vikings
Ireland.
By
moved
into northern
the early 900s
settled in
where they were

and others had ventured west
northern France
Normans
England and
many had
called
to Iceland
and Greenland.
The
rise of feudalism.
To combat the
many European rulers
under a system known as
Vikings and other invaders,
enlisted the aid of nobles
grain
This scene from a medieval calendar shows serfs reaping

in the fields.
THE
WORLD
BY
500
17
The
collapse of the
status
Roman
lived in small
Empire and the continued threat
sisted
of invasion led to the develop-
ment
was passed on
Feudal society operated under a rigid class

system. At the top of society was the noble class.
The
role of the church. Most of
spent their days managing their estates,
tions of influence
by inheriting land from male
in
the people
Europe had no sense of national
and
few people ever traveled more than 25
awareness of the outside world.
little
miles from their homes. Life centered around the

rel-
in their early
the church.
The Roman Catholic church,
They spent
was
days directing the servants
Few
In fact,
manor and
Most noblewomen married
teens and generally had large families.

their
with some
identity
hunting, or engaging in battle.

the power, although
ale,
beyond age 40.
living in feudal
Men held most of

some women obtained posi-
serfs
cottages. Their diet con-
mainly of soup, bread, and
serfs lived
atives.
one-room
Most
occasional meat. Life was difficult and short.
of feudalism.
Noblemen
to their children.
the
most important
political
led
by the pope,
and social force
in
such duties as
cooking, cleaning, spinning, weaving, brewing,
medieval Europe. The village church was the center
of social activity for the manor. All of the
and caring for livestock.

important events in a person's
Life for the serfs
was
for nobles.
was more
Most spent
their
difficult than
days
unending
in
took place there.
life
it
men and women worked in

and women had to perform the house-
Parish priests led the mass, conducted baptisms,
weddings, and funerals, and performed acts of
physical labor. Both

the fields,
charity.
On
hold tasks as well. Although the lords received the

largest portion of the crops
many
grown by
also required their workers to pay
was
a wider scale, the
the serfs,
them
Roman
Europe
the only institution in
the traditions of the
Roman
Catholic church
that carried
on
Empire. In monasteries
fees,
and convents, the monks and the nuns worshiped,
such as marriage or inheritance taxes.

studied the scriptures, and preserved the writings
Some
serfs
were able
to obtain their
but most remained tied to the land.
sidered property
freedom,
They were con-
part of the estate
and
of the ancient Greeks and Romans. The medieval
church promoted
art
and culture, leaving a rich
their
heritage of religious music, tapestries, illuminated
manuscripts, and great cathedrals.
Most important,
Roman
the
Catholic
church, under the direction of the pope,

played a leading role
tics
of Europe.
tle
It
in
guiding the poli-
often stepped in to set-
between
disputes
warring
Christian kingdoms, help negotiate
political alliances, or suggest
various courses of action.
Decline of feudalism.
Beginning about 1100, a series
of changes brought about a

gradual end to feudal society.
New
farm equipment
heavy plows
that
such
as
could turn the
A In this 6th-century fresco

by Sodoma, St. Benedict is
shown supervising the
completion of the abbey of
Monteoliveto Maggiore Sienaone of the 12 monasteries he
built in the 6th century.
1
CHAPTER
rich,
marshy
soil
of northern Europe and padded
horse collars that allowed horses to pull heavier

loads
increased
the
amount of land
farmed. Fiu"m laborers could
food to sustain large armies
that
could be
now produce enough
and a growing number
the military strength of the
kingdoms
grew, the Vikings and other invaders were less

likely to attempt to take
get by trade.
by force what they could
Soon trading towns and
cities
replaced manors as the focus of economic activity.
As
a result,
many
The
shift
away from feudalism was
serfs
moved from manors
to
further aided
by the series of wars known as the Crusades.
Between 1096 and
of tow nspeople as well.
As
The crusades and trade
the late 1200s,
Christian crusaders fought

the
Muslims
waves of
for control of
Holy Land, an area of Southwest Asia sacred
to
Jews, Christians, and Muslims. Various groups of
Muslims
followers of Islam,
by the prophet
held the Holy
Muhammad
Land since
the religion
founded
about a.d. 610
had
the 600s. In 1071 the
Muslims
towns, where they could either work for wages or
area
farm rented plots on land surrounding the town.
from Central Asia. Unlike earlier groups, the Turks
fell to
the Seljuk (SEL-jook) Turks,
prevented Christians from visiting the holy city of

Jerusalem.
Feudalism declined because of

new farming technology, the rise
of medieval towns, and the
expansion of trade.
In the First
Christian
Crusade
invaders
Jerusalem and established several kingdoms in the

area.
(The
city
was retaken by Muslims
Viking
and Crusade Routes
CRUSADES
The religious wars for control of the Holy Land introduced Europeans to the riches of
the Arab world and led to
MOVEMENT
in the 11th century,
from Europe captured

in the late
expanded trade.
Which bodies
of water did the English
members
of the Third Crusade cross
to reach Jerusalem?
THE
WORLD
BY 1500
19
1100s. however.)
Though
later
Crusades were
never as successful tor the Europeans, the wars
had important consequences for
merchants
Genoa
trade.
in the Italian city-states
Banks and
of Venice,
towns self-government, and some of them even
trading privileges. Italian traders
organized meetings attended by nobles and the
brought back from the Muslim lands rare spices,
and many other exotic goods. Europeans
fine silks,
The impact of
political
trade helped
change Europe's
and social order. The merchants who
organized trading voyages and the bankers
financed these voyages formed a
the
who
new
who
helped
monarchs decide on
the
taxes and government policies.
The move toward
greater political represen-
was under way even before
tation
the first par-
liament in Europe was called, toward the close of
bourgeoisie (boohzh-wah-ZEE), or
the 13th century. In 1215, for instance. English
They knew
that political stability
for trade to flourish. Feudal nobles,
often fought with one another, could not pro-
vide this stability. However, central government
under
the forerunners of modern
social
class.
was needed
leading people from each town. The delegates

to these assemblies
parliaments
responded by demanding more.
middle
Kings and lords reluctantly granted
their cities.
(jEN-uh-wuh). and Pisa funded the Crusades
in return for
class
The bourgeoisie's support came at a price,

however: they demanded a greater degree of economic and political freedom for themselves and
a strong
king or queen could. Thus the
nobles
who were angered
King John
iting the
to sign the
power of
over new taxes forced
Magna
Carta, a charter lim-
the monarch. In addition to
guaranteeing basic liberties for nobles, the charter

protected trade:
bourgeoisie generally threw their support to the
44
monarchs.
All
merchants
shall
have safe and
secure conduct to go out

into,
of,
and to
come
England ... by land as by v/ater, for
buying and selling by the ancient and
allowed customs, without any unjust
except
in
time of war.
tolls,
99
The Crusades spurred trade,

which led to the rise of the middle class and the introduction of
representative government.
Xhe renaissance
and
In addition to spurring trade
the Crusades also
learning and
promoted a
political reform,
rebirth of
European
known
artistic creativity
as the
Renaissance. During the early centuries of the

Middle Ages, much of Europe had been closed off
from the
intellectually
Crusades helped end

traders brought
jxfjhitcc
\^
of the world. The

Crusaders and
back classical Greek and
works and new ideas
in science,
Roman
technology,
and philosophy from the Byzantine Empire
]^mam^^ tth>^v
Hit
rest
this isolation.
eastern half of the former
art,
(the
Roman Empire) and
from the Islamic world.

Inspired.
The
Seljuk Turks captured the city of Antioch in 1085, but
3 years later. The recapture of

Antioch is the subject of this 15th-century painting by Vincent
de Beauvals.
was retaken by Crusaders
20
CHAPTER
it
European scholars sought
secrets of the physical world.
to learn the
The Catholic Church
encouraged the study of the natural order as one way

of understanding God. The works of classical and
German
of a
printer.
Johannes Gutenberg. His
invention, in the 145()s. of a printing press that
used moveable type made

large
possible to print a
it
number of books quickly
and thus
to spread
ideas far and wide.
Commerce
the Renaissance.
also played a role in promoting
European
cities,
whose banks and
treasuries were overflowing with profits

trade, tried to
from
outdo one another by funding build-
ing projects and by supporting artists. Such
Renaissance
artists as
Leonardo da Vinci and
Michelangelo were supported by wealthy sponsors.
Trade, a renewed
thirst for
knowledge, and the invention of

the printing press helped spark
the Renaissance a rebirth of
European art and learning.
This 16th-century painting shows Muslim

astronomers observing the sky from the tower of
Galata
in
The rise of nations
Constantinople (now Istanbul).
The other
was
Muslim thinkers
also inspired scholars.
Arab
advances in mathematics and the sciences provided

clues to the workings of nature, while
Arab geo-
great transformation of the
the rise of nations. Feudal
Middle Ages
kingdoms, indepen-
dent city-states, and church-controlled lands

slowly gave
way
to national
monarchies in most of
western Europe. Most often these changes were
graphic studies provided pictures of the world
accomplished through years of warfare, and
beyond Europe's borders. Inventions
other times by marriage between royal families.
compass and the astrolabe
used
calculate the positions of the planets
became important
tools for
like the
and
to observe
and the
in Italy in the
Sweden. Poland, and Hungary.

1
4th
century and soon spread to the rest of Europe.
major factor
in this cultural diffusion
By
the 1400s national monarchies existed in Portugal,
France. England. Spain, Denmark. Norway,
stars
world exploration.
The Renaissance began
at
was the work
Among
the first to achieve national unity
during this period were Portugal, France, and
won
England. Portugal, which had
its
indepen-
dence from the Spanish kingdom of

Castile (kas-TEEL) in the 12th century,
was unified under King John
The various
French provinces were unified
under the rule of Louis XI by the
in the early 1400s.
time his reign ended in 1483.
And
England was unified under Henry

VII
in
1485
after
30 years of bloody
fighting.
4 The 12th-century Arab geographer Abu al-ldnsT developed a map

of the world that consisted of many
different sections.
One
section dis-
playing the "Seven Climatic

is
shown
Zones"
here.
THE
WORLD
BY 1500
21
the
ongoing
battle to recapture
Spanish lands from the Moors.
The Reconquista ended

1492.
when Spain
Moors
in
in
defeated the
Granada.
Isabella and Ferdinand
believed that the best
and
way
to
kingdoms
truly unify their
to gain the approval of the
pope
was
to
make Spain
completely Catholic nation by

driving non-Christians from
their lands. In
March 1492
they ordered
Jews
all
to con-
vert to the Catholic faith or
leave Spain.
The action did much
This detail from the
of Granada by Pradllla shows Ferdinand and

Isabella receiving the surrender of the Kingdom of Granada from the
Moors
in
Fall
to
achieve the monarchs" goal of
an all-Catholic Spain. But
1492.
it
carried a price for the country
that
Spain faced a special problem, however.
Portugal. Castile.
Navarre (nuh-VAHR). and Aragon controlled most
of
Peninsula. But
Moors Muslims
who were
from North Africa
held
Four Christian kingdoms
the Iberian
the
originally
the
still
kingdom of Granada
in the
southernmost part
of the peninsula. The Moors, in fact, had controlled
much
of southwestern Europe during the
obvious.
Among
was not immediately
the nearly 150.000 departing
Jews were some of the nation's leading scholars,

bankers, merchants, and government officials.
These people
settled throughout
Europe and the
Muslim world, strengthening Spain's enemies. But

in
1492 Spain's future looked bright as
other European nations in the search for

routes and the riches they
would
it
joined
new
trade
bring.
Middle Ages.
The
when
first
step toward unification occurred
Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand
They did not
II
of
Aragon married
in
kingdoms
1479. but they did quickly join
until
1469.
unite their
forces in the Reconquista (re-kawng-KEE-stah)
Through
REVIEW
explain the significance of the following: feudalism, manor, serfs. Crusades, bourgeoisie.
Magna Carta, Renaissance, Johannes Gutenberg,
LOCATE
and
warfare, monarchies built nations

from feudal kingdoms, independent city-states, and churchcontrolled lands.
SECTION
IDENTIFY and
royal marriages
and explain the importance of the
Reconquista.
followring: Jerusalem. Portugal, France, England, Iberian
Peninsula.
1.
2.
3.
4.
MAIN IDEA What factors led to the rise of feudalism? What factors contributed to its decline?
MAIN IDEA In what ways did the Crusades change political and social life in Europe?
MAIN IDEA What caused the rise of nations in Europe?
WRITING TO INFORM In a short essay, explain what the Renaissance was and describe some of
the technological advances that
5.
TAKING A STAND Were
CHAPTER
to Europeans during the period.
the national monarchies that developed
Europe than the old systems?
22
came
Why
or why not?
in
the Middle Ages better for
Section 4
ASIA AND AFRICA IN THE MIDDLE AGES
c u s
How did Islamic religion and culture spread during the Middle Ages?
How did China become open to world trade?
What role did trade play in the development of African kingdoms?
A, feudalism gave way
to nation-states in
.s
flourished in Asia and Africa.
beyond
Europe, large cultures
When Europeans began
to venture
their borders in search of trade, they encountered a
com-
mercial world dominated by merchants from these societies. As the

different
groups came together, they exchanged ideas and cultural
practices as well as commercial goods. This exchange expanded

the Europeans'
knowledge of the world, stimulated their desire for
more goods, and influenced
the course of world events.

Bronze
figurine of a
flute player
West
Xhe
islamic
Muslim soldiers and merchants

spread their religion and culture
throughout Asia, Africa, and
Europe during the Middle Ages.
world
Trade between Asia and Africa had existed for centuries.
Horses, cloth, and luxury goods from Asia
were exchanged for ivory and gold
from Africa. After 900. much of

trolled
from Benin,
Africa
and
this trade
by Muslim merchants.
Muhammad,
manded
The
slaves
was con-
pursuit of
knowledge flourished
in the
Islamic world during the Middle Ages. In the 10th
and 11th centuries, two Muslim physicians. Razi
the prophet of Islam,
had com-
his followers to convert all nonbelievers
(RAH-zee) and Ibn Sina (iB-uhn SEE-nah). compiled
medical encyclopedias that quickly became the
Muslim armies did

much to spread the faith, many people were drawn
to Islam by merchants. Carrying the Qur'an (kuhran)
the holy book of Islam
Muslim merchants
basis for teaching medicine in the educational cen-
gained from the mathematicians of India, they
preached their religion wherever they
refined the Arabic numeral system and the concept
went. The traders' devotion proved to be as potent
of zero. Muslim geographers used travelers" obser-
by force
if
necessary. Although
tirelessly
weapon
and
sword
in spreading Islamic faith
the late
Middle Ages, vast areas of
as the
culture.
By
Asia. Africa, and Europe had
Muslim empire.
become
part of the
ters
of Baghdad. Muslim scholars excelled
at
math-
ematics and perfected algebra. Using knowledge
vations and astronomical calculations to advance

the art of cartography, or
trade
many of
mapmaking. Through
these advances found their
cultures outside the
Muslim
way
to
world.
THE
WORLD
BY 1500
23
an adventurer and merchant from Venice. Polo
HINA
more than 20 years
spent
and central Asia.

Trade also played a role
China
in
spreading the culture of
For much of
to other parts of the world.
China's early
Himalayas (him-
the towering
historv'.
China
traveling through
In a chronicle about his travels.
Description of the World, Polo wrote of the magnificent
now
Mongol Empire, including
the royal city
called Beijing:
uh-LAY-uhz) of central Asia and the dr>. barren Gobi
(GOH-bee) Desert cut off the Chinese society from
contact with other cultures. Because they were insu-
each side
from outside influences, the Chinese developed
lated
a distinctive culture,
which was maintained through
the moral code and philosophy of Confucianism.
Confucius (551-479
stri\
people should
B.C.) taught that
e to build a peaceful, well-ordered society.
In time, the
at the
Chinese developed a sense of
center of everything important. Their
technological and cultural achievements lent support to this self-image.
Among
new
city
is
a perfect square, with
The
six miles long.
wall of the city
2 gates, 3 on each side of the square.
The whole
city
was
laid
out by
streets are so straight that
if
line.
The
you stand
above one of the gates, you can see the

gate on the opposite side of the
cultural superiority, a belief that their country
stood
has
This
Everything that
in all
is
city.
most rare and valuable
the world finds
its
especially true of India,
way
here. This
is
which supplies
precious gems, pearls, and spices.
99
other things, the
Chinese either invented or improved the compass,

the water mill, the wheelbarrow, the horse harness,
gunpowder, and paper. In addition, they made the

world's
first
known
printed book, the
Diamond
The
Mongols under Kublai Khan

protected Asian trade routes and
opened China to world trade.
Sutra, in a.d. 868.
China's isolation ended in the 1200s,
when
invaders from Mongolia overran the countrv'.
Mongol
leader Kublai
Great Khan
Khan (KOO-bluh kahn)
up as
set
his capital
\\
city of Beijing (Peking) in 1264.
China became the

It
largest land
is
Under
empire
now
After Kublai Khan's death in 1294. the Mongols'
power declined, and
the Chinese regained control.
the
The new
the
ancient traditions, reintroduced Confucianism.
his rule
in the world.
also opened up dramatically to the Western
leaders, wanting to return to the -nation's
To
protect their culture from foreign influences, the
Chinese once again sought
to isolate their society
from the world.
world. The Mongols protected the trade routes
China did not withdraw from outside contact
across Asia so that travelers were safe from raiding
completely, however. Beginning in 1405. the
bands.
As
the
Europeans
to visit
1270 and 1300 was a young

CoJIection, Nev*
York
nation launched a series of seven maritime expedi-
a result, trade flourished.
Among
The Granger
hat
The
China between
Italian.
Marco
Polo.
tions.
The expeditions
most
the largest and
reaching the world had ever seen
far-
sailed to
present-day Vietnam. Indonesia, Ceylon (now Sri
Lanka), India, the Arabian Peninsula, and numer-
ous East African ports. The purpose of

undertaking was not to
territories,
but to trade and to explore
The Chinese
wanted
also
this vast
claim and conquer foreign
to
show
new
lands.
the world their
nation's wealth and achievements.

In 1433. however.
China halted trade with the
outside world. But China's withdrawal from trade
did not reduce the West's desire for exotic Chinese
goods. Dreams of trade with Asia
still
fueled
Eurof)ean imaginations.
M This detail from a Chinese scroll drawn during

the Ming dynasty ( 368-1 644) shows the Chinese
navy sailing against Japanese pirates.
1
Asia in the Middle Ages

THE GREAT CONQUERORS
The Muslims and the Mongols conquered vast areas of land from
the Mediterranean Sea to the eastern reaches of Asia.
specialized in mainland trade, or the bringing of
The AFRICAN TRADING KINGDOMS
goods from the
interior to the coast.
Other traders
then shipped the goods to the Arabian Peninsula,
Trade also was instrumental in the development of

great
kingdoms
kingdoms
Axum
such
(a.d.
in East
and West Africa. Early
Kush (1000 b.c.-a.d. 350) and

50-600) controlled highly develas
oped trade networks and established the trading
where they would be traded

China.
Many
different
coast, but the
to
merchants from
goods were brought
to the
most sought-after item was gold,
which formed a large
Most of the
part of the trade.
traders
who
shipped goods to the
who had come
practices that later empires adopted. During the
Arabian Peninsula were Arabs
Middle Ages the
on the East African
East Africa after fleeing political and religious
West Africa,
upheaval in their homelands. Over time the mix of
city-states
coast thrived on trade with Asia. In
kingdoms grew
rich
by trading
in gold
and
salt.
newcomers and
to
original inhabitants created a
unique African culture. The people spoke Swahili
East African city-states. During the 700s

many of the people in what are today Somalia.
Kenya, and Tanzania (tan-zuh-NEE-uh) moved to
the coastal areas and became involved in trade
between Africa and Asia. Most of the people
(swah-HEE-lee). a form of Bantu that
Arabic influences. (Swahili
meaning "of the
Over
is
showed strong
an Arabic word
coast.")
the years, trade
Asia expanded, and
many
between Africa and

East African trading
THE
WORLD
BY
500
25
grew
villages
states.
At
into powerful
and wealthy
northern city-states such as
first,
Mogadishu (mahg-uh-DiSH-oo)
Somalia
capital of
time, however,
ward
the islands of
were
the
commercial
to Malindi.
Mombasa
Pemba and
the
present-day
most prosperous.
activity
moved
Zanzibar.
By
the leading East African port city.

the interior
In
south-
(mahm-BAHS-uh), and
the 1200s
West African kingdoms.

became an important
West Africa.
In the
Trade also
activity early in the history of
western area of the Sudan
the
vast grasslands to the south of the mighty Sahara
many
important trade routes crisscrossed:
traders with gold
headed north from the Sudan as
great caravans brought salt and other gotxls south
ranked as
from the Sahara. The people of the western Sudan
Meanwhile,
oversaw the exchange of these goods and charged
Kilwa. on another island farther south,
many of
city-
towns became rich on the
gold trade.
a tax
on the transactions. Over time these trade
centers
grew
into bustling trading
kingdoms.
The earliest of these kingdoms Ghana

(GAHN-uh) developed from a trading post
Trade with Asia led to the

development of wealthy
founded around
city-states along the east
caravan route from Morocco (muh-RAHK-oh).
coast of Africa.
North Africans and desert traders brought
a.d.
300
at the
southern end of a
salt,
copper, and various kinds
of cloth to exchange for

gold.
They
also sometimes
purchased slaves
to
in the desert salt
mines.
Ghana prospered
Muslims from
work
until
the north
overran the kingdom in the

11th century.
Another remarkable
West African kingdom

Mali, which originated
century a.d.
in the 7th
rose to
power
shortly after
Ghana. By the
the fall of
1300s Mali controlled

a
huge
empire
that
stretched from the upper
Niger (NY-juhr) River

westward to the Atlantic
coast. Mali's
best-known
was Mansa Musa,

who ruled from 1307 to
1332. A devout Muslim,
leader
he undertook a hajj
(pil-
to Mecca in
Mansa Mijsa saw
grimage)
1324.
this
journey
to the
holy
city as an opportunity to
display Mali's wealth.
African trading Kingdoms

CARAVAN TRADE
By the
0th century, large caravans of heavily laden camels carried goods
ruler
other pilgrims
across the Sahara.
MM MOVEMENT
was accompathousands
of
nied by
The
them 500
What water
Mediterranean Sea?
route did Rush traders use to
move goods
to the
whom
carried a four-
pound gold
26
CHAPTER
among
slaves, each of
bar.
Mansa Musa's
was widely
trip
reported, and
An
his fame spread far beyond the Muslim world.

atlas
made
black
man
for
King Charles
of France showed a
seated on a throne and clutching a huge
Accompanying
gold nugget.
the picture
was
this
inscription:
44
This black lord
is
called
[Mansa Musa],
lord of the negroes of Guinea [Mali].
gold which
found
is
abundant that he
lord
in his
the region.
powerful position
country
is
so
the richest and noblest
Mansa Musa died
After
its
In all
is
The
**
in 1332.
Mali slowly
lost
in the region.
In the mid-I300s, as Mali declined, the relatively
weak
state
under Mali's rule

eventually
Africa,
of Songhay (SAWNG-hy) once
won
became
the
its
independence. Songhay
dominant power
growing rich on the trade
and slaves.
It
West
in
in gold, ivory,
also flourished as
center
home
of Islamic learning. The city of Timbuktu was

to three universities
universities,
and 180 Islamic schools. The
which housed large collections of
Detail showing
Charles
Mansa Musa from
atlas of
Greek, Roman, and Arabic manuscripts, taught

religion, poetry,
astronomy, and medicine.
By
Despite the presence of large

the
mid-1500s, education rivaled trade as Timbuktu's

in
major
activity.
in
Adoms
Timbuktu,
West Africa lived

small villages. They believed that many things
nature were sacred. They also placed great
importance on family
succession of powerful kingin West Africa controlled

the major north-south trade
cities like
the majority of people in
ancestors,
which led
ties
and on respect for
their
to a strong sense of family
communal values. This whole world,

however, would soon change with the arrival of
loyalty and
routes.
the Europeans.
SECTION
IDENTIFY and
Kublai Khan,
LOCATE
REVIEW
explain the significance of the follovsring:
Marco
Polo, Swahili,
Mansa Musa,
Muhammad, Qur'an,
Confucius, Diamond Sutra,
hajj.
and explain the importance of the following:
Beijing,
Mogadishu, Sahara, Ghana, Mali,
Timbuktu.
1.
2.
3.
MAIN IDEA What role did trade play in spreading Islamic culture?
MAIN IDEA How did the Mongol invasion affect trade between China and the rest of the world?
LINKING HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY How did the location of East and West African citystates prove important to their
4.
WRITING TO DESCRIBE
nal
5.
development?
Imagine you are a
member
of
Marco
Polo's expedition.
Write
a jour-
entry that describes your impressions of the Mongol Empire.
USING HISTORICAL IMAGINATION As
a Chinese citizen
in
the year
300, write a brief essay
expressing your view on either expanding trade or returning to isolationism.
THE
WORLD
BY 1500
27
Section 5
THE LURE OF TRADE AND EXPLORATION
FOCUS
Why
did
Europeans seek a new route to the East?
What were the origins of Portugal's involvement In

How did Portugal gain control of East-West trade?
Europe was greatly

Africa
the slave trade?
enriched by the flow of ideas and technology from
and Asia. But Europeans were most
and gold from Africa and perfumes,
spices,
interested in goods: grain
and silks from Asia. By
the
early 1400s most of these items were readily available in Europe, but
very costly.
Goods coming from Asia and Africa were controlled by
Muslim trading empires and

nation-states of Europe
ever, they
needed
Italian city-states.
wanted
The newly emerging
to share in this wealth.
To do
so,
to find other routes to these distant markets.
seafaring nation of Portugal led the
way
how-
The
Detail
from woodcarving of
Venice.
5th century
in this great enterprise.
homes. They also wanted cloves, cinnamon, and
t AST-WEST TRADE
nutmeg from
the Spice Islands of the Indies, ginger
from China, and pepper from India
Wealthy Europeans wanted Syrian fabrics and

Chinese
make
fine clothes
and Persian rugs
and Chinese glass and porcelain
to decorate their
silk to
to flavor
and
preserve their foods.
But trade routes overland from China or by
On
sea from the Indies were long and dangerous.

the journey
from the East, goods might change
hands a dozen times, their prices marked up each
Some of the profit went to the Muslim

traders who controlled the Asian trade routes.
Much more, however, went to the Italian merchants from Genoa and Venice who bought the
time.
goods from Muslim traders
in
North Africa or
in
Black Sea ports and shipped them across the

Mediterranean Sea to be sold
in
Europe.
Hungry for trade goods and envious of

Genoa and Venice's monopoly, or exclusive
During the 13th century Genoa became the
chief trading center in the Mediterranean region.
This view of the city and
about 1481.
28
CHAPTER
its
harbor was painted
control, of East-West trade, other
ways
chants began looking for
more cheaply. An
the
European mer-
to get
Asian goods
all-sea route to the East
seemed
most promising answer.
The control of trade by Muslim

merchants made
Asian goods very costly, causing
Europeans to look for new routes
and
Italian
A These pictures from a 492 book, On the Nature

of Created Things, show two monsters that seafarers imagined could be found in mysterious
lands across the Atlantic Ocean.
to the East.
/Portugal leads the way

took
Portugal, a small country with a long seafaring
tradition, led the
way
in exploration.
strong
southward
into the Atlantic
Ocean and
around Africa.
What knowledge
of the world did the
desire to seize a share of the East-West trade
Portuguese possess as they
drove the Portuguese of the early 1400s to seek a
of exploration? Most Portuguese sea captains were
new
route to Asia. Their country's geographic
aware of the works of Arab geographers and of
location, on the west coast of the Iberian
books written by European travelers to the East.
Peninsula, determined the route the Portuguese
Much
Trade Routes
in
COMPETITION FOR TRADE
set out
on
their
voyages
of the information contained in these
the Middle Ages
By the early 14th century Venice and Genoa competed
for
control of trade routes to Asia.
MOVEMENT
Why
might Portugal have established trade routes around the Cape of Good
Hope, instead of through the Mediterranean Sea?
Arctic
Circle
ATLANTIC .^^LANDJ^
OCEAN
"-""^PIW^ î.
PORTUGAL
AZORES
OCEAN
v^
THE
WORLD
BY
150*E
500
29
sources, however,
was
quite fanciful. For example,
according to the popular 14th-century Travels of

Sir
Portugal's seafaring efforts earned
name
him
the nick-
"the Navigator."
John ManJeville, seafarers who survived the
rough seas of the Atlantic might come upon lands
The AFRICAN SLAVE TRADE
inhabited by strange creatures:
In
one, there
In
in
at;
have eyes
each shoulder; their mouths are round,

a horseshoe,
And
in
there are
faces,
in
another part, there are
who
in
another place folk with
without noses or eyes.
in trading for the spices that
were
about the continent.
came
their dealings with Africa.
to
dominate
the trade in
Slavery was not
flat
99
however,
In time,
another business
form was
different
become under
Common
coast
which they had heard frequently mentioned
in tales
like
visit Africa's Atlantic
such great demand back home. They also sought
gold,
in
the middle of their chest.
Portuguese to
first
were interested
they
the middle of their
without heads,
ugly folk
The
a race of great stature,
and horrible to look
like giants, foul
have one eye only,

foreheads. ...
is
unknown
from what
the Europeans.
human
slaves
to Africans, but
it
its
would eventually
Many
slaves in
West
sense, reason, and order were
African society were either criminals or captives
brought to the study of geography and exploration
taken in war. Their rights were restricted, but they
by Prince Henry of Portugal. Henry was born
did have
1394. the third son of King John
in
and Philippa of
some
Most could
protection under the law.
marry, and their children did not
become
slaves.
individ-
Lancaster. His burning desire was to find the
Moreover, slavery was usually temporary
African "gold kingdoms" he had heard of while
uals could obtain their freedom.
fighting in
He
Morocco.
also yearned to
Portugal's role in the slave trade

tively small in the late 1400s.
was
rela-
But by the end of the
find an all-sea route
following century, the slave trade had become a
to Asia.
major economic
In
1419 Prince
Henry established
the
activity. It eventually resulted in
African diaspora (dy-AS-pruh)
the forcible
resettlement of millions of African people to the
center for the study of
(SAH-greesh). on the
Americas from the 1500s through the 1800s.

Estimates suggest that in the approximately 400
years the slave trade operated, some 10 million or
southwestern
more Africans were transported across
navigation
at
Sagres
tip
of
Portugal. There, he
as slaves. Countless
brought together the
ture or
more died
the Atlantic
as a result of cap-
on the horrible voyage
to the
Portuguese traders,
first
Americas.
country's best geogra-
Prince Henry
oversaw
their
all
mapmakers,
and ship designers. He
phers,
work, encouraging them to experi-
ment with new navigation methods,
to
draw more
accurate maps, and to build ships capable of with-
attracted to Africa's gold and

other natural resources,
soon became interested in the
profitable slave trade.
standing the stormy Atlantic. Henry put the results

to practical use
By 1430
the Portuguese had explored and
colonized the Madeira (muh-DiR-uh) Islands and
slave trade devastated African society.
Because of the enormous
profits that the slave
trade brought, villages began targeting their ene-
mies for capture. The result was an increase
the Azores off Africa's northwest coast. During the
warfare
1450s they reached the Cape Verde Islands off the
Many
among
the various
people trapped
West African
in the slave trade
The
in
nations.
were cap-
Senegal coast. By 1462. two years after Henry
tives taken in war.
died. Portuguese sailors had ventured as far as
abducted by raiding parties and swiftly taken to
Sierra Leone, nearly around the great bulge of
slave traders on the coast.
western Africa. Prince Henry never sailed on any

of these voyages, but his immense contribution to
30
The
by sponsoring a number of voyages
of exploration southward down the African coast.
CHAPTER
It is
rest
were usually those
hard to imagine the effect the slave trade
had on those
who experienced
the capture of a
?ur.>m.
A ROUTE TO THE INDIES

The
profits
from the African trade prompted
ther searches for
new
fur-
routes to Asia. During the
mid-1480s, Portuguese sailors discovered the
mouth of
the
Congo River and
charted the south-
west coast of Africa. In 1488 Bartolomeu Dias

rounded Africa's southernmost
farther.
unknown ocean
In
market at Yemen is the subject of this

from a 3th-century Arabic manuscript.
slave
Illustration
friend or family
member. The experience would be
devastating to anyone, but in a culture that placed
such strong emphasis on family

cially painful. In
1444
ties,
it
Gomes Eanes
1497 a
fleet
of four ships outfitted by Dias
and commanded by Vasco da
Gama
set out
from
By
early
Portugal to complete the African voyage.
1498 da
Gama
Hope
Africa's southernmost tip and
way
at
to India.
had rounded the Cape of Good
Over
made
his
the next half century, the
West and
Portuguese established trading forts
de Zurara
East Africa, India, the Spice Islands (now the
official
reporter for the Portuguese king, described
by the
ahead of them, forced the
that lay
was espe-
(GOH-mish A-nush duh zoo-RAH-ruh), the
the miseries brought about
but he went no
ship to turn back.
-nff^^
The
tip,
His crew, fearing the great expanse of
traffic in
in
Moluccas of Indonesia), and southern China,
one of
thereby gaining control of East-West trade. Other
human
powerful nation-states of Europe, envious of

Portugal's success, soon began to sponsor voyages
slaves:
of their own.
Mothers would
their arms,
clasp their infants
in
and throw themselves on the
Pioneering voyages of exploration around Africa and to Asia

gave Portugal control of East-
ground to cover them with their bodies,

disregarding any injury to their
own
per-
sons, so that they could prevent their chil-
dren from being separated from them.
99
West
trade.
SECTION
REVIEW
IDENTIFY and explain the significance of the following: monopoly,

Gomes Eanes de Zurara, Bartolomeu Dias, Vasco da Gama.
LOCATE
and explain the importance of the following: Spice
Mediterranean Sea, Madeira

1.
MAIN IDEA Why were most

What was
2.
Cape Verde
Islands,
Prince Henry, African diaspora,
Islands,
Islands, Sierra
Genoa, Venice, Sagres, Black
Leone, Cape of
Sea,
Good Hope.
European nations unhappy with the trade system
in
the early 1400s?
their solution?
MAIN IDEA Why were
the voyages of Bartolomeu Dias and Vasco da
Gama
important to
Portugal?
3.
GEOGRAPHY: LOCATION Why

in
4.
did Portugal, rather than
Italy,
Spain, or England, lead the
way
exploring the East?
WRITING TO PERSUADE
Portuguese king explaining
Imagine that you are
how
Gomes
the slave trade began and
Eanes de Zurara. Write a report to the
why
Portugal should abandon
its
involvement.
5.
EVALUATING How
did Prince
Henry of Portugal improve the study of geography and exploration?
THE
WORLD
BY 1500
31
Rise of
Rise of farming
Rise of Hopewell
Olmec
culture.
Muhammad
culture.
founds Islam.
desert
Southwest.
in
CHAPTER
Kush founded.
I
.3500
\
200
C.I
\
C.I
000
American cultures
Using the essential points of the chapter as a guide,
America?
2.
of the chapter.
Mesoamerica and
in
610
cA.d. 300
C.300B.C.
WRITING A SUMMARY
summary
rise to
prominence.
eview
write a
Mayas
Economic Development How
in
North
did the
Crusades benefit European economies?
Number your paper
and
list
to
5.
the following events
Study the time

in
they happened by writing the
ond next to
2,
3.
the order
first
line
and so on. Then complete the
in
activity
THINKING CRITICALLY
Evaluating Why do historians
advent of farming
the desert Southwest.
4.
5.
2.
Gama sails to India.

Muhammad founds Islam.
Vasco da
3.
Crusades begin.
Linking History and Geography Pick
on the time
the
five
line
and
tell
how
each
five
consider the
themes of geography.
IDENTIFYING PEOPLE
Synthesizing Describe
daily
including the role of the
Roman
Analyzing How
diffusion between
did
life in
feudal society,
Catholic church.
Muslims influence cultural
Africa, Asia,
and Europe?

Handbook entry on Reviewing Map
Basics on page 992. Then study the map below of
Black Mesa in Arizona. A mesa is a flat-topped natural
elevation, much like a plateau. The shaded area repreReview the
AND
the Americas such an impor-
events
one of
illustrates
in
tant event?
2. Prince Henry's navigation center established.

3.
in
medieval Europe?
Rise of farming
did technological
the sec-
below.
1
Technology and Society How
advances influence cultural development
which
in
next to
above,
IDEAS
Explain the historical significance of each of the fol-
lowing people or terms.
Skills
sents the site of an ancient Native American village.
1.
environment
6.
Qur'an
According to the map, approximately
2.
cultural diffusion
7.
Confucius
Kayenta from Rough Rock?
3.
pueblo
8.
Marco Polo
region might have encouraged Native Americans to
9.
African diaspora
settle there?
0.
Vasco da
4. feudalism
5.
Crusades
What
effect did
iib
r
Mm
/W
culture?
What were
social
3.
the major economic,
changes
in
political,
and
Europe during the Middle Ages?
Describe the role of trade
in
the spread of Islamic culture;
far
is
Monument
geography and the changing envi-
ronment of the Americas have on Paleo-lndian

2.
how
features of the
Gama
UNDERSTANDING MAIN IDEAS

1
What
Valley
Kayenta
O-
ac,,
<
^^^^.Chilchinbito
i ^^^^^^H ^^^v
one of the following:

relations between
^^^^^^^^^^^Rough Rock
China and the West; the development of African

kingdoms; or Portuguese exploration.
^REVIEWING THEMES
I.
Cultural Diversity
cultural diffusion
32
CHAPTER
What
evidence suggests that
occurred between Native
^^B'^^' SLACK
^^Kkm
MESA
p^ft
9P%i
lêM)'^
^^^V
10
\(
fW
20 Miles
^_^
10
20 Kilometers
Rise of
Crusades
Mississippian
begin,
culture.
Mansa Musi
makes pilgrimage
Magna Carta
sgijy,^ j^^y^^
to Mecca.
Mongols
rule China.
\
1096
1071
.700
"^
Reconqu/sto
ends.
Prince Henry's
navigation cen-
Bartolomeu
Vasco da
Dias reaches
Gama sails
ter established.
Cape
signed.
conquer
Holy Land.
Riseoflncan
civilization.
of
Hope.
Good
to India.
1215
c.l250
1324
1419
1488
c.l440
WRITING ABOUT HISTORY
the difference, for
Writing to Create Research
[people entrusted with something] of oaths
roles,
in
or
artistic
the chapter.
the ceremonies, social
expressions of one culture described
Then write
poem or song
we are
Listen to
my
know; by
USING PRIMARY SOURCES
history of Mali.
word, you
my mouth you
Africa has a rich tradition of oral, or spoken, litera-
African epic
1
poems
is
One
is
The
a griot, an oral historian
named Mamoudou
LINKING HISTORY
Study the
in
to
will learn the
Translated by D.
Niane
T.
chart
paragraph explaining the role of the griot
map on page
your area
lived in
culture.
15.
Locate the culture area

is
found.
Then prepare
the Native American groups
listing
African
in
AND GEOGRAPHY
which your community
Kouyate (KOO-yah-tai). Read the poem, then write a
in
who
500, the main features of
each group, the major place characteristics of the

area, and the influences of these
exist locally
Sundiata
I
who want
of the best-known
Sundiata, the story of the
3th-century founder of the empire of Mali.
narrator
the depositaries
which the ancestors swore.
celebrating
the accomplishments of this culture.
ture, such as the epic poem.
1498
1492
am a griot.
It is
Djeli
I,
Mamoudou
groups that
still
either through place-names, artifacts,
or customs.
Kouyate,
son ofBintou Kouyate and Djeli Kedian

Kouyate, master of the art of eloquence
[speaking]. Since time immemorial the
Kouyate s have been

princes of Mali;
in the service
we are
of the Keita
BUILDING YOUR
PORTFOLIO
we
vessels of speech,
are the repositories which harbour secrets
many
centuries old.
Without us the names
of kings would vanish into oblivion,

the
memory of mankind; by
we
bring to
life
the deeds
we
the spoken
are
word
cooperatively.
and exploits of
kings for younger generations.
Complete the following projects independently or
I teach kings the history
tors so that the lives
of their ances-
of the ancients might
serve them as an example, for the world

old,
is
but the future springs from the past.
My word is pure and free of all untruth;

it is
the
word of my father;
my father's father
words just as
it is
I will give
I received
do not know what lying
the
word of
you my father's
them; royal griots

is.
breaks out between tribes
When a quarrel
it is we who settle
TRADE
Imagine you are a trader
I400s. Prepare a
map
between Europe,
Africa,
on the map to
2.
that
indicate
and Asia.
museum
cultural
the late
Draw symbols
major items of trade.
CULTURAL EXCHANGES
are a
in
shows trade routes
Imagine you
researcher preparing an exhibit on
exchanges
in
the Americas. Select
two
groups that appear to have had cultural contact

prior to 1500. Create a wall chart that illustrates
the nature of the contact.
THE
WORLD
BY
500
33
Lhe movement of plants and Animals
lAmerica^s
GEOGRAPHY
motaloes supported
large increases in
and elsewhere. Easy
to grow, the potato
most important foods
in
in
poor
many temperate
soil
in
Europe
one of the two
is
the world's temperate zones, yielding
more food per acre than any

thrive in
populaton
Easy
grain.
to grow, potatoes
environments and
at altitudes above
will
even grow
10,000 feet
THE
COLUMBIAN
EXCHANGE
/J^ NORTH
he state of Kentucky has long
been known as the "Bluegrass
NORTH
State" because of the thousands
ATLANTIC
of square miles oflJie bluish-
\HE
exchange of goods
across the Atlantic
Ocean
that
green grass
iJiat
grows
Kentucky Bluegrass originated as

a European pasture and
Columbus
started transformed
Even
the world.
the distribu-
tion of the world's flora
OCEAN
there.
grass.
meadow
was transplanted
It
North America
in
the
Tropic of Cancer
,^l>=.
to
700s.
and
fauna was affected. The

Equator
first
European explorers and
settlers
1,500
were struck by the
3.000 Miles
3,000 Kilometen
1.500
Robinson Projection
differences between the plants
and animals of Europe and

those of the Americas.
I oday dogs and
They
domestjc pets
in
cats are the
most common
America. American Indians
responded to the unfamiliar
were
environment by introducing
Europeans, but there were no domestic cats

in
familiar food crops and live-
Tropic of Capricorn
SOUTH
raising dogs before contact with
NorUi America
over the
first
until
PACIFIC
OCEAN
Europeans brought
"house cat" around
750.
stock, hoping to transform the
Americas
into another Europe.
Food
plants
from the
Americas were also quickly

introduced into Africa,
Europe, and Asia.
Many
Food Plants
CLIMATE
VEGETATION
Humid
Tropical rain forest
corn, white potatoes, tomatoes,

pumpkins/squash, beans (navy, lima,
kidney, string), peppers (bell, chili),
Tropical
of
Tropical
Savanna
these plants were particularly
useful because they produced
Tropical grasslands with

scattered trees
Desert
Sparse, drought-resistant plants,

many barren, rocky or sandy areas
few
Steppe
Grassland,
Mediterranean
Scrub,
Humid
Mixed forest
trees
pineapples, peanuts, pecans, cashews,

avocados, papayas, cocoa beans,
vanilla beans, sweet potatoes, wild
rice,
cassava roots (tapioca)
Other Plants
woodland, grassland
higher yields and could
cotton, rubber, tobacco, marigolds
Subtropical
tolerate a
wider range of
Marine
West Coast
Humid
climates than could the old
wheat and
rice.
turkeys, hummingbirds, rattlesnakes,
AMERICAS GEOGRAPHY
gray squirrels, guinea

potato beetles
Mixed Forest
Subartic
Northern evergreen forest
Tundra
Moss, lichens, low shrubs
ragMantf^H
Forest to tundra vegetation,

varies with altitude
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^R'
34
Animals and Insects
Temperate evergreen forest
Continental
'
staples,
THE AMERICAS
MAP LEGEND
^^HM
pigs, muskrats,
V
"
^^c
EUROPE, ASIA
&
AFRICA
Food Plants
mmoneybees were transplanted
to
America by English
wheat, oats, barley, soybeans,
rice, radishes, lettuce, onions,

okra, chickpeas, olives, grapes, peaches, pears, oranges, lemons,
coffee, watermelons, bananas, sugar cane
settlers in
the early 1600s. By the
700s
Other Plants
honeybees had become common.
dandelions, crabgrass, couchgrass, bluegrass, roses, daisies
Animals and Insects

cows, horses, hogs, goats, sheep, chickens, rabbits, domestic cats,
Mediterranean fruitflies, honey bees, Japanese beetles, sparrows,
ARCTIC OCEAN
starlings, mice, rats
r\siatic Rice
to
is
believed
have originated
in
China
as a grass plant while African
was developed indepen-
rice
dently from a similar plant in
West
Africa. Rice,
an impor-
tant food source throughout
the Eastern Hemisphere,

also
in
became a popular
staple
the Americas. Rice grows
particularly well in both
East Asia and southeastern
North America.
mn
Italy
and
India,
many popular
dishes use tomatoes
and peppers,
products imported from the Americas.
Although tomatoes were transplanted

to
Europe
ate
them
the 1500s, few Europeans
in
Some people
at first
thought tomatoes were poisonous and
SOUTH
grew them
ATLANTIC
vitamin-rich
OCEAN
only for decoration. In India,

chili
peppers became an
important ingredient
improved the
ANTARCTICA
diets
in curries
and
of the poor.
NUTRITIONAL VALUE OF CROPS

(in millions of calories
Chief Crops of Europe, Asia, and Africa
Chief Crops of the Americas

Casava roots (tapioca)
White potatoes
Com
Sweet potatoes, yams
per acre)
24.45
18.56
18.03
17.54
Rice
1.03
Oats
3.59
Baiiey
Wheat
12.60
10.37
UNIT
35
Pfl
Chapter 2
1492-1800
EMPIRES OF
THE AMERICAS
UNDERSTANDING
THE MAIN IDEA
Christopher Columbus's landing
Americas
in
492 marked a
in
ê
turning
point in world history. The event for-
ever altered the
lives
of people around
the globe as the cultures of Europe,

Africa, Asia,
and the Americas came
into contact with
one another
of this encounter brought

it
also united
into
many
Much
conflict;
but
separate socieves
one connected world.
GLOBAL RELATIONS
What
positive
effects
tions
and negative
might result from interac-
between countries?
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT How might devoting

energy to overseas exploration
and conquest help or hurt

nation's
economy?
CULTURAL DIVERSITY
How do
people's values and
experiences affect their contacts

with people of other cultures?
1
1492
1519
Columbus
Conquest
lands
in
the
American.
of Aztecs
begins.
1565
Augustine
founded.
St.
1607 1612
"
1779
Jamestown
Rolfe intro-
Caspar de
established.
duces tobacco
in Jamestown.
San Diego.
Portola founds
In
LINK TO THE PAST
the 1400s, Europeans sought an eastward sea route to Asia to
replace the long, dangerous, and expensive overland routes. Years
of trading
in
the Mediterranean and the Atlantic had given
merchants valuable
sailing experience.
technological advances had taken
Moreover,
scientific
many
and
some of the guesswork out
of navigation.
^fcw
1492.
American history
dates in
was
It
are as instantly recognizable as
shaped the destiny of continents. With
a year that
Christopher Columbus's daring voyage, worlds apart became worlds

in contact
On
the
and
conflict.
Friday, October 12, 1492,
Bahamas and "broke
These actions staked Spain's
first
claims
Americas.
Columbus and
his captains
admired the beauty and abundance
of this land: "Once ashore they saw very green trees and
and
island in
out the royal banner, and the captain's two
flags with the green cross."

in the
Columbus landed on an
fruits
of various kinds." Columbus and the Europeans
lowed him saw these lands
ways of
their
who
fol-
as theirs for the taking. In their zeal to
spread their cultures and enrich their treasuries,
imposed
many ponds
life
many Europeans
on the original inhabitants of the
Americas. Rich and varied Native American cultures were changed

or destroyed as a result.
Still,
Columbus's voyages
and those of
later explorers
were remarkable
first
feats.
These
explorers and colonists
carved out new lives for

themselves, often in harsh
environments.
In
the
process, they created
new American
cultures
and brought great
rich-
es to Europe.
First
contact between Columbus
and Native Americans, 1492
Flora and fauna
of the Americas
EMPIRES OF THE AMERICAS
37
FIRST
FOCUS
Why
Columbus
did
sail
CONTACT
west from Europe?
What was
the purpose of the encomienda system?

Native Americans?
How
did
it
affect
What reforms did Las Casas urge the Spanish Crown to undertake?
What were some of the results of the Columbian exchange?
fjy the
15th century, Europeans desired a cheaper, faster trade
route to the East. Portugal took the lead, concentrating on finding a sea passage
around the southernmost
of Africa. But
and imagination of one
Spain, largely because of the boldness
man
tip
Christopher Columbuslooked westward. Columbus's
landing introduced the Americas to the rest of the world, thus begin-
ning a
new era of trade,
colonization,
and
cultural exchange.
Portuguese astrolabe
simple look
UHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS
at
the night sky. he
would know what
route to follow or what weather to expect."
Eventually Columbus made his way to

In
1492 a mariner named Christopher Columbus
set sail
from Spain on the
toric Atlantic crossings.
earth
first in
a series of his-
He understood
was round and concluded
that if
that the
he sailed far
enough west, he could establish a more
direct trade
Columbus grew up
in
Genoa, a bustling port
on Italy's western
coast. Fascinated
sea.
the
by the
travel.
While
in
Lisbon, he studied charts
of contemporar) geographers and astronomers and

read ancient Greek and
Marco
As
route to Asia.
city
Lisbon. Portugal, the center of European knowledge
about sea
Roman
texts, the Bible,
and
Polo's exciting account of his travels in Asia.
a result of his studies.
Columbus developed
theory about a westward route to Asia.
He con-
cluded that the western sea could not be very large
and
that the great trading cities of Asia lay about
2.400 miles west of Portugal.
adventurous
youth sailed on Genoese
He
trading
vessels.
became an
excellent navi-
Columbus
believed that by sailing
west from Europe, he could

a
more
find
direct route to Asia.
gator and learned to han-
dle a caravel
a small,
lightweight vessel most

often used in sea trade.
former shipmate recalled
Columbus's
38
CHAPTER
skill:
"By
In the
1480s Columbus tried to persuade var-
ious European monarchs to sponsor a westward
voyage across the Atlantic Ocean. He had

success.
King John
II
little
of Portugal rejected the plan
because he doubted Columbus's calculation of the
The October 12th entry
distance to Asia. In fact, the actual distance to Asia
proved
about five times greater than
to be
Columbus had
Initially
calculated.
Friday
light
Columbus had no
better luck with the
they
devoted most of their energy and money
in his
to the
Spain from the
Moors. But Columbus persisted. He described
them
Marco
Polo's tales and tempted
them with
visions of the riches that could belong to Spain.
Columbus
vowed
also
they reached an
saw naked people, and
in a
islet
which was
the Admiral
Soon
went ashore
armed longboat." (The Journal survives only
secondhand summary, which explains why
Columbus
referred to as "the Admiral.")
is
The people
his
to take the Catholic
peoples of foreign lands, a task for
faith to the
and temples of Asia men-
the golden palaces
tioned in
to
Guanahani [gwahn-uh-HAHN-ee].
called
Spanish monarchs. Ferdinand and Isabella. They
Reconcjiiista, the reconquest of
Columbus's
in
Journal, his diary of the voyage, reads: "(At] day-
men had
central
of the Indies. Columbus and
struck land on a tiny coral island in the
Bahamas, about 400 miles southeast of pre-
Columbus named
sent-day Florida.
it
San Salvador
which he believed God had chosen him. This idea
(Holy Savior). Confident that he had reached Asia,
impressed
the
the
Nevertheless,
defeated the
that they
it
deeply
religious
was only
Moors
at
were willing
after the
Granada
in
Isabella.
monarchs had
The Native Americans Columbus encoun-
On
tered called themselves "Tainos" (TEE-nohs), the
April 17. 1492, the king and the queen authorized

the necessary funding for
Columbus's journey.
To reward Columbus
ies,
for his future discover-
would be knighted, appointed admiral, and made

all
might
the lands he
would be
addition, he was
discover. After his death these titles
passed on to his descendants. In
to receive at least 10 percent of the riches
word
he
obtained on Spain's behalf.
"good" or "noble"
tlements of
traded
some 100
salt, shells,
in their
to
300 people. Some groups
such
Cuba. Puerto Rico. Jamaica, and
Hispaniola (his-puhn-YOH-luh)
more complex
outfitted three vessels
Maria, the Nina, and the Pinta
They exported tobacco,
the Santa
and
social
and
built larger settlements
a central area surrounded
The fateful first voyage

whom
were Spaniards. At dawn on August 3. 1492,

Columbus and his crew departed from Palos,
Spain. The small fleet first journeyed some 800
political organization.
with leaders living in
by the
salt,
lived groups with
villagers' houses.
and handicrafts as
far
as the mainland.
The Spanish praised
recruited an
experienced crew of 90 sailors, most of
raids.
the larger islands of the Caribbean^
as present-day
in raids
war chiefs increased
power through successful
On
lan-
lived in set-
and other goods peacefully with
against other islands. Taino

their
Arawak
who
Other groups participated
their neighbors.
They
Columbus
for
guage. The Tainos were farmers
Ferdinand and Isabella agreed that the mariner
viceroy, or governor, over
Spanish word for inhabitants of the Indies.
January 1492
back an expedition.
to
Admiral called the island dwellers "Indios." the
"They
sess,
invite
you
the Tainos' generosity.
to share anything that they pos-
and show as much love as
if their
hearts
went
miles southwest to the Canary Islands, Spain's
westernmost possession. Then
in
September the
three vessels set out across the uncharted sea.
Imagine them one month

in the vast Atlantic, three
westward. The
men aboard have
since leaving the Canaries.
wearing
thin, their
sailors
demand
the lookout
the early
sail
not sighted land
hopes having risen
only
slowly
The crew's patience
to
like the
green
be dashed.
Many
that the ships turn back.
Then, as
on the lead ship scans the horizon
morning hours of October
the long-awaited cry: 'T/erra.'"
is
birds,
waves with every sign of land

weeds, cloudbanks
Somewhere
later:
small ships
Land!
12,
in
he gives
A This drawing by Gonzalo Fernandez de Oviedo y

Valdes shows the type of building in which Taino
chiefs lived.
39
with
it."
Columbus
noted.
would make easy converts
He believed
But he also took the Tainos' generosity

that they
"could
compelled
to
to
mean
be subjugated [conquered] and
all
The captive
that they
to the Catholic faith.
do anything one wishes."
curiosity.
Americas be treated humanely and converted
Roman
the
Catholic
possibility that
The search
for gold.
Because some of the
islanders were objects of both
The queen ordered that the

Indians on Hispaniola and elsewhere in the
sympathy and
of the Spanish
But she
faith.
anyone who
left
to
open the
resisted the authority
Crown could be
enslaved.
Tainos wore gold ornaments. Columbus concluded that gold mines were close
the next
month Columbus and
from island
for Spain
to island
in
at
his
hand. Over
men
sailed
naming and claiming each
search of gold.
Then on Christmas
Eve. 1492, the Santa Maria struck a coral reef off

the
island
Hispaniola
that
Columbus
named
had
the site of present-day Haiti and the
Dominican Republic. The crew was forced to

abandon ship. Believing that the shipwreck was a
sign from God. Columbus decided to establish the
first Spanish colony here. He named the settlement La Navidad (The Nativity), in honor of the
day of
its
UOLUMBUS THE COLONIZER

When Columbus
months
the Spaniards
had
colonists' excessive
showered Columbus with gold nuggets
even promising "a
statue of pure
gold" the size of Columbus himself. This impres-
some of Columbus's men
Columbus
sailed
back
to
Spain
in
January
him two dozen Taino captives
and evidence of the riches of the
Indies.
Ferdinand
and Isabella gave him a hero's welcome and speedily
approved a second voyage.
whom
with
likely, the
for gold and food
colonists
were craftsmen, builders, or farm-
built another settlement: Isabela.
Columbus
the settlement under the care of his brother
Bartolome and spent the next three years

the Caribbean searching for gold.
was away,
sailing
While Columbus
the pressure the colonists put on the
Indians to provide food and gold led the Indians to

revolt. Violent disputes
in the settlement.
1493. taking with
demands
Columbus and some 1.500 male

most of
left
remain
most either had

in disputes
ing conflicts.
ers
sive display convinced
had died
had worn down the generosity of the Tainos, caus-
Spanish. Their chief, Guacanagari (gwah-KAHN-uh-
to
find gold elsewhere, but
left to
11
were dead or gone. Some probably
one another or with the Tainos. Most
Indians of Hispaniola were generous to the
and ornaments
returned to La Navidad
he found the colony destroyed. All
fallen victim to illness or
founding.
Like the inhabitants of Guanahani, the
gah-REE).
later,
over land and Indian labor
also broke out between Bartolome and the

colonists.
Columbus's
to his eventual
failure to maintain order led
replacement as viceroy.
Before Columbus was replaced, he granted

the colonists control over Indian labor.
T^
He
thereby
informally introduced to Hispaniola
what would later become the

encomieuda (en-koh-mee-EN-duh)
system. Under this system the
colonists, or
encomenderos (en-koh-
muhn-DE-rohs). received the right to
have a certain number of Indians
work
for them.
The encomenderos
used the Indians to mine gold, provide food, and build houses.
tem required
that the
The
sys-
encomenderos
instruct their charges in the
Roman
Catholic faith and permit them to
grow food
for themselves.
4 This scene, entitled "Baptism of

the First Indians," is taken from a
Conqu'ista cloth.
40
::
CH APTER
Lhe Jitst Voyage of Qolumhus

SAILING TO THE AMERICAS
Americas between
M92
Christopher Columbus
made
four round-trip voyages to the
and 1504.
^-^^
'^
set sail for
.^^
Nov. 6,
"^"i?*
Cf^^^^f^^-
Europe
1492: Existence
"Dec. 25,
of tobacco recorded
1492: Sonto
Mono
grounded; La Navidad founded
The Spanish Crown formally

encomienda system
in the
Americas
^^V
..^*'
Cater Voijages
x^'^
established the
the Indians.
in 1503. In the
eties
The Spanish
also disturbed Indian soci-
by suppressing Indian customs and
religions.
monarchs' eyes Native Americans were not
they were
to
be paid a small
The encomienda system gave the
allowance for their labor. But
in practice the
encomienda system amounted
enslavement for
Spanish control over Indian labor

and disrupted Indian societies.
slaves
many
supposed
to
Indians because they were seldom paid.
The encomienda also disrupted Indian

economies and
societies.
Because of excessive
Spanish demands for food and labor, Indians had

little
time to grow food for themselves. Widespread
malnutrition resulted.
to take the
most
The Spanish were thus
fertile pieces
able
of land away from
JLas casas
Some
and slavery
Spaniards protested the harsh treatment of
Americans. One prominent

Bartolome de Las Casas, had spent some
Native
critic,
years as
41
THE SLAVE TRADE

Nzinga Mbemba (en-ziNG uhm-BEM-buh), "Lord of the Congo,"
was a central-African ruler who hoped to increase contact
and trade between the Congo states and the leading
European powers. To aid this effort, he even adopted the
Christian faith and assumed a new name: Dom Afonso. His
dreams turned sour, however, as he watched Portuguese slave
ships take more and more of his people by force to the Americas.
In 526 he urged King John III of Portugal to curb this practice:
1
how
Iflfe cannot reckon

great the
corruption
vassals
Thieves and
science take
to be sold:
them
and so
and our
He
ever.
that our country
is
and cause them

Sir, is
Spain and other European nations
followed Portugal's lead. By 1600 several
con-
hundred thousand Africans were
bondage
their
But after becoming a priest around
in
in
the Americas.
Las Casas argued for Indian rights
spent a great deal of
time giving the Indians under his care religious
same time
the
that the
at the
Spanish king wanted to limit
growing independence of the colonists. To
1512, he began to question the morality of the
protect the Indians and to curb the colonists'
encomienda system. Eventually he gave up
power, the Spanish Crown enacted laws
his
encomienda and returned
to Spain to plead the
Indians' cause. In 1516 the
Crown appointed him
Las Casas described
how
European audiences
to
Spanish treated Native

Americans and demanded an end to the enharshly
1542
encomiendos.
restricting
The
in
colonists resisted the
new
laws, refusing
to give up their control of Indian labor. Within a
Protector of the Indians.
the
He urged Spanish
century, however, the
plied
much
came
the system
encomienda no longer sup-
labor for the Spanish. But the end of

not through the Crown's actions
colonists to live and
but through the catastophic decline of the Native
work peacefully with Native Americans. He
American population. Overwork and malnutrition
called for friars and priests to convert Indians to
contributed to the decline, but disease took by far
Catholicism gradually, through "love, gentleness,
the greatest
comienda.
Apologetic History of the Indies

(1566), Las Casas argued a radical idea for the
time
that Indian humanity and wisdom equaled
In the
because the American Indians had no immunity to
them. The cold, harsh climate of Siberia, the

Bering Land Bridge, and Alaska effectively prevented disease organisms from crossing with the
Europeans:
that of
first
4 Not
only have [the Indians]
shown them-
selves to be very wise peoples and possessed
of
lively
and marked understanding,
erning and providing for their nations
they have equaled

the
small
many
past and present
gov-
but
diverse nations of
.
measure the wisest of
CHAPTER
toll.
European diseases were particularly deadly
and kindness."
42
Afonso's pleas went unheeded, how-
rela-
men of evil
great.
an encomendero in Cuba.
instruction.
being utterly depopulated.yy
sons of the land and sons of our
noblemen and
tives.
since the
is,
merchants daily seize our sub-
[slave]
jects,
damage
and exceed by no
all
these.
**
immigrants
tion of the
the world
to the
Americas. The long isola-
Western Hemisphere from the
meant
that the Native
rest
of
Americans had
never been exposed to diseases such as chickenpox, measles, typhus, and smallpox that were
mon
in
Europe and Africa.
When
com-
Europeans and
Africans arrived, they unknowingly introduced the
organisms that caused these diseases.
This illustration from a
tory of
New
Spain written
hisin
500s by a Spanish monk,

Bernadinode Sahagun, shows
the
the devastating effects of

smallpox on the Aztecs.
Smallpox, measles, and

malaria were just a few
dis-
eases brought by Europeans

that caused epidemics
among
Native American peoples.
some
In
areas the epidemics preceded the
appearance of the Europeans, and no doubt the

resulting devastation
made
it
much easier for the

One Mayan chron-
Spanish to conquer the Indians.

icle
records the dispiriting effects of an epidemic.
Commentary
The Columbian Legacy
Historians offer different interpretations of the lasting
significance of Columbus's voyages to the Americas.
Great was the stench of the dead. After
our fathers and grandfathers succumbed

[died], half of the
.
The
people
was
nnortality
fathers died, and with
the king and
was
that
his
were
thus.
terrible.
the
Your grand-
them died the son
orphans, oh,
we were
izing he
fields.
of
brothers and kinsmen. So
we became
So we became when
us
fled to
my
Some have applauded him
for enlarging geographic
knowledge. Yet Columbus himself died without
it
sons!
young. All of
99
real-
had encountered a continent. Columbus did
not even get the honor of having the continent

after him.
named
Another navigator, Amerigo Vespucci
(ahm-ay-REE-goh vay-spooT-chee), received

honor
after
he made
at least
two
trips
that
along the coast
of present-day South America. In 1507 the
German
mapmaker Martin Waldseemiiller (VAHLT-zay-mooluhr) credited Vespucci with the "discovery" of
While the death

in
some
rate for
areas their
Native Americans varied,
numbers declined by over 90
America and suggested the newly encountered

nent be
percent by the mid- 16th century.
To replace the Indian
in his honor.
Other people have interpreted Columbus's
laborers, the Spanish
imported African slaves. They reached the West
By 1550 some
named America
conti-
voyages
in a negative light.
They blame him
for
introducing the encomienda system to the Americas
15,000
and for the drastic reduction of the Native
enslaved Africans had arrived in the Spanish
American population. But Columbus saw himself
Indies in the early 1500s.
colonies.
Many worked on
sugar plantations
as a faithful Christian
or other large farms, performing hard labor for
to Catholicism.
no pay.
the Indians, agreed.
who had won new
converts
Las Casas, the fierce Protector of
With such conflicting interpretations of
Las Casas urged the Spanish

Crown to enact laws to end
Spanish mistreatment of Native
Columbus's significance, how can we judge
Americans.
mous
his
impact? Perhaps the best way to understand the

legacy of Columbus's voyages
effect they
is
to see the enor-
had on the world. The transfer of
43
people, ideas, plants, animals, and diseases
Native Americans, but several tribes began to use
between the Americas, Europe, Asia, and Africa
it
initiated
by Columbus's journeys has come
called the
Columbian exchange
Geography
feature
to be
(see America's
on pages 34-35).
to their advantage.
Soon, the horse had trans-
formed the cultures of many North American

peoples, notably the Apaches, Cheyennes,
Comanches, and Sioux. With the horse these
The Columbian exchange transformed the

world. As various cultures came into contact, they
peoples were able to give up their existence
transformed each other. Precious metals and other
tively uninhabited Great Plains. There, Native
made many
resources taken from the Americas
European nations wealthy and powerful. Exotic

agricultural products
from the Americas, such as
com, potatoes, and tomatoes, soon became

that
improved the
nutrition of people
mountains and other areas and move onto the
Americans hunted on horseback the

falo,
of
rela-
plentiful buf-
which became the cornerstone of
their
way
life.
The Columbian exchange
staples
everywhere
in the
deadly diseases
smallpox
also introduced
and measles from
dramatic population growth.
Europe and yellow fever and malaria from Africa.
Foods crops from the Americas transformed

African agriculture in particular. The plants
Because Native Americans lacked immunity,

or resistance, to these diseases,
many
adapted easily to the African environment and
Historians have estimated that
some areas
and often resulted
in
offered high yields and greater variety.
Through settlement and
as
the slave trade, the
much
as
all
formerly inhabited by only Native Americans,
were gone.
were gradually peopled with Europeans, Africans,
died.
90 percent of the Native American
population was wiped out.
islands and continents of the Western Hemisphere,
in
By 1600
practically
of the original inhabitants of the Caribbean
For many, the
tragic impacts of disease
and
and Asians. But the Columbian exchange involved
military conquest on Native
more than the transfer of crops and people.

The introduction of European animals trans-
introduction of slavery on Africans understandably
formed the American landscape. For example,
exchange. But when determining the significance
once
of Columbus's voyages,
cattle, sheep,
and pigs arrived
Americas, they multiplied rapidly
in the
Americans and the
overshadow the positive aspects of
we must
the
take into account
abundant
the global transformation he initiated.
Americas by the
The Columbian exchange
in the
Columbian
grazing lands.
The
horse, introduced to the
Spanish by 1507, proved to be particularly suited
New Mexico
to the
Americas. Horses spread from
in the
1600s throughout the West and into Canada
by the
late 1700s.
At
first
the horse terrified
many
SECTION
IDENTIFY
the transfer of people,

precious metals, crops, and animals between the Americas and
Europe, Asia, and Africa.
resulted
in
REVIEW
and explain the significance of the following: Christopher Columbus, viceroy, Tainos,
Guacanagari, encomienda, Bartolome de Las Casas, Columbian exchange.
LOCATE
I.
and explain the importance of the following: Bahamas, Hispaniola, La Navidad.
MAIN IDEA What did Columbus hope to find by sailing west from Europe?
MAIN IDEA How did the encomienda system benefit the Spanish settlers? What
effect did
it
have
on Native Americans?
ASSESSING CONSEQUENCES What
reforms did Las Casas request on behalf of Native
Why were the reforms of only limited success?

WRITING TO EVALUATE Write an essay examining the long-term effects of Columbus's voyages.
USING HISTORICAL IMAGINATION Imagine you are a Taino living on San Salvador. Draw a
Americans?
plan for a mural that portrays
44
CHAPTER
your interactions with the Spanish explorers.
Section 2
CONQUEST OF THE MAINLAND
FOCUS
What
were the Spanish explorers and the conquistadors seeking?
What were
the conquistadors' roles

the Americas?
How
did Native
in
building a Spanish empire in
Americans respond to the conquistadors?
olumbiis s claims fueled the rivalry between Spain
avoid open
conflict, the
two nations agreed
and Portugal. To
to divide all non-Christian
lands in the Western Hemisphere between themselves. Within decades
Spanish adventurers had conquered the Aztecs of Mexico and the Incas of
Peru and expanded Spain 's colonial empire
to include territory in
North
America.
Aztec soldier
first
people to circumnavigate, or
sail
completely
tXPLORING THE AMERICAS
around, the world (see
Portugal viewed Columbus's voyages as a threat to
North America and South America, claiming them
map
below).
Other explorers focused on the lands of
its
control of the Atlantic.
To
settle the
matter of
boundaries. Spain and Portugal, both Catholic

countries, agreed to divide control over any
newly
encountered lands. They signed the Treaty of
for Spain. In 1513
Vasco Nuiiez de Balboa (noon-
yays day bahl-BOH-uh) explored
probably the
first
European
to
Panama and was
glimpse the Pacific
Tordesillas (tawrd-uh-SEE-uhs) in 1494. This treaty
Ocean from the Americas. Juan Ponce de Leon

(PAWN-say day lay-AWN) sought the mythical
drew an imaginary
"Fountain of Youth"
tion,
line of demarcation, or separa-
around the world: territory explored west of
the line
would belong
to Spain: east of the line, to
Portugal.
Narvaez (PAHM-fee-
loh day nahr-BAH-ays) led an unsuccessful attempt
to
Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese mariner
in Florida in 1513.
In the 1520s Panfilo de
colonize North America's coastline along
the Gulf of Mexico.
survivor of Narvaez's
sponsored by the Spanish Crown, explored the

land west of the Line of Demarcation. Magellan
set out in
1519 to find a westward route
to Asia.
After threading through the turbulent, narrow
waterway
at the
southern
tip
of South America.
Magellan sailed into the Pacific Ocean. In

September 1522 the Victoria
the
remaining of Magellan's five-vessel

into the harbor near
only ship
fleet
sailed
Cadiz (kahd-jz), Spain.
Captain Juan Sebastian de Elcano (el-KAHN-oh)
and his 17 shipmates
the only survivors of the
original 270-person expedition
thus became
Robinson PrCjea;cr.
the
Magellan-Elcano Expedition
45
expedition. Alvar
Nunez Cabeza de Vuca
sah day BAH-kah) explored

Texas,
New
member
was
in
(kah-BAY-
much of present-day
Mexico, and Arizona.
1539 another
In
of the expedition. Estevanico. an African,
the first non-Indian to visit the Pueblo Indians
present-day
New
Mexico. And
in the
1540s
Hernando de Soto explored southeastern North

America and
the Mississippi River, while Francisco
Vasquez de Coronado marched through most of

present-day southwestern United States (see
on page
the
map
some 600 Spaniards and African slaves and set sail

in February 1519. On the Mexican coast he
engaged Indians
in battle. Cortes's
the Indians, and through
army defeated
them he learned much
about the wealthy Aztec Empire.
Among the Indians was a young Aztec

woman, Malintzin (mah-LiNT-suhn). called Doria
Marina by the Spanish, who became Cortes's valuable interpreter and adviser. She described Aztec
weaknesses
to Cortes, explaining that
many
Indian
groups hated the Aztecs. Most were being taxed
57).
heavily by the empire
forced
to give
of their crops and handicrafts.
knowledge, Cortes
The SPANISH encounter
ruler,
Moctezuma
THE AZTECS
set off to
In the footsteps of the early explorers
came
the
Cortes
Moctezuma
land,
with this
confront the Aztec
(MAWK-tay-soo-mah).
II
When
Uli'l
up the best
Armed
II
set foot
on the main-
had already ruled the
Aztec Empire for 17 years. During
his
over the expansion of Aztec
ter-
Spanish conquerors, known as conquistadors
reign, he presided
(kawng-KEES-tuh-dawrs). By the early 1500s
ritory through military conquest
Spanish soldiers had successfully expelled the
extension of trade routes. Like his predecessors, he
Moors from
Spain. These Spanish soldiers then set
out to conquer the Americas and to gain riches for
maintained
control over Aztec subjects by
requiring tribute.
themselves. They also wanted to spread the

Catholic religion throughout the world.
strict
Moctezuma
learned
of Cortes's arrival almost
immediately.
An Aztec
Spanish explorers and conquistadors sought wealth and glory and

hoped to win new converts to
coastal Indians.
Christianity.
on foot
scout had witnessed the
Spanish defeat of the
He
raced
to the capital city
of Tenochtitlan to
Among
the
most able and adventurous of the
conquistadors was Hernan Cortes.
soldier in Spain, Cortes settled in
encomendew.
and the vast
Moctezuma
professional
skinned men
Cuba
"deer" (horses)
as an
Intrigued by stories of gold on the
Mexican mainland, Cortes gathered
a force of
house.
tell
of the pale-
who
rode
taller
The
than
scout
reported that these bearded strangers even had
weapons (cannons) powerful enough
to crack a
hole in the side of a mountain!
The deeply
religious ruler contemplated this
amazing news. According
to an ancient prophecy, a
light-skinned god called Quetzalcoatl (ket-SAHL-
kwaht-uhl) would one day return to rule over the

Aztecs.
Moctezuma
feared that the prophecy
was
now coming true.

Moctezuma believed that the god's arrival
would mean the end of his reign. Before Cortes
had even arrived on the Mexican mainland,
Moctezuma had been shaken by omens, such as
the appearance of a brilliant comet, that he
In this
mural, Hernan Cortes and Malintzin receive
from Aztec ambassadors.
46
S:
CH APTER
gifts
believed foretold the terrible destruction of his

people.
He
sent gold and other gifts to Cortes to
come to Tenochtitlan. Instead,

made Cortes even more determined to
persuade him not to
the Spanish.
the gifts
the city,
conquer the Aztecs.
Though
While the Aztecs celebrated

night in 1520
Lii
defeat the Aztecs, Cortes
knew he must
increase
With Malintzin's help, he

recruited Indians who had been defeated by the
As Cortes approached
army of Indian
recruits
grew
Noche
is
remembered
TREES-tay), the
the Aztec capital, his
to several thousand.
Aztec population seemed determined
death.
to fight to the
worn out and
starving.
13 Cortes attacked, and the great city
responded to
this hospitable
ing
Moctezuma. Cortes
title
though not
his
welcome by imprison-
Moctezuma retain
power as emperor of
let
that
controlled
his lieutenant.
left
the
as an
of present-day central Mexico.
An
Broken spears
lie in
the roads;
have torn our hair
The houses
in
our
grief.
are roofless now, and
their walls
are red with blood.
99
The Aztecs
After the conquest the Spanish leveled Aztec
temples and other buildings, destroyed beautiful
When
to retreat to
Cortes returned, he found
In
desperation he urged
Moctezuma to try to calm his angry

the Aztecs no longer trusted
their ruler.
Soon he
unprovoked attack
and fought back, forcing the Spanish
chaos.
On August
fell.
men. women, and children
saw Alvarado's actions
in
when
Tenochtitlan. In his absence
attending an Aztec religious ceremony.
things
all
city.
his
Pedro de Alvarado. ordered the
killing of scores of
their quarters.
had swept through the
Aztec poet captured his people's sadness:
we
This fragile arrangement collapsed
The
Aztecs were also weakened by a smallpox epi-
Aztecs.
Cortes temporarily
his
1521
four-month siege by the Spaniards, how-
ever, left the Aztecs
honored guest. Cortes
May
he attacked Tenochtitlan. This time the whole
demic
as an
Night
months Cortes regrouped
forces and obtained reinforcements. In
Tenochtitlan from destruction, however, the Aztec
welcomed Cortes
sides.
Spanish history as
Moctezuma realized by this time that Cortes

was not the god Quetzalcoatl. Hoping to save
ruler
to leave
their victory, that
in
NOH-chay
Triste (lah
In the following
the size of his army.
Aztecs.
managed
of Sorrow.
UORTES CONQUERS THE AZTECS

To
the Spanish
heavy casualties resulted on both
subjects.
But
Aztec works of
art,
and melted down elaborate
gold jewelry into bullion and shipped
Over
it
to Spain.
the ruins of Tenochtitlan. Cortes built
Mexico
City, the present-day capital of
Mexico.
When Moctezuma
attempted to intervene, he was

killed
Spanish
and
Aztec
sources dispute which side mur-
dered the emperor.
With Moctezuma dead and

the Aztecs in full revolt, the
Spanish knew they had no

choice but to leave the capital.
They
tried to
escape during the
middle of the night by crossing

the
main causeway over Lake
Texcoco, but a
water
woman drawing
sounded
an
alarm.
Thousands of Aztecs attacked
During La Noche Triste, the

Aztecs forced the Spanish to
retreat from Tenochtitlan across
Lake Texcoco.
::
47
This illustration
from Felipe
is
Guaman Poma
de Ayala's New
Chronicle, which was written
between 1584 and 1614. Of Indian
descent, he satirizes the Spanish
obsession with gold. When the Inca
asks the Spaniard if he eats gold, the
visitor replies, "Yes,
we
eat
COHQViSTA
the
cups, and a shield with an
image of the Incan corn
Crown appointed him
book
the Bible
According
to
that
"spoke" their god's words.
an Incan account:
530s he was probably the wealthiest
person in Spanish America.
As
for the
Aztec people,
they had fallen victim to the encomienda system.
mm
[Atahuallpa] took the
to leaf through
to
.
P IZARRO CONQUERS THE INCAS

The Incan Empire, centered
in
the
Andes
Mountains of South America, became Spain's next

target for conquest. In 1531 Francisco Pizarro
(pee-SAHR-roh), a Spanish soldier and trea-
sure hunter, led a small
army
to the
very heart of the empire. Traveling
cautiously along steep, narrow

that
snaked through
rugged, snowcapped peaks, they
reached the town of Cajamarca
(kah-huh-MAHR-kuh)
Atahuallpa (ah-tah-WAHL-
camp.
Spanish
priest told Atahuallpa that the
Incas must convert to Catholicism. Atahuallpa asked to see the
48
CHAPTER
[Atahuallpa] Inca
99
The outraged Spaniards attacked
the Indians
and captured Atahuallpa.
To gain
promised
to
his
fill
their
freedom, Atahuallpa
his large prison quarters
with gold and
silver.
Desperate to save
emperor-god, the Incas deliv-
ered a large ransom in gold and

ver. Pizarro
sil-
accepted the ransom
but ordered Atahuallpa killed,

not freed.
of a gold-rich
empire drew Francisco

Pizarro to western South
America, which he explored in
the 1520s. Pizarro went to
Spain in 1528 and convinced the
Spanish king to authorize the
conquest of the Incas.
The Mansell Collection
hands.
A Rumors
Pizarro lured the Incan
pah), to his
his
the Inca said,
me? This book
in present-
day northern Peru.
ruler,
threw the book from
book and began
And
pages.
its
"Why does it not speak

tells me nothing!" And
passes
is
it."
region. In 1522 the Spanish
By
of Incan
shown here.
Clockwise from right is a
gold figurine, two drinking
artifacts
god.
Cortes lived like a king within the conquered
viceroy.
An assortment
mkmom
^
At the time of Pizarro's

the Incas
were divided by an
arrival in
Cajamarca.
internal dispute.
One
group allied with Pizarro, and the other group

retreated to a remote area of the Andes,
where they
many
years. But
held out against the Spanish for
American empire
control of the vast South
finally
passed into Spanish hands. Pizarro ruled until 1541,
when he was murdered by one of his own men.
By conquering the Aztecs and
A This illustration, drawn sometime between 540

and 1541, shows Native Americans from southern
Mexico fleeing from the conquistadors.
1
the Incas, the conquistadors

added vast territory and wealth
to the Spanish American empire.
For example, the Mayas
in southern
Mexico
fled to
the interior of the Yucatan (yoo-kuh-TAN)
Peninsula. Others allied themselves with the
/^.OSTCONQUEST
INDIAN SOCIETY
To maintain control over

the Spanish
went
the
conquered Indians,
to great lengths to
Native American cultures. They tore
temples, destroyed Indian
art,
Spanish and negotiated a place for themselves in

the
Indian
and reorganized
social order.
Survival usually meant the mixing of Spanish
wipe out
down
new
and Native American peoples and cultures. For

example,
many
Indians developed a
new
religion
Over
Indian settlements. Native American cultures were
by mixing
not completely destroyed, however; they live on in
time both Native Americans and Spaniards
customs of most modern Latin
adopted elements of the other's language and cus-
the people and
American
toms. Eventually, there emerged a
nations.
Native Americans often took up arms against

the Spanish to defend their lives, lands, and reli-
gions.
Some
Others,
worn down by superior Spanish weaponry
fought the Spanish to the death.
or by the unbearable
toll
to
Spanish ways of
life.
over the Indians. Native
Americans, however, developed

ways to ensure their survival.
rule.
SECTION
IDENTIFY and
culture that
The Spanish won official control
Some found
escape or make the best of Spanish
new
blended ingredients of Native American and
of disease, came to terms
with a force they could not drive out.
ways
their rituals with Catholic rituals.
REVIEW
explain the significance of the following: Treaty of Tordesillas, Ferdinand Magellan, Juan
Sebastian de Elcano, circumnavigate, Vasco
Nunez de
Balboa, Juan Ponce de Leon, Alvar
Nunez Cabeza
de Vaca, Estevanico, Hernando de Soto, Francisco Vasquez de Coronado, conquistadors, Hernan

Cortes, Malintzin, Moctezuma
LOCATE
I.
II,
Francisco Pizarro, Atahuallpa.
and explain the importance of the following: Line of Demarcation.
MAIN IDEA Why did the Spanish explorers and conquistadors come to the Americas?
MAIN IDEA How did the conquistadors help Spain build an empire in the Americas?
MAIN IDEA What were some of the strategies Native Americans used to protect their ways
of
life?
WRITING TO CREATE
Spanish.
Imagine you are an Aztec
whose son or daughter
has died fighting the
Write a poem describing why he or she fought.
HYPOTHESIZING Why
you think
this
do you think the Spaniards tore down Aztec temples? What impact do
had on Aztec religion?
49
THE SPANISH SETTLE THE AMERICAS

c u s
What was the extent of Spanish settlement
How did missions and estates help establish
in
North America?
Spanish rule
in
the
Americas?
What
elements of their culture did Spanish colonists introduce to
the Americas?
^he
explorations
enabled Spain
to
and conquests of Cortes,
Pizarro,
and others
claim vast portions of the Americas. For the next
two centuries, the Spanish fanned out from Mexico City

of their American empire
Caribbean.
Armed with
the heart
and from their island colonies
the soldier's
sword and
in the
Statue of the Virgin Mary, called
the priest's cross,
New
La Conquistadora, taken to
they set out to find riches
and spread
the
Roman
Catholic faith.
their
LORIDA
way back
from
seaboard
La
626
of the
wanted
to estab-
provide safe harbors.
first
attempts to establish a perma-
had turned
nent settlement in Florida took place in 1526.
Florida, the entire eastern
Lucas Vazquez Ayllon (/I-yawn) led some 500
the early 1500s the Spanish already
their attention to
in
to Europe, Spain
lish settlements to
One
By
Mexico
present-day
to
colonists from Hispaniola to a site on the coast of
Newfoundland. Because Spanish ships from the
present-day South Carolina. The expedition, which
Caribbean often sailed up the Atlantic coast on
included families, missionaries, and African
Florida
slaves, built
ay).
San Miguel de Gualdape (gwahl-DAHP-
but the colony did not survive the
Sick and too
two
weak
to
farm or
thirds of the settlers perished.
straggled
home
first
winter.
to catch fish, nearly
The others
in early 1527.
Farther south along the Florida coast, settlers
again had trouble establishing a colony. Native
American groups
Timucuas
Apalachees
living in the area
(tim-uh-KOO-uhs).
fought
Settlers in St. Augustine tried to maintain Spanish culture
50
CHAPTER
and
them from
however, an expedition
by Pedro Menendez de Aviles (may-NAYN-days
day ah-bee-LAYS) succeeded
in planting a
settlement in Florida. This
was
St.
permanent
Augustine, the
oldest city established by Europeans in what

the United States.
and customs.
as the
Calusas.
the Spanish to keep
settling in the area. In 1565.
led
such
is
now
4 The Pueblo
Indians skillfully deco-
rated pottery with beautiful symbols
and designs.
MEW MEXICO AND ARIZONA

some 1,500 miles west of
In 1609,
St.
Mexico's new governor, Diego de Vargas, reestablished Spanish rule.
Augustine,
Pedro de Peralta (pay-RAHL-tah), the newly
New
appointed governor of
capital at Santa Fe.
From
New
1690s
their territory only temporarily. In the
Mexico, established
this outpost the
its
Spanish
maintained a fragile hold on the northernmost bor-
New Spain for more than 200 years.

The Pueblo Indians and the Spanish struggled bitterly for control of this area, however. The
Pueblos resented Spanish demands that they pay
At the same time, the Spanish
began moving into present-day Arizona. Father

Eusebio Kino (ay-oo-SAYB-yoh KEE-noh)
built mis-
sions near present-day Nogales (noh-GAL-uhs) in
1687 and Tucson
in 1700.
He
also explored the
southern reaches of the Colorado River.
During the 1700s the fear of French and
derland of
British expansion
prompted the Spanish
up their colonization of
this region.
to
speed
They
estab-
lished presidios (forts), missions, villages, towns,
taxes and that they convert to Catholicism. In 1680
and large ranches. The Spanish influence found
the Pueblos temporarily drove the Spanish out of
today throughout the southwestern United States
Santa Fe. Under the leadership of Pope (poh-PAY), a
dates from this period.
Pueblo prophet, the Pueblos launched a series of

attacks.
was
By
over,
2,000
the time the
Pueblo Revolt of 1680
some 400 Spaniards
settlers
lay dead, and
some
had fled south.
After the Spanish were driven out. according

to
Texas
Despite the early explorations of Cabeza de Vaca
and others, Spanish settlement
Pueblo witnesses:
Texas proceeded slowly. The
Pope
instantly
ordered
break up and burn
pertaining to Christianity.
Spanish colony was founded
that they
everything
They were
in
1681 by
in
any pueblo and to
driven from
New Mexico by
By 1690 France's colonizing

North America spurred Spain
on Texas. The San Francisco de
was established near
*J
in 1690.
was
Pope hoped
that
by destroying
all
traces of
the
the
activity in
to strengthen
and to plant only maize and beans, which

their ancestors.
permanent
Ysleta (i-ZLAYT-uh)
burn the seeds which the Spaniards sowed
were the crops of
first
present-day
Pueblo Revolt.
ordered likewise not to teach the Castilian

[Spanish] language
settlers
at
in
los Tejas
its
hold
mission
Neches (NECH-uhz) River
and the San Antonio de Valero mission
built in 1718.
emerged along
A few
the lower
other settlements
Rio Grande, but lack of
Spanish culture, the Pueblos could reestablish their
mineral resources and constant raids by the
way
Apaches and
of
life.
But the Pueblos regained control of
the
Comanches slowed
settlement.
51
California with de Portola's expedition. Serra
intrr fnimmoff
BUmSH NORTH
AMERICA
^j
Spanish /Missions
founded a mission
at
his death in 1784,
he had founded eight more mis-
GEORGIA
sions along the Pacific coast.
AMERICA
JanFrandico
^liT*
%.
San Diego, and by the lime of
NEW '-
^ SPAIN
1770
SarV,v,d.!U.
.Sbuquerque/
'
Sa
Monterrey
Gulf of
OCEAN
=
i
Present-day boundares FLORIDA
atana
Mexico
PACIFIC
Beginning in the mid- 500s,

Spain established settlements
from coast to coast in what is
now the continental United
/'
.YsJeta San
jLoRiDA
AntotTw
La Bahte* St. Augustine
,.
Tropic of Cancer
"^SS^v
CARIBBEAN
SEA
'
ATLANTIC
States.
OCEAN
-
^Portdl^d&
Santa Fe
it de Bogota
NEW GRANADAY_a^
Equa^f
SPANISH AMERICA
By 1780 Spanish America was one
of the largest
colonial empires the world had ever known.
Within
its
were lands of rich geo-
vast borders
graphic diversity
from
the coastal lowlands of
Florida and the arid lands and mountains of north-
em Mexico
Andean
to the rain forests of
To oversee
Spain organized
it
this
into viceroyalties.
Each was go\emed by
in
The
New
first
two
Spain and
a viceroy,
who
acted
as the king's representative and super\'ised lesser
60'W
Spanish America
the
huge and diverse empire.
viceroyalties established were

Peru.
Panama and
heights of Peru.
1785
officials.
Colonial government worked better in theory
SPANNING
TWO CONTINENTS
For more than 300 years the
Spanish ruled lands that stretched from northern California to Chile
than in practice, though. Orders issued by the
in
Crown
or the Catholic church in Spain had to be
South America.
carried by messenger thousands of miles
PLACE
Which
viceroyalty included lands that are
now
part of the
ship and then by horseback or by
fcx)t
first
by
to the out-
United States?
posts of the empire.
Government
officials in
Spanish America often became impatient with the
delays and
who
California
ries to
was
be colonized. Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo (kah-
however. Colonists, especially those
much
their
own
dence
settlements and exercised
in the
in local
some indepen-
govemment.
of the California
coastline for Spain as early as 1542. But not until
Missions. The mission was one form of
the late 1700s did Spain, alarmed by Russian
ment established by
explorations in northern California, attempt to set
Historians have counted
up permanent settlements.
missions founded
In
1769 Caspar de
settle-
the Spanish in the Americas.
more than 150 Spanish
present-day United States.
in the
Portola (pawr-toh-LAH) founded San Diego. Seven
At the center of each mission stood a simple
years later (as the British colonies on the eastern
church. Surrounding the church were living quar-
seaboard were declaring their independence) Juan
ters
Bautista de
Anza (bow-TEE-stah day AHN-sah)
founded San Francisco.
rah). a scholarly Franciscan missionary,
CHAPTER
and workshops where "mission Indians"
worked
at
weaving, blacksmithing. and other
crafts. In fields nearby, missionaries
Friar Junipero Serra (hoo-NEE-pay-roh ser-
52
decisions. Officials
remote comers of the empire, usually organized
the last of Spain's northern territo-
BREE-yoh) explored
own
their
ignored orders and laws were rarely penal-
ized,
rALIFORNIA
made
came
to
Americans raised
and other crops.
cattle
and Native
and grew grain, grapes,
The missionaries labored
to
win the Native
Americans
to Catholicism, to teach
ways, and
to
But
make them
in their zeal
them Spanish
loyal Spanish subjects.
they suppressed Indian culture and
enforced a harsh labor system resembling the

eiicomienda. Resentful of forced labor and harsh
many
discipline,
Many
Indians fled from the missions.
others died from European diseases against
which they had no immunity.
Haciendas and ranchos.

sions the Spanish
into
Outside the mis-
government divided the land
farming and ranching estates. Haciendas,
some consisting of hundreds of thousands of

acres,
were the
largest; smaller
farms and ranches
were called ranchos.

Peons, or landless laborers, most of
whom
were Indians, worked on the haciendas. In theory,

hacienda owners paid the peons,
who were
free to
come and go as they wished. In reality, however,

many land owners kept the workers bound to the
land by debts. Hacienda owners made the peons
purchase daily necessities from the hacienda store,
sometimes
at inflated prices.
Before they could
seek employment elsewhere, workers had to pay

off their debts
an impossible task
addition, children often

their
had
for
many. In
assume the debts of
to
deceased parents.
Most owners of ranchos
lived
on
their land
and worked alongside their laborers. The

Spaniards
who drove
the cattle on haciendas and
ranchos were excellent horsemen called vaqiieros

(vah-KER-ohs). Familiar words like lasso, rodeo,
and corral originated with the vaqueros, whose

life-style
became
model
for later
North American
cowboys.
The Granger
Collection.
New
Ysleta Indian Mission (top) in Texas and San

Xavier del Bac Mission (bottom) in Arizona are
two examples of Spanish architecture.
York
Missions, haciendas, and ranchos
established Spanish control over

Indian labor and land.
Colonial
People living on haciendas,
life.
in
missions, and in the bustling cities of Spanish
America developed
unique social structure.
Peninsulares (pay-nin-soo-LAHR-uhs). Spaniards
born
in Spain,
Spaniards
bom
and criollos (kree-OH-yohs).
in the colonies, held the
most
privi-
leged positions in the Americas. Most lived in huge
A A Mexican
hacienda owner,
and a vaquero are shown

the early 1830s.
an overseer,
watercolor from
his wife,
in this
houses with
many
servants and
owned
businesses
and haciendas. Spaniards held high government

positions and studied law. theology, or medicine.
53
TftCM
THE
01/1/
ENCO/VI/ENDA'S
corn, which the encomendems
is.
sold for a large profiL
complex.
Today.
He man Cortes
would
In
1521
laid
eyes on Cuernavaca (kwer-
first
nuh-vAHK-uh). an Indian town
tile
surrounding the
valleys
town so
five
Cuernavaca. As the
is
home
ple.
to
encomiendas
surrounded by
orchards,
in
its
now
is
No
fields
modem
tion
it
and
Most of the
industrial
today
the
in
in
agriculture.
old haciendas have
been tumed into hotels or spas

for tourists.
Though many changes
come
have
neighbor
involved
is
longer
52
1 .
to
Cuemavaca
since
remnants of the
the area. These encomienda
encomienda system endure. The
grants gave him control of the
Indians
labor of tens of thousands of
major economic resources.
Indians.
Much
By the mid- 530s.

1
encomiendas
in
the region and
over
of the agricultural land

city
remains divided
into large estates
owned mostly
descent but worked mainly by
most of Central
in
lack control
by wealthy families of European
close to 180,000 Indians.
As
still
around the
Spaniards controlled 30
America and South America,
Indians and mestizos. This situa-
the encomienda Indians around
tion persists despite both the
Cuernavaca were forced to
Indian farmers' protests and the
work
long hours
in
Spanish estates and
Mexican govemment's attempts
the fields of
in
at land reform. In industry as
the
well, the
mines. Indian laborers built

mills,
Indians provided
descendants of the
encomienda Indians work
churches, roads, and even
a huge palace for Cortes.
new
The
Cortes and
>
in
the
factories, the vast majority
of which they neither
own nor
the other encomenderos with
control. This
gold and daily necessities
of the encomienda system, not
food and
also
wood
wove
for fuel.
textiles
like
They
A A Guatemalan
and grew
Below
zohs).
the Spaniards
vKere related to
em
of European-Indian
more Spanish than Indian or
imponani
Spanish families, mesti-
zos could aspire to the highest positions in Spanish
American
society.
But most mestizos lived mod-
estly as artisans, estate supervisors, traders, or
shopkeepers.
Roughh
in
south-
equal in status to mestizos
in
the social legacy
Cuernavaca but
in
much
of the rest of former Spanish
America.
Mexico.
were mestizos (me-STEE-
men and women bom
unions. If ihey looked
only
is
plantation
worker harvests coffee
crops such as sugar, wheat, and
.African ancestrs
\
).
These groups were
legally pre-
ented from holding public office and certain jobs.
Most Indians were farmers or farm
laborers,
though some worked as tavern keepers, wagon
Most African slaves worked
drivers, or sailors.
as hacienda supers isors or as artisans.
Women's
roles
were also determined by race
or family background. Spanish
women
who made
were mulattoes (people of African-European
up only 5 to 17 percent of migrants in the early
ancestry).
1500s
At the bottom of the social structure were

Indians. Africans, and
54
In fact,
entire state of Morelos. only
capital of
Cortes's palace
huge
instead, a
about 30 percent of the popula-
some 230.000 peo-
tourist attraction.
captivated Cortes that
he secured
Heman Cortes
scarcely recognize
the Mexican state of Morelos,
some 50 miles south of Mexico

City. The lush orchards and fer-
LEGACY
CHAPTER
zamhos (people of Indian-
maintained
a degree of economic indepen-
dence because they could
own names. Many
also
own propeny
managed family
in their
businesses.
husbands
either with their
or, if
widowed, by themselves.
Many wealthy Spanish

women were
home
taught, at
convent schools,
or at
to read, write,
sew, and cook. But the majority
of Spanish
American women
could not read. They were also

discouraged from pursuing higher
education. Juana Ines de
a noted
1
Mexican poet
Cruz,
la
in the late
7th century, described her efforts
an education:
to receive
44 When
was
six
and write, ...

that
in
or seven
how
and already knew
discovered
the City of Mexico
there was a university

as
to read
soon
as
and
learned this
began to deluge [overwhelm]
my mother
with urgent and
insistent pleas to
manner of dress
... so that
and take courses at the

refused
read
many
owned.
**
education.
might study
university.
nevertheless,
different
This 18th-century painting shows a mestizo fannil/
in
Mexico.
my
change
She
at
Most women were taught
home such
as cooking, pottery
useful skills
making, and
weaving. This childhood training allowed them to
found a way to
own and
books my grandfather
run their
textiles, sell
food
own
in
shops, produce clothes or
markets,
work
as maids, or
serve as midwives.
Cruz
for
later
entered a convent, a
women who wanted
religious contemplation
to
common
practice
Colonists brought Spanish

government, architecture,
and customs to the
have the freedom for
and study.
Indian, African, and Spanish-Indian
had even fewer opportunities
women
Americas.
to receive a formal
SECTION
IDENTIFY and
Aviles,
Pedro de
explain the significance of the following: Lucas

Peralta, Pope,
Vazquez Ayllon, Pedro Menendez de
Pueblo Revolt, Father Eusebio Kino, Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo, Friar
Junipero Serra, peons, Juana Ines de
LOCATE
REVIEW
la
Cruz.
St.
Augustine, Santa Fe, Nogales, Ysleta,
San Diego, San Francisco.

1.
2.
MAIN IDEA Where and when did Spanish colonists found settlements in North America?
MAIN IDEA How did the Spanish use missions and estates to administer their empire in the
Americas?
3.
MAIN IDEA What
4.
WRITING TO INFORM
elements of Spanish culture were transplanted to Spanish America?
You are putting on
short script that presents the

5.
IDENTIFYING CAUSE
lives
a play
about the residents of
St.
Augustine. Write a
of peninsulares, mestizos, and zambos.
AND EFFECT What Spanish
actions led to the Pueblo Revolt?
55
Section ^
i
THE ENGLISH
c u
NORTH AMERICA
Why was the defeat of the

How did the English
Spanish method?
How did
How did
IN
Spanish
method
Armada
important?
of colonization differ from the
the Jamestown colonists survive and prosper?
the growth of Jamestown affect Native Americans'

relationships with the settlers?
9,n the 1500s the Spanish began settling North America. At

the
same
time, other
and France
European nations
especially England
began claiming large areas of the continent.
However, since the French and the English were more concerned with events
in
Europe,
it
was nearly a century before
these nations successfully colonized North America.
609
English
pamphlet
promoting colonization
sightings and landings by Irish, Portuguese,
t ARLY CLAIMS
Chinese, African, and other sailors.
European contact with the Americas began well
mariners searched for a route to Asia. Another sea-
Shortly after Columbus's
farer
Leif Eriksson and other Viking explorers sighted
coasts of what are
settled parts of northeastern
North
voyage, other
from Genoa, John Cabot, sailed along the
before Columbus. In the 10th and 11th centuries
and temporarily
first
Scotia,
and
New
now Newfoundland, Nova
England,
America. The remains of one Viking settlement
in 1498.
have been found at L'Anse aux Meadows

in Newfoundland. There are also tales of early
which had backed
1497 and again
his venture. In return he
received a small amount of

privileges
England
first in
Cabot claimed these lands for England,
little
its tlrst
money and some
reward for the explorer
claim
in
trade
who gave
North America.
Geographic knowledge of the Americas

slowly grew. Balboa's sighting of the Pacific Ocean
and Magellan's voyage around the
America
of South
sent explorers seeking a northern route
northwest passage
Asia.
tip
Many European
to the Pacific
claims
in
and thus
to
North America
resulted from failed attempts to find such a passage.
French claims to North America were based
on the voyages of Giovanni da Verrazano
A The Vikings are
believed to have sighted the North
American mainland
56
as early as 986.
CHAPTER
(vayr-
raht-SAHN-oh) and Jacques Cartier (kahr-TYAY).
Verrazano, an Italian, failed
in
1524
to find a
European exploration ofôrth America

THE LURE OF RICHES
of Asia
and
cities
of gold in
mM MOVEMENT
In
170
European explorers sought both a northern trade route
the spices
to
North America.
Which European explorer
which year was the Gulf of Mexico
first
traveled
down
the
St.
Lawrence River?
explored?
first
English exploration
French exploration
Spanish exploration
Dutch exploration
English settlement
CARIBBEAN
French settlement
7o=w
50
SEA
Spanish settlement
1,000
110
westward route
to Asia.
later,
the St.
Lawrence River
Lawrence and
as far west as present-day
Montreal. Cartier's attempts to
were unsuccessful, but his
start a
North American
settlement
efforts strengthened
now Canada.
European
powers
thus made
The
French claims to what
Another reason for the delay
But he did claim for France
Cartier explored the Gulf of St.
territory early in the
efforts
was the
religious upheaval
claims to
1500s but did
not establish permanent colonies. At that time most
in colonization
known
as the
Protestant Reformation. The Reformation began

in
Germany
in
German monk,
Roman
1517,
when Martin
Luther, a
protested against corruption in the
Catholic church. Protests quickly spread to
other European countries.
is
SOUTH AMERICA
PANAMA
lands along the North American coast. Ten years
80W
2,000 Kilometers
As
a result, a
number of
Protestant churches were established as alternatives to Catholicism.
This conflict between Protestants and
European countries were more concerned with
Catholics
trade with Asia than with organized efforts to settle
also a territorial and political one. For a time the
the Americas.
Reformation commanded Europe's attention.
became not only a
religious struggle but
57
France, for example, was loo involved with a civil
and 30,000 men, known as the Spanish Armada.
war (1562-1598) between Catholics and
to
up on
to follow
its
Protestants
claims to Canada until the 1600s.
During the Reformation, Spain, the most

powerful nation
in
Europe, clung to the Catholic
faith.
But other countries, such as England,
cially
became
Protestant states.
sailed to the port of Calais, France, just across the
of Dover from England. There they waited
Strait
for additional troops.
The Spanish navy had a reputation
offi-
This division led to
Armada
invade England. In 1588 most of the
Europe
in
well-armed ships. But England's
for having large,
drawn-out conflict between the two groups as
sea captains skillfully used the speed of their
achieve religious and political domi-
smaller ships to great advantage. They loaded eight
each
tried to
nance
in
Europe.
of their ships with gunpowder,
set
them
afire,
and
propelled the burning ships toward the Armada.
The heavy Spanish
tNGLAND CHALLENGES SPAIN
way
in time.
The
rest
vessels could not get out of the
Many
of the
caught
Armada was
or were
blown
up.
driven out to sea.
As
fire
the Spanish ships attempted to escape, they
The
earliest
European challenges
American empire came

pirates
to Spain's
in the late 1500s.
European
especially the English "sea dogs"
attacking Spanish galleons as they
Americas and seizing
One of
the
began
left the
their cargoes of treasure.
most successful sea dogs was
Francis Drake. In 1577 Drake ventured from
England with a
sels
fleet
of swift, heavily armed ves-
on a voyage of exploration and
sailing through the Strait of
em
tip
Magellan
smashed by
piracy. After
at the
south-
of South America, he turned north. Off the
Only about half of
a furious storm.
made
original fieet
it
home
were
the
to Spain.
The year 1588 was a turning
point in history.
Armada revealed Spanish military weaknesses. By the 17th century. Spanish economic weaknesses also became apparent. With
The defeat of
the
tons of colonial silver flowing into
its
treasury,
Spain seemed quite prosperous. But the prosperity
was deceptive. The Spanish used most of

to
the silver
buy goods from other countries. John Campbell,
an English writer, explained:
western coast of South America. Drake attacked
Spanish ships carrying silver from the mines of
Peru. With his vessels loaded with Spanish riches,
[Spanish] galleons bring the silver into
Spain, but ...
he sailed along the Pacific coast of North America

in.
and slowly made
his
way home
to
England.
Queen Elizabeth
welcomed Drake
The
runs out as fast as
silver
and very
goods or manufactures
little
it
comes
of the
belong to the
subjects of the
crown of
Spain.
It is
evident,
as a
therefore,
hero, knighting
it
him on
that the greatest part of the
returns from the
the deck of his treasure[foreigners].
laden ship, the Golden
West
Indies belong to
99
Hind. The queen's action
angered King Philip
II
of
who viewed
it
as
Spain,
The steady flow of

an increase
in prices,
a defiant challenge to
flow of silver slowed
Spanish power.
found
King Philip decided to strike back. He

assembled a massive
force of some 130 ships
goods.
itself
silver
When
in the 17th century,
the
Spain
with few resources to buy imported
In order to launch the
government had taken out

the
caused inflation, or
throughout Europe.
Armada,
loans.
the Spanish
These debts, and
weak Spanish economy, prevented Spain from

new plans for further American colo-
launching
nization.
The way was
the French,
4 The
ships
faster English
outmaneuvered
the ships of the Spanish
Armada.
58
CHAPTER
thus open for the English,
and the Dutch
The
to begin colonization.
defeat of the Spanish

the start of
England's power in the Americas.
Armada marked
Cngland's
first
attempts
at colonization
Even before
English adventurers had
phmned
to colonize the
lands claimed by Cabot and others.
eager to
Armada,
the defeat of the Spanish
They were
develop commerce with the Americas as
Spain had done.
Royal permission
first
went
to start
to a soldier. Sir
an English colony
Humphrey
Gilbert. In
1583 he sailed to Newfoundland, but on the return
journey he and his ship were

following year
lost in a storm.
Queen Elizabeth extended
The
the per-
mit to Gilbert's half-brother, Sir Walter Raleigh,
who
explored the Atlantic seaboard for a suitable
site to
He named
colonize.
Virginia, in
the area that he chose
honor of Elizabeth, the "Virgin Queen."
In 1585 Raleigh sent a small

to Virginia.
They
settled
on Roanoke
li.
d.
I.
Twohanimcn
ii.d.apiece
Two augers fji. a piece

Sixechi^cls^.d-apiece
04
00 08
00 CO
otf
a piece
Three gimleu i.d.apiece

Twoiiatchcu J i-d. a piece
Twofrouestoeleauepale i8.d.
Twohand bills 10. apiece

One grindleOone 4-S
oj[c4
00
-04
drawn by John Smith, appeared
in his
historic of Virginia.
groups to organize settlements

groups, the Plymouth
ship,
colonists
the
returned to England. In
1587
Raleigh
tried
again, sending 117 peo-
01 03
JJailesofallforatotlievalue of
of Virginia,
almost a year of hard-
o|co
Two percers (\ocliod 4-d.
map
624 book, General
North Carolina. After
This
1
Island, off the
'
Three ftioueb i8.d. a piece

Twofpadesat i8.d.apiece
settlers
of present-day
coast
Tiucbto]howcsaii.t.a piece
1 lol
Fiueniffowhowesatie.d. apiece"-|o6 c8
Two broad Axes at ]4.8.d.a piece
[071(4
Fiuc felling Axes at i8.d. a piece
07 otf
Two fteek hand iawcs at 1 0.d. a piece
01 08
Two Ewo-handlawes at j.s. apiece10
Onewhip-law, fetandmcdwiiliboxyfilcj
group of
ple, including
in Virginia.
Company and
The two
London
Company, were joint-stock companies, which
operated somewhat like corporations do today.
the
Investors shared the cost of running the
company;
they also shared any profits or losses.
women
The Charter of 1606 gave
the
Plymouth and
.Two Pictuxcs
ctf
llli,jtiUlmfl<m<m.
os|o8
7,-
Iron Pot
-oii
Onckectle
iOiic
One large frying pan

One gridiron
Two
One
London companies
command
in
John
of
the right to establish settlements
North America and "to dig, mine, and search for
skiUeu
fpir
-1^-
Platten,di(hei,fpoonesofwood-
and children, under the
This detail
is
from
a supply list that was

issued to all prospective colonists inter-
ested
White. After establishing
all
manner of mines of gold,
silver,
and copper."
No
new Roanoke colony.

White headed back to
doubt everyone pictured the tantalizing treasures
England for additional
Like the Spanish before them, the Enghsh did not
supplies.
consider the land rights of Native Americans
in settling in
Events in Europe
Spain had discovered
in its
American colonies.
already living in the region they called Virginia.
Virginia.
such as the attack on the
Great
Spanish Armada, which

interrupted
return.
all
all
When
English shipping
he found were the words
TOAN
delayed White's
he finally reached Roanoke
CRO
and
Britain, unlike Spain, char-
tered joint-stock companies to

settle colonies in North America.
in 1590,
CROA-
carved into trees near the original
settle-
ment. "Croatoan" was the Native American name

for an island off the coast. Searchers
other trace of the colonists.
The
found no
fate of the
The experiment at jamestown
"Lost
The
Colony" remains a mystery.

In 1606 the English again attempted to colo-
first settlers
some 100 men provisioned by

reached
London Company
the
Virginia in the spring
nize Virginia. Unlike the Spanish government,
of 1607. Sailing along Chesapeake Bay, they noted
which organized settlements
the "fair
in the
Americas, the
meddowes and goodly
tall
Trees, with
English government did not play a direct role in
Fresh-waters running through the woods." They
colonization. Instead, King James
chose a location near one of these
issued the
Charter of 1606, which licensed two merchant
their king, they
named
rivers. In
honor of
the settlement Jamestown.
59
The
early years. Unfortunately. Jamestown

rested on a low. wooded peninsula near a marsh
infested with disease-carrying mosquitoes. Disease,
crop
exposure to the elements, or starvation
had arrived too

people the
30
first
late to plant a
still
killed
many
seven months only some
year. After
were
settlers
the settlers
One
alive.
George
survivor,
Percy, recalled:
44
Our men were
diseases
destroyed with cruell
but for the most part they died
meere famine. There were never

Englishmen left in a forreigne Countrey
of
such miserie as
covered
wee were
Virginia.
new
in this
in
dis-
99
A
21
The
was made worse by
colonists' situation
the decisions of the directors of the
Company. Hoping
on
for quick returns
on searching for gold. This demand proved
foolhardy since there was no gold. Precious time
have gone toward building better
that could
ters
was an appalling
result
During the
first
settlers died.
had
shel-
and cultivating crops was therefore wasted.
The
three years,
The death
toll
most of the Virginia
An
adven-
was
elected president of the council of settlers in 1608.
discipline.
He
ordered wells dug.
shelters built, land cleared,
The help of
and crops planted.
the local Indians,
whom
the
English called '"Powhatans." pre-
vented
disaster.
total
Powhatans. actually
confederation of
tribes
Pocahontas,
perished."
daughter
the
all
of
Wahunsonacock, also helped
the English colonists.
She delivered dried corn
them and established
to
trade between the colonists and the Native
However,
strained
Powhatans were
relations with the
when Smith
returned to England. Desperate
for food in the harsh winter of 1609-10, the English
raided local Native American villages

food, burning
the Indians.
down
shelters,
and
many
killing
Wahunsonacock sought a
stealing
of
truce, saying:
The
a large
under the leadership of
you get by war?

willing to give
come
The
in
We
can
are unarmed, and
you what you ask,
a friendly manner.
if
you
^*
Conflicts between colonists and Native

In
1614 an uneasy truce was
when Pocahontas married John
Rolfe. an
English colonist.
to
Tobacco and prosperity.

conflicts arose over the crop that
colony economic prosperity
But additional
would bring
tobacco. The
the
prof-
itable cultivation of tobacco requires large
brought by the
Powhatans: "Bread. Corn.

Fish,
What
with
how
a crop
George Percy described

relief
you destroy
settlers
familiar.
the
Why will
supply you with food?
Americans continued.
which the English were not
and Flesh
in great plenty:
which was the setting up

2
obtain by love?
who
reached
food and taught them
CHAPTER
us
Wahunsonacock (wah-hoohn-
cultivate corn
possibly worn by
Wahunsonacock.
may
suH-nuh-kahk), were skilled in
Powhatans gave the
This Powhatan robe,

made of tanned deerskin and
decorated with shells, was
4% Why will you take by force what you
some 30 small
agriculture and fishing.
60
men: otherwise we had
called off the fruitless hunt for gold and
imposed harsh
new
1616.
Americans.
might have been higher
turous soldier, explorer, and mapmaker. Smith
He
in
[reviving] of our feeble
loss of lives.
not been for Captain John Smith.
it
London
arrival In
London
their invest-
ment, the directors insisted that the settlers concentrate
This portrait of Pocahontas at age

was painted shortly after her
amounts of
land.
The English
settlers
saw
the
abundant land around them as theirs for the taking, since the
fully use
it.
Native Americans seemed to not
The
Indians, however, wished to leave
the lands uncultivated as hunting grounds.
When Jamestown was

Caribbean islands produced
1607. the
settled in
all
the tobacco that
Europe imported. John Rolfe challenged this

monopoly in 1612 by successfully adapting the
desirable Caribbean tobacco to Virginia.
Soon
colonists were shipping large quantities of
it
the
to
England. The success of the crop allowed Virginia

to
grow and
prosper.
Jamestown
thrived with
John Smith's leadership, the
Powhatans' help, and profitable
A Women were sent to Virginia and sold as wives

to male settlers.
tobacco cultivation.
To provide
laborers for tobacco cultivation.
Jamestown's backers introduced headrights: 50
who
Jamestown. They
acres of land for anyone
paid for workers to
come
also set up a
to
bound
Jamestown's outlying farmhouses,
killing
some
including John Rolfe and burning
Jamestown:
350
servant was
most of the buildings. The English struck back
who
paid
settlers
fiercely.
They even concluded one "peace confer-
most of those
ence" by murdering some 200 Native Americans
survived their term of service (far from a cer-
with poisoned wine. These actions brought an end
his or her
who
an act of war.
In the spring of 1622. Indians attacked
settlers to
for a period of years to the person
way
their lands as
An indentured
arrangement for bringing

indentured servitude.
new
grounds. Native Americans viewed the taking of
tainty in
to
America. At
first,
Jamestown) acquired land
themselves.
Africans to
Most
to
work
for
historians believe that the first
settle in the
English colonies
came
to attempts at
settlers
mutual understanding between the
and the Indians.
as
indentured servants.
Warfare with Native Americans. As

Jamestown's population grew, the colonists'
Jamestown's prosperity attracted

hundreds of new settlers. The
colonists' demands for additional
land brought them into violent
tobacco farms expanded onto Indian hunting
conflict with Native
SECTION
IDENTIFY and
Americans.
REVIEW
explain the significance of the follov/ing: John Cabot, northwest passage, Giovanni da
Verrazano, Jacques Cartier, Protestant Reformation, Francis Drake, Spanish Armada,
Walter
Raleigh,
Charter of
inflation, Sir
606, Powhatans, Wahunsonacock, Pocahontas, indentured servant.
LOCATE and explain the importance of the following: St. Lawrence River, Roanoke, Jamestown.
I.
MAIN IDEA What did the defeat of the Spanish Armada mean to Europe and to North America?
2.
MAIN IDEA How did Native Americans first respond to the settlers at Jamestown? Why did relations
3.
worsen?
GEOGRAPHY: RELATIONSHIPS What
impact did the cultivation of corn and tobacco have on
Jamestown?
4.
WRITING TO PERSUADE
Imagine you are an investor
to a Spanish friend explaining
how the English colonization process

how a joint-stock company works.
process. Be sure to describe

5.
EVALUATING Do
you think that John Smith was an
in
the London Company. Write a letter

differs
from the Spanish
effective leader? Provide
examples from the
text that support your position.
Conquest of
Verrazano establishes
French claim in North
Aztecs begins.
Magellan's crew
Columbus
CHAPTER
in
lands
the Americas.
1492
1519
2.
paper
to
happened by writing the

next to
5.
the order
in
first
next to
in
line
2.
3.
Pueblo Revolt drives Spanish from Santa
Hypothesizing
how
2.
Hypothesizing Suppose the Spanish Armada had

defeated the English
two events on the time
line
3.
Analyzing
How
did Native
AND
Review the
IDEAS
Skills
Handbook entry on
Fact from Opinion
below from
6.
Charter of 1606
La Noche
7.
joint-stock
Triste
company
3.
Hernan Cortes
8.
John Smith
4.
Protestant Reformation
9.
Wahunsonacock
5.
Francisco Pizarro
indentured servant
10.
a 17th-century Spanish judge's defense of
which aspects of the argument are
instructions did Spain give
early settlers to guide
them
with Native Americans?
in
What
^4
At each step they
our faces the
America?
women's
What
Columbus and
3.
Why
^
i.
many
throw
many
in
.
places they have
places the Indians gave cause for
war to be made
changes did Spanish
against them, either because of their bestial
in
Americans?
and savage customs or because of the
excesses and treason that they attempted or
Spanish
kinds of opportunities did Indian,
women
[brutal]
in
been
their mistreatment or for
committed
against
Moreover,
have?
our people.
it is
not the Spaniards
own
exterminated them, but their
was Jamestown founded?
who
have
vices and
drunkenness or the earthquakes and repeated
REVIEWING THEMES
Global Relations What were the
epidemics of smallpox and other diseases with

positive
negative results of the Columbian exchange?
62
In
[critics]
their relationships
roles defined
African, and Spanish-Indian
and which are
fact that the Indians have
completely disappeared.
settlers introduce that affected Native
How were
facts
opinions.
badly treated and that
2.
Distinguishing
on page 990. Read the excerpt
Spanish treatment of Native Americans. Then identify
Bartolome de Las Casas
What
Americans respond
to both Spanish and English colonization?
1.
you think Spain
Native Americans may have reacted
IDENTIFYING PEOPLE
2.
Do
1588.
in
would have continued to dominate the Americas?
to these events.
was the Catholic
their lives?
Fe.
that affected Native Americans, and write a paragraph
describing
between
church at protecting the Indians and improving
defeated.
Select
did differences in
affect relations
4. Treaty of Tordesillas signed.
Armada
and values
THINKING CRITICALLY
Evaluating How successful
1
5. Spanish
How
Cultural Diversity
Europeans and Native Americans?
above,
activity below.
Jamestown established.
Conquest of Aztecs begins.
1.
did the Spanish
which they
the second
2,
1531
beliefs
Study the time
1524
benefit and hurt their economies?
of the chapter.
list
1522
and English colonization of the Americas both
3.
Number your
Incas starts.
1494
and
Conquest of
of globe.
signed.
WRITING A SUMMARY
summary
circumnavigation
Treaty of
-Tordesillas
Review
write a
America.
completes
CHAPTER
and
which
God
in
His mysterious
to reduce their numbers.
wisdom
**
has seen
fit
St. Augustine
founded.
The Spanish
Crown restricts
Jamestown
Rolfe introduces
established.
tobacco in
Jamestown.
Pueblo Revolt of poetry.
Spanish
defeated.
San Antonio de
Valero mission
founded.
drives Spanish
Santa Fe
founded.
Armada
the
from Santa Fe
encomienda.
-^
"^
^r
1588
1565
1542
1607
1609

first
1680
1612
voyage was a turning point
in
history.
AND GEOGRAPHY
Spain, Portugal, England,
and France
Americas.
led the exploration of the
Study the maps on pages
9 and 57,
noting the locations of these
Read the following excerpt from Alvar Nunez Cabeza
countries
de Vaca's report to the Spanish king on
Then write
summarizing Cabeza de Vaca's experi-
a paragraph
What
ences with Native Americans.
relation to the
Americas. Then,
his 8-year,
6,000-mile journey across North America.
in
advice did he give
explain
how
1718
1689
LINKING HISTORY
Writing to Evaluate Write an essay explaining why

Columbus's
Caspar de Portola
founds San Diego.
Cruz publishes
her first book
in
a brief essay,
geographic location
helped these countries lead the way

to the Americas.
the king about colonization?
^ We hastened through a vast territory,

which we found vacant, the inhabitants
having fled
to the
mountains
in fear
of
BUILDING YOUR
PORTFOLIO
we looked out
over the lavishly watered, fertile, and beautiful land, now abandoned and burned and
the people thin and weak.
Not having
Christians. With heavy hearts
planted, they were reduced to eating roots
and bark; and we shared their famine

whole way.
They
told us
the
cooperatively.
how
had come through razing

[tearing down] the towns and carrying off
half the men and all the women and boys;
those who had escaped were wandering
about as fugitives. We found the survivors
too alarmed to stay anywhere very long,
[Christians]
1.
TRADE
Building
on
In
Chapter
that material,
include trade routes
you portrayed
a trader
expand your map to
between Europe,
Africa, Asia,
and the Americas during the 1500s. Include symbols to represent major items of trade.
.
2.
SLAVERY
Imagine you are a Spanish priest
preferring death to a repetition of their
opposed to
seemed delighted
with our company, we grew apprehensive
that conveys your concerns about the encomienda
that the Indians resisting farther on at the
ery to the Americas.
recent horror. While they
frontier
would avenge themselves on
with the
got there
us.
they received us
same awe and respect
the others
had even more, which amazed

to bring all these
people
us. Clearly,
to Christianity
and
in
the Americas. Plan a mural
system and about the introduction of African
3.
When we
slavery
CULTURAL EXCHANGES
Chapter
you portrayed a museum researcher. Building on

that material, expand your exhibit to include dra-
matic readings of first-person accounts of
exchanges between Native Americans, Africans,
subjection to Your Imperial Majesty, they
and Spanish conquistadors, mission
must be won by kindness, the only certain
colonists.
way.
In
slav-
priests,
or
99
63
Chapter 3
1620-1763

FOCUS
UNDERSTANDING
THE MAIN IDEA
The
colonists
America
came
in
for
who
the
many
for religious
settled
North
600s and
700s
Many came
reasons.
freedom, others for
wealth;
and some came because they
had no
choice.
The communities they
founded developed
in different
ways,
giving rise to distinctive societies within
England's North American colonies. In

the process, colonists forever changed
Native Americans'
lives
and
cultures.
CULTURAL DIVERSITY
How
might the cultural back-
grounds of settlers influence the
development of a region?
How
might differences
ronment and
in
envi-
land use result
diverse ways of
in
life?
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT Why might a nation find

it
useful to regulate trade with
colonies?
What
effect
might
its
this
have on the colonies?
1620
1630
1651
1732
1754
Mayflower
Massachusetts
Parliament
Georgia
French and
lands.
Bay Colony
begins passing
founded.
Indian
established.
Navigation Acts.
begins.
War
1763
Treaty
of Paris
signed.
In
::
LINK TO THE PAST
the early 1600s hard times
many
when the chance arose
people. So
thousands of men and

fortune
in
England limited opportunities for
in
women
"New England" based on
n November 1620
tmm/nl
Some hoped
sailed west.
the Virginia tobacco
fields.
Virginia.
God
It
was
make
their
their religious beliefs.
a small ship sailing from England
the Mayflower,
The weary voyagers
of Heaven,
to
Others wished to establish a
off course into a harbor near what
Massachusetts.
North America,
to go to
"fell
upon
was blown
now Provincetown,
is
which had been bound

their
who had brought them over
for
knees and blessed the

the vast and furious
ocean," wrote William Bradford, a leader of the group.
The voyagers had indeed been over
a "furious ocean." For
more
than two months, the Mayflower had been blown about by violent
storms.
The passengers were
sick and weak,
north of their destination at the
wilderness" terrified
many
and they had landed
wrong time of
year.
far
The "howling
of them, and the
weather was cold and getting colder. While

their
shipmates huddled on board, some of
the passengers searched for a place to settle.
By mid-December
found a
site
Plymouth,
after the English port
which they had
they had
named
from
Who
Why did
sailed.
were these people?
they undertake such a voyage?
A View of Bethlehem (1757) by

Nicholas Garrison
The Puritan
65
THE
c
NEW ENGLAND COLONIES
Why did the
Pilgrims
What drove
the Puritans to leave England for North America?
come
to North America?
kind of society did they try to establish
Why were some colonists forced to
in
What
America?
leave Massachusetts Bay Colony?
^he prospect of religious freedom drew many English men and

women as it would later draw others to North America. But not
everyone came for religious reasons. Poverty plagued 17th-century
England and drove many people

Still,
religion
was
vitally
to look for
important to most
a better
life
elsewhere.
New England colonists.
They organized their close-knit communities around shared

gious beliefs, creating a distinct and prosperous
reli-
way of life.
the
Che pilgrims
Old Testament Psalms
Roman
Catholic church to form the Church of
England (Anglican church). Henry's motives had

been primarily personal
In 1 620 the men and women aboard the Mayflower

reached Cape Cod Bay. near what is now
grant
Provincetown. Massachusetts, and founded
that
Plymouth Colony. Known
troubled
left
as Pilgrims, they
England because of religious
saw themselves
as wanderers
conflict.
who,
God
in their
They
like the "pil-
grims and exiles" of the Bible, traveled

of a place to worship
had
own
in search
way.
Conflicts over religious doctrine had raged in
England since 1534 when Henry VIII broke with
still
him
a divorce
Roman
from
the
his first wife.
to
At heart
Catholic, he had created a church
remained largely Catholic
many
pope had refused
in
form. This deeply
English Christians,
who
longed for
a truly Protestant church.
The Pilgrims were Separatists, so called

because they had broken with the Church of
England. They were the most radical of the
Puritans, English Protestants who wished to
"purify" the Anglican church of
and
traditions.
The
all
Catholic rituals
Puritans objected, for example,
to the clergy's elaborate robes, insisting that
church leaders should be known for "their purity

of mind, not their adornment of person."
Some Separatists, including the Pilgrims, left

England for the more religiously tolerant
Netherlands after James
threatened to "harry them
out of the land, or else do worse." There, forced into
M The
Mayflower
is
shown covered with
ice in this
19th-century painting by William Halsall.
66
CHAPTER
low-paid, unskilled work, they confronted what one
Pilgrim called the

tie."
"grimme
&
grisly face of pover-
Even more alarming, they faced
losing control of their children.

not only adopting
examples
Dutch ways but were also being
into extravagant
it,
by
and dangerous
courses, getting the reins off their necks and depart-
ing from their parents." Seeking

ter
advantage and
less danger."
obtained permission to
self-governing colony based on the majority rule
of male church members:
The children were
Pilgrim leader William Bradford saw
led, as
"evil
the prospect of
document, the Mayflower Compact, established a
"some place of betBradford and others
settle in Virginia.
44
We, whose names
are underwritten,
and Advancement of the Christian
Honour
the
Voyage to plant the
first
ern Parts of Virginia;

[this
Faith,
and
of our King and Country, a
Do
colony
the north-
in
by these Presents
document], solemnly and mutually
the Presence of
God and one
in
another,
The Pilgrims came to North

America for religious and
covenant and combine ourselves together
economic reasons.
Ordering and Preservation, and Furtherance
into a civil
Body
Politick, for
of the Ends aforesaid;
do
And
blown
Constitutions, and Offices, from time to
Virginia. Their ship
was
off course, and they landed far north in
Massachusetts' Cape
Cod
Bay. Rather than risk
traveling farther, they decided to stay.
Cod Bay was
the Mayflower's passengers had
legal government. In an effort to maintain order
in the
new
settlement. Pilgrim leaders
agreement and asked
all
the
men
most meet and
convenient for the general

Colony; unto which
Good
we promise
Submission and Obedience.
**
of the
all
due
Because Cape
outside the area controlled by the
London Company,
by Virtue hereof
enact, constitute, and frame, such just
time, as shall be thought
The Pilgrims never reached
our better
and equal Laws, Ordinances, Acts,
P LYMOUTH COLONY
no
Having undertaken for the Glory of God,
drew up an
to sign
it.
This
The Mayflower Compact was important because

helped
set a
it
precedent for local government based on
written agreements and the consent of the governed.
Once
the
Compact was
signed, the colonists
elected Bradford as their governor and turned to
Europeans
Encountering
Indians
title
is
the
of this
painting by an
unknown
artist.
67
These artiwere used
facts
by the Pilgrims
in the
7th century. Clockwise
from top are a
I
christening shirt
and mitts worn by

William Bradford,
the wicker cradle
used by Peregrine
White, who was
born aboard the
Mayflower, and a
pair of boys' leather
shoes.
Pilgnm Society. Plymouth. Massachusetts
the challenge of surviving the winter. But the cold
climate, disease, and hunger took their
colony's record for

three
March
toll.
The
24, 1621, notes: "In
months past dies halfe our company ... Of a
hundred persons, scarce
remain, the living
fifty
Jamestown, owed its

survival to Native Americans. The settlers were
particularly indebted to Squanto, a member of the
Patuxet band of the Wampanoags (wahm-puh-NOHags). He taught them where to fish and how to
plant corn. He also spoke English. Kidnapped in
like
1614, he had lived in Spain and England before
returning
home
in 1619.
my
me, and
all
1625, was even more determined than his
father to stop dissent and suppress Protestant
The Pilgrims viewed
The English Puritans faced economic

culties as well.
growing
employment had
profitability of
aged large landowners
off the tenant farmers,

Puritans.
Then
in the
good beyond
autumn brought a
The Pilgrims then
Indians to a harvest feast
the
first
invited the
Thanksgiving.
To escape both
nomic
ruin,
to the colonies.
known
as the
ple left
In contrast to the Pilgrims,

in
most Puritans remained
These religious dissenters hoped
to
reform the
church from within.
The Crown, however, opposed reform.

I
feared that Puritan
to political
demands would
CHAPTER
the Devill.
3
woolen industry
religious persecution
Beginning
in
hit
and eco-
move
1630, in what
for the Americas.
in
West
Indies,
is
While most of
some 10,000
to
Massachusetts.
Then Jack
&
England. In 1642 the conflict between the Puritans
and the Royalists, the supporters of King Charles
Monarchy
Tom. & Will
as
&
I,
Led by Oliver Cromwell,

the Puritans won. During Cromwell's rule
erupted
in civil war.
(1653-1658), Puritan emigration almost ceased.
lead
upheaval. Religious dissent, he
declared, "as well agreeth with a
God and
in the
Most Puritans, however, did not leave
England and did not leave the Anglican church.
James
and drove
Puritans decided to risk a
to the
20,000 settled
great migration
their lands
Great Migration, some 60,000 peo-
England
them went
The puritans and the
many
from farming to
1620s crop failures and an
ment sent of God
for their
The
many of whom were
Puritan farmers and weavers.
their
not.
wool production encourto turn
They fenced
raising sheep.
diffi-
England's population had dramati-
cally increased, but
economic depression
bountiful harvest.
pleasure censure
our proceedinges."
King James's son Charles, who succeeded James

in
Squanto, in Bradford's words, as "a special instru-
expectation." With Squanto's aid
68
at their
Councell. and
ministers and practices.
scarce able to bury the dead."
The colony,
Dick, shall meete and
The Puritans left England to

escape religious conflict and
economic problems.
ASSACHUSETTS BAY COLONY
The year before
the Puritan
100
exodus began, a group
200 Kilometers
Albert Equal-Area Projection
of well-to-do Puritans secured a royal charter for

the Massachusetts
NEW FRANCE
Bay Company, allowing them

to establish a colony. In
1630
Land claimed by New York
company's
the
and New Hampshire
of
fleet
some 1,000
MASSACHUSETTS
ships carried
settlers to
Massachusetts. These
Puritans did not wish to
cut
all ties
NEW
with England
HAMPSHIF_
*^
'Portsmouth 1624
Salem 1626
or the Anglican church.
Massachusetts Say
NEW YORK J" MASSAeHUSETrSl_
Boston 1630
^
7 .Plymouth 1620
Inspired by a sense of
Hartford 1636
provide other Christians
John Winthrop
with an example of
model community. While
still
aboard
ship,
1
7
K,r>,
/.NEW
(JERSEY
John
1538
^Q^g
must consider that we
upon
upon
us.
God
hill.
The eyes of
So that
If
we
all
shall
be as a
70
NEW ENGLAND
PLACE
people are
shall deal falsely
New
to settle
68
England's rocky
least
of
soil
New
England.
turned
many
Which colony had the
ocean shoreline?
in this
byword through the world.
99
Scriptures and a covenant with one another "to
walk together
in all
His ways."
The Massachusetts Bay Company's
Most
colonists, wrote Winthrop, expected to
find in their
new home more
of God's "wisdom,
power, goodness and truth than formerly
we have
been acquainted with." Their expectations arose
from
Colonists spread out
much
colonists to the sea for a livelihood.
with
work we have undertaken,

and so cause Him to withdraw His present
help from us, we shall be made a story and
our
ê\Ai izngland
SETTLING
city
OCEAN
failure:
from Massachusetts Bay
4 We
ATLANTIC
ISLAND
ISLAND 72
Winthrop. their governor, expressed their vision
and warned against
0636
/
R_
C- New Haven RHODE
[
"^
Providence
CONNECTICUT
"^
mission, they hoped to
their belief that they
contract, with
God
had a covenant, or
to build a society
based on the
allowed Winthrop and the other stockholders to

govern the colony however they wished, so long as
they did not violate English law. To
fulfill their
covenant with God, they established their colony

as a Bible
commonwealth,
which everyone,
in
guided by English law and the Bible, was expected

to
work together
for the
common
holders granted voting rights to

is,
ifvL-'A
charter
adult
good. The stockall
freemen, that
men who were church members and
property owners. The freemen in each town then

elected representatives to the
General Court, or
make laws for the colony.

The Puritan commonwealth was based on
legislature, to
cooperation between church and
state.
referred to this relationship as the
Way. The meetinghouse,
in
The
colonists
New England
which Puritans held
both town meetings and church services, symbolized this unity.
:t-
'
This drawing shows a meetinghouse built at

Plymouth in 1683. The building contained glass
windows, a Gothic-style roof, and a bell.
Its civil
function
was
clearly visible:
the outside walls of the plain, unpainted clapboard
building served as a public notice board. Sermons

delivered within on Sundays and on important occa-
sions instructed the congregation in the
New
69
HISTORY
m the
By DR. CAROL KARLSEN
Salem
Tfte
Witchcraft trials
ew questions have so baffled
F.
identifying witches in their
trials
historians as those surrounding
midst, hundreds of residents of
ber of people involved.
Salem and other eastern
matter of months, over 200
the Salem witchcraft
trials.
The
Massachusetts towns came for-
persons were named as
no
ward to
witches. At least 59
single explanation tells the
were
But recent inter-
story.
pretations have profoundly
we
changed the way
colonial America's
matic witch
look at
most
natural
women
Village,
Massachusetts, were
stricken with seizures.
in
Salem
and
attributed the
demonic possession.
^ On
5,
ability
the Devil's
way
had
painted this
name those
version of the
trial in 1855.
began
First the minister
explained the mean-
showed
the congrega-
and
Such lessons were important because
to live a
moral
life;
community would
suffer
God's wrath.
commu-
otherwise, the entire
When
catas-
trophe struck, the faithful often blamed the occurrence on
New
The
New
Puritans also believed that an all-knowing
Englanders joined
CHAPTER
in a
another to found churches and towns. The church
granted
full
membership
to those
who convinced
the congregation that they had undergone a "con-
version experience." Those
who
did not were
admitted to partial membership.
The
New
cated people
England
who
Way depended
on edu-
could understand the Scriptures.
The General Court
thus required parents to teach
their children to read,
England's sinfulness.
God had already determined who would be

Just as God had entered a covenant with the
so
men, were
accused
the Puritans believed that evervone in the

nity
adult
August
to apply the lesson in their spiritual
earthly lives.
were
He was
hanged two
weeks later.
T. H. Matteson
of the village
ing of a Biblical text and then

tion the
whom
the Salem
mentally dis-
Other accusers, most of
right) of witch-
responsible for their afflictions.
England Way.
turbed.
craft.
community pressed the pos-
women
women were
(kneeling at
this possession.
the young
in
prior
George Jacobs
agents, called witches, to cause
Once
What made
irrational
event and argued that the young
1692, a
girls
empowered human
sessed females to
historians considered the Salem
group of Salem
to possess
humans. They also believed that
Members
the main targets.
For a long time, many
outbreak a bizarre and
many times
tried,
times, older
in earlier
women were
their chil-
had taken place
England
to 1692.
Europe and
in
trials
New
The
seizures to
the Devil
kill
Witchcraft accusations
community
existence and
powers to
were
31 convicted, and 19 hanged.
As
and property.
lies
young
America believed
They
victims of witchcraft.
and otherwise harm their fami-
several
in
they too
dren, sicken their farm animals,
dra-
trials.
Most people
testify that
claimed witches had used super-
the winter of 1692,
In
70
In a
answers are complicated, and
whole
so unusual was the num-
and
a law
passed
in
1647
required towns to maintain schools. The "Old
was known, was meant
saved.
Deluder Law." as
saved,
the "chief project of that old deluder. Satan, to
covenant with one
it
to foil
keep men from the knowledge of the Scriptures."
thought either to have been

carried
away with the hysteria
moment or
of the
misfortune, the existence of
to have delib-
erately accused people they
The older women
resented.
who were
convicted and exe-
emphasizing
rooted
climate of
religious,
life
of
how
the
trials
New
England.
New
and economic tensions.
all
women
economic and
gaining
independence. Such inde-
social
pendence was seen
as a chal-
power and
lenge to men's
farmers had family
village
in its
Other
perity.
links to
the
town
however.
pinched as farmland grew
scarce.
The
In
among
New
where property
in
witchcraft
on by several
son, such
women
could and did
become economically indepen-
accusation, egged
and accusations were an
of the
accepted way of dealing with
residents, provided an outlet for
sons were the most
personal conflict and community
resentments and grievances.
gets of Salem's witchcraft
tensions.
The way the community

alleled the village's
were
factional divisions.
a part of Puritan beliefs
and popular folklore.
New
England ministers and their
prosperous
accused
women?
Historically,
on the
with them from England. Rather
vast
than irrational responses, witch-
witch belief had focused mainly
expressions of
and
trials
were
religious thinking
about the
nature of society, the causes of
IB
The
body of witchcraft
A more
on females.
the Bible guided
all
lore.
immediate
lies in
this
likely tar-
how witchcraft
beliefs
the
women
On the
in
New
England cul-
ture and society, the Salem out-
break appears
no
less bizarre
Salem
is still
unfolding, however.
Historians continue to reexamine the trials
and reevaluate the
surviving evidence, offering us
new
caused the tragic events of
perspectives on
what
1
692.
Three out of four had paid their own way
to
the colony.
which
aspects of
but
The story of
less fascinating.
held by Puritan men.
in
trials.
better aware-
contradictory view of
Puritans hoped to build a
model commonwealth
and a
basis of the Bible
answer, however,
7th-century
With
ness of
embedded
lowers had brought these ideas
craft accusations
without brothers and
and accusations were deeply
deeper
But why were most of the

fol-
dent by inheriting property.
Women
divided
over the witchcraft scare par-
demons, and magical practices
cus-
tomarily passed from father to
which witchcraft fears flourished
village's less
did not have
the most feared.

England,
These economic ten-
sions produced deep divisions
Women who
brothers or sons were
growing pros-
villagers,
the community.
Ideas about witches,
On
threat to the social order.
felt
in
them
Salem Town, a thriving port.
and shared
England's settlers
held
as "helpmates."
Some
were
The
on the edge of
lay
esteem
the other hand, they feared
also had
decades of community
and economic
economic, and family
fostered an environment
in
trials,
the social and cultural
in
in
Salem Village
Recent historians have

challenged this view of the
women's value and
human spirit.
The outbreak
conflict
viewed as convenient targets.
one hand, men acknowledged
and the rebelliousness of the
roots
cuted as witches were simply
sin,
In contrast to the
Jamestown
colonists,
life.
these
men brought along
their
wives and
chil-
dren. Puritans considered orderly families to be
M
By
essential to a stable society.
EW ENGLAND LIFE
the time Massachusetts
Women
were
expected to defer to their fathers or husbands
Bay Colony passed
its
school law, it had more than 20,000 inhabitants.

The men who immigrated were primarily educated artisans or farmers
"godly men
endowed with grace and furnished with means,"
according to Deputy Governor Thomas Dudley.
most aspects of
life.
in
Single people had to live
with a family, and children could be removed
from "disorderly" ones. Town
officials inspected
families on a regular basis so that "disorders
be prevented, and
ill
may
weeds nipped before they
take too great a head."
71
New
u
1
i
relatively
Englanders with large families had
needed
to
need for indentured servants or
little
and sons could supply
slaves. Fathers
the labor
all
transform the "remote, rocky, barren,
bushy, wild-woody wilderness," as Edward
j<
Johnson described
England.
"
it
in
1653, into "a second
However, because of long winters and
much
the poor soil found in
of
New
England,
farmers did not have a large surplus to market.
New
England was populated

mostly by educated artisans and
farmers who had immigrated
with their families.
These illustrations from the American edition

of The Book of Trades show two colonial crafts:
spinning (left) and coopering (right).
New
To pay
England's environment encouraged the
growth of large families. Food was
plentiful,
and
for supplies and luxury items
England, some
New
some
trade,
and business. They
of the diseases that plagued Jamestown. As a
ships.
They
the cold climate proved relatively hostile to
distilled
rum and
built
sold fish, grain, meat, naval stores (tur-
some 80 percent of all children lived to

Mary Buell's tombstone shows
how large these families could be it records
pentine, pitch, and rosin), and lumber to England,
age 90 leaving behind 336 living
England's other American colonies. In time the
result,
adulthood. Colonist
just
from
Englanders turned to fishing,
that she died at
New
England
merchants also prospered through trade with

merchants also earned substantial profits by selling
descendants.
Married
Spain, Portugal, and the West Indies.
in their early 20s,
least six children,
most
women
had
at
their shipping services.
and families with nine or more
were common. Such a large family led Sarah Ripley
Steams
to lament that "the care of
their 40s, a
mother
in
my
time and attention."
Discontented colonists
bore children on into
establish
New
England could expect
be well into her 60s before her
last child left
Following English custom.
women
usually did not
work
New
in the fields,
new colonies
to
home.
England
although
As Massachusetts Bay Colony prospered and grew,
some
colonists started
Hooker and
new
settlements.
Thomas
his congregation left Massachusetts in
they often helped at harvesttime. Instead, they took
part, they said,
on many other tasks required
because
its
"towns were
set
so near to
They
each other." To get more farmland, they moved
the things their families needed:
southwest, establishing a colony in the Connecticut
soap, candles, yarn, clothes, butter, and cheese.
Valley. In 1639 Hooker's settlers adopted the
Women
Fundamental Orders of Connecticut, which some
made many of
might
sell their
Thomas Hooker was such a

domineering figure that he was once
described as a man who could put a
king in his pocket. This picture shows
Hooker and his congregation traveling through the wilderness.
CHAPTER]
to run a farm.
occasional surplus
to help support their families.
72
Babes takes
women
up so large a portion of
Furthermore, because
my
in
town
resard as the
first
written constitution in the colonies.
Other colonists were forced to leave

Massachusetts Bay Colony because they ques-
One such person was Roger
tioned Puritan ways.
authority of the church.
was
fact that she
added
pleasure.
other Puritans, believed in strict separation of
Governor Winthrop
He
state.
right to give
also challenged the king's
Native American land to English
colonists.
These
that they
banished Williams.
beliefs so angered Puritan leaders
from the Narragansets and
in
Her meetings,
sight of
God
nor fitting for
He purchased
land
found especially dangerous
set-
Hutchinson's claim that she
An
Island.
received
her
insights directly
colony in 1644 that permitted
To them
attitude, the
its
inhabitants
Because of
com-
this tolerant
colony attracted those who,
like
Williams, held unpopular beliefs.
**
in
Hutchinson.
came
Rhode
form
Island after refusing to con-
to the
Bom
in
New
England
England
spirit." as
Hutchinson
"A woman
of a
Governor Winthrop
acknowledged, she worked as a nurse and midwife
and devoted herself
claim set the
individual above the
commu-
and threatened the

community and the church.
Banished in 1638, she moved to Rhode Island and
then to Long Island. When Hutchinson died in an
nity
Indian attack in 1643, Massachusetts ministers

declared
to Bible study
and teaching. At
it
the "just
vengeance of God."
Hutchinson was not the only
Massachusetts Bay
Colony, in 1634 with her family.

ready wit and bold
Way was Anne
in 1591,
to Boston, the capital of
this
religious
from God.
authority of both the
Another Puritan who found refuge

1
in the
your sex." The Puritans
able politician, Williams secured a charter for the
plete religious freedom.
told her,
were "not tolerable ...
1636 founded a
became Providence, Rhode
tlement that
woman
to the authorities' dis-
Williams, a Puritan minister who. unlike most
church and
The
woman whose
religious beliefs put her at odds with Puritan
Moody and
authorities. In
1643 Lady Deborah
followers
Massachusetts because of disagree-
left
ments over religion.
few years
later,
her
she
meetings in her home, she discussed the sermons
received permission to establish a self-governing
of Boston's leading ministers. She attracted a fol-
colony on Long Island.
lowing of
women and
wealthy merchants,
many
of
critical of the established clergy's teachings. In
Massachusetts Bay Colony did

not tolerate differences of opinion in religious matters and ban-
1637 she was charged with weakening the
ished offending colonists.
whom resented the
ministers' authority.
Increasingly, Hutchinson expressed ideas
SECTION
IDENTIFY and
Compact,
REVIEW
explain the significance of the following:
dissenters, Great Migration, covenant,
England Way, Fundamental Orders of Connecticut,
LOCATE
Mayflower
New
Anne Hutchinson, Lady Deborah Moody.
and explain the importance of the following: Plymouth, Massachusetts; Salem, Massachusetts;
Connecticut; Rhode
I.
Pilgrims, Separatists, Puritans,
commonwealth, freemen, General Court,
Island.
MAIN IDEA What
conditions
in
England and Europe led the Pilgrims and the Puritans to settle
in
North America?
MAIN IDEA How did Massachusetts Bay Colony react to colonists who challenged Puritan ways?
USING HISTORICAL IMAGINATION Write an essay describing life in New England from the
perspective of a
woman
colonist.
WRITING TO PERSUADE
Imagine you are a Puritan dissenter
found a Bible commonwealth
in
North America. Write
who
wishes to leave England to
pamphlet describing the type of society
you hope to create.

5.
ANALYZING Why was
education important to the Puritan community?
73
Section 2
^^^_
SLAVERY AND THE SOUTHERN COLONIES
FOCUS
What
was
Why did
life like
for the
Chesapeake colonists
in
the
7th century?
planters turn to the use of slave labor?
What was
the Middle Passage
like for
newly captured slaves?
Jn'n the Chesapeake colonies of Virginia and Maryland,

people developed a way of life different from that
New England colonies. Most Chesapeake
in the
colonists lived
on scattered farms and plantations, where they grew

tobacco as a cash crop. The majority of them had come
to the colonies as indentured servants, obligated to
work
for whoever purchased their contracts. However, by the
end of the 17th
century,
African slaves to work
Slaves loading tobacco
more and more planters bought
in the
barrels at a Virginia wharf
tobacco fields.
millions of acres on the upper Chesapeake Bay.
Che CHESAPEAKE
The colony was named Maryland,
after Charles's
French wife, Henrietta Maria. As proprietor,

Within 25 years of Jamestown's founding, Virginia
Calvert was free to dispose of the land and to
was
govern
some
a thriving colony with a population of
2,500. Tobacco fueled the
economy and remained

mak-
the most valuable staple export of the lands
ing up British North
America
1793.
until
The
promise of huge profits led more than one wealthy
Englishman
to
dream of
within loose guidelines
Calvert wanted to create a haven for fellow
Roman
Catholics
who
faced persecution in
Protestant England. But he also hoped to
money. Because there were not enough Catholic
immigrants
to
make
his venture profitable, he
opened
his
the
greatly
outnumbered Roman Catholics. To protect
Chesapeake
colony to Protestants. Soon Protestants
land surrounding Chesa-
the Catholic minority's legal rights, the
peake Bay. The
Assembly passed
do
so
Calvert,
was
first to
Cecilius
the
In
the Toleration
act guaranteed religious
freedom
1632 Charles
made Cecilius Calvert

proprietor, or owner, of
in
Maryland
1649.
The
to all Christians.
Population. Catholic and Protestant settlers in

Maryland soon followed Virginia's lead and
devoted much of their land to tobacco production.
As a result, both colonies developed a distinct culture in response to life in the
Act
second
Baron Baltimore.
CHAPTER
make
establishing a colony
in the
74
as he wished.
Cecilius Calvert
came
Chesapeake.
Chesapeake
Most white colonists
in the
as indentured servants.
Many came
because
High death
rates also affected the
Chesa-
peake population. Throughout the 1600s typhoid,

malaria, and other diseases ravaged the colonists.
Delaware
Bay
DELAWARE
VIRGINIA
'^
OCEAN
o\ .
100 Miles
S2^
100 Kilometers
Tfte
who had
better
The high death
New
colonists
to the region's diseases increased.
terns that differed
Albers Equal-Area
Projection
Chesapeake
as the
immunity
WÊ
1607
in the
improved around the turn of the century
Jamestown
55 percent of those born
to
number of native-born
ATLANTIC
<^*?-A'
Up
died before age 20. Life expectancy slowly
rates
gave
rise to
from those of
family pat-
New
England.
England's low death rates meant that most
people married only once. In the Chesapeake,
however, one partner
Chesapeake
in
most marriages died
within seven or eight years of marrying. In most
LAND AND POWER

dominated Chesapeake
move westward
forced to
The planters
society.
Many
of the
cases the surviving partner quickly remarried.
coastal areas
small farmers were
Second and even
As
HUMAN-ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION
What geographical
a result,
were common.
most families included stepparents,
stepsiblings, half siblings, and possibly the
feature helped discourage the growth of
orphans of deceased relatives or friends.
the Chesapeake?
in
cities
third marriages
search of land.
in
the 17th century, colonists in

the Chesapeake suffered from
high death rates, and white men
greatly outnumbered white
In
work
they could not find
in
England. But not
all
came
some men,
women, and even children were '"spirited" and
"snared"
kidnapped from London streets to
meet the demand for servants. A 1645 report to
willingly. In the 17th century
women.
who "in a most barbarous

and wicked manner steal away many little chil-
A rural
dren." Moreover, in the 1700s England sent an
and plantations. They produced tobacco for export
estimated 30,000 to 50,000 convicts to work as
and grew or made many of the things they needed.
servants in the Chesapeake.
Away from the coast, poor settlers on small farms

grew com and vegetables, kept chickens and hogs,
Parliament told of gangs
One indentured servant, John Harrower,

how some servants were bought and
described
in the
Most of
the
Soul drivers.
their bussines to
have
in
are
men who make
go on board
all
ships
and then they drive them
through the Country

they can
untill
Of
sell
like a parcell
of Sheep
them to advantage.
rivers that flowed into
who
either Servants or Convicts and buy
of them,
the large plantations fronted one of
many navigable
it
sometimes the whole and sometimes a parcell
Chesapeake lived on widely scattered farms
hunted, and trapped.
sold once they arrived in Virginia:
society. The vast majority of colonists
99
^ This ragged London

oyster seller symbolized
the class of people who
indentured themselves as
servants in order to start
over in the colonies.
who came as indentured

some 75 percent were men or boys
the colonists
servants,
between ages 15 and 24. Even
as late as 1704, the
Archives of Maryland show that there were more

than three times as
women
many white men
living in the colony.
so few white
men never
women
as white
Because there were
in these early years,
many
married.
75
T> Metropolitan
Musum
o*
An
other wealthy planters agreed

with the view
England
widely held
ordinary people
women
particularly
"unfit"
"station" in
in
made
that schooling
for
their
life.
Most Chesapeake
on
colonists lived
tobacco plantations
or small farms.
13 AGON'S REBELLION
A
lack of schooling, however.
did not stop colonists from

challenging authority. Virginia
The Plantation was painted by an unknown American artist about 1825. The
roads leading down from the manor house to the river allowed for easy transportation of goods to or from ships docked at the wharf.
was home
number of
vants.
Chesapeake Bay. At
stopped
at
to
an increasing
freed indentured ser-
Around 1660. tobacco
English trading ships
prices had tumbled, and with tobacco selling for so
the planters" docks to collect the tobacco
was difficult for these people to earn

enough money to buy land. Most were forced to
rent land or to work as wage laborers for wealthy
first.
crops and to deliver goods previously ordered.

Later, Scottish brokers set
up
and traded
stores
in
little, it
tobacco.
The
fact that planters did not
their crops to a central
need
to bring
market hindered the growth
TOBACCO
PRICES, 1618-1700
of towns. As late as 1750 the only large town in

the
Chesapeake was Baltimore. Without towns
to
30-1
provide customers, the Chesapeake was slow to

develop a substantial class of independent artisans
and shopkeepers.
The slow growth of towns
also hindered the

Bacon's
development of schools. Education was

individual families
who
themselves or hired
sure their children
left to
Rebellion I
either taught their children
tutors.
Wealthy families made
both boys and
girls
were
educated, but they did not support schooling for

others.
As
a result, especially
New
those in
They were
w hen compared with
1640
1618
ver>'
low for women: from the 1600s
the mid- 1700s. less than 25 percent of
Chesapeake
signing legal documents could write their
names. In
New
England
in the
mid- 1700s, the
fig-
ure was about 50 percent.

In 1671
Governor William Berkeley, who
in the process,
1685
1700
Year
Note: Prices from 6 8- 655 are for Chesapeake tobacco:
those for 660-1 700 are for Maryland tobacco.
1
Source: Hstonco/ Stavsvcs of the United States
MAKING ENDS MEET

per-pound price of tobacco
had long governed Virginia and who had enriched

himself
1670
to
1
women
1655
England, literacy rates were low.
per pound sterling. By

Rebellion
Between 1658 and 1660. the
fell
1676
the pnce had hit
from 2.10 to 1.50 pennies

the year of Bacon's
1.05.
Many farmers could not
make ends meet.
proudly reported to the
English government that Virginia had "no free
IDENTIFYING CAUSE AND EFFECT How

might dedining tobacco prices have influenced events leading
schools nor printing, and
hope we
shall not
these [for a] hundred years." Berkeley and
76
CHAPTER
have
many
to Bacon's Rebellion?
Landless laborers and small landowners
planters.
grew increasingly discontented.
They were
in debt,
Africans, looted wealthy plantations.
taxes were high, and as far as they could see, the

colonial legislature
was doing nothing
This discontent erupted

Virginia in 1675.
Many
in
den death from one of the illnesses
violence
the
in
rebels
Bacon's Rebellion ended with Bacon's sud-
to help them.
poor farmers and laborers,
The
also seized and burned Jamestown.
Chesapeake. Charles
II
plagued
that
ordered Berkeley to
return to England, and the large planters in the
Virginia's assembly qui-
believing that access to land would solve their
Hou.se of Burgesses
problems, wanted to settle the area
eted opposition by cutting taxes and opening
Virginia guaranteed to the

treaty.
The
friendly
and
Powhatans
treaty did not stop settlers
onto Indian lands.
When
in
western
in a
1646
whites killed a group of
Susquehannocks (suhs-kwuh-HAN-uhks)
was
compensation
no
made,
the
Susquehannocks attacked outlying plantations. The

colonists then
Americans
demanded war
in the
was
tious
against
all
Native
Chesapeake.
The governor
Indian lands to colonists.
from moving
refused, but Nathaniel
SLAVERY
While Bacon's Rebellion was short-lived,
one far-reaching
already under
Bacon
effect:
way among
move
planters to switch
from
More indentured
indentured to slave labor.
Described by his enemies as "ambi-
vants ultimately meant more discontented freed

servants. Slaves did not pose this problem. Slaves
and
the
cheaper than indentured servants. As
were also becoming more
an army of
long run
settlers in
1676 and randomly attacked
Indians on the frontier. As one colonist later

explained. "It matters not whether they be Friends
Foews Soe they be
now
ser-
and arrogant"' with a "dangerous hidden pride
willing.
of heart." this well-connected young planter raised
or
had
it
strengthened the
it
Indians." Bacon's followers,
plentiful
employment opportunities improved

fewer people were willing
to
in
in
England,
come
to the
Chesapeake under terms of indenture.
joined by indentured servants and enslaved
Surviving court records suggest that slavery

as an institution
developed gradually
Chesapeake. The
first
in the
Africans brought to the
Chesapeake were treated
as indentured servants.
After completing their periods of indenture, they
were free to work for themselves, and some

became landowners. However, by the 1640s some,
but not
all,
were slaves instead of servants.
Planters turned to slave labor in

response to Bacon's Rebellion
and to the declining number of
Indentured servants.
The
slave trade.
During the early years of
the slave trade. African traders sold criminals and
war
captives.
ers increased,
and
As
later in the
moved
the
demand
however,
for plantation
first in
work-
Spanish America
Chesapeake, African raiders
farther inland in search of slaves. Their
constant attacks destroyed the countryside and
emptied villages. In 1700 William Bosman, an

agent for a Dutch slave-trading company, observed
the effects of the slave trade
city of
Shown here
frontation
is
an
artist's
depiction of a con-
between Nathaniel Bacon and Governor
William Berkeley.
Benin
in
on the once powerful
West Africa.
It
had been "very
thick and close-built," he wrote, "but
Houses stand
from each
like
now
the
poor men's corn, widely distant
other."
77
In
1765 an Englishman, one of the few to
accompany
a slave-raiding expedition, described
how
raiders hid "under the bushes in the
they
came near
nity,
seized "everN one they could see."
day when
a village." and at the right opportu-
The
men w ith horrible looks, red faces, and long hair."

He was eventually reassured that he vôuld not be
eaten, but new horrors confronted him when he
was put below deck:
raiders
marched the captive men. women, and children
hundreds of miles to the coast. There they were

inspected, branded, and held in prisons until there
my
my
were enough
the stench, and crying together.
to
Once on
a ship.
fill
the ships, the captives
were packed
man
in his coffin."
As
a result
Middle Passage
Some
and
much room
many died from
had
voyage across the
the
Atlantic.
captives killed themselves rather than
face further horrors. Another captain reported that
they "often leap'd
w ater
till
into the sea.
and kept under
received such a salutation
in
had never experienced
in
lov/ that
relieve
nor
eat,
for the last friend, death, to
me: but soon, to my
the white
men
offered
by the hands
the other flogged
me
two
grief,
of
eatables: and.
on
one of them held me
refusing to eat,
fast
became so
was not able to
the least desire to taste any thing.
now wished
my
so that with the loathsomeness of
life:
sick
suffocation, disease, or violence during the dread
nostrils as
in.
one captain wrote, until "they had not so

as a
There
and tied
me
my
feet,
while
99
severely.
they were drow ned."
Soon
after
Equiano
Packed into ships for the Middle
arrived in the Americas.
Passage, many African captives

died from suffocation, disease,
a Virginia planter pur-
or brutality.
chased him and then
Some committed
sold him to a British
naval officer. Michael
suicide.
who renamed
him Gustavus Vâssa.
Equiano served with
Pascal in the Seven
Pascal,
Olaudah Equiano (oh-LOw-duh ek-wee-AHNoh).
who was kidnapped and sold into

when he was 11 or
the mid- 1700s.
slaver> in
12. later
Years"
described the ordeal of the Middle Passage in his
Naoonal
autobiography. At
first
the other captives
w ere
he w as
terrified that
he and
91
Olaudah Equiano
was again
"to be eaten by those white
Marmme Museun. London
War
chant for
(see page
At the war's end he
).
sold, this time
to a West Indian merw hom he worked as a sea-
man. By 1766 Equiano had earned
enough money
He continued
to
buy
work
to
his freedom.
as a
seaman
and even accompanied an expedition

to the Arctic.
In
1777 Equiano settled
England and devoted himself

anti slavery
in
to the
movement. He lectured
widely on the evils of slaver>. His

popular autobiography, published
1789. convinced
many people of
need to stop the slave
in
the
trade.
Early abolitionists. Equiano

was not
the only person to speak out
against slavery. Other blacks and a
This watercolor shows Africans below deck on the Spanish slave ship
Albatross, bound for the West Indies. A British naval officer painted this
grim scene from life in 1846.
78
CHACÊ"]
few white colonists denounced the

institution.
those
Although abolitionists.
who wanted
slavers abolished.
'
did not
become
America
a force in
1800s, a group of
until the early
members of
Protestant sect took
Quakers
AFRICAN POPULATION
NORTH AMERICA, 1650-1760
a radical
IN BRITISH
public
350
stand against slavery as early as
1688.
1700 Puritan judge
In
300
c
rt
(/)
Samuel Sewall published an
anti-
slavery pamphlet. The Selling of
Joseph. In
Sewall reminded his
it
readers that "all

the
4->
'200
c
C
Men.
150
as they are
*J
Sons of Adam,
have equal
Right unto Liberty, and
all
other
outward Comforts of Life."
By
250
o
-C
100
3
50
Q.
0-^
mid-1700s most
Quakers condemned slavery. John
the
Woolman,
Quaker
tailor,
-t f
traveled
to free their slaves.
urged those
who were
He
not slave-
holders to refuse to use goods, such

as sugar
and dyed
cloth, that
Source: Historical
GROWTH OF SLAVERY
in
the late
the
number
in
of English
the South
North America increase from
1730
By about how much did the African population of

to
1760?
Despite such
was practiced in all the English

As Africans became more numerous after
killed a slave while "correcting"
not be tried for murder!
by law and by custom
various laws and customs into one "slave code."
Newly
ever.
arrived Africans often ran away. There
were also a few uprisings. The
Other colonies did the same.
1739
The slave codes were designed to prevent

escape and discourage revolt. The codes forbade
30 whites before the
meet together,
to leave the plantation, to
learn to read or write, or to
own weapons. The

who
codes went so far as to declare that a master
The
at
largest occurred in
Stono, South Carolina. Slaves killed
slaves
who
some
militia quelled the uprising.
survived the rebellion were "put to
the most cruel Death."
Most
slaves, however,
resisted in other, less direct ways, such as by
destroying property or working slowly.
SECTION
IDENTIFY and
him or her could
Harsh rules did not prevent rebellion, how-
treated
as inferior to whites. In 1705 Virginia consolidated
slaves to
depended on a steady
indentured servants began to decline
colonies.
its
1760
1600s, the colonists increased their reliance on African slaves.
BUILDING GRAPH SKILLS

British
Statistics
protests slavery
1660. they were
740
1720
The colonial economy
When
supply of unskilled laborers.
were
the products of slave labor.
Slave codes.
1700
Year
throughout the colonies, urging
Quakers
T
1680
1660
REVIEW
Cecilius Calvert, Toleration Act, Nathaniel
Bacon, Bacon's Rebellion, House of Burgesses, Middle Passage, Olaudah Equiano, abolitionists, Samuel
Sewall, John
LOCATE
Woolman.
and explain the importance of the following: Chesapeake Bay; Baltimore, Maryland;
Virginia.
I.
MAIN IDEA Why did Chesapeake planters increasingly choose to rely on slave labor?
MAIN IDEA What were conditions like during the Middle Passage?
WRITING TO DESCRIBE Imagine you are one of the few white women living in the
Chesapeake. Write a letter
HYPOTHESIZING How
more
diversified
home
to England, describing your
might the colonies
in
life in
the colonies.
the Chesapeake have developed
if
they had had a
economy?
79
Section 3
THE COLONIES AFTER THE RESTORATION
FOCUS
How
did
life in
South Carolina
differ
from
life in
the other
Restoration colonies?
Why did
What
England regulate colonial trade?
did the Glorious Revolution accomplish?
Why did
so
many people respond
to the Great Awakening?
v/7e colonies established after the Restoration of the English
monarchy
Eager
to
in
1660 were,
like
Maryland, proprietary colonies.
reap profits, some proprietors and land speculators
recruited colonists from Europe as well as from the British Isles.
The Crown,
too,
expected to benefit and
made
ejforts to control
colonial trade despite the colonists' opposition. At the
same
time,
Detail
new
intellectual
and
religious ideas transformed colonial
from the 1670 painting
The tAa%on Children
life.
with grants of land. In 1663 he gave eight support-
Che carolinas
ers a charter for a
colony between Virginia and
Spanish Florida. The colony was named Carolina

Later the colony was divided
After Cromwell's death and the Restoration of the
in the king's honor.
monarchy, another wave of colonization began.
into
The new
proved incompetent governors, and
king. Charles
II.
rewarded
his supporters
the
North and South Carolina. The proprietors
Crown
In
officially took
1720s
in the
over both colonies.
North Carolina many
settlers
from the
Chesapeake established small farms. The
forests
provided naval stores and furs and skins that the

settlers
could trade.
colonists
In
South Carolina the
first
came primarily from Barbados. They
and the few slaves they brought with them raised
and traded with Native

Americans. Some settlers tried to grow rice but
failed. However, slaves who came from Sierra
Leone and other rice-growing regions of West
cattle, cut timber,

Â-t./^'-r-y"^^
.^J^ t*%. Vi;'6
Africa
knew
the proper cultivation techniques.
// ^W-^/^nr
3'
g/f.J/.y^rr-
A This extract from Colonial Office Papers shows

the earliest land grants, beginning in 1674, given to
settlers in South Carolina. By 1765 more than
I
80
CHAPTER
1,000
names appeared on
this
list.
Abby Aldnch RockefcHcr Folk
An Cvitir. WWtairabur^t VA
'
British
^^
Tl
Colonies
New
England colonies
Middle colonies
This Iate-l8th-century painting by an unknown artist,

shows the merging of African
and American cultures through slaves' musical instruments,
entitled The Old Plantation,
dress,
and dance.
they kept more African traditions than slaves in
Even
other areas kept.
combined West African
their language, Gullah,
dialects
and English.
Slaves on the rice plantations worked under
the task system.
assigned particular
Each day the slaves were

duties. Once they had com-
pleted them, the slaves could tend small plots and

raise livestock.
Some
sold their hogs, chickens,
and produce or worked for wages on their

100
time.
200 Kilometers
Albers Equal-Area Projection
85
80
few slaves earned enough
now outnumbered them
buy
their free-
who
were becoming too inde-
dom. Slaveholders worried

75'
to
own
that their slaves
pendent. Fearful of slave revolts, they urged pas-
Tfie thirteen Colonies
sage of a harsh slave code.
NEW
and
SOCIETY
religious
The diverse ethnic, economic,
backgrounds of the people
in
the
13
social,
colonies
helped to create societies distinct from one another and from
Great Britain.
REGIONS
What
five
colonies
made up
yy/eW YORK AND
NEW JERSEY
the
Besides rewarding his supporters, Charles
southern colonies?
wanted
to cripple
Dutch trading
Dutch West India Company,

Settlers
used their slaves" knowledge and labor to
transform the
swampy
coastal region into fabu-
itable fur trade,
America.
Its
inland along the
The Carolinas and the thriving port of

Charles Town (Charleston) attracted Scots. Scotch-
the
Irish,
Germans, European Jews, West Indians, and
in 1685,
French Huguenots (Protestants) fleeing
religious persecution. In South Carolina, however,
the
demand
that
by 1720 African slaves made up about 70 per-
for plantation workers
was so
great
relatively
the large rice plantations, the slaves had

little
contact with whites.
York
in
New
New
Netherland, extended
Amsterdam, founded
in
1626 on
(The town was renamed
1664.) Although successful at
its
others:
settlers.
primarily
New
trading
Dutch West India Company had
luck attracting Dutch

attract
North
Hudson River Valley and included
Island.
activities, the
in
httle
The company did

English, French
Huguenots, Swedes. Jews, and free Africans.

Colonists also purchased enslaved Africans.
cent of the population.
On
town of
Manhattan
by the prof-
had established a colony
colony.
lously profitable rice plantations.
attracted
As
a result.
II
The
interests.
1750, blacks
made up almost 20
percent of
By
New
York City's population.
Most
considered their governors
settlers
Consequently, they refused to defend the
inept.
colony when an English
New
that the
Dutch hand over
Netherland. Without a shot being fired, the
colony's governor. Peter Stuyvesant. a domineer-
wooden
ing old soldier with a
leg.
surrendered to
Charles
Duke of York,
James kept
made
II
his brother.
proprietor of
New
James, the
the rest
colony
glowing terms
in
would-be immigrants.
Often referred to as the "best poor
mans
who made the crossing on cramped

One German immigrant. Gottlieb
Mittelberger. described how they were packed
immigrants
ships.
ror.
scur\
and endured "stench, fumes, hor-
y.
He
mouthrot."
added:
Netherland.
renamed New
New Jersey two
part of the colony
and gave
to
countn.." Pennsylvania attracted thousands of poor
"like herrings"
the English.
York
that described his
and promised prosperity
harbor
fleet sailed into the
1664 and demanded
in
German
to
Children from
vive the voyage; and
to 7 years rarely sur-
many
a time parents
are compelled to see their children miser-
friends.
ably suffer and die
from hunger,
sickness, and then to see
/^ ENNSYLVANIA AND DELAWARE
water.
witnessed such misery
than 32 children
In 1681 Charles
repaid the 16.000 he
II
owed
them
were thrown
in
our
ship,
all
thirst
and
cast into the

in
no
of
whom
less
5*
into the sea.
Admiral Sir William Penn by making Penn's son
William proprietor of a large
New
York.
ing year
Penns holdings
when
the
Duke
tract of land
near
increased the follow-
Those who
found cheap,
make
and
mild climate.
Pennsylvania farmers produced a surplus of grain,
which the
other colonies and the West Indies. Butchers
milling
to
fertile land
of York gave him
Delaware.
Penn wanted
sur\'ived the voyage, however,
his colony,
much
of
it
into flour
and exporting
it
to
king named Pennsylvania, a haven for his fellow
bought livestock and exported salted meat. The
Quakers. Persecuted by Anglicans and Puritans
colonists spent their profits on English manufac-
alike as "violators of order." the
Quakers had no
formal clergy, opposed \\arfare. and ignored class
tured goods and luxuries.
Some
also bought
African slaves.
privileges.
Penn also wanted Pennsylvania
to
be a "Holy
Experiment." where people of different nationalities
his
and
live peacefully together.
policy to Native
Americans, paying them

for their lands
ing them
and
treat-
fairly.
While Penn was
man
with deep religious
convictions, he
a
was
also
shrewd promoter who
needed
to raise cash.
To
recruit colonists, he pub-
pamphlets in
English. Dutch, and
lished
The Peaceable Kingdom was one

Edward Hicks
made of animals living in harmony
with nature. In this version, William
Penn is shown in the background,
meeting with other colonists.
of several paintings
82
their own
He extended
and religious beliefs "could shape
lives"
^^lnce^dû^
Muscm
The Restoration
colonies attracted
a diverse group of people. Most

farmed their own lands, but slaves
worked South Carolina plantations.
Georgia
While Pennsylvania began
as a
"Holy Experiment," Georgia was
social experiment. This last British
colony was established on the south-
em
in
frontier of British
1732.
more than
Jamestown's
North America
a century after
James
founding.
Oglethorpe and a group of supporters
planned the colony

English poor a fresh
supported the project

it
would "cany off
give the
to
Parliament
start.
in the
the
hope
that
poor
that
London."
pester the streets of
This illustration from a
ized setting,
also expected the
It
733 book, showing Georgia
was used to help promote colonization
series of mercantilist
prosperous plantations and Spanish Florida.
to
As
a social
experiment the colony
w anted
failed.
to aid only the
most "virtuous and industrious" poor. However.

ver\'
few debtors qualified, and the colony attracted
few other
settlers
because of
its
rum and
against
slavery.
The
trustees
wanted
to
prevent the "Sin of Drunkenness" and believed

that slaveholders
"w ould be
for themselves.
But the
less
disposed to labor"
settlers
complained
that
laws
promote the "wealth,
kingdom."
Navigation Acts
the
safety,
and strength of
direct trade
acts required
for the colonies to
addition,
colonial products had
all
to be carried
owned by
on ships
and
built
"his Majesty's sub-
and the
jects of England. Ireland,
listed,
did not prosper.
still
By
European
be routed through England. In
Carolina planters. In 1750 the founders reluctantly

but the colony
to
between the EngUsh colonies and other
European nations. The
Plantations." The acts also
in.
this
were designed
In part, these acts
without slaves they could not compete with South
gave
an ideal-
increase English merchants' profits by limiting
goods destined
rigid rules.
Oglethorpe's rules included prohibitions
in
that region.
Parliament. In 1651 Parliament began passing a
colony to provide a buffer between South Carolina's
Oglethorpe and his partners
in
or "enumerated." colo-
nial products that could be
1760 Georgia's European population numbered
exported only
only some 6.000.
other destinations within the

empire. The
to
list
England or
was added
to
to
over the years and eventually
Crade
sugar,
Above
A Tobacco was advertised
included tobacco, cotton,

the founding of the Restoration
all else,
colonies was driven by the Crown's faith in the
and naval
on trade cards. This one

shows men smoking the
stores.
Southern colonists,
who
long clay pipes used

the 1600s.
produced most of the enumer-
economic policy of mercantilism. Mercantilists
ated
held that a nation's power was a product of wealth,
restrictions
and a nation's wealth was measured by
stock of
acts helped northern shipbuilders
and merchants. As
for a nation to obtain
British subjects they could build
and
gold and
silver.
The
best
way
its
wealth was to maintain a favorable balance of

trade: to export
more than
it
imported. But only
goods,
resented
the
because they cut into
profits.
But the
sail their
own
ships and provide shipping services. Because timber
and naval
stores
were so much cheaper
in
America
By
nations that were relatively self-sufficient could
than in Europe, colonial shipbuilders thrived.
maintain a favorable balance of trade. Thus the
early 1770s colonists had built about one third of all
colonies were
\ itally
important as a source of raw
materials and as a ready market for goods
in
merchant ships flying the British
the
flag.
from the
homeland.
Mercantilist ideas had the support of the mer-
chant class, which was well represented in England's
England regulated colonial trade to

achieve a favorable balance of trade
and to benefit English merchants.
83
dominion's lieutenant governor. The new
rulers,
7aMES AND THE GLORIOUS
William and Mary, broke up the Dominion of
REVOLUTION
England and restored those representative assem-
II
blies that
The Lords of Trade,
committee established
to
New
had been abolished. The Navigation
Acts, however, largely remained in place.
oversee the colonies for the Crown, sent customs

agents to the colonies to enforce the Navigation
The Glorious
Revolution limited
led to the passage of England's Bill of Rights.
The colonists were often uncooperative.
Acts.
Massachusetts, for example, declared that
exempt from English
it
royal
was
power and
restrictions on trade. In
response, the English government revoked the

Massachusetts charter
in 1684.
The following year James, Duke of York,
The great awakening
king ordered the Lords
The Glorious Revolution had another important

effect. It established that royal power flowed from
of Trade to organize the northern colonies into the
the consent of Parliament, not from the will of
became King James
II.
over the colonies, the
New
Dominion of
the
To increase
new
royal authority
England. The committee placed
dominion under the control of
Andros
in 1686.
Edmund
Sir
Andros quickly angered the
God. The idea

in
human
Europe
that
God
was not confined to politics.

was experiencing the
affairs
18th century
in the
of a revolution
ideas called
colonists by imposing taxes without their consent
birth
and by abolishing the Massachusetts General
Enlightenment. Enlightenment thinkers empha-
Court.
sized
James
was no more popular
II
than Andros was in
New
England
in
England. James
II's
in
human reason and
logic, they believed,
progress. Science and
provided the keys to under-
Enlightenment ideas found religious expres-
habit of ruling by decree angered Parliament. In
sion in Deism. Deists believed that
1688 the Protestant opposition staged a bloodless
universe, set
rebellion: the
Glorious Revolution. They invited
according
it
emphasis on leading a virtuous
to take
or religious faith. In the colonies
fled to
to
to rally support,
James
II
run
itself
life
than on piety
Deism appealed
people, particularly merchants
future abuses of power. Parliament
enacted the Bill of Rights
in
1689.
The
hsted the rights and liberties guaran
teed to every citizen and to

Parliament, including regular
free elections
it
and wealthy planters.
France in 1688.
To prevent
many educated
let
created the
They placed more
Dutch husband. William, Prince of Orange,

Unable
God
motion, and then
in
to natural law.
the king's Protestant daughter. Mary, and her
the throne.
the
standing nature and improving society.
Catholicism rankled English Protestants, and his
Religious revivals. Not everyone
act
Wmterthur Museui
shared the Deists' belief
in
an orderly,
predictable world. Changes in

society that emphasized individual and material success
and a prohibi-
rather than the
tion against taxation with-
good of
out Parliament's consent.
the
troubled
Colonists used the
common
community
many
people,
Glorious Revolution to
particularly those in
rid themselves of hated
rural areas.
officials. Protestants in
ple longed for religion
Maryland got
rid
wealthy Catholic
of
that
New
to
known
leadership, ousted the
CHAPTER
it
in a series
as the
Great
swept through the Bri-
militia,
under Jacob Leisler's
their hearts.
Awakening that
England. The
York
These peo-
of religious revivals
colonists sent Andros
back
moved
They found
offi-
Massachusetts
cials.
84
did not directly intervene
This plate, depicting James II, appeared after

the coronation of the new king.
tish colonies in the

1
8th century.
mid-
New
The minister often credited with launching

England's Great Awakening is Jonathan
Edwards of Massachusetts.
He
believed
way
ing to people's emotions as a
to
in
appeal-
open
evangelists. Such differences encouraged the
growth of
New
Light Protestant churches, particu-
and the Methodists.
larly the Baptists
The New Light preachers
their
also
emphasized a
hearts to God. In the 1730s a revival broke
personal relationship with God.
They encouraged
out in Edwards's church
men. women, and even children
to describe their
in
Northampton, Mass-
achusetts,
and spread
appealed to many, especially to the poor and to
to
surrounding churches.
It
These emotional services
religious experiences.
the enslaved
was, however,
whom
the established churches
often neglected.
the English revivalist
Preaching to Virginia slaves, Presbyterian
George Whitefield who,
Gary Allen assured them
beginning with his
shed his blood as
trip to
Georgia
first
door of heaven
Awakening
Many
George Whitefield
and invites you
New
power of God,
that
it
appeared to
me
the very
would give way."
Puritan or Anglican Protestantism did.
The Great Awakening challenged

religious authority.
The
New
of the Great Awakening. Those
Old Lights
objected
effects.
Light
Not
And above
before God.
slaves
New
Lights'
emotional, disorderly services and to the disruptions
congregations caused by traveling
The Great Awakening
revivalists
appealed to people's emotions
and stressed everyone's equality

before God.
SECTION
IDENTIFY and
they emphasized
all,
including women and
a supporter
who opposed it
to the
REVIEW
explain the significance of the follovîng: task system, William Penn, James Oglethorpe,
Edmund Andros, Glorious

Enlightenment, Great Awakening, Jonathan Edvyârds, George Whitefield.
mercantilism, balance of trade, Navigation Acts, Sir
LOCATE
established
revivalist preachers
appealed to ordinary people rather than to the educated upper class.
The Great Awakening's

everyone, however, was a
in settled
enter."
Light preachers. The revivalists'
the equality of everyone
the
all to
closely resembled African religious tradition than
me
Baltimore revival "there was such a gust of
gates of hell
crowds of thousands. "Hearing him
heart wound." One woman, Fanny Lewis, wrote
the
and
your master,
emphasis on emotional religious experience more
preach," wrote Nathan Cole, a farmer, "gave
that at a
as for
of the colonies, the minis-
his several tours
ter inspired
you
blacks responded enthusiastically to Allen
and other
throughout the colonies.
During
for
or any of the white people." Christ has "opened the
in 1738,
spread the message of

the Great
much
that the "Savior died
Revolution,
and explain the importance of the following: North Carolina, South Carolina,
New York,
Pennsylvania, Delaware, Georgia.

I.
MAIN IDEA How
did South Carolina's agricultural
economy
differ
from the
agricultural
economies of the other Restoration colonies?
MAIN IDEA What effect did the Glorious Revolution have on England and the colonies?
MAIN IDEA Why did the Great Awakening revive people's interest in religion?
WRITING TO INFORM Imagine you are a customs agent sent to the colonies to enforce
Navigation Acts. Write a report to Parliament, outlining
why England should
the
regulate colonial
trade.
EVALUATING What reasons did Charles have for granting land in the Carolinas, New York,
New Jersey, and Pennsylvania? Why was there renewed interest in founding colonies after the
II
Restoration?
85
Section 4
THE FRONTIER AND THE

STRUGGLE FOR LAND
c u s
What pressures in the colonies pushed settlers to the frontier?
What was life on the frontier like?
How did the fur trade and the conflicts over land affect Native American
lives
and cultures?
What were
throughout
the main causes and results of the French and Indian
the 18th century, English colonial cities
grew
War?
rapidly.
Philadelphia roughly doubled in size every 20 years, eventually
becoming Great Britain
5 largest
overseas port. But despite
this
growth British America remained overwhelmingly rural:

about 95 percent of the some two million colonists lived on
new land
farms. Hungry for
to farm, the colonists
moved
,,,. jixr-4
ironto lands claimed by Native Americans and by the French.
II
Frontiersman's jacket,
satchel,
Philadelphia's taxpayers
Growth affects prosperity

New
England's
population roughly doubled every 25 years; the
Middle Colonies
New
York,
Pennsylvania, and Delaware
New
Jersey,
grew even
faster.
As the population increased, social differences

among community members became more obvious.
few families increasingly controlled the
wealth. In
A
I
1693 the richest 10 percent of
in Philadelphia.
86
owned some 45
CHAPTER
horn,
percent of
percent.
In the
major port
cities
of Boston.
New
York,
and Philadelphia, wealthy merchant families imitated the
upper
were
homes, dress, and manners of the English
class.
Many
other city dwellers, however,
less fortunate,
though some
"'leather
apron
smiths, and
butchers, carpenters,
other
prospered and moved up
men"'
potters,
in society.
artisans
Even
in the
1700s
cities
Colonial cities soon faced the problem of growing numbers of urban poor. This
commemorates the opening of new almshouses and workhouses
767 engraving
powder
taxable wealth: by 1772 their share had risen to
some 70
Throughout the colonial period
rifle,
and trap
experienced cycles of
American Antiquarian Society
prosperity and hard times. Without a fortunate
marriage or an ample inheritance, hard work alone
sometimes offered no escape from poverty. By the

1730s
all
major towns had poorhouses where the
very poor lived
at
public expense.
Farms became smaller with each generation
same amount of land was divided among
as the
ever more heirs. As more people competed for
land within existing communities,
Many
expensive.
were unable
their families but
worked
who wanted
of those
it
became
to live near
to afford land
as farm laborers.
Instead of struggling to support themselves in

the cities or in their
communities, townspeople and
farmers had another choice: they could leave for

the frontier.
into
New
And many
colonists did, pushing north
York's border areas and west into other
A farm family at work in the fields is the subject of this

760s woodcut from a Pennsylvania almanac.
newly opened areas such as the western portions of

Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and North
sleeping lofts or small rooms. But others,
Carolina.
moved
was not
It
easy, however, for people to leave
their families, friends,

colonist
who
and communities. One
stayed behind expressed the widely
held fear that the "desire after
Land" would doom
little
and
have Elbow-room enough
all
in the
"so they might
munities,
Byrd observed, "a

if
citizen ...
From childhood
com-
counted
men and women
work
did the
butchers, carpenters, candle makers, soap
who
frontier minister observed in 1711.
many
any
to the
is
on, everyone had to
hard. Besides farming, the
Rapid population growth and

economic problenns encouraged
move
devoted
he has ambition enough to aspire to
makers, and other artisans. Those
colonists to
out,
a brick chimney."
work of
world."
wore
attention to their houses. In the frontier
extravagant
the pioneers' children to a life of "heathenish igno-
rance and barbarisme"
as frequently as the soil
who
but a bad time of
it;
for help
is
could not, a
would "have
not to be had at
rate."
In western Virginia
frontier.
backcountry
woods. The
and Pennsylvania the
some pioneers grazed

settlers,
cattle in the
reported a British seaman in
1755, "drive up their Herds on Horseback ... for
f^ lONEERLIFE
their Cattle are near as wild as
as they please in the Great
These were not
idle fears.
The
frontier lacked
schools and churches. Pioneer families might live

in
crude shelters such as one "poor, dirty hovel,
with hardly anything in

Virginia planter William
When
it
but children" that
Byrd observed
in 1733.
no Inclosures
to stop
Deer" and they "run
Woods, where
there are
them." Pioneer families also
some land and planted corn,

wheat, and other crops among the stumps. Once
backcountry farmers began to produce a marcleared and fenced
ketable surplus, small market towns appeared.
Deep
they were able to build more-permanent
in the interior a
few frontiersmen lived
They adapted
housing, pioneers often built Swedish-style log
a roving existence.
which one traveler in 1679 praised as

"quite tight and warm." They were, he wrote,
from Indian
made of
hunted for food and traded furs for supplies such
cabins,
"entire trees, split through the middle, or
squared out of the rough, and placed in the form of
shirts
as the
dress,
their clothing
wearing coarse linen hunting
and deerskin leggings and moccasins. They
powder and shot needed
for their rifles.
a square."
Pioneers
who prospered might
floors in their cabins, cut
and
nail
windows
lay
wood
in the walls,
clapboards over the logs. They might add
Frontier families grew their own

food and made almost everything
they needed.
87
Gulf of Mexico
The FRENCH IN NORTH AMERICA
Mississippi Valley for France, naming

in
As frontiersmen and
He claimed
1682.
in
it
the
Louisiana
honor of Louis XIV.
Appalachians into the Ohio Valley, they moved
The founding of New Orleans in 1718 gave

the French command of the Mississippi River.
claimed by several British colonies as
Control of the Mississippi, combined with their
into territory
traders
crossed
the
well as by France. French claims to American land
thriving colonies along the St.
were based on the early voyages of Giovanni da
their
Verrazano,
who explored
America
1524, and of Jacques Cartier,
in
explored the Gulf of
St.
Samuel de Champlain's
the coast of North
Lawrence
in
in
1608 strength-
1673 Jesuit missionary
Jacques Marquette and fur trader Louis

(jahl-ee-ET) crossed the
way
as far as the
Jolliet
Great Lakes, made their
to the Mississippi River,
Lakes, put the French
North American
1534-1535.
fur trading expeditions in
1603 and his founding of Quebec
ened these claims. Then
in
who
and traveled down
it
Arkansas River. Rene-Robert de La
Lawrence River and
knowledge of a water route through the Great
But
empire
New
in a position to control the
interior.
France
France's North American
never reached
potential strength.
its
France claimed a huge area but settled very
little
Most French colonists were single men
it.
of
in
search of riches and adventure. The French

coiireurs de bois (kooh-ruhr
duh bwah). or runners
of the woods, traded with Native Americans for
Many
furs.
married Indian women.
Salle also explored the Mississippi, reaching the
CULTURES CLASH
The French
colonial
economy was
tied to that of the
Native Americans. Native Americans included

French fur traders
in their trade
the 17th century. Native
networks early
in
Americans desired
European trade goods such as horses, firearms, and

metal tools. To pay for those goods, they traded
beaver pelts and other
furs.
"The beaver does every-
thing perfectly well," one Indian explained. "It
makes
short,
The
kettles, hatchets,
it
life
makes everything."
fur trade. The European
clamor
of
swords, knifes, bread ...
for furs,
however, changed
for Native Americans,
whom became
many
dependent on
the fur trade. For them, hunt-
ing
became
commercial
This sketch
Huron Indian was

one of several drawings of
Native Americans that
appeared in a book published by Charles de
of a
^Jotth America in 195^

OLD ENEMIES
The rivalry
in
Europe between Great Britain and
Granville
in
1701. His
France carried over to North America.
book
HUMAN-ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION
Why
do you
think both France and Great Britain desired the lands of the Ohio Valley?
maps and sketches

flora
In
88
CHAPTER
also contained
of
and fauna found
New
France.
in
^henafHo}^
the vanishing forests

Many
States remains.
this
claim that
destruction of the forests
is
having far-reaching environmen-
B,before European settlers

arrived
in
tal
North America,
(cutting
dense forests covered more

than half of the
some
consequences. Clear-cutting
down
all
trees
area) wipes out the trees' root
networks that hold
7.2 million
soil in
square miles of what are today
and trap rainwater. The
the United States and Canada.
forest cover can result
The
continent's abundant
seemed
forests
ing
endless.
first
fire,
small patches of
away
strips
loss of
in
flood-
fertile topsoil.
The
disappearance of forests also
Soon
to alter the forest land-
scape. Using
place
and severe erosion, which
logging truck
Native Americans were

the
an
in
they cleared
logging
was
major
colonial industry, providing lum-
woodland to
ber for
home and
means the
many
loss of habitats for
wild animals, endangering
or leading to the extinction of
ship con-
create space for their crops and
struction and yielding other
species. Deforestation even
to encourage the growth of the
needed products such
affects the
new
tender
vegetation that
and other game pre-
deer, elk,
ferred to eat. But

Indians cleared
wooded
the
gen
in
600s the newly
sawmills
in
the harbors along
the Atlantic seaboard.
ing the forests at a rapid pace.
decades
growth
their eyes the wilderness
all
In
few
and
spruce forests were gone, and
Colonists cut the forests to
the industry
make room
sively
for farms, towns,
and roads. They used the
Wood
was
wood
progres-
westward and southward.

After
some 300
years of
is
that
more
what
is
efficient
management of the remaining

forest lands. Old-growth forests
should be selectively logged, to

leave
enough of the ecological
growth.
was to be feared or subdued.
moved
needed now
system
of Maine's old-
(original) pine
the atmosphere.
in
Many argue
the deep forests of Maine.
arrived Europeans began clear-
In
lye
ash.
Logs were floated downriver to
sary for their survival.

In
Even soap making relied on
Large-scale logging began
was neces-
because green
plants add to the supply of oxy-
no more of the
land than
air,
pentine, charcoal, and paper.
made from wood
American
as tur-
forests
The
in
place to generate
new
And new-growth
need time to mature.
challenge
is
to find a bal-
ance between the demand for
wood and
paper products
and
demand
deforestation (clearing of
the jobs which that
the only fuel available to
forests), only a fraction of old-
supports
many
growth forests
conserve our vanishing forests.
for building.
also
I
settlers.
and they killed as many animals as they
enterprise,
could.
Some
villages devoted so
much
time to trap-
ping and preparing furs that they had to buy food

that they
had once produced for themselves.
The
tribes.
fur trade also disrupted relations
As they
killed off the beaver
among
and other
in
the United
Some American
and the need to
Indians becanne
economically dependent on the

and competition for
hunting territories caused conflict.
fur trade,
fur-
bearing animals in one area. Indian trappers
Conflicts over land. The European
moved
land had even more disastrous consequences
their settlements to areas
mals were
tribes
still
came
plentiful.
into contact
where the
Thus previously
ani-
distant
and competition with
for Native
desire for
Americans than did the European demand
for furs. Indian
ways of using land did not
fit
each other. Firearms made the resulting conflicts
European concepts of landownership. Europeans
particularly deadly.
thought that land that was not registered by deed,
89
was not owned. Since most
cleared, or built on
Indian land appeared wild and unused, Europeans
believed that
was
it
there for the taking.
Native Americans viewed land differently.
They recognized
boundaries, but not
territorial
individual ownership. Individuals did have,
growing crops and
ever, the right to use land for
and gathering. The
for hunting
how-
loss of the land
serious consequences because
it
had
meant losing
sources of food. English agricultural practices further diminished these resources
mal
habitats.
by destroying
ani-
Miantonomo (my-an-tuh-NOH-moh),
a Narraganset, observed as early as 1642:
Our
plains
were
our woods, and of

full
full
of deer, as also
and our coves
turkies,
offish and fowl. But these English having
gotten our land, they with scythes cut

the grass, and with axes
cows and horses

hogs
fell
we
be
shall
99
starved.
Metacom
eat the grass, and their
our clam banks, and
spoil
down
the trees; their
people.
settlers
lation
War
New
in
England.
Less than 20 years
Plymouth Colony was founded, the Pequots
after
and English were
which began
who were
New
war over
at
land.
in 1636, pitted the
Narraganset and
formal treaty was signed the following
year. Friction
Mohegan
The Pequot War.
allies against the
Netherlands.
It
ended
in
Pequot,
Dutch of
1637 when the
English burned a Pequot village, killing hundreds of
increased as Massachusetts' growing popu-
pushed onto Indian lands. War broke out
again in 1675.
named King
when Metacom
Philip
led the
jiaurt of tlttl
rwani
fo*'t
Ând the
niatur *r
rednado
the English
Metacom's well-armed forces attacked
other
New
England settlements, destroying 12 towns. The

Indian
was
war
effort collapsed,
killed in battle.
in the fighting,
An
years
"*
however, when Metacom
estimated 3,000 Indians died
and the Puritans sold most of the
surviving
New England
whom
Wampanoags and
Native Americans against the colonists.
English and their
allied in the fur trade with the
between American Indians and white
Wampanoags
later,
as slaves.
Ten
Frenchman observed
that
Native Americans
aytftytno
posed
little threat:
have reduced them
in
New
"The
last
to a small
England
Wars
Number,
and consequently they are incapable

of defending themselves."
Conflicts over land led
to wars that nearly

wiped out the Native
Americans of New
England.
The IROQUOIS league

A
The
English burning of a
engraving.
90
CHAPTER
Pequot
village
is
the subject of this
In part, the
New
their victory
over the Wampanoags to
the
3
Mohawks. At
Englanders owed
the urging of the

governor of
New
York, the
Metacom's forces out of

a
Mohawks
New
had driven
THE FRENCH AND
York, deaUng them
The Mohawks belonged to the powerful

Iroquois League. The Senecas, Cayugas,
Onondagas. Oneidas. and Mohawks of
New
,ing George's War

fV/i
York
ended
and Pennsylvania had formed the confederation

in
15th or
the
16th century.
who had been
Tuscaroras,
but
1722 the
In
became known
Each nation kept control of
such
required
war or signing
Europeans were again at
on American
7 54
756,
on
away
in
and
soil
but
expanded
into
a worldwide battle between Great Britain and
the Iroquois
League
to
dominate the fur
France. At stake was control of North America
trade, to
as well as other colonial empires throughout the
influence over American Indians to the
west, and to protect
world.
independence. The
middlemen, obtaining
its
Iroquois often acted as

furs
than 10 years
not formally declared until
Their combined military strength allowed
its
748,
Indian War, begun in
leaders.
extend
events happening more than 3,000 miles
agreement of the league's
the
in
sparsely settled North America. The French
local affairs, but
as going to
larger issues
treaties
Europe
war. This time, Europe's future course hinged
as the Six Nations.

its
in
less
later,
forced out of North
Carolina by settlers, joined them, and the confederation also
WAR
INDIAN
crippUng blow.
At the time, the French philosopher Voltaire
remarked how these increasing global connections
from other Native Americans and selling the
furs to the English.
independence by
The Iroquois maintained
were shaping
their
skillfully playing the English
and the French against each other. They willingly
became involved
in
colonial conflicts
thought they could further their
own
if
they
history:
"Such was the complication
of political interests that a cannon-shot fired
in
America could give the signal that
in
set
Europe
a blaze."
interests
sometimes siding with the French, other times

with the British.
disunited to defeat the French, would not
commit
their support.
The FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR
Competition for the Ohio
Valley. King
France, Spain, and England were engaged in a
William's War, Queen Anne's War, and King
worldwide struggle for empire, and the fighting
George's
often spilled over into North America.
Between
War had
all
elsewhere in the world. However, the next major
the French
1689 and 1748, English colonists were dragged
colonial conflict
King William's War (1689-1697),

Queen Anne's War (1702-1713), and King
George's War (1744-1748). As long as the great
(1754-1763)
the previous conflicts,
European powers continued
on
into three wars:
their rivalry, the
prospect of more colonial warfare remained.
To plan for defense and
to recruit the
Iroquois as allies, representatives from seven
been sparked by fighting
Europe
New
in
began
and Indian War

and spread
in the colonies
to
1756 as the Seven Years' War. Unlike
which were mainly fought
England's northern frontier and
posts in Florida, the French and Indian
out in the west in the
Ohio
at
Spanish
War broke
Valley.
Virginia land speculators,
who bought
land
resale,
had
colonies and the Iroquois League met in Albany,
expecting a quick profit from
New
acquired a large land grant in the Ohio Valley in
York, June 19-July 10, 1754. At the Albany
its
1749. To protect their interests, the Virginians
Congress the colonies' delegates adopted

Benjamin Franklin's Albany Plan of Union,
began building a
which called for a loose confederation
Allegheny (al-uh-GAY-nee), and Monongahela
defense.
to
promote
The colonial assemblies, however,
rejected the plan, fearing that
it
would
raise taxes
fort at the
junction of the Ohio,
(muh-nahn-guh-HEE-luh) rivers
which
the site of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
and give Great Britain too much power. The
who considered
Iroquois, concluding that the English were too
Virginians off, completed the
became
The French,
the land theirs, drove the

fort,
and named
it
91
3tench and 9ndian Wat, 175^-1763
Fort Duquesne (doo-KAYN). Outraged. Lieutenant
more cowardice
Governor Robert Dinwiddle of Virginia sent young
ceive.
George Washington and
company of
militia to
sued by dogs. ...
wound, though
held
coat, and
fast.
British
were unwilling
to give
possible to con-
it is
luckily
as
sheep pur-
escaped without a
had four bullets through
two horses shot under me.
**
my
up the
They
sent General
Edward Braddock, Washington, and
a large force
area to the French, however.
than
They broke and ran
expel the French from the region. But the French
The
In
August 1757 the British
lost
Fort William Henry to the French.
Oswego and
The "lightly
of British and colonial soldiers to take Fort
cloathed and armed" French and Indians suc-
Duquesne. Inexperienced
ceeded, as one colonist reported, because they are
British forces panicked
in colonial warfare, the
when
they clashed with the
"often on
all
Sides of us,
taking the Advantage
French and their force of Delawares. Ottawas.
of every Tree and Bush." The Delawares,
Abnakis. and other Native Americans
the
Washington described the
in July 1755.
British defeat in a letter
The
English soldiers
were struck
with such a panic that they behaved with
CHAPTER
British
had
pushed
out
of
whom
eastern
Pennsylvania, also launched attack after attack on

the backcountry settlers.
to his mother:
92
British victories.
when
Britain's fortunes
improved
British cabinet minister William Pitt
M George
Washington
The
British followed, determined to take
Quebec. But General James Wolfe could not entice
experienced
commander. General Louis-Joseph de
the French
his first taste
that
of military ser-
Montcalm,
vice during the
English discovered a path that led from the
French and
Indian
into battle
Lawrence River up
War.
not until the
is.
St.
Quebec. Under
the cliff to
cover of night the English army climbed up and
assumed
battle formation outside the city.
emerged victorious from the ensuing
British
The
battle
although both Wolfe and Montcalm were fatally
wounded. Quebec surrendered

September
759. Montreal
fell in
to the
English in
September of the
following year, and with this defeat France lost the

last
assumed
control of Britain's
full
war
effort.
He
poured money and troops into the North American

conflict.
His efforts paid
off. In
force under General Jeffrey
July 1758 a British
Amherst captured
Louisbourg on Cape Breton Island, which guarded
Gulf of
the entrance to the
Louisbourg's
fall
meant
Lawrence.
St.
that the British
could pre-
The
ended
its
Canadian holdings.
spoils of war. The war

in 1761. but fighting
in
North America
continued for two more
years in other parts of the world. In 1763 the

Treaty of Paris ended
territories.
and
all
The
all hostilities
and awarded
Canada
victorious British claimed
French holdings east of the Mississippi
New
River except
Orleans. Spain, which had
Then
joined the French war effort in 1762, surrendered
August, the British captured Fort Frontenac on
Florida to the British. In anticipation of this loss,
vent French supplies from reaching Canada.

in
of
Lake Ontario.
Duquesne
fort rather
in
When
the British
marched on Fort
November, the French blew up
than surrender
it
the
Spain had received France's vast Louisiana
terri-
tory west of the Mississippi in the 1762 Treaty of
Fontainebleau.
to the British.
After these British military successes, the

Iroquois reassessed their neutrality and lent support to the British.
As
the tide turned against the
French, they lost their Indian allies in the Ohio

Valley.
Abandoning
their
remaining forts there, the
French withdrew to Canada.
Competition for the North

interior touched off
the French and Indian War. The
war cost France most of its
North American holdings.
American
SECTION
IDENTIFY and
de La
Salle,
REVIEW
explain the significance of the follovîng: Jacques Marquette, Louis
Metacom,
Jolliet,
Iroquois League, Albany Plan of Union, land speculators, William
Rene-Robert
Pitt,
James
Wolfe, Louis-Joseph de Montcalm.
LOCATE
and explain the importance of the following: Quebec,
St.
Lawrence
River, Fort
Duquesne,
Oswego, Fort William Henry.

I.
MAIN IDEA Why did some colonists choose to move to the frontier?
MAIN IDEA How did the Europeans' desire for furs and land affect Native Americans?
LINKING HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY How did competition for land in North America
cause conflicts between England and France? How did these conflicts end?
WRITING TO CREATE
account of frontier
life.
ANALYZING Why
Imagine you are an author
Illustrate
did Native
living
on the
frontier.
Write
a short fictional
your story by including sketches of your surroundings.
Americans become involved
in
conflicts
between the French and
the English?
93
Parliament begins
Massachusetts
passing Navigation
Bay Colony
Rhode
established.
receives royal
CHAPTER
Mayflower
Acts.
Island
charter.
Maryland passes
Toleration Act.
lands.
iZevie
1620
WRITING A SUMMARY
1630
3.
summary
Number your paper

and
list
to
5.
Study the time
in
ond next to
2,
the order
first
line
in
activity
2.
below.
1.
Bacon's Rebellion erupts.
2.
Rhode
3.
Treaty of Paris signed.
4.
5.
Island receives royal charter.
maintaining political authority
3.
Massachusetts Bay Colony established.
Analyzing What common goals did the founders of

Massachusetts, Maryland, Rhode Island, and
Pennsylvania share?
in
Crown
the colonies?
Hypothesizing Would Massachusetts Bay

Colony's Bible commonwealth have worked in the
Chesapeake? Why or why not?
Comparing How did women's lives compare in
the
4.
Glorious Revolution occurs.
the English
Give reasons for your answer
the sec-
on the colonists?
THINKING CRITICALLY
Evaluating How effective was
which
in
next to
above,
1651
Economic Development Why did England regWhat effect did this regula-
tion have
of the chapter
1649
ulate colonial trade?

write a
1644
New
England and southern colonies?
Identifying
Cause and
Effect
What were
the
causes and effects of Bacon's Rebellion?

Review the
Skills
Handbook entry on
Identifying the
Main Idea on page 988. Read the following excerpt
IDENTIFYING PEOPLE
AND
IDEAS
from
705 study of Native American culture. Then
identify the
main idea of the selection.
44
1.
Squanto
6.
Great Awakening
2.
John Winthrop
7.
Glorious Revolution
3.
Lady Deborah
8.
George Whitefield
4. Toleration
5.
Moody
Act
Olaudah Equiano
9.
Albany Plan of Union
0.
General James Wolfe
They [Native Americans] have on sev-
eral accounts reason to lament [regret] the
arrival of the Europeans, by
ness] as well as their innocence. The
English have taken

1.
How
did mercantilism affect England's relations
with the colonies?

2.
In
what ways
did
some
colonists challenge estab-
lished authority in the colonies?

3.
Why did settlers continually start new settlements?

How did Native Americans react to this expansion?
^
1.
REVIEWING THEMES
Cultural Diversity How did
grounds of the colonists

of the colonies
2.
in
the cultural back-
influence did envi-
ronmental differences have on the development of

colonies
94
in
New
CHAPTER
England and the Chesapeake?
[a] great part of
and consequently made everything less plenty amongst them. They have
introduced drunkenness and luxury amongst
them, which have multiplied their wants and
their country
put them up to desiring
a thousand things
fu^
they never
before.
99
development
which they settled?
Geographic Diversity What
away
dreamt of
affect the
whose means
they seem to have lost their felicity [happi-
%
Glass necklace traded
to Iroquois Indiarts
Pennsylvania founded.
Slave uprising
occurs at Stono,
French claim Louisiana.
Rebellion
Glorious
Revolution
Georgia
erupts.
occurs.
founded.
Bacon's
4r
1688
1732
how
changes
indentured servitude
in
Study the
1754
map on page
AND GEOGRAPHY
92.
of the French and Indian
How
War
might the outcome
have been different
if
France had established colonies along the Mississippi

River and
contributed to the introduction of slavery.
War begins.
1739
LINKING HISTORY
essay about the
introduction of slavery into the English colonies. Be
sure to include
Indian
Paris signed.

Writing to Evaluate Write an
Treaty of

adopted. French and
South Carolina.
in
the Ohio Valley?
BUILDING YOUR
PORTFOLIO
Colonists often resented the authority of English
Read the following excerpt from
royal governors.
Nathaniel Bacon's "The Declaration of the People."
Then write an essay
evaluating
whether or not
Bacon's accusations against Governor William
Berkeley were
justified.
cooperatively.
ii FOR HAVING UPON specious [decepof Public works raised unjust
tive] pretenses
TRADE
1.
map showing
chapters
and 2 you prepared a
and the Americas. Building on that material,
Taxes upon the Commonality for the
Asia,
advancement of private Favorites and other
revise
sinister ends.
In
trade routes between Europe, Africa,
your map to
reflect
French and English trade
from North America during the

.
600s.
Add sym-
bols to represent major trade items exchanged by
For having abused and rendered
French and English traders.
Contemptible the Majesty of Justice, [by]
advancing
to
and Ignorant favorites.

For having wronged his Majesty 5
Prerogative and Interest by assuming the
monopoly of the Beaver trade.
By having in that unjust gaine Bartered
and sold his Majesty's Country and the lives
courts] scandalous
of his Loyal Subjects to the Barbarous

Heathen [the Indians].
.
and
tions.
effecting of Civil
mural protesting
Building
now
on that
slavery.
material,
imagine you are a
Quaker
abolitionist.
Prepare a newspaper
advertisement or
bill
against the Consent of the People, for raising
In
Chapter 2 you planned a
Wars and distrac-
slavery should be
in
3.
why
banned
Slaves in cargo hold
North America.
CULTURAL EXCHANGES
In
chapters
and 2 you researched cultural exchanges
in
the
Americas. Building on that material, develop a
Of these
the aforesaid Articles
we
series of drawings and captions that illustrate
accuse Sir William Berkeley, as guilty of
of the ways
each and every one of the same, and as one,

who has Traitorously attempted, violated
Americans, African
and Injured
hand-
protesting the slave
trade and outlining
For having
forged a Commission by
we know not what hand, not only without but
.
SLAVERY
2.
places ofjudicature [law
his
Majesty 's Interest here.
in
some
which contact between Native

slaves,
and
British
and French
colonists affected each culture.
99
95
U N
^gmencan jTetters
Jvative American Creation Myths
Native Americans, the first inhabitants of the Americas, developed a rich
oral literature. In the following creation myths, the Iroquois of present-day-
New
York explain the origin of the Iroquois League, the Jicarilla- Apaches
of present-day Colorado and New Mexico account for the origin offire, and
Woman
gave birth to twin boys.
the Sroquois Ceague
One
Iroquois
Good. He made all the good

things on the earth and caused
Long, long ago,
in
the great
the corn, the
were no people on the

of It was covered by
past, there
earth. All
deep water.
Birds, flying, filled the
One day
woman
of
all
the birds saw a beaufalling
from the
All
discussion, they
decided to spread out their wings
The
beautiful
deep held
how
the bugs and
good animals and
woman
third pair
birds.
And
many years had
the Sky-Holder
by,
He wanted them
others
a council, to decide
some
people.
to surpass
fifth
pair the parents of the
Senecas. Both were placed
some
part of
what
as the State of
New
in
now known
is
York. But the
Tuscaroras were taken up the
Roanoke River
as
into
North
what
made
his
now
is
Carolina.
There
home
while he taught these people and

their descendants
arts
and
crafts.
many
useful
all
beauty, strength, and
in
So from the bosom of
bravery.
became the
pair
the Sky-Holder
From
Origin of Jite
the island where they had been
they could protect the
jicarilla-Apache
from the terror
beautiful being
of the waters.
decided
living
The monsters
The
that only Giant
Tortoise was big enough to bear
her weight.
He
great
Mohawk
his
were
back. Giant Tortoise magically
increased
in size
a large island.
96
UNIT
first pair
river,
now
were
and soon became

I
left
near a
called the
trees talked with each other, but
there was no
fire at
that time.
Fox was most clever and he
are called the
The second pair

to move their home
Indians.
told
Long, long ago, animals and
six pairs of people.
Mohawk. So they
volunteered, and
she was gently placed upon
on moles, the Sky-Holder
brought forth
parents of the Cayugas, and the
larger.
on
left
Onondagas.
so the world became larger and

.
were
and have always been
hill
known
decided to create
of the
evil
the time. Giant Tortoise
passed
safely.
Then the monsters
the valleys of Oneida
The fourth
worms and
After many,
and thus break the force of her

reached them
in
Creek.
called the
continued to stretch himself.
some
After
and the
the other creatures that do
to the
sky.
Immediately the huge ducks held

a council.
others
high
The other twin was the Spirit

Evil. He created the weeds and
also the
possessed the waters.
tiful
fruits,
Spirit of
on
lived
the south side of Oneida Lake and
tobacco to grow.
and many huge monsters
air,
them was the
of
Storyte//er pottery
figurine
Oneidas. Many of them
After a time, the Celestial
TAie Origin of
From
fall.
Abnakis of present-day Maine describe the mythic origins of com.
the
tried to think of a
fire
for the world.
beside a large stone. Their
decided to
descendants have been called the
whose
visit
way to create
One
he
day,
the Geese,
cry he wished to learn
how
to imitate.
teach him
warm
They promised to
he would
if
with
fly
them. So they contrived [devised]

a
way to
eyes while
my
the Geese arose
them to practice their cry. On

one such adventure, darkness
fireflies.
caused Fox to
opened
forget and he
eyes
his
where
burned
the center.
in
Two
fallen
Fox.
Down
loneliness,
bent the cedar tree for
and on he
tied to his
sticks,"
who
flew far southward, scattering
sparks everywhere. This
came to see
fire first
is
He
...
fireflies
could find a
way over the
From Tff e
Stiânge
Origin of Coirn
wall to
Abnaki
would bend down upon command

and catapult him over the wall
he so desired. ...
fireflies.
long time ago,
were
first
lived alone, far
He
did not
when
know
on roots, bark, and
can dance and
produce the
This
man became very
music."
They
companionship.
all
agreed that would be
fun and helped to gather

build
Fox
up a greater
fire.
wood
to
Secretly,
tied a piece of cedar bark to
Then he made a drum.

probably the first one ever conhis
tail.
structed, and beat
it
Gradually, he
and closer to the
moved
some
make
fireflies
fire-
closer
fire.
Fox pretended to
beating the drum.
tail
will
tired of
the sunshine.
lay
When
ful
want to do
and, at
first,
was very
like
that!"
tell
you
grass will
some-
coming from
leaves.
Soon seeds
be ready for your use."
The man followed the beautiwoman's orders. And when

on the
dreaming
the Indians see
silk
he awoke.
cornstalk, they
know
he saw someone standing near
beautiful
woman
that the
has not for-
gotten them.
frightened.
He
^M
THINKING AND WRITING ABOUT LITERATURE

1.
tire
from
gave
who wanted
it
2.
to help
"It
is
How
does Fox outsmart the
story about the origin of

3.
into the fire, lighting
the bark, and exclaimed,
According to the Iroquois lege nd,
how
did animals and gods
create the earth and people?
to
the music. Fox quickly
thrust his
don't
vigorously
with a stick for the dancing

flies.
in
exclaimed.
between the
digging roots, lost his appetite.
and for several days
the
over the burned ground."
thing like hair
nuts.
lonely for
He grew
"When
by the hair and
spring up, and you will see
and so he
fire,
lived
will
man
again:
drag me, something
from any others.
where we
me
beauti-
to do," said she. "Wherever you
the
made, one man
"Let's have a festival
swiftly as
the ground
"You must do what
Indians
if
me
"Oh,
the
cedar tree, which they explained
and as
flight,
spoke
sets, take
drag
the outside. They led him to a
Fox suggested to the
woman
sun
him where he
tell
fire,
was burned over Then the
spread over the earth, t*
ful
to
she told him, "and rub
an arrow takes
Fox hoped to persuade the
two
would try
where there was some very

"Now get two dry
grass caught
fire
how
that he
them together fast while you hold

them in the grass."
Soon a spark flew out. The
and gave the
brown Crane.
to
very best. So she led him to a
place
tail.
and begged her not to
be with you."
dry grass.
light
sang to her about her
He promised
dropping from the burning bark
with long
will also
finally tired
was
He saw
up.
At last she replied, "If you will

do exactly what tell you to do,
ran, with the fire-
his
it
the
leave him.
it
As Fox ran along, brush and

wood on either side of his path
were ignited from the sparks
carried
a fire constantly
kind fireflies
woman
He
"Bend down to me.
burning bark to Hawk,
within the walled area of the fire-
and he looked
hair! ...
Fox
was uncontrollable. He landed
fly village,
glad,
carried him far over the wall.
wings collapsed! His
instantly his
Fox
flies in pursuit.
the glare from the
In midflight,
flickering fireflies
fall
the
when he heard
stranger's voice, his heart
beautiful
On
descended suddenly as they flew

village of
But
find a
Fox to catch hold, then up
in
Fox also flew along with
over the
must
cedar tree, bend down!"
ran, calling,
his
flying.
Whenever
flight,
Straight to the cedar tree
attach wings to Fox, but
cautioned him never to open
here for me,
cooler place."
fi
reflies in
the Jicarilla-Apache
fire?
How
does the Abnaki legend
corn
silk?
a ccount for the existence of
too
AMERICAN LETTE Rs
::
97
Straitegies for SSuccess

INTERPRETING THE
VISUAL RECORD
Find out
when
shaped the
tudying the visual record of a
period or place can help you

its
history
buildings that
created and what contemporary influences
understand
work was
the
rows of crops suggest how much
work
outlook.
Use the information cau-
4.
tiously.
in
dot the landscape
and the neat roads, fences, and
may have
artist's
has gone into establishing the
colony This peaceful image of an
Compare what you
enterprising
new community was
ways the written word sometimes
know from other sources
perhaps meant to attract additional
cannot. Paintings, photographs,
about the event, people, or
colonists or to inspire others.
and other types of images provide
period being portrayed.
viewer a
feel for
the dress, work,
Applying the Strategy
Study the images on pages 36-37
Study the untitled painting below
and 67 depicting European views
of colonial Baltimore
and values of a people.

Visual artists often use their
imagination and artistic freedom
700s.
which made the

place to settle.
the most
and
may not
be an accurate record of history.

In
depict a time period earlier than

their
own. They depend on oth-
site
The
colonial period. Then,
harbor.
an appealing
rate sheet of paper,
dock
following questions.
loading
painting's
center
show
1.
its
founding.
ture of the painting
How
a sepa-
illustra-
their presenta-
in
Americans?
are they similar?
(b) To what do you attribute
the sharp
the difference and similarities
enough information to portray
tlement and the thick woods
between the
the events accurately. Artists are
beyond the back fence
accounts and may lack reliable
also influenced by their
own
val-
the
envi-
2.
ronment out of which the town
Few people
ues and by social and artistic
was
movements. Consequently, you
noticeably at work, but the
created.
illustrations?
Based on what you have

learned about Native
Amer-
icans, evaluate the historical
are
many
accuracy of each
illustration.
must interpret what you view.

Colonial Baltimore, 1752
How to
Interpret the
W^Sl'^^S^^^.T^:'
^_m |PE^B"^HH^ --
.?r--:
Visual Record
1 .
Determine the work's sub-
^^^
'^^^^^lim
'^^^
ject matter. Note the people
'^^^^KV
portrayed and any objects sur-
rounding them. For clues
about
ine
2.
theme, exam-
a work's
its title,
if it
Examine the
^*^
^^^^^^j^gssaagaMwj
^^^^.,
^^^^Hfe|ft^^^
has one.
details. Study
^^^Hj^^^^^^^^^^^^^^Sj^^^l
^S^^HHIw^
HBB|^^^S|
the details and the background.

3.
Determine the
mation
infor-
gests the artist's purpose.

Is
Ask
the subject depict-
ed favorably or unfavorably?
98
UNIT
^^H^^H^^^^'
the picture that sug-
in
yourself:
^^^^^^^^^^^îj^^^
artist's
point of view. Look for
answer the
do the two
tion of Native
striking feais
How
tions differ
that ship-
was important to Baltimore
from
(a)
on
contrast between the orderly set-
ers'
1
1
of Native Americans during the
the mid-
British trading ship in the
ping
sometimes
addition, artists
in
Note the wide
to add or omit details. Thus even

realistic painting
Practicing the Strategy
clues about an era's architecture
and technology and can give the
^BH^^^^
'
"^
it^^^^^^^Hj^HBH
*^^ - ^^^^^^^^
L
BUILDING YOUR PORTF OLIO
Outlined below are three
plete
upcoming
biographies of Bartolome de Las
Casas, Benjamin Banneker, and
at an
or cooperatively, com-
conference. Your trade proposal
other opponents of either or
should take into account the
both systems.
one and use the products to
demonstrate your mastery of the

concepts involved.
historical
trade agreement to be presented
projects. Independently
international trade
interests of delegates
from each
participating nation.
CULTURAL
EXCHANGES
SLAVERY
TRADE
Trade became truly
worldwide from the
Many
exchanged technology, food,
and the enslavement of
gion, and ideas
Africans raised public debate
in
time of the Crusades through
Europe and the Americas. Using
the mid- 700s, bringing diverse
the portfolio materials you de-
cultures into contact with
one
signed
another. Using the portfolio materials
and
you designed
in
chapters
I,
2,
write a proposal for a
3,
In
create
nature and scope of this debate.

in
your display short
Americas from prehistory through
Choose images
Clendinnen,
Inga. Aztecs.
Cambridge
University Press (1991). Explores

life in
the Aztec capital
in
the
illustrate
the major topics of the
Write
a script to
accom-
pany the images. Assign narrators
arrival of the first Spanish explor-
Hawke, David
F.
Everyday
America. Harper
and present your video collage to
Portrait of
class.
life in
Life in Early
& Row
early
(1988).
New
Bakeless, John. America As Seen by

Explorers:
Molin. The Encyclopedia of Native

Its
The Eyes of
Dover
I,
2,
and
3,
prepare a brochure that explains

the variety of cultural exchanges
explored
it.
in
your museum exhib-
Then present your brochure
Josephy,
Jr.,
class.
Alvin M. America
in
1492:
before the Arrival of Columbus.
Random House
(1991).
Panorama
of North and South American
life
(1989).
Descriptions of North America
from prehistoric times to the

early
5th century.
B. Red,
White, and Black:
The Peoples of Early North America.

Prentice Hall (1992). Account of
between Native
Americans, Africans, and whites
England.
Further Reading
Discovery.
chapters
interaction
Hirschfelder, Arlene, and Paulette
First
in
Nash, Gary
ers and conquistadors.
to different parts of the script,
the
designed
that best
period immediately before the
period.
the Americas.
in
The World of the Indian Peoples
of early explorers.
outline for a video collage of the
reli-
Using the portfolio materials you
and exhibit to the
taken from the firsthand accounts
assigned groups, develop an
1763.
3,
a wall display that illustrates the
Include
Video Review
chapters 2 and
in
different cultures
The encomienda system
American
Religions. Facts
On
File
during colonial times.
Weber, David
in
J.
The Spanish Frontier
North America. Yale University
(1992). Descriptions of Native
Press (1992). Overview of Spanish
American
religious
exploration and colonization
leaders
encyclopedia form.
in
customs and
in
North America.
REVIEW
99
4
^^^^^^^^B
^^^^^^9 ^^K^
V*-.
6>
Chapter ^
INDEPENDENCE!
FROM CONFEDERATION
TO FEDERAL UNION
1776-1789
.;'_
* c
.>f
î.
1763-1783
<
/*'
UNIT
Greating a
Ration
1763-1815
Lensions between Britain and
American colonies exploded
and
war,
and
in
its
North
into revolt
1781 the colonies won
their independence.
Constitution
established a strong central government,
while reserving powers for the states. The
new nation prospered and grew. But

political scene
the
proved turbulent as
political parties disagreed over domestic
and foreign policy. Although the nation

tried to avoid foreign entanglements,
was drawn into war with Britain

.%-'
Chapter 6
A STRONG START FOR

THE NATION 1789-1815
Assembly Room, Independence
Hall
it
in 1812.
Chapter ^
1763-1783
INDEPENDENCE!
UNDERSTANDING
THE MAIN IDEA
Colonial conflicts with the British
eventually erupted into war. But the
American Revolution was more than a
war
for
new
relationship
independence.
It
established a
between government
and the governed and a new

of human
definition
rights.
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT How might the economic
interests of
conflict with
one country
those of another?
DEMOCRATIC VALUES
In
democracy, when are individuals

and groups
justified in protesting
taxes or specific laws?
What
kinds of actions are proper for
people to take?
GLOBAL RELATIONS Do
powerful nations have any obligations
toward less-powerful
nations?
If
so,
what kinds of
obligations?
1763
1765
Pontiac's
Stamp Act
Rebellion
enacted.
crushed.
1770
Boston Massacre
angers colonists.
1775
178!
1776
Revolutionary
Declaration of
British surrender
War begins.
Independence
at
issued.
Yorktown.
1783
Treaty of
Paris signed.
Through their victory
LINK TO THE PAST
in
the French and Indian War, the British
gained control of most of North America east of the Mississippi
They now faced the tasks of governing, protecting, and
River.
fmancing their expanded empire.
w.,
ith the
signing of the Treaty of Paris in 1763. Great
Britain's future looked bright.
where
realized,
lenges.
One
Many
people in Great Britain and else-
however, that the British Empire faced new chal-
of these observers, a French government official
named
Charles Gravier (grawv-yay) Comte de Vergennes (ver-ZHEN),

believed that Great Britain's North American colonies would prove
especially troublesome.
Mindful
that
France had
lost its colonial
claim in North
America, Vergennes predicted a similar fate for Great

Britain.
"The American colonies stand no longer
need of England's protection," he

"England," he continued, "will
them
to help contribute
in
said.
call
on
toward support-
ing the burden they have helped to bring
on
her,
off
all
and they will answer by striking
dependence."
Vergennes's prophecy would prove

accurate. Thirteen years after his prediction, the British colonies
along the Atlantic
seaboard declared independence

fought to win
Battle of Princeton
and
it.
Continental soldier
NDEPENDENCE!
103
THE SEEDS OF UNREST
FOCUS
Why
Crown
did the
issue the Proclamation of
763?
Why did Parliament pass the Sugar Act and the Stamp Act?
Why and how did the colonists protest British taxes?
ictory in the
French and Indian War
with a huge debt
and more
Great Britain
govern and defend.
territory to
British leaders expected the
left
American
colonists to help
pay for
administering this expanded empire. The colonists disagreed.
With the French and Indian
War over,
many
the freedom
colonists
sought to defend was their own. This attitude placed the colonies on
a collision course with their protector
Protests took
supply one hundred
Governing the new
went on
territories
The Treaty of
give up their North American empire. With the

stroke of a pen. the British gained control
of Spanish Florida,
Canada,
and
the
land
between the Appalachian
Mountains
and
set out very early
and marched through a high country,

extremely well timbered, for three hours.
The
remainder of this day
through
fine rich
reeds, which
world.
**
bottoms, overgrown with
make the best pasture
in
the
It
Such glowing reports drew pioneer farmers

to the region. Ignoring Native
American claims
to the land, they
who
traveled
the territory be
opened
demanded
that
for settlement. But British
through the western
officials, fearing conflicts
between pioneers and
noted
Native Americans, opposed
this request.
his diary that a
"good hunter, without
Native American resistance.
much
reason for concern. Following the war. the British
self,
fatigue to him-
could here daily
and traders to the Ohio Valley saw many
colorful
and unusual species of flora, such as this wild honeysuckle

painted by naturalist artist Edwin Whitefield.
There was
had limited the amount of ammunition and rum

able for trade
traveled
and speculators
in
CHAPTER
we
rich land. Indian
territory in 1765,
104
the morning
agent and trader George
Croghan,
Settlers
in
the
Mississippi River.
was
men with meat." Croghan
to describe the variety of the terrain:
We
Paris of 1763 forced the French to
many forms.
avail-
with Native Americans. They had
also
abandoned the French practice of presenting annual

gifts to the Indians.
Native Americans
These changes angered many
who
considered the trade goods
and the presents
fair
payment
for allowing colonists
onto their lands. George Croghan warned that the
who "had
Indians
great expectations of being very
wage
generally supplied by us" might
war.
Native Americans' resentment grew as
poured into the western lands.
tlers
Many
had already had their traditional ways of
tribes
Now
disrupted by European trade.
set-
Indian
life
they were
in
danger of losing their lands as well. Alarmed,
known as the Delaware Prophet, traveled

among western tribes, appealing for a return to
ancient practices. He denounced the use of
Neolin.
European goods and customs, urging

to drive out the settlers.
"They
his audiences
my
are
enemies,"
he said of the British. "They are your brothers'

enemies."
Ottawa
Pontiac, an
He
message.
chief, acted
upon Neolin's
called on the Delawares, Senecas,
Shawnees, Wyandots, Ojibways, and other Indians

to unite
and "exterminate from our lands
which seeks only
war raged
killed
all
to destroy us."
along the
some 2,000
this nation
For most of 1763
frontier. Pontiac's forces
and destroyed many
settlers
600
120
British forts.
Pontiac's Rebellion, however, ended

the Indians
Fort
Pitt.
were unable
For months they had besieged the
With winter approaching and ammunition
men began
supply, Pontiac's
was
possible.
when
to take Fort Detroit
to
and
forts.
in short
no hope of French
aid,
Pontiac called off the siege.
The Proclamation
of 1763.
British authorities that they could not effectively
on the
GROWTH OF
frontier.
BRITISH
NORTH AMERICA
By the terms
As
a result.
Great Britain issued the Proclamation of 1763, bar-
of land in
North America.
LINKING HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY

map
with the
on page 88.
What new
Compare
INANCING THE EMPIRE

The
royal proclamation
was not
the only British
policy the colonists resented. They were also

angered by Parliament's efforts to make them pay
part of the costs of "protecting
also required every fur trader to obtain
royal permission before entering the territory.
hoped
that separating settlers
frontier.
and
Native Americans would end fighting on the frontier.
But the proclamation was
map
between 1754 and 1763?
The law
British
this
lands did Great Britain acquire
ring settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains.
The
of
the Treaty of Paris, Great Britain took control of millions of square miles
Pontiac's
Rebellion and other Indian uprisings convinced
protect British settlers
110=W
^Jorth America in 1763
doubt that victory
Faced with disheartened warriors and
1,200 Kilometers
Azimuthdl Equal-Area Projection
difficult to enforce.
Land-hungry colonists resented the measure, and
and securing" the
Despite colonial protests, the government
believed
its
Thomas
position was justified.
Whately stated the Crown's position

phlet Considerations on This Trade
in his
pam-
and Finances
of the Kingdom:
colonial governors, often land speculators themselves, did
ued
little
to enforce
it.
Thus
settlers contin-
w 4 We
to stream into the territory.
...
In the wake of Pontiac's

Rebellion, the
Crown
Proclamation of 763
bringing peace to the
1
in
hopes of
frontier.
and
no Time was ever so seasonable [appro-
priate] for claiming their Assistance.
issued the
War
are not yet recovered from a
undertaken ... for their Protection
Distribution
is
The
too unequal, of Benefits only
to the colonies, and of
all
the Burthens
[burdens] upon the Mother Country.
99
INDEPENDENCE!
105
The
British government passed

the Sugar Act and the Stamp Act
in an effort to raise revenue in
the colonies.
PROTECTING THE COLONIES, 1750-1770
Tax Revenues
^Military Expenses
I5H
Colonial protests
had expected the colonists
British officials
Stamp Act. but they were
to the
to object
not prepared for
the level of outcry. In the past the colonists
had
accepted taxes levied by the colonial assemblies. In
was
the colonists" eyes, however, this tax

ent
1760
1770
it
had been passed by Parliament, where the
colonists
Year
had no
direct representation.
May
Colonial assemblies met in protest. In
Source: Abstraa of British Historical
1765 the Virginia House of Burgesses passed a
Statistics
series of resolutions
COSTS OF DEFENSE
differ-
condemning
the act.
The
reso-
During most of the French and
lutions declared that
Indian War, Great Britain did not bring in enough tax
revenues to cover military expenses. As a result Britain was

left
with a huge war debt.
1760
In
sent them,
approximately how big was the gap between Great Britain's
and the amount of money the government
military expenses
the taxation of the people by themselves,
or by persons chosen by themselves to repre.^.
burdensome
is
the only security against a
taxation, and the distinguishing
collected in taxes?
characteristick of British freedom.
The question of how

enue always came back
Thus
to raise this
to
needed rev-
one solution
taxes.
as a first step to increase revenue. Parliament
passed the Sugar Act of 1764. which

import
set a
duty, or
on foreign sugar, molasses, and several
tax,
British officials countered
the colonists
99
by claiming
had "virtual representation." since
Parliament represented
all
British subjects.
colonists rejected this argument and decided
time to
that
Many
it
was
act.
other items entering Britain's American colonies.
This was not the
first
time the British had
imposed a duty on foreign molasses and

fact, the
new law
duty on molasses.
sugar. In
vî^^^^
actually lowered the existing

It
was. however, the
first
time
officials seriously enforced such a law.
Royal
inspectors searched ships, warehouses, and
homes
for
X\\^^^^
smuggled goods. The Crown's judges presided
over courts without juries to hear smuggling cases.
For colonial merchants, shipowners, and rum

distillers
who
profited from foreign trade and
smuggling, the Sugar Act meant decreased business.
They
Amid
more sweeping than
Stamp Act
of 1765. Far
the Sugar Act. the
levied a tax on printed matter of
all
pers, advertisements, playing cards,
Stamp Act
kinds:
and
legal doc-
stamped paper or have special stamps affixed

the tax had been paid.
CHAPTER
*ce^^
newspa-
uments. These materials had to be printed on
106
;voo.
;Arntrv>\'v;=
these protests. Parliament passed
another revenue law. the
show
Lft*"'
angrily protested the law.
to
The Stamp Act
t)
required colonists to
display tax
stamps on
printed documents.
all
4,vV
if;.j
call
to action.
nonimportation agreements, promising not

buy or import
British goods.
Workers and
who opposed the Stamp Act took

demonstrations.
1765.
in
A mob
beheaded an effigy
Within two weeks the
One of
Boston on
in
a crude likeness
of
then
Oliver.
struck again, destroying
court records and wrecking the house of the chief
customs
officer.
the elegant
They then turned
Thomas Hutchinson
the colony.
anger on
the lieutenant governor of
Throughout the colonies
agents resigned their posts
Act almost impossible
leader.
terrified
rendering
the
He
family brewing business.
House of Representatives
career of politics.
key
into a
The Stamp Act
drinks
"eats
little,
sleeps
little,
and
most decisive and
is
thinks
little,
much,
indefatigable [tireless]
the pursuit of his
in
objects."
master of
Adams
propaganda,
Stamp
worked behind
often
the scenes,
staging demonstrations and

as the
working
mem-
lic's
to control the
pub-
perception of events.
He
local politics
committees made
politicians, lawyers, merchants,
and
artisans,
Stamp Act. The Sons of
Liberty generally relied on petitions, public meet-
and pamphlets
turned him
man who
started a club to influence
ings,
crisis
A contemporary of Adams
described him as a
Macintosh
to protest the
Adams made
political activist.
The Sons of Liberty were

up of
in the
fared better at poli-
1765,
in
bers of the Boston Sons of Liberty were involved.
formed
Adams
1722,
After being elected to the Massachusetts
tics.
But they also suspected that
secret
in
graduated from Harvard College but failed
stamp
to enforce.
British officials singled out
mob's
their
mansion of Oliver's brother-in-law
the leaders of the
Boston Sons of Liberty. Born
a building
Andrew Oliver and
mob
the
led by shoe-
maker Ebenezer Macintosh wrecked

belonging to stamp agent
artisans
these protests
violent.
most violent demonstrations occurred
August night
to
to the streets in
Though most of
were peaceful, some did turn
a hot
Samuel Adams was one of
Colonial merchants signed
to rally support, but they
were not above employing violence.
Gazette.
and wrote often for the Boston
Adams was
particularly popular
among
Boston's less-prosperous artisans and shopkeepers.
They responded
that the British
enthusiastically to his charges
were stealing money from the
colonists' pockets:
%% We are told to be quiet when we

that very
money which
made use
lawless force
is
see
torn from us by
of
still
further to
us, to feed and pamper a set of infamous wretches [British officials and soldiers]
who swarm like the locusts of Egypt.**
oppose
nEPEAL OF THE STAMP ACT

Led by Samuel Adams and
made themselves heard
in
others, the colonists
England. In October
1765, delegates from nine colonies gathered in
New
York City
for the
Stamp Act Congress. The
delegates expressed the "warmest sentiments of
Before the Stamp Act went into
effect,
the
Pennsylvania Journal and Weekly Advertiser printed
a skull and crossbones on
its
masthead
in
protest
of the measure.
INDEPENDENCE!
107
-Tll JiXd>ilAI>
This
766 British cartoon
celebrates the repeal of the

Stamp Act. As members of
the British government carry

the dead act in a coffin, background ships show that trade
with America is already
beginning.
affection and duty to His Majesty's Person and
Government" and pledged
''all
Colonists protested "taxation
due subordination"
without representation" through

petitions, nonimportation agreements, and demonstrations.
to Parliament. Yet they also sought repeal of the
Stamp Act and denied Parliament's

colonies.
right to tax the
The congress marked an important
step
toward more unified resistance.
who
British merchants
the
Stamp Act's demise,
joined in the protest. The nonimporta-
most colonists ignored the passage of the
agreements had hurt their businesses. Fearing
Declaratory Act of 1766. This bold declaration
nial trade
tion
Busy celebrating
profited from colo-
financial ruin, and wanting to
keep the colonies
asserted the "full power and authority" of
make laws
"firmly attached to their mother country." they
Parliament "to
pressured Parliament to repeal the Stamp Act.
and people of America." The issue of whether
Thus people on both
Parliament had the right to tax the colonists
when Parliament
sides of the Atlantic rejoiced
repealed the act in
March
remained unresolved.
1766.
SECTION
IDENTIFY and
... to bind the colonies
REVIEW
explain the significance of the following: Pontiac's Rebellion, Proclamation of 1763.
Sugar Act, duty, Stamp Act, nonimportation agreements, Sons of Liberty, Samuel Adams, Stamp Act
Congress, Declaratory Act.

I.
MAIN IDEA How
did the
Crown attempt
to bring peace to the frontier following Pontiac's
Rebellion?
2.
MAIN IDEA What was
the purpose of the Sugar Act and the Stamp Act?
How did
the colonists
react to these measures?

3.
USING HISTORICAL IMAGINATION

of the Appalachian Mountains
in
Imagine that you are a Native American
the 1760s. Explain
why you
favor or
oppose
living
west
Neolin's
message.
4.
WRITING TO EXPRESS A VIEWPOINT

Write
5.
a letter to your colonial
ANALYZING Why
You have
just
returned from the Stamp Act Congress.
governor outlining the views of the congress's delegates.
did Parliament repeal the
Stamp Act?
Why did
the repeal not solve the issue
of taxation without representation?
108
CHAPTER
Section 2
MOUNTING TENSIONS
FOCUS
What
events led to the Boston Massacre?
Why did
Why did
the colonists stage the Boston Tea Party?

the British pass the Intolerable Acts?
A,.Ithough colonial protests helped repeal the Stamp Act, they did
not end Parliament's ejforts to raise revenue in the colonies.
When Parliament
taxes, the
that did not involve direct
arguments used against the Stamp Act were also
new measures. These protests were
applied to these
setting in
new approach
tried a
motion events that pushed the colonies
unsuccessful,
to the brink
of war
British
troops occupy
Boston
in
768.
places to be searched, writs of assistance were gen-
The townshend acts
eral warrants.
Armed
with a writ, a customs officer
could search any vessel, warehouse, or
The colonists had objected
to the
because Parliament had imposed

argued, just one
meddling
point.
Stamp Act
It
mere suspicion
The
was, they
more example of Great
Britain's
that
it
the
contained smuggled goods.
writs of assistance aroused powerful
opposition, and
many
colonial courts refused to
But Charles
issue them. Although the colonists accepted Great
Britain's finance minister, like
Britain's right to regulate colonial trade, they
other government officials, never grasped this
strongly objected to duties intended strictly to raise
in
colonial
Townshend, Great
many
it.
home on
affairs.
Townshend believed
that the colonists
opposed the stamp tax because

within the colonies.
it
had
was collected
They would, he reasoned, be
money. The Crown, troubled by renewed
protests,
stationed additional soldiers in the colonies.
New
York assembly responded by refusing
The
to vote
at
money
to quarter, or
colonial ports. Parliament agreed, passing the
as the
Quartering Act of 1765 required. The
willing to accept a tax that
Townshend Acts
in 1767.
would be collected
The Townshend
Acts placed import duties on such
mon
items as
tea, lead, glass,
for paint. British
customs
Brifish
com
house and supply, these troops
government promptly suspended the
assembly.
But the real center of protest

was Boston. In February 1768 the
and dyes
officials
Massachusetts legislature drafted a
revived the use of special search warrants called writs of assistance to
letter attacking taxation
without rep-
enforce the law. Unlike today's
resentation and. sent
to the other
search warrants, which must state the
colonial assemblies for endorsement.
The
exact articles sought and the specific
British
it
government responded by
dissolving the Massachusetts assembly.
Charles Townshend was responsible for

passage of the Townshend Acts
in
and
767.
The Granger
Collection.
New
York
This only served to fuel protests
new round
of nonimportation
INDEPENDENCE!
109
agreements.
woman
Massachusetts
would not touch "a Drop of Tea." Other
women,
rather than
parties to
make
buy
British cloth, held spinning
own. Angry demonstrators
their
boarded and smashed British ships, attacked cus-
toms
officials,
News
wrote that her
friends
and tarred and feathered anyone who
informed on smugglers.
of the clash stunned the colonists.
Lieutenant Governor
Thomas Hutchinson claimed
that "the people of
Boston are run mad."
Adams and
Sam
the
Sons of Liberty promptly dubbed
the incident the
Boston Massacre and denounced
British aggression.
The victims received
elaborate
poems and songs of
funerals and inspired
patriotic
resistance.
Months
The boston massacre

In 1768 General
Thomas Gage dispatched
British
agreed
defend them. Neither
to
man sympathized with
the British, but both
troops to Boston to quiet the protests and enforce
insisted on the soldiers' right to a fair
the writs of assistance. But tensions exploded into
John
one violent confrontation

evening of March
5,
after another.
On
Some 50
or 60
%%
Counsel ought to be the very
that an accused person should
colonists faced a small group of British soldiers.
in
The crowd yelled
whose
insults
and began throwing
snowballs, rocks, oyster shells, and pieces of coal

at the soldiers.
"the motley
toes,
Then, according
mob
to
[sailors]" pressed
room
move. One soldier either slipped or was
so hard against the soldiers that there was no

to
knocked down. His gun discharged, and

opened
fire
on the crowd. Three
ing Crispus Attucks
a sailor
the others
colonists, includ-
and an escaped slave
of African and Native American ancestry

dead.
Two
others died
later.
As
a free country;
lives
were
and
at stake
counsel they prefer.
last
want
thing
[lack]
persons
ought to have the
99
John Adams,
of saucy boys, negroes, mulat-
and outlandish jacktars
trial.
later wrote:
the
1770, an angry crowd gath-
ered outside a customs house.
Adams
tried
Quincy and John Adams
for murder. Josiah
Sam's cousin
were
later the British soldiers
lay
In the end,
lesser charge.
two
soldiers
were convicted of a
They were branded on
their
thumbs
and released.
Mounting tensions between the

colonists and the British soldiers
stationed in Boston to enforce
the Townshend Acts sparked the
Boston Massacre.
4 Boston silversmith Paul Revere

engraved and printed The Boston
Massacre, which depicts the British
as the aggressors.
10
CHAPTER
-ONTINUING UNREST
When
became Great
Frederick, Lord North
prime minister
lious colonies
in 1770,
by a
Britain's
he hoped to pacify the rebelof the Townshend
partial repeal
dumped 90,000 pounds of
tea into the water.
one of the participants
remembered:
about three hours from the time
In
We were
Quartering Act to expire. But the British retained a
armed
ships, but
As
the king explained, there must
would pay
that
it
not
the colonial legislature
and judges. The Crown reasoned that
they might
depend on the
more
if
Sam Adams,
of the colony
and "the World"
helped shape colonial opinion.
selling tea
provoked a
the business of
By 1773
crisis.
abroad.
Many
were
rights.
Bostonians staged the Boston Tea

Party to protest the Tea Act.
The
cials
Intolerable Acts of
were
furious. Parliament
774.
British offi-
responded by passing
Boston and the
rest of
Massachusetts and
strengthen British control over
all
to
of the colonies.
colonists called the laws the Intolerable Acts.
THE POWER OF THE PURSE, 1763-1776
the powerful
British East India
Company was
To save
company, Parliament passed the
the aihng
home and
shocked by such disregard for property
The
773. Even
at
the Coercive Acts, four laws designed to punish
Massachusetts and other colonies
The Tea Act of
of the Boston Tea Party drew wide-
challenged
informed about events. From 1772 to 1776, similar

in
British
these offi-
They created a 21-member

Committee of Correspondence charged with
committees
News
legislature for their pay,
this latest threat.
rest
surrounded by
no attempt was made to
**
spread attention
readily ignore colonial demands.
Bostonians. led by
keeping the
resist us.
colonists cheered the tea's destruction; others
the salaries of Massachusetts' governor
cials did not
right."
The repeal quieted the general unrest, but the

calm was short-lived. In 1772 the Crown
announced
we
thrown overboard every tea chest to be
Acts. Parliament consented and also allowed the
small duty on tea.
As
went on board, we had thus broken and

found.
"always be one tax to keep up the
later
almost bankrupt.
Tea Act of 1773. The law excused the company
from paying certain duties and permitted

bypass the wholesalers and
American
colonies
agents.
As a
many of them was

trade
salers
by
to
buy
the tea.
the possible
the East India
of tea in the
before.
the colonists, however,
Tea Act and refused
to
sell tea directly to
result the price
was lower than ever
Most of
it
opposed the
What concerned
monopoly of the
tea
Company. American whole-
and merchants feared
that other British
com-
panies would secure similar privileges from

Parliament and force them out of business.
The Sons of Liberty
New
in
Philadelphia and
York threatened anyone who imported
1764
On December
1773, after the governor refused
demands
at
Boston's Old South
Church. Later that night, a well-organized group

of colonists "dressed in an Indian manner" boarded
the tea ships anchored in Boston
1774
1776
Statistics
16,
to send
back to England, colonists
held a mass meeting
1772
Year
Source: Historical
EFFECT OF PROTESTS
the Sugar and
three shiploads of tea
1770
1768
tea.
But the most famous protest against the Tea Act

occurred in Massachusetts.
1766
repeal of the
Stamp
acts
Townshend
Colonists reacted to British policies such as
by refusing to import
British goods.
Parliament's
Acts resulted in a brief upsurge in imports. But
soon British actions sparked new protests.

British imports experience the greatest
Between which two years did
drop?
Harbor and
INDEPENDENCE!
Ill
meetings. The third act allowed royal officials
charged with crimes related

tried in
CANADA
England.
diers
would be
ment
entirely.
Many
lightly
The
to their duties to
assumed
colonists
be
the sol-
punished or escape punish-
fourth law. a
new Quartering
Act. ordered local officials to provide food and
homes
housing, in private
if
necessary, for British
soldiers stationed in the colonies.
The British passed the Intolerable

Acts to punish Massachusetts
for the Boston Tea Party and to
regain control over the colonies.
250
500 Kilometers
The
Quebec boundary,
1763
Quebec boundary,
tility
Intolerable Acts
deepened colonial hos-
toward the Crown. Colonists everywhere
responded with sympathy toward Massachusetts,
1774
Western claims
while denouncing George
III.
the Parliament, and
the threats to colonial liberty.

.BRITISH EAST
The 13 Colonies
AND
WEST FLORIDA
Colonial boundaries
including western
claims
Oulf of Mexico
sow
further inflamed colonial resentment.
Connecticut, and Virginia to the western lands.
Which
Catholics, upsetting
colonies
ened
after
no longer
closed the port of Boston until
the colonists paid for the destroyed tea.
The
sec-
revoked the Massachusetts charter of 1691
and forbade Massachusetts colonists
to hold
town
Protestant colonists.
The
colonial unity quick-
colonists directed their anger
at specific British policies
but at what
Among
those
who
questioned loyalt> to the
Crown
not yet
was emerging.
and Parliament, a new identity

American, but no longer British
fully
REVIEW
Townshend Acts, writs of assistance, QuarterCommittee of Correspondence, Tea Act, Intolerable Acts, Quebec Act.
ing Act, Crispus Attucks,

1.
774.
MAIN IDEA Why were
British
troops stationed
in
Boston?
How did
their presence
provoke the
Boston Massacre?
2.
3.
MAIN IDEA How did the colonists react to the Tea Act of 773?
IDENTIFYING CAUSE AND EFFECT Create a time line showing the
1
events leading up to the
passage of the Intolerable Acts.

4.
WRITING TO DESCRIBE
Imagine that you are a
member
of the Sons of Liberty.
In a letter
to
the colonists outside Massachusetts, write an account of the Boston Massacre or the Boston Tea
Party that
5.
will rally
Britain.
ASSESSING CONSEQUENCES How

the colonies?
112
them to oppose
CHAPTER
It
Roman
they saw as a growing pattern of oppression.
SECTION
IDENTIFY and
many
The mo\ ement toward
were most directly affected by Quebec's boundary change? Why?
act
The law
also granted full religious rights to French
ond
it
River, thus overriding the claims of Massachusetts.
The Quebec Act extended Quebec's
first act
was
extended Quebec's boundaries south to the Ohio
boundaries south to the Ohio River.
The
also passed in 1774,
S\
Quebec Act of 197^

COLONIAL LAND CLAIMS
The Quebec Act.
not technically one of the Intolerable Acts, but
did the Intolerable Acts and the
Quebec Act
help unify
^
Section 3
THE SHOT HEARD ROUND THE WORLD
FOCUS
How
did the First Continental Congress respond to British actions?
What
actions did the Second Continental Congress take?
9,'n 1774, delegates from 12 colonies met in
Philadelphia at the First Continental Congress

to voice their opposition to British actions.
demanded
rights.
that the British
The delegates
government restore colonial
But Great Britain ignored the demands. Delegates
called the Second Continental Congress in 1775 to plan

Struggle at
move. As the
their next
crisis
deepened, war seemed inevitable.
Concord Bridge
Delegates to the First Contin-
The first continental
ental Congress
congress
the
Between September
and called on the colonists not to

buy British goods.
resentatives
and October 26, 1774, rep-
Crown
demanded
that
restore colonial rights
from every colony except Georgia
attended the First Continental Congress

Philadelphia to discuss their grievances.
egates to the Congress
Some
in
del-
which was convention,

wanted the colonies
a
not a lawmaking body
III the Continental Congress was

November 1774 he wrote to Lord
North: "The New England Governments are in a
For George
the last straw. In
to
remain part of the British Empire; others favored
The Mansel! Collection
independence.
The delegates'
efforts to
compromise
between these two positions were reflected
in the
Congress's final resolution, the Declaration of

Resolves. While expressing loyalty to the British
Crown, the declaration outlined the colonists'

rights as British subjects
right to the "free
and asserted the peoples'
and exclusive power of
legisla-
tion in their several provincial legislatures."
teeth in their
a ban of
pledged
all
trade with Great Britain.
to
To put
demands, the colonists also called for
meet again
demands were not met.
in
May
The delegates
1775
if
their
A George
III,
shown here
at age 33, reigned as king
of England for 60 years.
INDEPENDENCE!
13
State of Rebellion,
blows must decide whether they
are to be subject to this
Country or independent."
Acting on the king's wishes, Parliament ordered

General Thomas Gage to put
down
the rebellion.
jLexington and concord
Massachusetts.
On
The
marched on
the
smoke
wounded.
Concord and
destroyed the Patriot supplies. Then the British
started back toward Boston. From behind stone
walls minutemen fired steadily at the retreating
British, whose traditional marching formations
made them easy targets. The Patriots made an
British
to
impressive showing, suffering fewer than 100
Concord,
casualties in the day's fighting. British casualties
April 18, 1775, under cover of
were 273. A humbled British officer wrote:

"Whoever looks upon them [the Patriots] as an
supplies stored
seize rebel
cleared. 8 colonists lay dead, 10 others
Gage decided
In an effort to reassert royal authority,
to
When
of British gunfire followed.
darkness, British troops
at
Boston and rowed
left
across the Charles River. But they were expected.
irregular
mob
much
will find himself
mistaken."
Colonists waited on the far shore, watching for
approaching troops. At
Prescott
later
galloped off shouting
British are
coming!"
tryside hurriedly
to
19.
be ready
at a
British.
who
the militia
minute's notice
commander
its
"The
Captain John Parker
members of
waited
When
the British
shouted,
"Lay down
on the Lexington village green.

patrol arrived,
the alarm:
Patriots throughout the coun-
At dawn on April
promised
joined by Samuel
headed off to confront the
and 70 minutemen
Paul
first sight. Patriots
Revere and William Dawes
The second continental

congress
With the news of Lexington and Concord on
everyone's lips, the Second Continental Congress
opened
in
Philadelphia on
cals such as
Samuel Adams pushed
colonists began departing,
establish the Continental
fired "the shot heard
holding their guns.
still
side accused the other
round the world."
barrage
Revere's route
Dawes's route
>
^-!^
restraint.
Army.
The delegates unanimously chose George

Washington of Virginia to command the
Continental Army. Though not a fiery orator or a
political thinker.
Washington inspired
imposing stature enhanced
his reputation. After
meeting him Abigail
Adams
wrote to her husband:
"The gentleman and
soldier look
agreeably blended
in
Battle
5 Miles
immedi-
confidence. His careful judgment, dignity, and
Prescott's route
<t-/
for an
radi-
June, however, the delegates had agreed to
profound
Although
by John Dickinson of Pennsylvania urged
By
each
10.
ate declaration of independence, conservatives led
your arms, you damned rebels, and disperse!" The
Suddenly someone
May
North Bridge
Transverse Mercator Projection
[V
Concord
Modesty marks every
him.
line
and feature of his face."

Slopped by the
only Prescott
Born
British,
Feb-
manages
ruary 22, 1732,

to
reach Concord.
George Washington
first
worked
as a
surveyor, later assuming
control of the family's
Lexington and Concord

FIRST BATTLES OF
THE REVOLUTION
large Virginia plantation.
Mount Vernon. WashIn
April
1775, on their way to seize rebel arms and ammunition at
ington acquired mili-
Concord, British forces clashed with colonial minutemen at
tary experience
Lexington. The American Revolution had begun.
MOVEMENT
As British troops began their march,
Paul Revere and William Dawes rode off to alert the

Patriots.
Why
They were
later joined
by Dr. Samuel Prescott.
reputation for bravery
while fighting for the

British in the French
and Indian War. He also served
twice as a Virginia delegate to the Continental Con-
might Revere and Dawes have taken different routes?
gress.
114
and a
CHAPTER
With
his country
now
at
war. Washington
Changing
religion
Wags
Many
leaders of the
and the revolution
American
Revolution found their inspiration
in
the Enlightenment, which
stressed goodness and reason
over
But for many
faith.
colonists, the Protestant reli-
gious traditions of the Great
not Enlightenment
shaped
views of
Awakening
ideals
their
the struggle for independence.

Evangelicalism, with
on
faith
and
its
emphasis
individuality
absolute authority,
over
seemed to
The fiery style of the Great Awakening ministers and their

message that good could triumph over evil hit a responsive chord
In Revolutionary America.
echo the promise of the

Revolution.
In
were
well
aware of the power
ion. Patrick
who
those
rein-
forced the Revolution's
of religion to sway public opin-
God
their sermons, pro-
independence ministers
Revolutionary leaders
Henry was among
between good and
used the evangelical
style in their political speeches.
Craddock,
warned
Thomas
evil.
Maryland Anglican,
4 The
between good and
cere Christian
is
against a great
number
selves
evil.
colonial min-
to distance them-
from the
Enemies,
political
upheavals of the era,
some pro-
life
of every
some
of
the church's existence
very
America. Many
politick.
Virtue
is
rich
sage from their pulpits. Scores
chase of Labor and sweat
England, Presbyterian min-
isters in
in
Virginia
Prey rescued narrowly
the pur-
Fire,
of Care and Vigilance.

are too
liable
own
by our
the middle colonies,
and Baptist ministers
Revolution might threaten
very potent, and others
out of the
in
Treachery.
to loose
Irish
We
And
in
New
England and the middle colonies
remained
loyal to
in
minis-
Pennsylvania and Scots-
Presbyterian ministers on
the frontier also feared the con-
sequences of the Revolution. As
it
Sloth and
early as
99
775,
German
Reformed ministers warned

their congregations that they
although most
Anglican ministers
in
German
Reformed and Lutheran

ters
openly supported the

Revolution.
of the Crown's tyranny, thus the

clergy feared that the
of
them
independence ministers
New
not share the southern clergy's

zeal for the Revolution.
Anglican church as an example
sin-
a warfare
preached the Revolution's mes-
of Congregationalist ministers
vast majority of
Anglican ministers, however, did
used the tax-sponsored
the war as a moral struggle
While most
of the Just
Revolutionary leaders often
his flock;
These leaders often spoke of
isters tried
all
and Liberties of America."
The
political
message of the moral struggle
Preserve
rights
the British,
about a third of the Anglican

Maryland and Virginia
clergy
in
threw
their support behind the
struggle for independence.
Some
ministers
pointed
in
were even more
supporting the
Revolution.
Thomas
like
Jefferson
noted that one Anglican minister
in
Virginia urged his congre-
gation "to support their

Liberties
God
and
in
room
lived in
of
save the king he cried out
dangerous times, "the
of which, so far as
has never been seen
we know,
in
America." Others agreed.
No
matter what the outcome, war
was sure to
divide
and test the
limits of religious
communities
authority.
INDEPENDENCE!
115
M Martha
Dandridge Custis, one of

women in America,
The
the richest
married George Washington
British took both hills but suffered 1,054
Fewer than 450 Americans were
killed
Even
after the battle, conservatives
worked
to avoid a
permanent break with Great
Britain.
casualties.
1759.
in
or injured.
devoted himself and his fortune

the "glorious cause" of
to
American
independence.
Washmgton/Custjs/Lee Collection.
Wishington & Lee Umvertity
They persuaded
the Continental Congress to send
George
a final plea to
III.
This plea
professed
Branch
Petition
and Concord, the Second Continental
ty to the
king and asked for his help
Congress moved beyond peaceful solutions and
conflict.
After the fighting at Lexington
the Olive
the colonists' loyalin
ending the
began active preparations for war.
The Second Continental Congress established the Continental

Army in June 775. But the delegates held out the hope of peace
The battle of boston

On
June
1775, the Patriot forces were again put
17,
with the Olive Branch Petition.
Atop two hills overlooking Boston

Bunker Hill and Breed's Hill New
to the test.
Harbor
England militiamen dug
in,
American commander ordered

of you
fire until
his
men: "Don't one
you see the whites of their eyes."
British troops
commanded by General
Howe advanced in three

Corporal Amos Famsworth of the
William
militia later recalled the Battle of
We
Sir
Massachusetts
Bunker
Hill:
having fired away
all
their
obliged to leave.
**
state
ammunition
Hesse
I.
2.
Americans.
to help defeat the
own. In
riots
could
a surprise
on British forces
fire
in the city.
:!
to flee.
On March
26, 1776, the British, joined
REVIEW
Battle of
Bunker
Hill,
Olive Branch Petition.
it
both prepared for
for peace?
GEOGRAPHY: LOCATION How

Hill
did the Patriots attempt to use geography to their
and at Dorchester Heights?
WRITING TO INFORM
Imagine that you are a reporter for the Boston Gazette. Write a short
HYPOTHESIZING What
Hill
for
by
Nova Scotia leaving, said Washington,

confusion as ever troops did."
much
sailed for
MAIN IDEA What actions did the First Continental Congress take?
MAIN IDEA Why can be said that the Second Continental Congress
CHAPTER
Wash-
Howe and his men

General Howe chose
your newspaper.
arguments might the conservatives at the Second Continental Congress
have used to convince the other delegates to send the Olive Branch Petition to George
116
German
move on March 4, 1776, he

positioned troops and cannon on Dorchester
Heights overlooking Boston. From there, the Pathis
"in so
account of the Battle of Bunker

5.
also sent Hessian (HESH-uhn) mer-
hired soldiers primarily from the
and
shipping to
and explain the importance of the following: Lexington, Concord.
advantage at Bunker
4.
all
explain the significance of the following: First Continental Congress, minutemen,
war and hoped

3.
blockade
about one thousand colonists loyal to the Crown,
by numbers and
Second Continental Congress, George Washington,
LOCATE
to
Meanwhile, George Washington had plans of
SECTION
IDENTIFY and
to accept the petition
to take the hill or flee Boston.
perhaps ever was known, and many
we were overpowered
He
the colonies.
cenaries
Navy
ington hoped to force General
and after bearing,
for about 2 hours, as severe and heavy a

fire as
ordered the Royal
bold assaults.
sustained the enemy's attacks
with great bravery.
The king refused
awaiting an onslaught
of British troops. To save ammunition, an
III?
II
Section ^
INDEPENDENCE DECLARED
t.
How
s
did the Declaration of Independence
justify Annerica's
break with
Great Britain?
What roles did Loyalists, African Americans, Native Americans, and

women play in the Revolutionary War?
What problems did the colonial military have to overcome?
ighting
had begun.
Yet
most colonists insisted they were
merely resisting unjust acts of Parliament, not waging war
Many hesitated to make

all,
the British
a final break with Great Britain. After
government maintained
stability in the colonies
and provided protection from France and

the time
was
Spain. But to others,

Carpenter's Hall
ripe for independence.
Patrick
REASONS FOR INDEPENDENCE

colonists supported independence for
Philadelphia, site
the
Henry and Thomas Paine were among
most eloquent supporters of independence.
Henry's "Give
Many
in
of Second Continental Congress
two
me
Liberty or Give
me Death"
Common
speech in 1775 in Virginia and Paine's
won
reasons. First, they believed that the British gov-
Sense, published in January 1776,
ernment had violated
the revolution. In his pamphlet Paine wrote:
jects.
their rights as English sub-
support for
Second, colonists had already died defending
44
these rights.
The period of debate
as the last resource,

test.
is
closed.
Arms,
must decide the con-
Every thing that
right
is
able pleads for separation.
or reason-
The blood
of the
slain,
the weeping voice of nature cries, 'TIS
TIME
TO PART 99
Common
Sense sold some
120,000 copies in three months.
Paine helped transform a haphazard colonial rebellion into a

focused crusade for independence.
4 Thomas
Thomas
America
Paine
in
Paine
1
774.
came to
He settled
in
Philadelphia and wrote for

Pennsylvania Magazine.
INDEPENDENCE!
'^"--**'--
i^
117
endowed by
The declaration of
Life, Liberty,
June
7,
in the
Second Continental
Congress declaring "that these United Colonies

and of
are,
States
them and
right
and
ought to be. free and independent
that all political
connection between
the State of Great Britain
dissolved."
The
is
totally
resolution also called for planning
among
these are
and the pursuit of Happiness.
The document
1776. Richard Henry Lee of Virginia
introduced a resolution
Creator with certain
unalienable Rights, that
independence
On
their
99
also proclaimed the right of
people "to alter or abolish" a government that

deprived them of
life, liberty,
or happiness.
The
men who signed the Declaration of Independence

knew they were now traitors in the eyes of the
Crown. The price
for failing to
win independence
might well be imprisonment or even death.
a confederation, or loose pact, of the states and for
The Declaration
of independence
asserted the right of people to
securing foreign alliances.
Before voting on Lee's proposal, the

Congress appointed a five-man committee
a formal Declaration of Independence.
Jefferson, a Virginia lawyer and planter
one of the youngest delegates

actual writing.
On
Thomas
and
33
at
did most of
the
independence for
Before turning their attention

Declaration, the Congress debated
the
to
and quickly
Lee's
resolution for independence, offi-
cially declaring
on July 2 the new United States of
America
days
to
later,
Two
be independent of Great Britain.
on July
4. the
Congress formally
Declaration's immediate purpose
win public support for independence, both

and abroad. To undermine loyalty
to
was
at
to
home
King George
the Declaration detailed his misdeeds.
III.
Thomas
It
nomic
full
are created
mean?
exactly did he
America,
of social, political, and eco-
inequalities.
would not have viewed

today. Besides, they
The delegates
to
the
are created equal, that they are
were seeking
we do
to justify a polit-
Nevertheless, the Declaration and the revolu-
also
it
pated
hold these truths to be self-evident,
issues of justice as
not a social, revolution.
ical,
symbolized had social consequences.
women
men
men
that 18th-century colonial
Europe, was
like
tion
listing these "self-evident" truths:
all
What
source of controversy.
Remember
ment,
that
Jefferson's words "all
equal" have, almost from the beginning, been a
outlined basic principles of representative govern-
We
Whom?
Continental Congress, as citizens of their time,
adopted the Declaration of Independence.
The
Commentary
June 28 the committee presented
the Declaration to the Congress.
adopted
overthrow an unjust government.
to draft
organized
in street
women
boycotts
and
Many
partici-
demonstrations. During the war
took over the work of their absent hus-
bands, fathers, and brothers, or cared for troops.

a result,
some women argued
As
for a greater voice in
politics.
"I desire
Abigail
Adams
you would remember
the ladies."
appealed to her husband. John, a
delegate to the Continental Congress. "Be more
generous and favorable to them than your ancestors."
John Adams did not agree. Like most men of
women's power came

over the men in their lives.
his day, he believed that
Mum
Bett, a
from
Massachusetts slave,
believed that the words
"all men are created
equal" should apply to her.
In 1781 she successfully
sued for her freedom. Her
lawyer's daughter, Susan
Sedgwick, painted this
CHAPTER
Whether
the delegates intended the
men and mankind

It is
more
to include
women
is
words
debatable.
certain that they did not intend the
words
to apply to slaves. This statement does not mean,
however, that
all
of the delegates supported
slavery. In Jefferson's original draft, he accused

the king of violating the "sacred rights of life and
portrait of her.
118
their influence

"who never offended him,
liberty" of blacks
vating and carrying
them
capti-
into slavery in another
hemisphere." But some of the southern delegates
was
objected, and the passage
first
stricken from the
document. Thus America's leaders for the
final
Many wealthy and
influential Loyalists
escaped to Canada, the British West Indies, or
who remained
England. Loyalists
either tried to
stay out of the conllict or openly aided the British

forces.
but not the last time sidestepped the explosive
During the war, Loyalists either

left the colonies, hid out until the
fighting ended, or supported the
issue of slavery.
REACTIONS TO INDEPENDENCE
News
British.
of independence inspired mixed reactions
throughout the colonies. Patriots rejoiced wildly

ringing "liberty bells." singing and dancing around
bonfires, celebrating at banquets. In one city.

Patriots tore
George
a huge statue of Britain's King
According
III.
newspaper
down
to an
independence-loving
reporter, this small act of rebellion
"the just desert of an ungrateful tyrant!"
On
was
July
13 Ezra Stiles noted in his diary that "the
CONGRESS have
tied a
knot, which the
THE
DECLARATION OF
INDEPENDENCE
Thomas Paine's
pamphlet Comnnon
Parliament will find they can neither cut nor untie.
The
Thirteen united Colonies
now
an
rise into
Independent Republic among the kingdoms,
states
its call
shocking reading
and empires on earth."
Some Americans opposed

the developments.
Sense, with
Among
or simply ignored
those
who
refused to
for
American independence, made for

in
Great
Britain.
The reaction
to the Declaration of Independence in 1776 was
even stronger, for
this
was not just a
call for inde-
celebrate were the Loyalists, also known as Tories.
pendence but a statement of it signed by promi-
Some
nent Americans. Both Parliament and the king
Tories based their loyalty to Great Britain on
the long-held belief that to resist the king

rebel against
God.
"It is
was
our duty not to disturb and
community by becoming
destroy the peace of the
to
knew that it seriously challenged British rule.

An outraged British press was first to
respond. In a reply to the "disunited states
in
rebellious subjects and resisting the ordinances of
God," explained one Anglican minister. Other

Loyalists, such as merchants
and
officials,
stood to
Morning Post accused Americans
AMERICA," the
of scorning "the duty and allegiance which
owe"
power and wealth if royal authority were

undermined. "Upon this event [the Declaration of
honour and
Independence] the law, the courts, and justice
80-page pamphlet. The Rights of Great
lose
was anarchy,
itself
was confusion," a
"A usurped [unlawfulgained] kind of government took place, a
ceased;
all
all
Loyalist judge complained.

ly
medley of military law, convention ordinances.

Congress recommendations and committee resolutions."
saw
Many more saw
support for the king as they
independence mounted.
To many a Patriot,
thing whose head is in England,
for
Loyalists feared for their safety.

a Loyalist
and
its
was "a
body
in
is
America, and
stretched [hanged]."
taunts
were the
their families,
The
necessity they
British
to Great
government's response
Britain Against the Claims of
America
an
soon
followed, attacking the Declaration paragraph
by paragraph. The British did not see an
American people struggling for independence;

instead, they
saw ungrateful fellow
subjects
betraying their mother country, which had
loyalty to family.
As support
Britain.
in
in
More
its
neck ought
to
be
protected them. The British government found

the Americans' "pretended arguments justifying
rebellion" so defiant that
it
saw no
alternative
but to crush the rebellion.
disquieting than the
threats of violence to the Loyalists.
and
their property.
INDEPENDENCE
119
V )l.m II' 1 n
HISTORICAL
Document
1
Tft Declaration of
9ndependence
Thomas
wrote the
Jefferson
of the Declaration
in
little
first
draft
In Congress, July 4, 1776 The unanimous

Declaration of the thirteen united States of
more than
two weeks.
America,
In
the
first
justifying
Great
paragraph, the signers are
why
they are separating from
When
one
Course of human events,
in the
becomes necessary
it
for
people to dissolve the political bands which have connect-
Britain.
ed them with another, and to assume among the fX)wers of the
and equal
earth, the separate
of Nature's
mankind
impel: force
them
hold these truths to be self-evident, that
Rights, that
"Laws of Nature" and "Nature's God"
Newton's
belief that cer-
tain patterns are
constant and pre-
dictable. Natural
or "unalienable" rights
(the rights to
life,
suit of happiness)
The
liberty,
signers supported John Locke's
to protect their natural rights.
powers,
as the duty of the
If
it is
are created
their Creator with certain unalienable
these are Life. Liberty, and the pursuit of
That to secure these
Men, deriving
their just
Governments
rights.
among
are instituted
powers from the consent of the governed.
That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of

these ends,
it is
the Right of the People to alter or to abolish
new Government, laying
institute
its
it.
and
to
foundation on such principles
A gov-
ernment, therefore, must have the con-
its
men
and the pur-
view that people created governments
abuses
endowed by
among
all
Happiness.
cannot be taken away.
sent of the governed.
them, a decent respect to the opinions of
requires that they should declare the causes which impel
equal, that they are
provided
refer to Isaac
entitle
which the Laws of Nature and
to the separation.
We
endowed:
God
station to
government
the right as well
and organizing
its
powers
likely to effect their Safety

tate that
in
such form, as to them shall seem most
and Happiness. Prudence, indeed,
will dic-
Governments long established should not be changed
for
people to do away
light
with that government.
that
and transient causes; and accordingly
mankind
are
more disposed
all
experience hath shown,
to suffer, while evils are sufferable.
than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are

usurpations: wrongful seizures of
power
accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the
despotism: unlimited power
same Object evinces a design
absolute Despotism,
Government, and
now
is their right, it is their
to provide
Such has been

is
it
new Guards
the necessity
tyranny: oppressive power exerted by

a government
candid:
is
for their future securit\.
which constrains them

historv'
to alter their
this, let
former
of the present King of Great
a history of repeated injuries and usurpations,
To prove
and such
all
having
in
Tyranny over these
Facts be submitted to a candid world.
fair
He
has refused his Assent to
necessary for the public good.
20
duty, to throw off such
direct object the establishment of an absolute

States.
them under
the patient sufferance of these Colonies:
Systems of Government. The

Britain
to reduce
CHAPTER
Laws, the most wholesome and
^Y
ktktl^4>
X)Ullil^ or "-JUliJLt itCl.

THE DECLARATION OF INDE
He
has forbidden his Governors to pass
Laws of immediate and
pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation
till
his
Here the Declaration
George
Assent should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly
lists
the charges
that the colonists had against King
the
list
III.
How
does the language of
appeal to people's emotions?
neglected to attend to them.
He
has refused to pass other
Laws
for the
large districts of people, unless those people
accommodation of
would relinquish
right of Representation in the Legislature, a right inestimable to
the
them
and formidable to tyrants only.
He
relinquish: release, yield
inestimable: priceless
formidable: causing dread
has called together legislative bodies
at
places unusual,
Why do you
think the king had his legis-
uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their public
latures in the colonies
Records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with
that
meet
were hard to reach?
in
places
his measures.
He
ing with
He
has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for oppos-
manly firmness
his invasions
on the
rights of the people.
has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause
others to be elected;
whereby the Legislative powers, incapable of
Annihilation, have returned to the People at large for their exercise;

the State remaining in the
meantime exposed
to all the dangers of
invasion from without, and convulsions within.
He has endeavored
that
annihilation: destruction
convulsions: violent disturbances
to prevent the population of these States; for
purpose obstructing the Laws for Naturalization of Foreigners;
naturalization of foreigners: the

process by which foreign-born persons
become
citizens
refusing to pass others to encourage their migrations hither, and raising the conditions of
He
new
appropriations of land:
Appropriations of Lands.
has obstructed the Administration of Justice, by refusing his
setting aside
land for settlement
Assent to Laws for establishing Judiciary powers.
He
has
made Judges dependent on
his Will alone, for the tenure
tenure: term
of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries.
He
has erected a multitude of
swarms of Officers
New
to harass our people,
Offices, and sent hither
and eat out
a multitude
of:
many
their substance.
^ The Continental
Congress is shown voting

independence in this painting by
Robert Pine and Edward Savage.
for
INDEPENDENCE!
121
liniimvu^
HISTORICAL
Document
He
has kept
among
times of peace. Standing Armies with-
us, in
out the Consent of our legislatures.
He
has affected to render the Military independent of and supe-
rior to the Civil
He
What
wrongful acts does the
has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction for-
eign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his
Declaration state have been committed
by the king and the
power.
Assent
to their
Acts of pretended Legislation:
British Parliament?
For quartering large bodies of armed troops among
For protecting them, by a mock
from punishment for any
Trial,
Murders which they should commit on
us:
the Inhabitants of these
States:
For cutting off our Trade with
all
parts of the world:
For imposing Taxes on us without our Consent:

For depriving us
many
in
cases, of the benefits of Trial
For transporting us beyond Seas
to
by Jury:
be tried for pretended
offences:
The "neighboring Province"

referred to here
is
that
arbitrary: not based on
For abolishing the
is
Quebec.
free
System of English Laws
neighboring
in a
Province, establishing therein an Arbitrary government, and enlarging
lav/
its
render: make
Boundaries so as to render
for introducing the
invested with
He
power
fit
instrument
rule into these Colonies:
Charters, abolishing our most valuable
own
Forms of our Governments:
Legislatures, and declaring themselves
to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever.
has abdicated Government here, by declaring us out of his
War
Protection and waging
He
once an example and
altering fundamentally the
For suspending our
abdicated: given up
at
same absolute
For taking away our
Laws, and
it
against us.
has plundered our seas, ravaged our Coasts, burnt our towns,
and destroyed the Lives of our people.

foreign mercenaries: soldiers hired
to fight for a country not their
own
perfidy: violation of trust
He
time transporting large Armies of foreign
is at this
Mercenaries to complete the works of death, desolation and tyranny,

ah-eady begun with circumstances of Cruelty
leled in the
most barbarous ages, and
totally
& perfidy
scarcely paral-
unworthy the Head of a
civilized nation.
He
has constrained our fellow Citizens taken Captive on the
high Seas to bear
Arms
tioners of their friends
against their Country, to
and Brethren, or
to fall
become
the execu-
themselves by their
Hands.
insurrections: rebellions
He
has excited domestic insurrections
endeavored
to bring
on the inhabitants of our
Indian Savages, whose

destruction of
petitioned for redress: asked formally
for a correction of
wrongs
all
known
among
us.
and has
frontiers, the merciless
rule of warfare,
is
an undistinguished
ages, sexes and conditions.
In every stage of these Oppressions
We
have Petitioned for
Redress in the most humble terms: Our repeated Petitions have been
answered only by repeated
marked by every
act
injury.
Prince,
whose character
which may define a Tyrant,
is
is
thus
unfit to be the
ruler of a free people.
122
CHAPTER
e?
JlUUTUd
YSi
We
Nor have
We
been wanting
have warned them from time
in attentions to
to
over
We
us.
have reminded
We
and magnanimity, and we have
to their native justice
usurpations, which
ties
of our
'
9'-
our British brethren.
them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here.
conjured them by the
"'f-
time of attempts by their legisla-
ture to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction
have appealed
'^'
common
would inevitably
kindred to disavow these
interrupt our connections
unwarrantable jurisdiction:
unjusti-
fied authority
magnanimity: generous
conjured:
called
spirit
upon
and
correspondence. They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and
of consanguinity.
We
must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity,
which denounces our Separation, and hold them,
as
we
hold the rest
consanguinity: comnnon ancestry

acquiesce: consent to
of mankind. Enemies in War, in Peace Friends.
We, therefore, the Representatives of
the united States of
America, in General Congress, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme
Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do.
in the
Name,
rectitude: Tightness
and by Authority of the good People of these Colonies, solemnly publish
and declare. That these United Colonies
to be Free
and Independent
are,
and of Right ought
States; that they are
Allegiance to the British Crown, and that
Absolved from
all political
all
connection
In this
paragraph, the signers state their
actual declaration of independence.
What
rights
States of
between them and the State of Great
Britain, is
and ought
to
be totally
would the new United
America now have
as an inde-
pendent nation?
dissolved; and that as Free and Independent States, they have full
Power
to levy
War, conclude Peace, contract Alliances, establish
Commerce, and
States
may
And
to
do
all
other Acts and Things which Independent

Congress adopted the
of right do.
for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance
on
the protection of divine Providence,
we mutually pledge
to
our Lives, our Fortunes and our sacred Honor.
each other
776.
ment
A formal
paper,
was signed on August
Benjamin Harrison
Lewis Morris
Thomas Nelson,
Richard Stockton
Lyman
Francis Lightfoot Lee
John Witherspoon
George Walton
Carter Braxton
Francis Hopkinson
William Hooper
Robert Morris
John Hart
Joseph Hewes
Benjamin Rush
Abraham Clark
John Penn
Benjamin Franklin
Josiah Bartlett
Edward Rutledge
John Morton
William Whipple
Jr.
George Clymer
Samuel Adams
James Smith
John Adams
Arthur Middleton
George Taylor
Robert Treat Paine
Thomas Lynch,
Jr.
Jr.
Samuel Chase
James Wilson
Elbridge Gerry
William Paca
George Ross
Stephen Hopkins
Thomas Stone
Caesar Rodney
William Ellery
Charles Carroll
George Read
Roger Sherman
Thomas McKean
Samuel Huntington
George Wythe
William Floyd
William Williams
Richard Henry Lee
Philip Livingston
Oliver Wolcott
Thomas
Francis Lewis
Matthew Thornton
of Carrollton
Jefferson
4,
2,
1776.
Button Gwinnett
Thomas Heyward,
draft of the
copy, written on parch-
John Hancock
Hall
final
Declaration of Independence on July
INDEPENDENCE!
i:
123
supply. Dysenterv' caused by these unsanitary con-
IGHTINGTHEWAR
To
declare independence
ditions killed thousands.
was one
Building an army. Washington
thing; to fight
also faced
for it was another. The lack of a central government hindered the American war effort. The
Continentals available nationwide
Second Continental Congress had no
although about 231,000 men served
It
real authority.
could ask the states for supplies, troops, and
funds, but
it
could not force the states to comply.
troop shortages.
Continental
strong government behind
it,
Without a
Army
the Continental
Some
constantly faced supply shortages.
Army
colonial
than 16,000
any one time,
at
in the
over the course of the war. But
was
quality, not quantity,

plaint.
Supply shortages and disease.
He seldom had more
"What we need
is
the general's
a
main com-
good army, not a
large
one," he once remarked. In his view the lack of

quality
stemmed from Congress's
insistence on
short-term enlistments:
merchants charged high prices for shoddy goods.
Farmers sold
their
produce
whether American or
to the highest bidder,
Good
ruined
Because of these problems, Washington's

troops suffered, enduring bitter winters
New
Morristown,
God, gentlemen! Our cause
is
British.
if
you engage men only for
You must not think of

at
for success, v/e
Jersey, in 1777
and
at
it.
If
we
ever hope
must have men
Valley
the whole term of the
a year.
enlisted for
war.**
Forge. Pennsylvania, in 1777-78. British soldiers
meanwhile wintered
in
comfort
in
nearby
Another problem the Continental
was
disease.
cities.
Army
faced
Even though General Washington
Most men signed on for one year, some for

just three months, so training of troops was
By
issued orders about cleanliness and hygiene, illness
especially difficult.
plagued the camps. Poorly prepared food spread
the experience to be
germs, and
camp
toilets
contaminated the water
ment was
the time recruits gained
good
soldiers, their enlist-
up. Despite his appeals.
Washington
fought the war with poorly trained, short-term

troops.
There were other problems. Recruiting went
By the end of 775, some

I
27,
recruiting posters such as this
500
men were
one to
inspired by
enlist in the struggle for
well only after victories, and the soldier-farmers in

the ranks often deserted at planting or har\esting
independence.
TO ALL
IN
time. Although state militias also
BRAVE, HEALTHY, ABLE BODIED,

DISPOSED YOUNG MES,
AND WELL
THE NEIGHBOUBHOOD, WHO HAV^ ANY DfCLIKATION TO JOIN THE TROOPS.
NOW RAISING UNDER
WASHINGTON.
GENERAL
ro THE oErErici or the
LIBERTIES AND INDEPENT>ENCE

OF THE UNlTlD STATES.
TAKE
NOTICE,
fought, they. too. were poorly

trained. But Patriot forces
two key advantages over
enjoyed
the British:
they often fought on familiar ground,
and they were inspired by a revolutionary cause.
With no central
government to enforce
cooperation, the military faced supply and
troop shortages; it also
suffered
from disease.
African Americans
war.
Washington
initially
black soldiers
ODD
124
CHAPTER
tm imjamD statb.
could
in
the
Despite the shortage of troops.
ordered that no
enslaved or
ser\e in the
free
Continental Army.
^ Peter Salem was one of many African

Americans who fought for the Patriots during
the American Revolution.
received British assurances of Iroquois land rights.
He was, therefore, staunchly pro-British. The

Mohawks. Onondagas. Cayugas. and Senecas
agreed to fight with the British under Brant; the
Oneidas and Tuscaroras sided with the
Patriots.
African Americans and Native

Americans fought on both sides
in
the war.
Women
in
the war. A few
Patriot
women
fought in the war, while others undertook danger-
ous missions as spies or messengers. Although

legends about
Some
colonial leaders feared that slaves
revolt
if
would
given weapons; others believed that
blacks would not
make good
soldiers. In late 1775,
women
in the
war abound,
certain that Margaret Corbin and
it
seems
Molly Pitcher
took their wounded husbands' places. Young
Deborah Sampson Gannett disguised herself
as a
however, the British threatened to recruit African
man and became
Americans, whether free or enslaved.
Robert Shurtleff She was said to be as "fleet as a
To counter
this strategy,
Army
Washington ordered
gazelle,
the "faithful and gallant soldier"
bounding through swamps
ahead of
Many
her companions." After she died in 1827, her hus-
served in fighting units alongside whites, but sep-
band was awarded a pension as the "widow" of a
American companies were also

formed. Commanders of these all-black compa-
Revolutionary
the Continental
to enlist free blacks.
arate African
nies
were usually white. At
cers
were reluctant
to lead all-black groups.
the bravery of African
so celebrated that
most white
first,
American
many white
soldiers
officers
War
veteran.
offi-
But
became
changed
their minds.
About 5,000 African American Patriots

fought in the war. One Hessian noted that "no regiment
in
is to
be seen
in
which there
are not
Negroes
abundance." Numerous black soldiers, such as
Salem Poor and Peter Salem, two of many African
Americans who fought
at
Bunker
Hill,
official recognition for their courage.
received
Hundreds
more served bravely but anonymously.
Native Americans
in
the war.
Initially,
both the British and the Patriots tried to keep

Native Americans out of the war. Soon, however,
the need for skilled fighters led each side to change
its
stand.
Both sides recruited members of the Iroquois

League. In July 1777 the League held a council to
discuss the war.
The League
split.
Thayendanegea
(thah-yuhn-dah-ne-GAY-uh). an important
chief
known
to
Mohawk
whites as Joseph Brant, had
Thayendanegea was given a
captain's
British during the Revolutionary
American forces during the
commission by the
War. He commanded Native
fateful
Saratoga campaign.
INDEPENDENCE!
125
4 Women participated in
the Annerican Revolution
in many ways. Nancy Hart
is
shown here defending

home from attack.
her
Many
and worked
other
women accompanied
as laundresses, nurses,
one bloody South Carolina
American
injured
come
women
effort
soldiers even as
women
"men dared
Many
war.
nursed
They
manufacture of
or were exiled. Others
or hid British soldiers in their homes.
not
Patriot and Loyalist
bullets.
And
with the
economy
IDENTIFY and
going.
REVIEW
Thayendanegea, Margaret Corbin, Molly
MAIN IDEA What
women
assisted the war effort by aiding

the troops, spying on the enemy,
and even fighting in battles.
men
some women managed businesses and
Jefferson. Declaration of Independence, Abigail
Adams,
Pitcher,
Thomas
Loyalists,
Paine, Richard
Henry
Lee,
Thomas
Salem Poor, Peter Salem,
Deborah Sampson Gannett.
arguments did the Declaration of Independence offer
in
support of revolution?
MAIN IDEA What were the main problems that the Continental Army faced?
MAIN IDEA How did African Americans, Native Americans, and Patriot and Loyalist women
contribute to either the American or the British
4.
in the
But most Patriot
SECTION
3.
homes
up
spied for the British army, aided British prisoners,
also collected lead and helped
farms, helping to keep the colonial
2.
fled their
also caught
stayed behind. They supported the war
off to war.
1.
women were
by distributing medical supplies and by mak-
ing uniforms.
in the
and cooks. After
battle,
to minister to their wants."
Loyalist
the troops
WRITING TO EXPLAIN
Write
a letter
war
effort?
Imagine you are a Loyalist at the outbreak of the American Revolution.
to your local newspaper editor, explaining
why you support
the king rather than the
colonial fight for independence.

5.
ANALYZING
Historians have pointed out that the Declaration of Independence
part, to convince the colonists to
support the
from the Declaration that support
126
CHAPTER
this view.
fight for
was intended,
independence. Provide several examples
in
Section 5
AN AMERICAN VICTORY
c u s
Why was the victory at Saratoga so important?
How did the Americans defeat the British in the
South?
What were the main terms of the treaty that ended the war?
What were some of the social and political effects of the
American Revolution?
lounting on support from the colonists loyal to the
Crown, confident British generals planned a quick end

to the war.
But British plans that looked good on paper
failed on the battlefield.
Key Patriot
and Saratoga fueled
momentum of the
attracting powerful
the
the
European
American cause. When
allies,
the
victories at Trenton
Revolution,
such as France,
war shifted to
the South,
combined American and French forces defeated
A favorable peace
treaty
capped
to
the British
Raising the
American
the military victory.
new
flag,
783
service of their country; but he that stands
Xhe war heats up
it
With General William Howe's evacuation of

Boston in March 1776, Washington knew the
British would soon strike elsewhere. New York
City, a Loyalist stronghold,
seemed
most
likely
Howe would
the
now
deserves the love and thanks of
and woman. Tyranny,

conquered.
**
As winter
like hell,
try to
patriot" departed the ranks.
To make matters worse,
brought his forces from Boston to guard
most regular-army
On
July 2
Howe
sailed into
it.
New York
Harbor, landing his troops on Staten Island. The

British
late
As
won an
easy victory
August and continued
at
the city fell to the British,
regroup.
Brooklyn Heights
Washington
Thomas Paine expressed
mood in his pamphlet The American
the
tried to
somber
The summer
patriot will,
soldier and the sunshine
in this crisis,
ments were due
enlist-
to expire.
Washington admitted
a
letter
to
that without
"the
game
man
easily
in
his
brother
new
recruits
will be pretty
near up."
Crisis:
These are the times that try men's
souls.
in
to hit the Patriots hard.
not
neared, almost every "sunshine
use the city as a base of operation, Washington
possibility. Anticipating that
is
shrink from the
General William
was commander
In
Howe
chief of
the British forces from

to 1778.
775
INDEPENDENCE!
127
Although Washington's troops had.
^HE BATTLE OF TRENTON
Rodney's words, "then been on duty four nights

and days
Thinking the war was almost won. General

prepared to celebrate Christmas
precaution he stationed about
ton,
New
Jersey, to
in
,4(X)
in
New
Howe
York.
Hessians
keep a close eye on the
at
As
Tren-
Patriots
nearby. But rather than build fortifications against a
without six hours sleep
time," they surprised the Hessian

break.
in the
camp
Henry Knox, one of Washington's
wrote his wife that
in the
which
day-
at
officers,
Battle of Trenton, the
"hurry, fright and confusion of the

[not] unlike that
whole
will
enemy was
be when the
last
trump
possible Patriot attack, the Hessian
commander
[trumpet] shall sound."
The Hessians surrendered
Colonel Rail boasted, "Let them come.
We
as the "poor fellows
saw themselves completely
trenches.
want no
We will go at them with the bayonet."
And come
the
customary winter
Americans
Of
Washington and
killed or
his troops boldly ferried across the ice-choked
Delaware River on Christmas
night.
surrounded."
did. Ignoring the
halt in fighting,
the 1,400 Hessian soldiers, 106
wounded, and 918 were taken
The Americans
As Thomas
were
prisoner.
suffered no casualties in the battle.
General Charles Cornwallis, the British
Rodney, one of Washington's soldiers, vividly
field
recalled:
the
commander, prepared
to counterattack.
American troops slipped away by
But
night, leav-
ing their campfires burning to fool the British.
It was
saw,
Washington then struck inland, boldly ambushing
and after two battalions were landed, the
British regiments at Princeton. British plans to
as severe a night as ever
storm Increased so much, and the

so
full
of ice, that
the artillery over.
it
river
was
was impossible to get
99
end the war quickly were, as one London
Trenton."
A surprise
Patriot attack the day after Christmas led to a complete defeat of the Hessian
garrison at Trenton. It was only one of a few American victories during 776-1 777.
1
128
CHAPTER
official
wrote, "blasted by the unhappy affair
at
^he Jightfor independence, 19761781

THE CHALLENGES OF TERRAIN
The Revolutionary
landscape. Both sides faced the challenges of moving
men and
War was
fought over a vast and varied
supplies across rivers
and mountains and
through dense forests and swamps.
MOVEMENT
frontier by
way
George Rogers Clark moved
of the Ohio
overland route from Fort
River.
Pitt
to
Why
his
men and
do you think he chose
Kaskaskia, about
how
far
supplies from Fort Pitt to the western
this
route?
If
would he have had
he had taken a direct

to
travel?
INDEPENDENCE'
129
Bernardo de Galvez
Kazimierz Pulaski
SARATOGA
RITISH DISASTER AT
The setbacks
at
later
Trenton and Princeton roused the
British to greater effort. In control of
north and
Spain joined the war as an ally of France,
Canada
to the
England from the other rebel
the Mississippi River.
What
and
the British did not realize
forests
Almost from
Two
never
Canada
in
Gulf coast and
or
Patriots.
The Americans'
victory at
Saratoga convinced France and

other European powers to
support the colonists.
the beginning Burgoyne"s strat-
of the British forces

St.
those under
Leger and General
arrived. General
Burgoyne's troops
June and began moving southward.
His long caravan of supplies and

a crawl,
of attack crossed lakes,
teeming with
Lieutenant Colonel Barry
Howe
York. The plan seemed
that their lines
hills,
failed.
New
Albany.
was
swamps,
needed supplies and defeated the
"Gentleman Johnn\" Burgoyne
devised the plan: three separate British forces would
ignored
Patriots with
New
simple enough.
hampered by blocked
artillerv'
trails
moved
at
and bridges
destroyed by American militiamen. In September
men
New
volunteers from Europe brought useful
Even before
military skills.
the treaty, an impres-
sive group of Europeans had aided the Patriots.
From Minorca,
off the coast of Spain,
George Farragut. who fought

the navy.
who
From
Prussia
in
came Baron \on Steuben,
took charge of organizing and drilling the
River,
Continental .A.rmy.
where they clashed with the Americans
in the
Pulaski (kah-ZEEM-yesh puh-LAS-kee).
his
crossed the
came
both the arm\ and
Hudson
Burgoyne and
From Poland came Kazimierz

who trained
Battle of Saratoga. Outfoxed and outmanned.
the cavalry, and Tadeusz Kosciuszko (tah-DE-oosh
Burgoyne formally surrendered
kahs-ee-UHS-koh). an army engineer
October
his troops
on
17. 1777.
Patriot fortifications.
German-bom
oftlcer
who planned
From France came the
Baron Johann de Kalb and
19-year-old Marquis de Lafayette (lahf-ee-ET).
became a valued member of Washington's staff.

For the Americans the alliance with France
Saratoga was a turning point for Americans.
came
Encouraged by the
:;
who
tUROPEAN POWERS PROVIDE AID

victory, the
been secretly aiding the Patriots
30
fol-
Galvez. Spain's governor of Louisiana, aided the
British in several battles along the
at
year
1780 by the Netherlands. Bernardo de
City to the south, the British set
colonies. General
converge
in
New York
out to cut off
left
France also declared war on Great Britain.
lowed
egy
Marquis de Lafayette
French who had

signed a formal
just in lime.
During the severe winter of
1777-78. Washington's army was reduced to a sick
and hungn. handful of
soldiers,
The glad news
alliance in February 1778. French aid provided
shoes.
Americans with gold, supplies, a
joined them gave the Patriots
CHAPTER
fleet,
and troops.
that
some even
powerful
new
hope.
lacking
allies
had
Patriots retaliated in kind. Patriot hostility
Righting IN THE WEST

AND SOUTH
the Loyalists
toward
was never more apparent than
at
Kings Mountain, South Carolina, in October 1780.

In that battle the victorious Patriots savagely killed
Things were going better for the Patriots
in the
the
wounded who were
West. Lieutenant Colonel George Rogers Clark of

Virginia, with a small
group of frontier fighters and
Native Americans, overran British posts
at
It
lose
it
again to Clark in the Battle of Vincennes in
February 1779. Clark's army went on to take control
Late in 1778 the British focused their attacks
who
Greene was a master of the
wearing
stopped the
tac-
down
the
hit-and-run skirmishes while avoiding
in
direct battles.
Even
fight, get beat, rise,
in
"We
defeat Greene bragged,
and
fight again."
Using forest
cover and the element of surprise, the Patriots
made
of the western lands.
commander, Nathanael
however,
of guerrilla warfare
enemy
to
Patriot
British advances.
kee-uh). and Vincennes (vin-SENS) in 1778.
The
new
Island,
tics
Vincennes by year's end, only
Greene of Rhode
Kaskaskia (ka-SKAS-kee-uh), Cahokia (kuh-HOH-
British recaptured
was
trying to surrender.
the
most of
trated British
their limited
hopes of winning
numbers and
in the
frus-
South.
on the southern colonies, where they anticipated

strong Tory support.
Backed by
their navy, the
British occupied the seaport towns: Savannah,
Georgia,
December 1778: Charleston, South

May 1780. From Charleston, General
fell in
Carolina, in
Americans used
guerrilla warfare
to defeat the British
army and
its
Loyalist supporters in the South.
Cornwallis attacked inland. After crushing the
Americans
in the
Battle of
Camden
(South
ViICTORYATYORKTOWN
Carolina) in 1780, British forces marched toward
North Carolina.
Cornwallis did not find the support he
During the summer of 1781, Cornwallis moved
army
into
his
Yorktown, Virginia, located on the
expected. Although companies of Loyalist militia
peninsula between the York and James rivers.
terrorized the Carolina countryside, bands of
There he had access
to the British fleet
and
779 Jones's ship, the Bonhomme

engaged the British ship
Serapis in battle. With his own warship
about to sink, Jones lashed the two
ships together and in desperate fighting won the victory.
In
Richard,
T John
In
Paul Jones was a commander

the Continental navy.
INDEPENDENCE!
131
John Trumbull painted a series

from the Revolutionary
War. Shown here is the surrender of Lord Cornwallis at
4
of scenes
Yorktown
in
October
1781.
Yale Univer^tty Art Gallery, Trumbull Collection
supplies.
Lafayette,
von Steuben, and "Mad Anthony" Wayne
small Patriot army led by generals
kept close watch on the British but did not attack.
On August
Washington's
14 a dispatch reached General
New
York headquarters: Admiral
Francois de Grasse. the French naval

in the
West
Indies,
was moving
commander
his fleet north to
block Chesapeake Bay. Meanwhile. Washington's

army, along with a French force under Comte de
Rochambeau (raw-shahn-boh). rushed south to

Yorktown. completing the trap. Boxed in by the
French
fleet, the British
bers of
American and French
faced vastly greater
num-
failed to break the blockade, Cornwallis admitted
On
October
19, 1781. as their
the old English folk tune
band played
"The World Turned
Upside Down." the British surrendered their

weapons. Cornwallis wrote
granted the United States (1) independence, (2) the
land from the Atlantic coast westward to the

Mississippi River and from the Great Lakes south
to Florida,
to
(3) fishing rights in the
Gulf of Saint
seized from Loyalists be returned. (The states chose

to ignore this request.)
The Treaty of Paris recognized

American independence and
greatly expanded the nation's
boundaries.
General Clinton to
of Yorktown: "I have the mortification [shame] to
and
Law rence and off the coast of Newfoundland.

The treaty declared that Americans should
pay debts owed to the British. The American negotiators also pledged that the Congress would
"earnestly recommend" to the states that all property
inform him of the disastrous outcome of the Battle
inform your Excellency that
1783.
3.
troops.
After numerous attempts on land and sea
defeat.
Treaty of Paris, signed on September
surrender the troops under
new
Fortunately for the
nation, the
American
delegates negotiated with only Great Britain. If they
have been forced to
had been forced
my command."
gates from Spain and France as well, the Americans
would have won
to
sit at
their
a peace table with dele-
independence, but
little else.
Spain wanted to confine the United States of
HThE treaty of
PARIS
OF
Although some fighting continued
on the
frontier,
end of the war.
America
1783
in the
South and
Comwallis's surrender marked the

In the
peace talks that followed.
American negotiators Benjamin Franklin. John

Adams, and John Jay won generous terms. The
32
CHAPTER
to the land east of the Appalachians.
Having regained Florida

the war, Spain
Ohio
Valley.
hoped
to
in the negotiations
ending
expand northward
to the
However, George Rogers Clark's cam-
paign in the West had established the
new
nation's
presence within the region. His victories

important in shaping postwar America.
were
unfulfilled
many
a result of the war,
Many were
were destroyed.
was independence from Great
fact
Britain.
Inexperienced Patriot forces (aided by foreign
The American Revolution had important social

and economic effects, both immediate and long-
As
at
war dwelt on the Revolution's

promise. To them, the overwhelming
the end of the
Consequences of the
American Revolution
term.
Few Americans
Political implications.
Commentary
had defeated the world's greatest military
allies)
An American
power.
great fortunes
joy
built, as well. In the
in
when he
simple terms
surrender
at
doctor stated the collective

learned of the British
Yorktown. "This
he wrote, "a
is,"
early years of the Revolution, political writer
most glorious day." The Americans had won the
Thomas Paine commented, "the necessities of

an army create a new trade." Americans made
money and contributed to the nation's economic
development as they rushed to supply this
fight for representative
Revolution created
al unity.
Equally important, the Revolution began to
growing demand.
fled the colonies
to rule.
by war's end; few of these people ever returned.
government provided lands
British
in
bom
Canada
many Tories, especially the

wealthy, chose to start new lives in Great Britain.
Social implications. As you have read, the
for independence
was not
to
be excluded from political
rule.
the right
that only the well
This belief would eventually lead
expansion of democratic rights to include
Americans, whatever
all
economic
their sex, race, or
condition. This historic change in attitude
the
is
Revolution's greatest legacy. Harrison Gray Otis, a
a fight for indepen-
dence for everyone. American
They no longer believed
should
to the
as compensation, but
war
who had
change Americans' ideas about
Almost 100,000 Loyalists
The
government. Their
and strengthened a new nation-
Massachusetts politician, later wrote to a friend:
women continued
life. Many slaves
"You and
Britain
was
did not imagine,
when
over, that revolution
the
war with
was just begun."
fought for and gained their freedom, but slavery

did not end.
Native Americans also failed to benefit.
Many
lost their lands
and homes. The war
destroyed the Iroquois League; the
caused
member groups
each other as
well as against whites. Sadly, few Native Americans
were recognized by either side for
its
goal
self-
independence and
government. But women, African

Americans, and Native Americans did not share equally in the
hard-won freedoms.
1777
split in
to fight against
The Revolution achieved
their assistance.
SECTION
IDENTIFY and
REVIEW
explain the significance of the folJov^îng: William
Howe,
Battle of Trenton,
"Gentleman
Johnny" Burgoyne, Bernardo de Galvez, Battle of Vincennes, Battle of Camden, guerrilla warfare, Battle
of Yorktown.
LOCATE and explain the importance of the following: Kings Mountain, South Carolina.
MAIN IDEA How did the American victory at Saratoga affect the course of the war?
2.
MAIN IDEA What tactics did the Americans use to defeat the British in the South?
3.
MAIN IDEA What were the terms of the Treaty of Paris? Why might the terms have
1 .
favorable to the United States

4.
WRITING TO EVALUATE
if
France and Spain had been included
Write an essay explaining the
social
in.
and
been
less
the treaty negotiations?
political significance
of the
American Revolution.
5.
ASSESSING CONSEQUENCES
procedures and
tactics.
How
British soldiers
might
this
were
well trained
have been a disadvantage
in
in
traditional military
the Revolutionary
War?
INDEPENDENCE!
133
Stamp Act enacted.

Stamp Act Congress
Pontiac's Rebellion
Boston Massacre
angers colonists.
Townshend Acts
meets.
crushed. Proclamation
CHAPTER
repealed.
Townshend Acts
of 1763 issued.
enacted.
evtew
1763
WRITING A SUMMARY
1765
2.
values play

write a
summary
3.
of the chapter
Democratic Values What
Number your
paper
to
5.
Study the time
and place the following events

ond next to
2,
in
line
the order
first
next to
in
I
above,
which
1.
2.
Declaration of Independence issued.
3.
Stamp Act enacted.
5.
Britain
you agree?
2.
4.
Evaluating Some
Great
activity
Intolerable Acts passed.
Identifying
Cause and
line,
and
in
Effect Select two events
a paragraph, explain the
cause-and-effect relationship between them.
IDENTIFYING PEOPLE
AND
IDEAS
and
if
in
Explain
how
in
Do
the war might have
the Loyalists had organized
more
greater numbers.
Analyzing What theories

outlined
between
Explain.
different
effectively
3.
Boston Massacre angers colonists.
on the time
historians claim that wise lead-
and the colonies before 1775.
Hypothesizing
been
Pontiac's Rebellion crushed.
was the Revolutionary
ers could have resolved the differences
below.
1
How
affected by global relations?
THINKING CRITICALLY
the sec-
colonial protests?
Global Relations
War
in
role did democratic
of
government were
the Declaration of Independence?

Using Historical Imagination Imagine that you
are a Loyalist or a Patriot woman. Write a letter to a
friend explaining why you chose the side you did and
how you are attempting to help the war effort.

1
Proclamation of
763
5.
writs of assistance
6.
Crispus Attucks
Review the Strategies for Success on Interpreting the

Visual Record on page 98. Then study the 774 pic1
2.
Pontiac
3.
Stamp Act
7.
George Washington
4.
Thomas
8.
guerrilla warfare
Paine
ture below entitled Bostonians Paying the Excise Man.
On
a separate sheet of paper, explain the artist's point
of view, using specific examples from the picture.

1
How and why
did the British attitude
toward the
colonies change after 1763?

2.
What were
the main reasons the colonists
protested British actions?

3.
4.
How did
Why did
the colonists protest British policies?

the Second Continental Congress issue
the Declaration of Independence?

5.
Why
were the American
victories at Trenton and
Saratoga so important?
^
I.
REVIEWING THEMES

attempts to raise revenues
with colonial interests?
134
CHAPTER
in
did British
the colonies conflict
and Patriots
Intolerable Acts passed.
British
Continental
Congress meets.
clash at Lexington,
First
Patriots stage
Boston Tea
Concord, and
Bunker Hill. Second
Declaration of Independence
Continental
Congress meets.
Trenton.
issued. Patriots
British surrender
at
win at
Paris signed.
British defeated
Party.
at Saratoga.
1
1780
1775
UNKING HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY

At
Treaty of
Yorktown.
first
some
Americans
enlisting African
when
the fight for freedom. However,
in
were needed
soldiers
opposed
Patriot leaders
for the southern campaign,
Washington's aide, Alexander Hamilton, suggested

recruiting African Americans.
Then write
lines his plan.
outlined
in
the
in
summary
in
iar
physical settings that
to them. Study the
Select
one of the
included on the
Read the following
excerpt from a letter by Hamilton,
British forces fought the
which he out-
how
of the points
or hurt
Revolutionary
were often
unfamil-
map on page
battles
map and
War
29.
or campaigns
indicate
geography might have helped

J*
British efforts.
4^1
letter.
Head Quarters March
14th 79
Dear Sir:
who
Colonel Laurens,
will
have the
honor of delivering you this letter, is on the

to
way to South Carolina on a project
.
British soldier,
778
raise two[,] three [,] or four batalions of
negroes
by contributions from owners
proportion to the number they possess.

/
in
.
have not the least doubt, that the
negroes will make excellent soldiers, with
proper management.
I foresee that his project will
have
to
combat much opposition from prejudice and

self-interest. The contempt we have been
taught to entertain for the blacks, makes us
fancy many things that are founded neither
in
reason nor experience.
An
essential part of the plan
is to
give
and I believe will have

a good influence upon
WAR
Imagine you are a
member
of the
Second Continental Congress assigned to oversee

recruiting Native
Americans and free blacks for the
Continental Army. Your poster should indicate rea-
2.
why both groups would

war effort.
benefit by joining the
DEMOCRATIC RIGHTS
Imagine you are a
reporter for a colonial newspaper Select a specific

tax,
remain, by
such as the stamp tax or sugar tax, and inter-
view a
to their
emancipation [freedom].
Patriot
animate their courage,
opening a door
cooperatively.
sons
will secure their fidelity,
who
the American war effort. Create a poster aimed at
them their freedom with their muskets. This
those
YOUR
^M BUILDING
PORTFOLIO
British official responsible for collecting that
tax and a colonist

.
opposed to the
tax.
Your
inter-
view should include questions that examine Great

Purple Heart
Alexander Hamilton
Britain's point of view.
INDEPENDENCE!
135
Chapter 5
1776-1789
FROM CONFEDERATION
TO FEDERAL UNION
1|
FOCUS
UNDERSTANDING
THE MAIN IDEA
During the war the
coloriies
their royal charters
vvrt/i
replaced
republicar)
constitutior)s. The Continental
Congress then drafted the Articles of

Confederation to guide the
new naôn.
Soon after the Revolution, however,

political
problems led the Congress to
call for revision
ofê
Articles. In
response, the Constitutional
Convention drafted the Consmution
of the United States of America.
CONSTITUTIONAL
HERITAGE How
organization of
affect the
does the
government
way power
is
distrib-
uted and exercised?
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT How might a government's policies affect the eco-
nomic well-being of groups or
individuals within a society?

I
DEMOCRATIC VALUES
How can
a nation ensure that
every citizen has a voice
in
government?
1786
1788
1776
1777
Congress urges
Articles of
States
Shays's
U.S. Constitution
states to draft
Confederation
adopted.
become "The United
Rebellion
ratified.
States of America."
begins.
new
constitutions.
1781
ofTicially
Disagreements between the
LINK TO THE PAST
North America resulted

fight for
government and
British
war. Recognizing the
in
its
colonies in
need for unity
in their
independence, the colonies united under the leadership of
the Continental Congress.
w.
ithin a
few years of the American victory
at
Yorktown,
influential Revolutionary leaders despaired for the future of the
United States. In 1786 George Washington warned James Madison of

an "impending storm" and sadly remarked:
more favorably than ours
not done soon, "our case
ever
dawned
and no day was ever more clouded than
did;
Madison wrote
the present."
"No morn
to
James Monroe
may become
that if
something was
desperate."
These statesmen were alarmed by the quarreling among the

states.
Only
five years after defeating the British,
Americans were
fighting one another!
What had happened? By

had united
in a
the
end of the war, the former colonies
"firm league of friendship." But the league was not
friendly in practice. Alexander Hamilton accurately described the
league as "a number of petty states, with the appearance only of

union, jarring, jealous and perverse, without any determined direction." This disunity
ister,
who chose
was
also apparent to Great Britain's foreign min-
not to send any ambassador to the fragile American
republic, remarking that
it
expensive to send 13! The
would be too
crisis of
the 1780s put in jeopardy the

future of the
John
Adams
tined
beyond
greatest
that
believed was "desa doubt to be the
power on earth
within the
the
young nation
life
of
[a]
newly independent
man."
If
states did
not remain united, what would

Scene at the Signing of the Constituôn
of the United States (1940) by
Howard
become of the Revolution's goals?

Great
Seal of the
Supreme Court
Chandler Christy
FROM CONFEDERATION TO FEDERAL UNION
137
Sect ion
Biij
THE ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION
1m
c u s
What Issues
new
did the
Why were the
state constitutions address?
Land Ordinances of 785 and

I
787 passed?
What were the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation?

What problems did these weaknesses cause?
What were the causes and consequences of Shays's Rebellion?
\ghe American experiment
in
self-government began even
before the Declaration of Independence. In
May 1776
the
<
Second Continental Congress urged

drafting
new
constitutions to replace their British royal
charters. To unify the
new
state governments, the
adopted a plan for a national government

1777. This
tests
<!v.
the colonies to begin
in
Congress
November
new form of self-government would face
during the nation
first
's
severe
Articles
of Confederation cover
decade.
Between 1776 and 1780
The state constitutions
ratified
The American Revolution brought an end

monarchical rule
in
to
in
adopted similar constitutions. All of the con-
Adams conveyed
the
economy, geography, and population,
stitutions defined executive

rights,
and many
been sent into
when
life
at a
also included a
the
live.
bill
Many
states
of rights that
How
by jury, and the right to
time
The republican
spirit.
To
form the new governments, the
of antiquity would have
human
state.
assemble.
have
the greatest lawgivers
wished to
power and voting
guaranteed freedom of speech,
felt:
You and
the
states took steps to separate
church and
trial
and Rhode
states
people" to form new governments. John
constitutions. (Connecticut
ences
advised the colonies "under the authority of the
optimism many
new
Island revised their royal charters.) Despite differ-
To
Second Continental Congress
this void, the
of the states
America. The colonists" open
rebellion forced royal governors from office.

fill
all
except Connecticut and Rhode Island drafted and
few of
race have ever
state legislatures relied
lican theory.
on repub-
republic
is
form
enjoyed an opportunity of
making
38
:i
government
4 Many American
for themselves or their
statesmen used
the political theories of John Locke
children!
when framing
CHAPTER
**
state constitutions.
of government
in
which
political leaders receive
from the citizens their authority
make and
to
enforce laws.
The ideas of self-government were

to
new
not
Americans. The Mayflower Compact of 1620
had incorporated these ideas. Americans were also
works of Enlightenment thinkers
familiar with the
who
such as John Locke, the English philosopher
developed the theory of "natural rights." Locke

believed that
of
people were born with the rights
all
life, liberty,
and property and
government was
that the role of the
to protect these rights.
American republicanism, however, went
fur-
ther than Locke's theory did in challenging older
forms of
political
and social
Americans took
order.
the radical step of rejecting monarchical govern-
ment and began participating actively
in politics.
Americans had absorbed ideas of natural
rights
and
self-government from reading popular newspapers
and pamphlets and participating
in revolutionary
committees and public meetings. With
this
knowl-
edge and experience, Americans were confident

that they could
govern their
own communities.
Limits on executive power.
Many
ôrth America in 1783
Americans had resented the powerful royal governors,
who had
often overturned laws the elected
assemblies had passed.
new
As
a result,
state constitutions limited the
ernors.
Nine
states limited
States
legislatures.
New
in
both states gov-
it
come
its
conflict?
in
curbing the powers of governors,
many
1779 Thomas Jefferson drafted the
In
Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom. The

statute
Separation of church and state.
Besides
state
con-
reduced the influence the church had
began "Whereas Almighty God has
It
went on
lieves is sinful
New
York and
money
to support
port the Congregational church.
some southern colonies used
tax
the Anglican, or English, church. People
required to pay the taxes even
if
were
they did not
belong to the church.
this close relationship
Thomas
in support of "opinions
be compelled to
ship. ... All
which he disbe-
and tyrannical. ...
men
No man
shall
support any religious wor-
shall
be free to profess
their
opinion in matters of religion." Virginia adopted

the statute in 1786.
By 1833
all
of the states had
between the government and
one particular religious
supported by tax dollars.
Jefferson opposed
affiliation.
Such
a bond,
they argued, often led to abuses of political power

to religious wars.
forbade the establishment of official state churches
Baptist and Presbyterian dissenters and lib-
such as
to argue that forcing a citizen to give
New
to sup-
money
England colonies had collected taxes
cre-
mind free;
legislators and rulers
have assumed dominion over the faith of others."
ated the
over government. Before the Revolution, several
and
the United States expanded westward beyond
If
new boundaries, with what county would
the
ernors were elected rather than appointed.
eral thinkers
The Treaty of Paris awarded the United
lands east of the Mississippi and west of the Appalachian
York and Massachusetts had the
most powerful governors. But
stitutions
British
LOCATION
governors to one-year
power with
all
Mountains, doubling the size of the country.
powers of gov-
terms and denied them power to overturn laws. In

other states the governors shared
WAR
THE FRUITS OF
most of the
The
state constitutions defined
executive power and voting

rights. Many also took steps to
separate church and state.
139
Commentary
Women
44
While
the superintendency [management] of the
and Republicanism
family,
The republican stale constitutions, though much

more democratic than the British royal charters,
did not grant full citizenship to women. The state
constitutions limited voting rights and office-hold-
ing to white male properly owners.
well as
Most men,
many women, opposed women's
tion in politics, believing that

tribute to the republic
and educating
women
as
participa-
should con-
by taking care of
their children to
their
homes
possibilities for
women
to
women. Most people expected
were responsible for

this responsibility
the
full
liberty for reflection; that imagination
exert
and that
itself in full vigor;
foundation [be] early
laid,
if
may
a just
our ideas
will
then be vôrthy of rational beings. ...

reasonable, that
[women]
Is it
should at
present ... be allowed no other ideas,

than those which are suggested by the
mechanism of
a pudding, or the sewing of
the seams of a garment?
women
their children's education,
provoked
calls for
expanding
education. Judith Sargent Murray, one of
women playwrights in America, argued

that women and men had equal minds:
first
1790
repeat, that our minds are at
99
devote themselves exclusively to their
families and their homes. But because
women's
be good citizens.
This teaching duty created both limitations
and
vê are pursuing the needle, or
in
This debate led to the founding of several
women's academies,
or high schools.
women and
of educational opportunities for

recognition of
for an
women's
expanded
The opening
the
contributions laid the basis
women
role for
in public life in
the next century.
A PLAN FOR
CONFEDERATION
The
state constitutions established
works of government
colonies. But
frame-
for the former
no such framework existed
on the national
level.
Congress had been
The Continental
fulfilling the duties
a national government since 1774, but
To secure
lacked real authority.
Congress knew
unity, the
that
of
it
national
it
had
to
create a plan for a central government.
Adoption of the
were willing
stales
Articles. The
to join in a loose
union but were reluctant to give up
many powers
In
1776
began the
to a national
government.
congressional committee
difficult task of drafting a
plan for national unity that the states
would
accept.
On
July 12, 1776, the committee
presented
its
Confederation
ihe baihot evil|ien.
Enter not roxo the wayoi THE^vlcm). ANDcoifoTiN
This engraving advising women that their place was within

the home reflected the attitudes of many men and women
during the early republic.
140
CHAPTER
plan
the
to the other congres-
sional delegates. For 16
egates
Articles of
debated
months the
this
plan
del-
for
"Perpetual Union." finally adopting
on November
15.
1777.
The
a
it
Articles
Original
13 states
created a confederation, or an alliance, of states
while guaranteeing each state
its
"sovereignty,
I
freedom, and independence." (A sovereign nation
supreme power over
All
its
powers not "expressly delegated"
were retained by the
The
between the
ask, but not
Congress
in
The
to
policy
settle disputes
Congress could
states to contribute
government and
for the military.
borrow
affairs, set
states. In addition.
compel, the
to the central
Britain
affairs.)
Articles authorized Congress to
toward Native Americans, and
money
provide recruits
Articles allowed each state
Congress.
The problem
of land. For
effect, all 13 states
One major
to
claimed by states
Disputed with
states.
and coin money, conduct foreign
one vote
own
Date claims ceded

to United States
Boundary of
Northwest Territory
Western lands
I
or state has
1784
had
the plan to take
to ratify, or approve,
it.
issue blocked ratification: control of the
land between the Appalachian Mountains and the
Mississippi River.
On
the basis of their old royal
charters, several states claimed vast tracts of west-
ern land. States without land claims wanted the

other states to surrender their holdings to the
400 Miles
new
national government.
Part of the
was expected
Albers Eqfcial-Area Projection
problem was money. Each
to help
400 Kilometers
200
state
pay the war debt. States
with western lands had additional sources of rev-
enue. States without surplus land faced the

prospect of raising taxes
never a popular course
/^^,W
==^95"W
^^
75'W
Western Cand Claims, 1781-1802

POLITICAL COMPROMISE
The states without western land daims
pressured those with daims to cede them to the national government.
York ceded
of action.
its
claims in
LOCATION
until
1790
state claimed
1780. By
New York continued
the year before
New
1802 the other states had done the same.
to
daim
portions of Vermont
Vermont entered the Union. What other
part of Vermont?
Surveyors used equipment such as a compass

and a protractor when dividing land into tracts and
sections. This set of equipment belonged to
George Washington.
To promote national unity.

the two states with
landholdings yielded
and Virginia
New York
the largest
their land claims to
Congress. Other states eventually followed
1781
all
suit.
By
of the states had agreed to enter the
Confederation.
The
states
were now
officially
"The
United States of America."
The Confederation knew, however, that the

problem of western lands remained. To regulate
the disposal of the land, Congress passed the
Ordinance of 1785. The ordinance marked
Land
off the
land into townships and divided each township

into 640-acre sections.
The ordinance permitted
the cash sale of 640-acre tracts for not less than a
dollar an acre and reserved one section of each
township for the establishment of a school. This

provision in the ordinance marked the
ment
first
govern-
aid given to public education.
14!
Two years later, with the Land Ordinance of

1787, commonly referred to as the Northwest
Ordinance. Congress established a system for
governing the Northwest Territory. This vast area
extended north of the Ohio River
Lakes and west of Pennsylvania
to the
Great
to the Mississippi
would be
River. Congress intended that states
M/eaknesses in the
confederation
The land ordinances
established a pattern of land
settlement for the next 75 years and marked an
important achievement for the Confederation. But
carved out of the Northwest Territory. Thus the
Congress could point
ordinance also outlined the steps to statehood (see
accomplishments.
chart below).
The present-day
Indiana. Illinois. Michigan, and Wisconsin eventually
were carved out of the
in the ter-
Northwest Ordinance guaranteed
their basic civil rights

ritory.
The ban
timent
in the
and banned slavery
reflected a
settlers
in the ter-
growing antislavery sen-
northern states. But the ban was only a
partial victory for the
enjoyed broad powers, but
opponents of slavery, since
in the territory
in reality
sent of
be returned to their owners.
13
all
-States.
Major new
the approval of at least 9 states.
787 established rules for settling

and governing western lands.
1
Agreements were
gates often had conflicting interests.
bonds
that
The
fragile
had united the states during the war
were weakening during peacetime.
The Confederation government
also had
Congress desperately needed
financial problems.
cash to pay the war debt. But
The Land Ordinances of 1785 and
needed
legislation
hard to reach because northern and southern dele-
the ordinance also required that slaves escaping to
freedom
government
it was weak.
the Confederation
Proposed changes to the Articles needed the con-
territory.
Besides ensuring eventual self-rule

ritory, the
On paper
states of Ohio,
few other noteworthy
to
it
could only ask the
could not tax the people directly.
states for funds:
it
Some
behind their independent status to
states hid
avoid paying their share of the debt.
7^^^^
70"W
STEPS TO STATEHOOD
CANADA
Congress specifies that three to

will
five
territories
be carved out of the Northwest Territory.
For each smaller territory. Congress appoints a
governor, a secretary, and three judges.
When
eligible
^<*
LJ
a terntory's population
voten,
it
reaches 5,000
elects a territorial
and sends a nonvoting delegate
legislature
to Congress.
Once a territo^'s population increases

free inhabitants,
it
becomes
eligible for
to
60.000
statehood
and can draft a state constitution.
One
Township
Congress approves the state constitution, and
6 miles X 6 miles
the territory becomes a state.
Sources: Record ofAmenca: The Oxford

125
ComporKon
250 Kilometers
Alben Equat-Area
Lhe Northwest territory

SUBDIVIDING THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY
sections of
640
was divided
into townships.
In
accordance with the Land Ordinance of 1785,
Each township was 6 miles square and divided into 36
acres each.
to be
admitted to the Union? Which was the
142
CHAPTER
American History
7S"W
95"W
100"W
the Northwest Territory
to
Projection
last?
Which
state in the
Northwest Territory was the
first

Il^t
Eis'ifv Dollars. t^J

.-.-^
/.^-,
ir-1|
i>zvA7;'
II I II
II
Dollar i. \\
iîi^Miiii'
'F?*v'S
^ The Continental Congress had

authorized states to print paper
money to finance the Revolution.
By 779 more than $44 million
in Continentals had been issued.
The dollars shown here were
printed in Philadelphia in 1779.
DOLLARS.
J)
^SVi-';:?
HALL
L-ERS.
iiid
sEi-
,779.
SELLIiRS.
(g
S\fc!e^
1779.
ff
Hall
LERS.
and Sel- *
,'
1779.
grounds
Americans were not
that
honoring the terms of the 1783
Treaty
of
Under the
U.S. government
Paris.
Articles the
could not force individuals or
honor the
states to
result,
Mfruucd
Ijj
Hall
-"sij$
and Sll-v^
779-
&
^
r.-ococ<xx:x:xooooooo
I'nntcd by
prewar debts
H.\ll and bLL-^,
^^^^-
'779-
treaty.
As
few Americans paid
their
to British merchants,
even though the treaty required

such payment. As one Virginian
we
remarked, "If
Congress responded
revenue shortage
to the
the debts
due
are
now
pay
to
we
merchants, what have
to British
by printing paper money. The financial conse-
been fighting for
quences were disastrous. These dollars, called
called for compensation to Loyalists for property
"Continentals." were not backed by gold or silver,
seized during the war, but few states complied.
while?" The treaty also
all this
so merchants and lenders refused to accept them at

face value. In 1779
it
The limitations on congressional

power under the Articles caused
took about 38 Continentals to
purchase a product worth a dollar
in gold.
By 1781
the price had skyrocketed to 100 Continentals!
The
serious
widespread inflation frustrated many Americans.
The popular expression "not worth
economic and diplomatic
problems.
a Continental"
reflected Americans' anger over their nearly

worthless currency.
JHAYS'S REBELLION
The Confederation's economic worries

multiplied. In 1786 the nation experienced a
The weak Confederation
depression, a sharp drop
help farmers,
accompanied by
mary cause of
rising
in
business activity
unemployment. The
the depression
British markets. Before the
was
pri-
the loss of
war American mer-
the
war and
who had been

its
which
goods and
pay
colonies within the British Empire. After the war
chants
Great Britain closed some of
which farmers seldom had
to
colonial markets
little
money
their debts. Instead of extending credit,
American commerce.
by
The depression and
farmers with fewer mar-
left
to sell their
chants had traded with Great Britain and other
its
particularly hard hit
aftermath.
widespread inflation
kets in
also proved unable to
demanded hard money
to
mer-
gold or silver
in their possession.
In Massachusetts the merchant-controlled
To make matters worse, Great
Britain and
legislature passed a
law
that
imposed a heavy tax
landowner did not pay the
France were flooding the United States with inex-
on land.
pensive goods. Struggling American merchants
state
and artisans could not match the prices and
western Massachusetts sent petitions to the legisla-
vive.
Congress was powerless
Articles did not give
it
sur-
to help since the
the authority to draft inter-
national trade policies.
The young nation
also faced challenges
in
its
forts in
North America on the
seize the property.
tax. the
Outraged farmers
in
complaining of "taxation without representa-
tion."
These western farmers asked the legislature
to issue
international diplomacy. Great Britain refused to
abandon
ture,
If a
would
more paper money and
foreclosures.
"Our property
petition complained, "our
is
Gaols
to put a stop to the
torn from us," one

[jails] filled
&
still
our Debts are not discharged."
143
When
in
the Massachusetts legislature adjourned
July 1786 without addressing the tax or debt
issues, farmers rebelled.
such
War
men
as Daniel Shays, a former Revolutionary
grievances and to
Massachusetts
politics. In
and slopped property auctions.
The most
the leadership of
up arms
captain, angry farmers took
tize their
in
Under
Shays 's Rebellion, farmers shut down debtor couns
demand
to
drama-
a greater voice
what became known as
1786.
farmers
intent
serious threat to peace began in late
On December
26,
Shays and some 1,200
set out for Springfield.
Massachusetts,
on seizing the federal arsenal. Worried
that
Shays's forces would overrun the militiamen

guarding the arsenal, the governor quickly called
more than 4.000
for
Shays and
additional recruits.
his
men launched their attack in

when cannon fire killed
Shays's men fled. By the end
January. However,
late
four of the farmers,
of February the militia had crushed the rebellion.

Despite Shays's defeat, the rebellion helped
the farmers.
away with
The Massachusetts
direct taxes
legislature did
and passed debtor-relief
from seizing
legislation that prevented creditors
household goods and
tools.
The rebellions most important legacy,

its effect on public opinion. The
though, was
unrest frightened the wealthy and raised doubts
about the government's ability to deal with civil

unrest and to bring about national unity.
many people who had
As
a result
previously objected to a
strong central government began calling for
powers
new
for the Confederation.
Farmers, angry over high taxes

and heavy debts, launched
Shays's Rebellion.
This 1884 painting by
Shays and
his
mob
Howard
Pyie shows Daniel
taking possession of a courthouse.
IDENTIFY and
revolt led
government.
SECTION
Religious
The
to calls for a stronger central
REVIEW
explain the significance of the following: republic. John Locke, Virginia Statute for
Freedom, Judith Sargent Murray, Articles of Confederation, Northwest Ordinance,
depression, Daniel Shays.
LOCATE
1.
and explain the importance of the following: Northwest Territory.
MAIN IDEA How
did the Land Ordinances of 1785 and 1787 help regulate the settlement of
western territories?
2.
MAIN IDEA What

some
3.
IDENTIFYING CAUSE
rebellion's
4.
44
What were
most important
Shays's Rebellion?
What was
the
legacy?
Write an essay describing what provisions the
states
wrote
into their
constitutions.
EVALUATING What
activities
the Articles of Confederation place on federal power?
AND EFFECT Why did farmers launch
WRITING TO DESCRIBE
new
5.
limits did
of the consequences of these limits?
role did republicanism assign to
women? How
did this influence
women's
and opportunities?
CHAPTERS
ft_i
Section 2
DRAFTING AND RATIFYING

THE CONSTITUTION
c u
s
Why did delegates to the Constitutional Convention agree to keep
the proceedings secret?
What major compromises are reflected in the Constitution?

What kind of government did the Federalists want? Why
did the Antifederalists
Jn72 February 1787,

name
oppose the Federalist position?
Congress requested that the 13 states
delegates to revise the Articles of Confederation. The
delegates created a national document, the Constitution,
which outlined a new structure of government.
Its
acceptance
was not a foregone conclusion, and heated debates followed
Woodcut commemorating
as the citizens of each state struggled over ratification.
of the Constitution,
ratification
788
Independence. The delegates agreed to keep the
The
call to Philadelphia
proceedings secret, believing that

ier to
Striking
evidence of the disunity of the
Confederation came in September 1786.

ing held in Annapolis, Maryland, to
meet-
work out
it
would be
eas-
debate and resolve their differences behind
closed doors. Despite the sweltering heat, even the
windows were kept
tightly closed.
cooperative trade agreement failed because only

five states sent delegates. This disappointment, fol-
lowed soon
after
by Shays's Rebellion, made
Congress consider the weaknesses of the Articles

of Confederation. Congressional leaders issued a
call for a
Constitutional Convention to strengthen
the government.
The convention was
Philadelphia beginning
May
The convention. By
the delegates
to
to
in
14, 1787.
the appointed day only
from Pennsylvania and Virginia had
arrived. Others straggled in, delayed

roads.
be held
By May 25 enough
by muddy
delegates were on hand
convene the proceedings.
The convention met in the Pennsylvania

State House (now called Independence Hall), in
the same room where the leaders of the American
Revolution had signed the Declaration of
A Delegates to the Constitutional Convention

walked to the City Tavern (extrenne left) for meals
or to discuss events of the day. This engraving was
done by William Russell Birch and Thomas Birch
between 799 and 800.
1
145
many
office,
THE AMERICAN
EXPERIMENT
as delegates to the Continental
Congress. They were a young group; James

Madison of Virginia was 36; Alexander Hamilton
New
York. 32. The youngest delegate,
Anne-Robert-Jacques
Turgot (toor-GOH), a
retired French govern-
of
ment official, was

among the many
the convention.
Europeans watching
Anierica's experiment in democracy. In
1778 Turgot wrote his thoughts in a letter to
Richard Price, a British philosopher and writer
who championed the United States.
from the convention, however. Thomas Jefferson
Jonathan Dayton of
81.
New
Jersey,
w as only
At
Benjamin Franklin was the elder statesman of

Several prominent Americans were absent
and John
Adams were
Europe on diplomatic
in
missions. Patrick Henr> refused to attend. Saying
he "smelled a
rat."
Henr> claimed
that the dele-
like the tyranny
i/he fate of America
is
already decided,"
Turgot wrote. "Behold her independent beyond

recovery. But will she be free
and happy?"
work together. He
to
also
won-
dered whether people could be governed "only

by nature, reason and justice" without falling
of George
III."
Generally wealthy and well educated, most

delegates represented the privileged ranks of society.
Turgot worried whether the 13 separate states
He
may be
gates were plotting to undermine states' rights.
feared that "the tyranny of Philadelphia
would be able
26.
Many were
merchants, planters, and bankers:
more than half were lawyers. Although
the dele-
gates were hardly "average" citizens, there
was no
public outcry against their appointment. Few
Americans of the day questioned the assumption

that the
w ealthy w ere
best quahtled to govern.
prey to the greed and self-interest of individuals.
Despite
experiment
doubts Turgot wished the
his
Of the Americans he
well.
Convention delegates debated

Issues in secret because they
believed it would make it easier
wrote,
"They are the hope of the world."
to resolve differences.
The delegates took seriously their vow of
When someone accidentally dropped
secrecy.
some
notes on the floor outside the meeting room.
George Washington, the presiding
officer,
erupted
Federal power versus

states' rights
Congress to revise the
of Confederation, some delegates believed
.\lthough charged by
Gentlemen.
some member
am
sorry to find that
neglectful to the secrets of the

as to
drop
in
it
it is,
take
it.
Throwing
House
the State
their proceedings. ...
paper
Articles
of the body has been so
but here
it
that the Articles should
Convention
copy of
plan of government. At issue were relations

the states
know not whose

is. let him who owns
I
^^
be replaced with a new
and between the
states
stalked from the room.
Not
the convention delegates
made
Washington
surprisingly,
move
none of
to claim the
document.
and the central
government.
On May
29.
Governor Edmund Randolph of
Virginia started a heated debate
the notes on the desk.
among
when he
presented
James Madison's Virginia Plan. Madison's proposal to restructure the government was a bold
departure from the Articles. His plan shifted politi-
pow er aw ay from the states and tow ard the central government. The central government would
cal
coordinate the states' activities for the benefit of the
The
delegates. George Washington and the

54 other convention delegates w ere a remarkable
collection of politicians.
Most had helped
their state constitutions. All
46
:!
CHAPTER
to write
had held public
entire nation.
The plan expressed Madison's
that the nation's survival
belief
depended on federalism,
or the division of powers between a strong central
government and the
state son
ermnents.

judicial,
and
Under
legislative.
this plan
would be bicameral
made up of two houses. Voters would
the legislature
elect representatives to the lower house,
who would
then choose
members of
the
upper house. State populations would

determine the number of representatives
in
each house.
dispute quickly arose over the
num-
ber of representatives each state could send

to the legislature. States
tions,
with large popula-
such as Virginia and Pennsylvania, nat-
urally favored representation based on
population. States with small populations

insisted
Governor Edmund
Randolph of Virginia presented Madison's
Virginia Plan to the Constitutional Convention.
on an equal number of representatives
"We would
sooner submit to a foreign
power than ... be thrown under

James Madison was born
[I
in
from tiny
for each state. Said a delegate
Delaware:
1751
the domination
of the large states."
New
mûum
prominent Virginia family of

planters, lawyers, and judges. He was
frail in
childhood and prone to vague ailments
Jersey Plan provided for a unicameral, or one-
health prompted
house, legislature in which each state would have
mind
one vote. Madison and others objected to
William Paterson of
to a
affecting his "nerves."
Madison
to concentrate
Ill
on strengthening
his
alternative to the Virginia Plan. Paterson's
Paterson's plan because they believed that
rather than his body.
A contemporary
described Madison as
being "no bigger than half a piece of soap."
was so
Jersey offered an
New
it
did
not correct the weaknesses of the Articles.
He
quiet and reserved that an acquaintance
him "a gloomy,
called
Madison had
theless.
stiff creature.*'
Never-
Compromise AT THE
CONVENTION
distinguished political
career, helping draft
Arguments raged over
Virginia's state constitution
as
and ably serving
member
the Constitutional
the
and
New Jersey
end of June the convention was
in
danger of collapsing.
To balance
Continental Congress.
Madison's leadership
By
plans.
of the
the Virginia
states.
at
the interests of large
and small
Roger Sherman of Connecticut fashioned
compromise. He proposed a two-house legislature
Con-
would allow
vention earned him the
that
name
representation based on population. This Great
"father of the
Compromise
Constitution."
Madison's Virginia Plan gave Congress vast
powers, including the rights to overturn
state
size,
for both equal representation and
granted each state, regardless of
an equal voice in the upper house. In the
lower house, representation would be according to
The delegates narrowly approved
laws, tax the states, and "bring the force of the
population.
Union against any
proposal, ending what
Such
duty."
rights
[state]
a drastic
failing to fulfill
move away from
its
states'
alarmed some delegates. Charles Pinckney
Madison
later
this
described as
"the most serious and threatening excitement" of

the convention.
of South Carolina feared that such a powerful

federal
government would "abolish the State
Governments
altogether."
The Virginia Plan called for a federal government made up of three branches: executive.
The
Three-Fifths
Compromise.
The
del-
egates resolved one dispute only to see another
emerge. They
now debated whether
slaves should
be counted as part of a state's population to
147
determine representation. Southern delegates
Delegates agreed that Congress could levy
insisted that the slave population be included.
on imports but not on exjwrts.
Northern delegates strongly objected
demand. Some deeply opposed slavery on moral
Once again, however, problems

Planters now worried that Congress might
grounds and argued
power
to tax
trade.
Bowing
that
to this
violated the republican
it
ideal of liberty. Others objected to including slaves
for political reasons. Southern states
would be able
to increase their representation in the lower

if
house
slaves were included in population counts.
accepted a compromise. The final agreement,
known
as the Three-Fifths
Compromise, counted
only three fifths of the slave population in deter-
mining
states also clashed
The
over control of commerce.
to southern pressure,
runaway slaves across
Some northem
its
convention
right
state lines.
delegates agreed to the
com-
promises because they feared the South would

withdraw from the union
if
planters thought their
property and rights were threatened. James

trade were,
Compromises over commerce.
use
restrict or abolish the slave
end of 1807. They also gave slaveholders the
Madison argued
total state population.
arose.
delegates voted to permit the slave trade until the
to pursue
and southern delegates
In the end. northern
imports to
tariffs
that great as the evils of the slave
"dismemberment of
the union
would
be worse." Others agreed to the compromise

because they mistakenly believed that
was
slaver>'
know
more
Northern delegates favored giving the national
a dying institution. Little did they
government the power
than 70 years of bitter debate and a civil war lay
foreign nations and
to regulate all trade
among
with
the states. Southern del-
that
ahead before Americans would see slavery end.
egates opposed such broad powers.
The southern economy depended on exports

and cotton
Europe and
of tobacco,
rice,
em
Southerners feared that
states.
government imposed
overseas buyers
em
vv
to
if
tariffs, or taxes,
to north-
the national
The Constitution
included compromises over political represen-
tation,
commerce, and
on exports,
ould have to pay more for south-
Completing the Constitution. On
agricultural products. If buyers refused to pay
26. 1787. five delegates began drafting the
Constitution, which they presented to the full
finally
forced another compromise.
convention on August
This detail from an 8th-century map shows enslaved African Americans

working on an indigo plantation in South Carolina. By 1775 some 35 percent of
South Carolina's exports involved shipments of indigo, a blue dye.
I
:i
July
higher prices, sales would be hurt. Southem opposition
48
slavery.
CHAPTER
6.
Between August 6 and
September
delegates debated the draft,
10, the
hammering out such specifics as the terms of

and for the members of
office for the president
both houses. Another five-delegate committee

then prepared the finished document.
On September
17, 1787, the
committee pre-
sented to the other delegates the final version of
the
Constitution,
handwritten
neatly
by
Gouverneur Morris of Pennsylvania. Some of the

55 delegates had already
Philadelphia, but of
left
those remaining, 39 signed

tion over, the Constitution
it.
With the conven-
went
to the states for
ratification.
The federalists and the

antifederalists
To win
ratification, the Constitution required the
approval of 9 of the 13
delegates, however,
as a
show of national
When
local
states.
hoped
for
Most convention
unanimous approval
A n JSPL AY
/C
'
unity.
r,f,.^,-;f
=^''^^~',U^%^^^, J//'yi~y'' //rf^/M
M^r,^,
-Osgr^
rn-b.t" p..Ww..<
'^<:r>-C^^
ja^^.
many Americans were shocked by
what they read. They expected a revision of the

Articles;
ME RICA
//^, Plan; r'Jfl-i
newspapers printed copies of the

Kogrtiu^ k
Constitution,
S TAT ES of A
UNiTE D
of the
what they saw was a new framework of
government. Citizens soon divided over the issue
This
788 print by engraver
Washington encircled by the

of the United States.
the states.
The
Amos
Doolittle
shows George
and the seal
seals of the 13 states
joined circles symbolize the unity of
of ratification.
One
group,
who
called
themselves
Federalists, favored ratification. Wealthy mer-
chants, planters, and lawyers generally were
They advocated
Federalists.
a strong national gov-
ernment that would assure a sound currency and

protect property rights.
Many Americans who were
not wealthy also supported the Constitution, believing that a strong national government
stability
and security against
Shays's
Rebellion.
would provide
political unrest like
Speaking
before
Massachusetts ratifying convention,
the
farmer
explained his reason for supporting the Constitution:
The Pennsylvania
Packet, and Daily
was one of
several newspapers that
Advertiser
carried the
full
text
of the Constitution on
September 19, 1787.

The preamble to
the Constitution
shown
is
have lived
where
in
a part of the country
have learned the worth of good
government by the
lack of
There was a
it.
black cloud of rebellion that rose

last
in
the east
winter and spread over the west.
Our
distress
was so great that we should
have been glad to grab at anything that
looked
saw
like
government.
this Constitution,
for these disorders,
found
Now when
it
was
a cure
yy
The Pennfylvan ia Packet, and Dailj^^^dvertijen

Four-Pence]
WEDNESDAY, SErrcMCEa
[Price
19,
1787.
fNo. 26yo.J
E, the People of the United States, in order to ibrni

a more perfedl Union, cflablifh Jurtice, infure domeftic
TranquiHty, provide for tlie common Defence, promote the General Welfare, and fccnre the Bleflings of
Liberty to Ourfelves and our Pofterity. do ordain and efiiblifli this
Conftitution for the United States of America^
here.
149
The other group,
The
called Antifederalists by
their opponents, feared a
powerful national gov-
ernment. One Antifederalist described the
the
Constitution as "a beast, dreadful and terrible" that
Under
"devours, breaks into pieces, and stamps [the
The
new
ident
national
Constitution as proof that
in the
government was undemocratic.
the Constitution, voters did not elect the pres-
and the vice president
electors
would choose
them. Moreover, voters would not necessarily
with his feet."
states]
Antifederalists pointed to the election
procedures outlined
Antifederalists offered three objections
choose the electors;
state legislatures
would
select
to ratification. First, they argued that delegates to
them, just as they chose U.S. senators. Voters would
the Constitutional Convention had conspired under
elect only
new form of
"a thick veil of secrecy" to create a
government.
In
doing
so, the delegates
beyond what they had been charged
had gone
to do.
Second,
they argued that the
states' rights. Third,
new system of government
resembled a monarchy because of
its
concentration
of power, and thus violated the principle of liberty

that
had guided the Revolution.
The
wanted a strong
Federalists
national government.
The
power
away
to take this authority
have been Governor George Clinton of
York)
a system:
64
For what did you throw off the yoke of
Britain
and
Was
from
it
call
yourselves independent?
a disposition fond of change,
new
masters?
of national government
The
liberty
fall
This
will
or
new form
be danger-
and happiness.
*^
Federalists answered their critics in a
by James Madison,
Alexander Hamilton, and John

The Federalist contained a collection of essays by
Hamilton, Madison, and Jay in support of the Constitution. The book appeared in two volumes in 788.
New
to
challenged citizens to consider the dangers of such
series of 85 essays written
as well.
The anonymous "Cato" (believed by many
ous to your
a government threatened the

liberty of the states.
then,
Antifederalists pointed out, the Senate had the
to procure
Antifederalists believed that such
the lower house of Congress,
House of Representatives. But even
the
the Antifederalists claimed that a strong national
government would destroy
members of
Jay.
Between
the
of 1787 and the spring of 1788, 77 of the essays
appeared
in
newspapers throughout the
states.
The
essays were later published
THE
The Federalist,
ratification vote in
PEOPLE OF the' STATE OF

NEV/-YORK.
r.
New
enced public opinion
DKESSED TO THE
N U M
book form
as
as the Federalist
Papers. The writers intended the essays to sway the
FEDERALIST:
A!)
also
known
in
York, but they also influ-
in
other states. Today the
essays are regarded as the most authoritative com-
mentary on the Constitution.
I.
The ratification
liitrodwJlioii,
A FTER an unequivocal experience r,f liic incHiX c^'cy of the uibfjitir.^ fciiera! govcTnmsnt, ytiu
struggle
JL
nrc c i!k-d i.pon to iJclibemtc on a new conUitution !br

the Uiii'.cd Srates of America. Ttic Kihj.;ct (psaks its
'Own iroportancj ; coirprciicndinj; in its coiifcquciices,
nothir.^7 l-fs
than the cxiflcncc of rhe
U N I O N,
ilie
hfcty and welfare of the parts of which it is coni"Tolctl, the fa?e of an empire, in many ref'pcfts, the
moft !r:ierc4uii^ in the wor'.d. Jt has been frcqutmtly
lenar'rroJ, tnat it Jeem-- to have hetn rcf^-ri'cd to ihs
people of this couafry, by ihcir conduct aid c.\.iniple,
"to decide the imponjint queftion, whether locieiic of
men arc really cnpabtr or not, of eilabiiihir.tj fpai
n'lvernment from rrflcftion and choice, or whethsr
they are forever dcfiined tc depend, for their poliiiral
conflitutious, en accid'inr and force.
If there be an/
troth in the remark, the crifis, at which wc arc arrived,
toiy with propriety he regarded %s the xra in wh-ch
that
The question of federalism versus states' rights

was at the heart of the ratification struggle.
Another crucial issue was individual
most
rights.
not contain a
bill
of
the Antifederalists,
rights.
This omission outraged
some of whom refused
CHAPTER
to sign
the Constitution.
Ordinary citizens joined the debate over

fication.
Amos
rati-
Singletary. a Massachusetts farmer,
argued that the Constitution would take away individual rights, just as Great Britain had done.
150
Unlike
state constitutions, the U.S. Constitution did
A On July 23,
New York City celebrated the adoption

The ship on wheels was pulled by a team of horses and
represented the new "ship of state."
788, the people of
of
the Constitution.
We
Britain
because they claimed a
tax us and bind us
does not
Does
this
in all
property?
Does
it
imposts [import
not
all
we
moneyed men
this Constitution,
the
they
money
will
And
urged the convention delegates to vote for
have
tion.
our
all
York
withdraw the
end the Federahsts won
learning,
and
and get
into their
all
all
own
us
the
ver>'
The
folks.
state
in
both
states,
but only by
last state to ratify
was Rhode
Island,
to send delegates to the
Constitutional Convention. After the Constitution
hands, and then
little
York
narrow margins.
which had even refused
power and
New
the state did not ratify the Constitution. In the
if
city
ratifica-
from the
Federalists, strongest in
and excises?
expect to be managers of
swallow up
New
City, threatened to
lay all taxes, duties,
fees],
These lawyers, and men of
all
James Madison and George Washington strongly
right to
cases whatever
Constitution do the same?
not take away
it
eloquently argued against the Constitution, while
contended [fought] with Great
**
had been drafted, the
state legislature initially
refused to call for a ratifying convention, prompt-
The
Federalists claimed that the state consti-
ing
some towns
to
consider seceding.
When
threatened with an economic boycott by
tutions adequately protected the rights of
the state
American
Congress finally did call a convention,

the vote was so close that the governor had
But several
citizens.
Virginia and
New
Constitution only
states,
including
York, agreed to ratify the
if a bill
of rights was added.
Although by June 21, 1788, enough

ratified the Constitution for
it
states
had
to take effect, a
union without these two large states had
little
chance of succeeding.
The debates were
to
break the
The
tie.
battle
had been long, the
final vote close,
but with ratification most Americans embraced the

Constitution.
They had endured
the Revolution
the turmoil of the Confederation years.

bitter in
both
states' ratify-
ing conventions. In Virginia. Patrick
Henry
now hope
to
and
They could
launch constitutional government in
the United States with solid prospects for success.
151
The answer
Commentary
republican
lies in a society in transition.
spirit that
The
fueled the Revolution called
many traditional social patterns. The

convention delegates had to walk a fine line
betw een the old order and a new order that was still
into question
Evaluating the Constitution

The men who wrote
the Constitution
their gathering in Philadelphia in
knew
that
1787 had revolufor
remake
the
indef)endence. Yet their goal
was not
United States but to
young nation on more
stable political,
set the
to
emerging.
war
tionary implications far greater than the
The motives of
tions of the Constitution as first drafted should not
cloud the fact that the document

ment. The government
economic, and social foundations
by reforming the structure of government.
of
many of these men w ere conserworried about maintaining their own status
In this sense
vatives,
in a
time
its
is
created
it
a grand achieve-
was
headed by an elected
in
like
no other
president, lim-
powers over individuals and
ments, and held
quickly changing world. Their concern was to
w hat
its
ited in its
preserve what they had created, rather than to carrv

out
the delegates and the limita-
state
govern-
check by laws and courts. Since
ratification the Constitution has ser\ed as an
enduring example of the promise of self-govern-
they thought would be rash and dangerous
ment
They did not. for example, wish to

power to all members of society.
move w ould at once overturn long-standing
for nations around the
w orld.
The Constitution also had revolutionary

As the antislavery and women's
innovations.
grant political
implications.
Such a
mo\ ements would shou. the radical promise of the

Constitution was not lost on those excluded from
pow er In pressing for the same rights and liberties
social conventions
and decentralize
political
economic power. Women, servants,

and slaves could not vote or hold
Onl\ free w hite
prevailing
men
and
free blacks,
political office.
granted to free white men.
of property, according to the
w isdom. were
members of
full
political
fit
all
groups stood to bene-
from the vision of republican government con-
tained in the Constitution.
society and. therefore, equal.
One of
the reasons that the limitations
so startling today
is
in relation to the
we
that
seem
\\e\\ the Constitution
Revolution.
Why
did the
Quill
democratic values that gave
independence not find
pen
rise to the fight for
full e.xpression in the
Constitution?
SECTION
IDENTIFY and
eralism.
explain the significance of the following: Constitutional Convention, Virginia Plan, fed-
James Madison, bicameral. Great Compromise. Three-Fifths Compromise,
Antifederalists. electors. The

\.
REVIEW
MAIN IDEA Why
tariffs.
Federalists,
Federalist.
did delegates to the Constitutional
Convention believe
it
was best to keep the
convention a secret?
2.
MAIN IDEA The
Constitution
is
sometimes
called "a bundle of
compromises." NAât were the
major compromises that came out of the convention?

3.
WRITING TO PERSUADE
ratifying convention.
Write
Imagine you are a Federalist or an Antifederalist delegate to a state

a speech supporting or opposing ratification of the Constitution.
sure to address the concerns of the opposing side

4.
ANALYZING Why
implications?
152
:i
CHAPTER
can
it
in
Be
your speech.
be said that the Constitution had both limitations and revolutionary
Section 3
THE CONSTITUTION: A LIVING DOCUMENT

c u s
Why did the
framers of the Constitution include a

delegated to the federal government?
powers
of
list
Why did
the framers of the Constitution provide for separation of

powers and checks and balances?
How
\the
is
the Constitution able to adapt to changing conditions?
men who convened
in
Philadelphia
in
1787
are often referred to as the framers of the Constitution.
They framed, or
built,
a new structure of national
government. To prevent conflicts between the national gov-
ernment and the
state governments, the framers identified
specific powers for each. To avoid possible abuses of power
by the national government, the delegates divided and limited

the
powers of the federal government. In doing so they
cre-
Detail
from Triumph of Liberty
ated a flexible and enduring system of government.
Stronger federal government. James
Federalism
Drawing on
their experiences with British rule
eloquently of the need for the
and
If men were
angels,
no government
with the Confederation, the delegates to the
would be necessary.
Constitutional Convention worked to form a
men, neither external nor
If
Madison spoke
new government:
angels
were to govern
internal controls
on government would be necessary.

framing a government which
istered by
this:
is
ment
men over men,
You must
first
that
the delegates
would provide
while protecting
it
In
to be admin-
the great
difficulty
enable the govern-
to control the governed; and
next place, oblige
Thus
is
to control
worked
to
in
itself.
the
**
frame a constitution
for a strong central
government
states' rights.
Delegated, reserved, and concurrent

powers. Once the delegates settled on a federal
A This woodcut, entitled The federal Ship Union,

was made by an unknown artist to celebrate pas-
system of government, they had
to
sage of the Constitution.
powers would
government and
fall to
the federal
decide which
53
This depiction of Federal Hall, where the
first
Congress met under the Constitution, was completed
in
789.
Constitution, include the rights to coin money, to

regulate trade with foreign nations and
and
states,
to raise
among
the
and support an army and a navy.
All powers not specifically granted to the

federal
government or denied
to the states are kept,
or reserved, by the states. These reserved

are guaranteed by the Tenth
in
1791.
Examples of
powers
Amendment, adopted
the states" reserved
powers
include establishing local governments, overseeing
schools, conducting elections, and making

marriage laws.
The powers
that are held jointly
government and the
which powers the
states
would
retain.
They
decided to give the federal government authority in
state
by the federal
government are called
concurrent powers. Examples of concurrent powers include levying
and collecting taxes, borrowing
the people.
These
money, providing for the public welfare, and estab-
delegated powers, which are outlined
in the
lishing courts to apply
matters of concern to
all
and enforce laws.
DELEGATED, RESERVED, AND CONCURRENT POWERS

Powers Delegated to
National
Government
Declare war
Establish
armed forces
Maintain
Powers Reserved to States

and maintain schools
Establish local
governments
Regulate interstate and foreign trade
Conduct
Admit new
Create corporate laws
states
elections
Establish post offices
Regulate business within the state
Set standard weights and measures
Make marriage
Coin money
Provide for public safety
Establish foreign policy
Assume other powers not
Make
all
laws necessary and proper
for carrying out delegated
powers
laws
delegated
to the national government or
prohibited to the states
Powers Shared (Concurrent Powers)

Maintain law
and order
Levy taxes
Borrow money
FEDERALISM
Charter banks
Establish courts
Provide for
public welfare
The division of power between a national government and the states
is
called federalism.
The
Constitution delegates certain powers to the national government, reserves other powers for the states, and allows
powers to be shared
EVALUATING Why
154
CHAPTER
some
jointly.
might the delegates to the Constitutional Convention have supported a division of powers?
A The state seals of Massachusetts, New York, and North Carolina are
State legislatures use seals such as these on official public documents.
The Constitution
shown here.
balances that gives each branch the means
the
powers of the federal government in order to define the scope
identifies
restrain the
to
powers of the other two. Congress, for
example, has the responsibility to check presidential
of federal authority.
power. The Constitution's
many checks on
executive power reflect the framers* bitter experi-
ence with British royal governors. The most
National supremacy. The
delegates to the
Constitutional Convention recognized that the
national
the
to
government exercising
same time
its
powers
at
governments could lead
as the state
problems. Which laws would have ultimate
extreme
restraint
To help eliminate
added a clause
conflicts, the delegates
Representatives
dent
and
all
federal law s out-
who
is
thought to be guilty of "treason,
Senate and.
if
president
found
guilty,
and the executive branches. The
the legislative
power
two-thirds vote of the Senate
and
all treaties
land." This clause, defined in Article

Constitution,
is
called the
... of
supreme law of the
supremacy
VI of the
clause.
by the
office.
There are other checks and balances between
Constitution, and the laws
tried
removed from
president has the
and misdemeanors."
would then be
rank state constitutions and state laws: "This

the United Stales, shall be the
the
impeachment. The House of

may impeach, or charge, a presi-
bribery, or other high crimes
to the Constitution, clearly stating
that the federal constitution
is
legal process of
An impeached
authority?
on presidential authority
to
make
is
treaties, but a
necessar>' to ratify
them. Similarly, the president can appoint ambassadors, federal judges, and other important officials,
but only with the "advice and consent" of the
Senate. Congress can also check the president
through "the power of the purse"

the authority to appropriate
REPARATION OF POWERS
To prevent
the federal
its
Each branch has
specific
and
judicial.
powers the other branches
cannot claim. The legislative branch makes laws,
it
can slow or stop
The
president, in turn, can curb the
Congress. The president can veto, or
powers of
reject,
laws
passed by Congress. Although Congress possesses

the
power
to override, or overrule, a presidential
the executive branch sees that they are carried out.
veto, the two-thirds majority necessar>' to
and the judicial branch interprets them and pun-
often difficult to obtain.
ishes lawbreakers. This separation of
has
a presidential action that requires funding.
powers, the framers separated the go\ emment into

three branches: legislative, executive,
it
government monies
and approve the federal budget,
government from abusing
because
The president can
powers
also
do so
is
check congressional
prevents any part of the federal government from
power through influence and pressure. The
becoming too powerful.
Constitution grants the president the authority to

call
Checks and balances.

of powers
is
The separation
upheld by a system of checks and
Congress into special session
to deal with a
The president can also adjourn

members cannot agree when to end
national crisis.
Congress
if its
155
'/r 4l.or.
^^ the citlteni thereof aod foreign Stitei, ciiiceni orlubjeai. fTn cfe. bf Inw
-^ (^c5"}?n^ cifei iffefting Affbiffadori, <ilher PubIicAlini(l, d Confuli'.
.
>.
/Ly ^
^nA
.,r-
...
_i,:,u -
rt
..
"^**'^^^T;j^3a:iifc</.
In^^âiôTh'er'^ll?^te^merftf^^^
^^^^^^^^^^^^ WHO
oni and under fuch reguUtioni ai the LegiCaHire

tty-*ffigaa]^. rt of thi itr ifHim
. ,,,,,
-.^
M
<y ^^,.j >^
-.....-. .
4.^^.->K/'
-^
.;-4&-.
./V^, Aw
'-
: 'iK: o
'.
. i-
think
^v?i*<^Srff>
>^'^. >ri
-J^^^'^ZJi
J^
fe;':^/*r.'^;!t^'^"^ ^
.
fhill
^'^'
'
<
^'
>a fuih
Inf. .i,.
r.,.>^ .
..
^-..--/^c^^/^
luco except
Xhc-Lcaiflai
i.
.î]
nfl i,
.,i
u f thc
f^ ir.,.,.
Thfljgftl of all criminal offcncaVexceDili
J''"''
"--'
^""''
>MPM
make.
uumj ^ cr r e pt tU
^ AtJi/ ^^ et**t*^ ^t,t^
ê^j^.
(hall
^tÂj/ûui?<u(n
J'
'"'*
'"
<>'
Pôfi'
'f of Impeachment,
--l
difqualificatioa
(hallnot exiend further than
to hold
and enjoy any office of

But the party conviaed fh.il
""der the United St atci.
neverthelef. be liable and fubjra to

indlftmcnt.
Vncnt, according
trial,
judgment and punilh-
to law.
Z^^y.^-d'^
^'^
\ of
Lwiity!""
"^
'""^' *"''"" ' ~"f^'*""'"
*"g"' "y
t"lc
xin
George Washington made numerous
changes on an early draft of the Constitution. The wordby jury, is largely unchanged from his handwritten suggestions in
the margin. The section that follows on impeachment, which he marked as "agreed," was later moved to
Article I, Section 3 of the finished document.
ing of Article
III,
Section
3,
regarding
editorial
trial
Some
a session. In addition, the president can exert pres-
sure on Congress by
recommending measures
argue that checks and balances permit
political disputes to
hold up the workings of gov-
"necessar\- and expedient" to maintaining effective
ernment. For example, a president
government or by lobbying
one
The chief executive can
for specific legislation.
also influence the thinking
and
political party
who
belongs to
Congress dominated by
may not agree on necessary legislaOne branch may continually block the actions
another party
of Congress through annual State of the Union
tion.
messages and through press conferences and pub-
of the other. Nevertheless, the system has pre-
he speeches.
vented what the framers of the Constitution feared
The executive and
legislative branches bal-
most: unrestricted go\ emmental pov\ er.
ance judicial power. The judicial selection process
Separation of powers and checks

and balances prevent any branch
provides the most basic check. The Senate must
approve
power
to
federal judges. Just as Congress has the
all
impeach the president,
impeach judges
it
has the power to
government from becoming
of
for "high crimes and misde-
too strong.
meanors." In addition. Congress can propose constitutional
amendments
that overturn earlier court
rulings. Similarly, the president can
pardon or
delay the punishment of persons convicted of federal crimes.
But neither the president nor Congress
Flexibility
The Constitution has remained
can remove unpopular judges from the bench.
than 200 years because
Unless impeached and removed for "high crimes,"
can adapt to changes
federal judges
may
hold their offices for
ized nation of
The
ple as
framers built the system of checks and balances
states
into the structure of
:i
government
to
it
is
effective for
a living
in
more
document
that
our society. The
Constitution works as well today for an industrial-
life.
Drawbacks of checks and balances.
156
and change
it
50
states
and fewer than 4 million people.
The continued
keep any gov-
and some 265 million peo-
did in 1790 for an agricultural nation of 13
effectiveness of the Constitu-
ernment branch from exercising too much power.
tion
The system, however, has always had
urged his colleagues to consider "the changes which
CHAPTER
its critics.
owes much
to
its flexibility.
James Madison had
y
To allow
ages will produce.*'
needed amend-
for
ments, the framers specified a procedure by which

the Constitution
made
deliberately
intending
(see
amendment process
the
difficult.
be used only when a change
to
it
may be changed. The framers

is critical
page 164). Only 27 amendments have been
added
to the Constitution since 1789.
The Constitutions elastic clause has

increased the document's flexibility. To the specific
the
powers granted
power
make
"to
to
Congress,
this clause
Laws which
all
adds
be neces-
shall
sary and proper for carrying into Execution the
foregoing Powers." The elastic clause allows

Congress
cally
to stretch
outhned
its
powers
in
ways not
specifi-
in the Constitution.
The Supreme Court's power of judicial

review
the
right to determine
laws violate the Constitution
whether or not
A The first two sessions of the Supreme Court were

the
Water
Street Exchange, a building
in
held
in
New York City.
also ensures the
Constitution's continued effectiveness. The

framers did not write judicial review into the
act.
Constitution. Legal scholars, however, believe that
of the law; and
Supreme Court
the framers intended the
to
have
Supreme Court could declare any
the
But.
found
that the
In
oid
if
all
the Court
law
would
"how ever
still
The
that
body,
It
instead of JUDGMENT, the

.
the substitution
ff
being abused,
it
remains one of the safeguards of
individual rights in a changing society.
might arise from judicial review:
interpretation of the laws
courts. ...
they should be disposed to
Although judicial review has the potential for
The amendment
is
therefore belongs to them to

the meaning of any particular
SECTION
IDENTIFY and
process, the
and
review
allow the Constitution to adapt
to changing conditions.
elastic clause,
the proper and peculiar province of the
ascertain
WILL
If
be
unjust."
The Federalist Number 78. Alexander
problem
The courts must declare the sense
of their pleasure to that of the legislative
the
Hamilton, in arguing for judicial independence, stated

the
consequence would be
law violated the Constitution.
Madison continued,
compelled to uphold
lav\ \
exercise
such power. James Madison often argued that
justices
judicial
REVIEW
explain the significance of the following: delegated powers, reserved powers, concur-
rent powers, supremacy
clause, separation of
powers, checks and balances, impeachment, veto, over-
ride, elastic clause, judicial review.

1.
2.
MAIN IDEA Why were

MAIN IDEA Why were
the federal government's powers listed
in
the Constitution?
checks and balances and the separation of powers written into the
Constitution?
3.
4.
MAIN IDEA Why can the

WRITING TO EXPLAIN
judicial
5.
Constitution be considered a flexible,
living
document?
Write an essay explaining how the executive, the
legislative,
and the
branches use the system of checks and balances.

ment from being
might a system of checks and balances prevent govern-
effective at times?
57
Articles of
Congress urges
states to draft
CHAPTER
new
state constitu-
for Religious
tion ratified.
Freedom
constitutions.
drafted.
1776
1778
WRITING A SUMMARY
summary
Virginia Statute
eview
write a
Massachusetts
Confederation
adopted.
1 .
1780
REVIEWING THEMES
How
does the way
the government was organized reflect concern
of the chapter.
about a powerful national government?
Number your paper
and
to
5.
list
Study the time

in
second next to
2,
2.
the order
first
in
which
event next to
3.
,
did the govern-
ment's economic policies lead to Shays's Rebellion?
above,
line

Democratic Values How might
the framers of
the Constitution have helped ensure that
the
izens had a voice
in
more
cit-
government?
activity below.
Freedom
drafted.
1.
Virginia Statute for Religious
2.
Congress passes Northwest Ordinance.
3.
Congress passes Land Ordinance of 1785.
4. Articles of
5.
THINKING CRITICALLY
1.
on the time
Cause and
line,
and
in
factors shaped the republican
spirit?
Confederation adopted.
2.
U.S. Constitution ratified.
Identifying
Analyzing What
Hypothesizing What might have happened
if
the
framers of the Constitution had outlawed slavery?
3.
Evaluating The proceedings

Constitutional Convention
think such
government
at the
were
activities
Do
secret.
you
should be open
to the public? Explain your answer
IDENTIFYING PEOPLE
AND
4.
IDEAS
1.
Virginia Plan
6.
James Madison
2.
John Locke
7.
checks and balances
Religious
8. Three-Fifths
Freedom
4. Articles of
5.
The
Confederation
9.
10.
Federalist
Why
why
2.
in
What were
did colonial

Review the
Skills
Handbook entry on
Building
Daniel Shays
terms, and write a sentence using each word.
supremacy clause
weak
national
the Articles of Confederation, and
did this cause
How
Compromise
did colonial leaders create a
government
Effect
Vocabulary on page 991. Then define the following

1
Cause and
the state constitutions?
3. Virginia Statute for
Identifying
experiences influence the actions of the framers of
problems for the new nation?
republic
depression
separation of powers
judicial review
federalism
delegated powers
reserved powers
concurrent powers
bicameral
impeachment
veto
override
the main compromises reached during
the Constitutional Convention?

3.
What
elements of the Constitution addressed
concerns over governmental abuse of power?

4.
How
did the framers of the Constitution
propose
to solve economic problems caused by weaknesses

5.
in
the Articles of Confederation?
What were
the provisions of the ordinances to
organize and govern the Northwest Territory?
58
CHAPTER

Writing to Persuade Imagine you are a
owner in New England who supports the
business
Constitution. Write a letter to the editor of your

local
new
why you support the

government over the Articles of
newspaper, explaining
plan of
Confederation.
'
States officially
Congress passes
Northwest Ordinance.
Congress passes
Land Ordinance
become "The
United States
of America."
of
785.
Shays's
Constitutional
Rebellion
Convention meets.
U.S. Constitution
begins.
ratified.
i
1782
1784
1788
1786
AND GEOGRAPHY
LINKING HISTORY
The
Study the map, noting the numbers on
following
is
an excerpt from a petition submitted
to the Continental Congress
widow
bought loan
patriots,
Wells had
from the state of
certificates
shows the order
1786 by elderly
in
many
Rachel Wells. Like
New Jersey
your paper
to
Identify
Congress to grant her payment on the
the
Read the excerpt from her

reveal
the
What does
petition.
about the contribution of ordinary
war and the government's
she
citizens to
responsibility to live
up
which the states
Number
during the Revolution. Wells appealed to the

certificates.
in
Constitution.
I
it.
The map
ratified
the
13.
each state on
r>
map and write the

correct name of each
v?>
)
'?-
state next to the corre-
^VT^-*
i)^Q
sponding number on
\
the date each state
To the Honorable Congress,

I,
am
make
Rachel, do
fied
in
years
&
\!J
/^^^kI
rati-
^3^
the Constitution.
who
this complaint,
Widow far advanced
"'tTTSCj'JC-.
your paper, along with
to the ideals of the Revolution?
Dearly
have occasion [need] of the Interest for that

Cash I Lent the States.
I Lent the State a
-r
'-.
Sum of Moneys & had I justice

done me it might be Sufficient to support me
considerable
country where I
in the
am
now, near
Burdentown [New Jersey].

.
&
but Being
so
I lived here then
Robbed by
others I went to Phila[delphia] to try to
&
was There in the year

1 783 when our assembly was pleased to
get a Living
pass a
Law
that
Now, gentlemen,
have done as much
many
.
that Sit
now
had
the War, which

is
is
is this
Liberty?
carry on the
to
cooperatively.
War as
at the helm of government.
My dear Sister
thankful that I
No one should have any
Interest that lived out of Jersey States.
BUILDING YOUR
PORTFOLIO
the Britains
it
wrote to
in
me
to
my Power to
&
be
help on
well enough, but then this
why then a poor old widow be put
If She did not fight
She threw
in all
might, which bought the Soldiers food
Clothing
DEMOCRATIC RIGHTS
In
Chapter 4 you
taxes. Building
on that
material,
now
imagine you
communicates your position on

2.
THE CONSTITUTION
woman
the
new
interested
in
including
taxes.
Imagine you are a
women's
rights in
Constitution. Write a letter to the
Constitutional Convention suggesting ways to
of[f]?...
that
are one of Shays's rebels. Create a poster that
to be Considered that others get their
Interest
served as a reporter interviewing people about
&
Let
her
&
Them have Blankets & Since

to Lay upon Straw
She has been obliged
represent
3.
women
POLITICS
in
the Constitution.
Imagine you are attending a gov-
ernors conference
in
outlining the issues of
790. Prepare a speech
concern to your region.
& glad of that.

159
i;^//^^
/ ^/4r /h
60
vv
Constitution
Handbook
44 We
a
more
the People of the United States,
in
Order to form
perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic
Tranquility, provide for the
common
defense,
promote the
general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to
ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this
Constitution for the United States of America.
99
Preamble to the Constitution
^0/hi
he
delegates
who met
in the spring of
Articles of Confederation included
many
1787
to revise the
of the ablest leaders of the
United States. Convinced that the Confederation was not strong
enough
to bring order
and prosperity
to the nation, they
abandoned
all
thought of revising the Articles. Instead, they proceeded to draw up a
completely
new
Constitution. Patrick
Henry called
olution as radical as that which separated us
this action "a rev-
from Great
Britain."
Out
of their long political experience, their keen intelligence, and their

great learning, the framers of the Constitution fashioned a blueprint
for a truly united nation
the United States of America.
61
y ^/4^
/vvVV^^Z^^
/îr.
FOCUS
What
do the
first
three Articles of the Constitution describe?
How do the Articles attempt to protect

What does the Bill of Rights protect?
.n
people's
civil liberties?
observer once referred to the Constitution as "the most wonderful
work ever struck off at a given time by

Revised, modified,
and amended,
the brain
and purpose of man.
cm^
"
the Constitution has
served the American people for more than 200 years,
becoming a model for representative government

throughout the world. The Constitution has successfully
survived the years for two reasons. First,
rules of procedure
that
it
down
lays
and guarantees of rights and
must be observed even
liberties
times of crisis. Second,
in
it is
a "living'' document, capable of being revised to meet
changing times and circumstances.
U.S. Constitution
commemorative stamps
rate departments.
To FORM A MORE PERFECT UNION

The framers of the Constitution wished
ferent governments
to estabhsh
at the
a strong central government, one that could unite

the country and help
future.
it
that
was too
strong.
The memories of
the troubled years before the Revolution were
They knew
fresh.
that
unchecked power
still
in the
same time
trolled by
meet the challenges of the
itself.
The seven
At the same time, however, they feared a
government
Hence
a double security
arises to the rights of the people.

will
control each other,
99
Articles that
make up
system.
To help guard
any one part of the federal government from
ernment into three branches
between,
tinct
in the
to devise a sys-
which power
is
divided
words of James Madison, "two
governments"
government
in
the
states
dis-
and the federal
and then within each government.
In
strong, the framers divided the gov-
the
legislative
branch (Congress), the executive branch (the president and vice president), and the judicial branch
(the federal courts)
As
each with
specific powers.
a further safeguard, the framers wrote a system
of checks and balances into the Constitution (see
The Federalist Number 51, Madison described the
Chapter
advantages of such a system:
of each branch of government and the checks
5). Articles
I. II,
and
III
outline the
powers
and balances.
In
the
first
the compound republic of America,

power surrendered by the people is
divided
between two
distinct
govern-
ments, and then the portion allotted to

each subdivided
62
::
this
against tyranny and to keep
becoming too
The framers' response was
the first part
of the Constitution provide the blueprint for
ernment could lead
tem of government
dif-
that each will be con-
hands of individuals, groups, or branches of govto tyranny.
The
among
distinct
and sepa-
Articles
rights
I,
and
II,
and
III
outline the
responsibilities of the
legislative, executive,
branches.
and
judicial

AMENDING THE CONSTITUTION
Proposed by
Ratified by
CONGRESS
LEGISLATURES
two-thirds vote
of each house
of three fourths
of the states
1^
or
Amendment
added to the
Constitution
CONVENTIONS
IL-MJiaji.V^4.
held in three
fourths of
Congress
at the request of
two
or
NATIONAL
CONVENTION
called by
the states
thirds of the
state legislatures
A LIVING DOCUMENT
amendment
specified an
k4
Anticipating the need for the Constitution to adapt to changing conditions, the framers
process. But to avoid abuses, they deliberately
analyzing Why
IV
Article
ernment.
Among
amendment
the
states
process?
between the
and the federal gov-
the issues addressed are each
state's recognition
and citizens"
in
outlines the relations
and between the
rights, the
admission of new
by only 9
provision led
states, not all 13. (This
opponents of the Constitution
to
claim that
it
had
been adopted by unfair means.)
states,
in relation to the states.
Article
tion
of other states" public records
and the rights and responsibilities of the federal
government
the process difficult.
do you think the framers of the Constitution required that both
the Congress and the states be involved
states
made
specifies the process
by which the
Y* ROTECTING INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY

Opposition to a strong central government was in
Constitution can be amended. The framers
part a concern over states" rights.
purposely made the process slow and difficult.
rooted in the desire to protect individual liberties.
They feared
Constitution
that if the process
the fundamental
was too
easy, the
law of the land
would soon carry no more weight than
the
American
colonists
minor law passed by Congress.

Article VI includes one provision that
viduals against the
it
was
also
had always insisted on the pro-
tection of their civil liberties
most
But
power of
their rights as indi-
the government.
The
Articles of the Constitution contain
many impor-
On
a broad level,
tant guarantees of civil liberties.
powers and the system of checks
addressed the immediate concerns of the framers
the separation of
and two that have lasting significance. The short-
and balances help safeguard citizens against the
term provision promises that the United States
abuse of government power. But the Articles also
under the Constitution will honor
public debts
contain provisions that speak directly to an indi-
Confederation. The two
vidual's right to due process of law. For example.
entered into under the
all
long-term provisions declare the Constitution the
Section 9 of Article
supreme law of the land and prohibit religion
laws and
An
being used as a qualification for holding public
Article VII
ratification
is
the framers' attempt to ensure
of the Constitution. The Constitutional
Convention was summoned by the Congress

the Articles of Confederation.
Articles of Confederation,
approved by
be
all
appro\
Island, for example,
gates to Philadelphia
the Constitution
amendments had
13 states. Realizing that
difficult to get the
Rhode
Under
al
of
all
it
to
the
to
be
would
the states
had not even sent dele-
the framers specified that
would go
into effect after ratifica-
was not
prohibits both ex post facto
of attainder.
ex post facto law
the deed."
office.
amend
bills
Such a law
illegal
attainder
is
when
law
is
a law passed "after
sets a penalty for
was committed.
it
that punishes a
an act that
bill
person by
of
fine,
imprisonment, or seizure of property without a

court
trial. If
Congress had the power
to adopt bills
of attainder, lawmakers could punish any
American
at will,
and
that
person could do nothing
to appeal the sentence. Instead, the Constitution
provides that only the courts can impose punish-
ment
for unlawful acts,
and then only by following
the duly established law.
63
also protects a citi-
criticized the
government. To prevent such use of
The
this charge.
that
defines treason:
zen's right to the writ of habeas corpus.

writ of
habeas corpus
a legal
is
document
carefully
III
forces a jailer to release a person from prison
4%
unless the person has been formally charged with,

or convicted of, a crime.
The Constitution
that "the privilege of the writ of
shall not be suspended, unless
require
consist only
states
habeas corpus
when
in cases
rebellion or invasion the public safety
knew
No
The
son can be punished.
who merely
on the person's family.
AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION

Amendment
Year Enacted
1st
1791
Personal and
2nd
1791
Right to keep
Quartering of troops
Search and seizure; search warrants
Rights of accused persons
3rd
1791
1791
Subject
political
5th
1791
1791
Speedy
7th
1791
Jury
8th
1791
Bails, fines,
9th
1791
Rights of the people
lOth
1791
Powers of the
Nth
1798
1804
1865
1868
Suits against states
13th
14th
16th
17th
18th
19th
20th
penalty can be imposed
The
Articles pro-
tect
civil liberties
individuals
due
process of law.
trial
punishments
The bill of rights
states
Despite the safeguards written
Election of president and vice president
Abolition of slavery
Rights of citizens; privileges and immunities,
Extension of suffrage to black males
1870
1913
1913
1919
1920
1933
No
trial
due process, and equal protection

15th
99
by guaranteeing
freedoms
weapons
6th
12th
same overt Act,
open Court.
person accused of treason. Only the convicted per-
the charge of treason against persons
4th
be con-
shall
on the Testimony
Article also protects the innocent relatives of a
might bring
like.
Person
to the
in
rulers
persons they did not
the
into
refuseci
first
of
Articles
Constitution,
some
to
the
states at
ratify
framework because
it
the
did not
Income tax
Direct election of senators
offer greater protection to the
Prohibition on liquor
rights of individuals.
Women's
suffrage
Change
in dates for presidential and

congressional terms of office
after they
had been promised
21st
1933
Repeal of prohibition
22nd
1951
Two-term
added
23rd
1961
Right to vote
limit
in
on
presidential tenure
presidential elections for
Columbia
residents of the District of
banned
1964
1967
Poll tax
1971
Lowering of voting age to
1992
Legislative salaries
in
federal elections
Presidential disability and succession

1
They
finally agreed to ratification
that a bill of rights
24th
25th
26th
27th
shall
against them, or
The framers of
tyrants to get rid of
Such
two Witnesses
or on Confession
that the charge of treason
was an old device used by
War
victed of Treason unless
also gives special protec-
tion to people accused of treason.
levying
Aid and Comfort.
of
may
of
the Constitution
in
adhering to their Enemies, giving them
in
it."
The Constitution
Treason against the United States
would be
to the Constitution
by
amendment when Congress

was called
into session follow-
ing ratification.
In
1789 the
first
Congress
of the United States wrote the
THE AMENDMENT PROCESS

Constitution has only been
The supreme law of the land has proven very durable. The
amended 27 times
in
What
over 200 years.
is
consecutive amendments?
the longest intenral between ratification of two
ideals of the Declaration of
Independence into the

Rights, the
first
Bill of
10 amendments
to the Constitution.
The
Bill
of
Rights protects individuals
64
:^x^x ^y^y/y^<
^/,r^^>V
Contents of the Constitution

against any action by the federal
may
deprive them of
life, liberty,
government
PREAMBLE
that
or property with-
ARTICLES
out "due process of law."
Among
the guarantees of liberty in the Bill of
Rights, several are especially important.
Amendment guarantees freedom
First
of religion,
home. The
The
Article
II
The Executive Branch
171
Article
III
The
173
Legislative
Judicial
Relations
and punishment by the federal
Branch
Branch
Among
States
Amending the Constitution
Article
Fifth, Sixth,
and Eighth amendments protect individuals from

arbitrary arrest
Article IV
forbids unreasonable searches and
seizures of any person's
Article
The Fourth
speech, press, assembly, and petition.
Amendment
The
166
Article VI
Role of National Government
Article VII
Ratification
166
74
75
75
75
government.
AMENDMENTS
The Bill of Rights protects the

rights of individuals against
First
abuses of government power.

The
in 1791.
Bill of Rights
It
was
ratified
by the
Amendment
Second Amendment
Amendment
Third
177
177
177
states
has remained one of the best-known
Bill
of
Amendment
Fourth
177
Rights
features of the Constitution.
have turned
to
as individuals
document
in
it
for support
The American people

whenever
have seemed to be
American
their rights
in danger.
Fifth
Amendment
Sixth
Amendment
No
Amendment
Seventh
history, except, perhaps, the
177
177
177
Declaration of Independence, has been cherished
Eighth
Amendment
178
more deeply.
Ninth
Amendment
178
Tenth Amendment
178
Eleventh
Twelfth
Supreme Court
(from left) Antonin

Scalia, Ruth Bader Ginsburg, Anthony Kennedy,
John Paul Stevens, Chief Justice William Rehnquist,
Harry Blackmun, Sandra Day O'Connor, David
Souter, and Clarence Thomas meet with President
Clinton (center).
Amendment
Amendment
178
178
justices
Thirteenth
Amendment
179
Fourteenth
Amendment
179
Amendment
Fifteenth
Sixteenth
Amendment
Amendment
Seventeenth
Amendment
Eighteenth
Nineteenth
Twentieth
Amendment
Amendment
Amendment
Twenty-first
Amendment
Twenty-second
Twenty-third
Amendment
Twenty-fourth
Twenty-fifth
Amendment
Amendment
Twenty-sixth
Amendment
Twenty-seventh
Amendment
180
180
180
181
181
18!
182
182
183
183
183
184
184
65
HISTORICAL
Docu9ne9tt
TAte Gonstitution

of America
PREAMBLE
Preamble
The short and
dignified
Preamble
explains the goals of the
ment under the
the People of the United States, in
new govern-
W'eform a more perfect Union,
Constitution.
Order
to
establish Justice,
insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the
common
promote the general Welfare, and

secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our
Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution
defense,
for the United States of America.

Legislative
^.^
Article
ARTICLE
Branch
explains
how
the legislative
branch, called Congress,
is
The
legislative
purpose of the
chief
branch
is
made up
to
make
Section
in a
the laws. Congress
is
The large
wanted the membership of
lation.
The
entirely
small states
Section
The
problem of how the
solu-
shall consist of a Senate
The House of Representatives
2.
and the Electors
each State
in
requisite for Electors of the
be composed of
shall
the People of the several
shall
have the Qualifications
most numerous Branch of the State
Legislature.
No
to the
Person shall be a Representative
Age
who
shall not
have attained
of twenty-five Years, and been seven Years a Citizen of
states
were to be represented in Congress

was known as the Great Compromise.
which
Members chosen every second Year by
wanted every
state to have an equal vote.
tion to the
on popu-
States,
and House of Representatives.
States,
problem during the
Constitutional Convention.
Congress to be based
All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested
1.
Congress of the United
House
of the Senate and the
The decision to
have two bodies of government solved
states
organized.
of Representatives.
a difficult
and who
the United States,
shall not,
when
elected, be an inhabitant
of that State in which he shall be chosen.

Representatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned
c.
the several States
which may be included within
ing to their respective

to th e
whol e
Numbers, which
Numb e r
of
fr ee
rihall
among
Union, accord-
this
bo dotorminod by adding
P e rsons, including
bound
thoj^ e
S e rvice for q Term of Years, and excluding Indians not tax e d,

The number
is
of
members
of the
House
based on the population of the
indi-
vidual states. Each state has at least
representative.
House
is
in
1929.
If
each
size of the
member
of
all
oth e r Persons.
The
within three Years after the
actual
first
Enumeration
shall be
thr ee
made
Meeting of the Congress of the
one
United States, and within every subsequent Term of ten Years,
Law
such Manner as they shall by
435 members, set by
Congress
the
The current
fifths
to
of
direct.
in
The Number of
Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty Thousand, but
House represented only 30,000
American people,
states, the
as the Constitution
House would have more
than 6,000 members.
each State shall have
m e ration
to
shall
be
Least one Representative: and until such enu
at
mad e
th e Stat e
of
New
Hampshir e
bo entitled
choos e throo: Massachus e tts e ight; Rhod e Island and Providenc e
Plantations on e
Conn e cticut
fiv e ;
New
York
six;
Parts of the Constitution that have been ruled through are
no longer apply.
shall
Now
Jorsoy four;
no longer
in force or
^
x^r^^yry XT -f^Yy^*^* #^^r r^ ^w
^^^ ^
THE CONSTITUTION
D el uwuro
Ponnr ylvaniu e ight:

.
Carnhna
South Curohna
tivo:
When
one: Maryland six: Virginia t e n: North
and Goorgiu
'(wm.
three.
vacancies happen in the Representation from any State,
the Executive Authority thereof shall issue Writs of Election to
fill
such Vacancies.
The House of Representatives

other Officers: and shall have the sole
Section
The Senate of
3.
choose
shall
their
Speaker and
Power of Impeachment.
the United States shall be
of two Senators from each State, cho j.e n by the
composed
L e gir luturo
.
there of,
Every state has two senators. Senators

serve a six-year term, but only one
third of the senators reach the
for six Years;
and each Senator
Immediately
have one Vote.
shall
after they shall be
assembled
their
Consequence of
in
the first Election, they shall be divided as equally as
The Seats of
three Classes.
may be
into
terms every two years.
election, at least
tors stay
at the
in office.
end of
any
thirds of the sena-
This system ensures
that there are experienced senators
the Senators of the first Class shall be

office at
vacated
two
In
all
in
times.
Expiration of the second Year, of the second Class at
the Expiration of the fourth Year, and of the third Class at the
Expiration of the sixth Year, so that one third
second Year: and

duriuQ th e
if
R ec e ss
Vacanci e s happen by
th e r e of
Meeting of the
until tho next
such Vacanci e s.
who
Person shall be a Senator
shall not
have attained
to the
of thirty Years, and been nine Years a Citizen of the United
States,
for
fill
every
or oth e rwis e
Ex e cutiv e
Legislatur e which shall th e n
No
R e signation,
of the Logislatur e of any Stat e th e
may make temporary Appointm e nts
Age
may be chosen
and
who
which he
shall not.
when
elected, be an Inhabitant of that State
be chosen.
shall
The Vice President of the United States shall be President of the
The only duty
that the Constitution
assigns to the vice president
Senate, but shall have no Vote, unless they be equally divided.
is
to pre-
side over meetings of the Senate.
The Senate
shall
choose their other Officers, and also
President pro tempore, in the Absence of the Vice President, or
when
he shall exercise the Office of President of the United States.
The Senate
When
When
shall
sitting for that
have the sole Power
presidents have given their
more and
varied
responsibility.
Impeachments.
Purpose, they shall be on Oath or Affirmation.
the President of the United States
shall preside:
to try all
Modern
vice presidents
And no Person
is tried,
the Chief Justice
shall be convicted without the
Concurrence of two thirds of the Members present.
Judgment
in
Cases of Impeachment
shall not
extend further
than to removal from Office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy
The House charges

cial
as a court to decide
any Office of honor, Trust or Profit under the United States: but the
government
offi-
of wrongdoing, and the Senate acts

if
the
official
is
guilty.
Party convicted shall nevertheless be Hable and subject to Indictment.

Trial,
Judgment and Punishment, according

Section
for Senators
4.
to
Law.
The Times. Places and Manner of holding Elections
and Representatives,
shall
be prescribed in each State by
Congress has decided that elections

will
the Legislature thereof; but the Congress
may
at
any time by
Law make
or alter such Regulations, except as to the Places of choosing Senators.
The Congress
shall
assemble
at least
once
in
every Year, and
be held on the Tuesday following
Monday in November of evennumbered years. The Twentieth
the
first
Amendment
meet
in
states that
regular session
Congress
each year. The president
such Meeting shall be on the

shall
by
Law
first
Monday
appoint a different Day.
in
December, unless they
special session of
shall
on January
may
call
3 of
Congress whenever
necessary.
167
HISTORICAL
Document
Section
Each House
5.
its
Quorum
to
each shall constitute a
may
own Members, and
its
own
each have a code of ethics that

bers must follow.
It is
house of Congress to
the task of each

discipline
members. Each house keeps
its
Members
memits
two
such Manner, and under such
in
the Rules of
Proceedings, punish
its
for disorderly Behavior, and, with the
thirds, expel a
Each House
own
a journal,
authorized to compel the
House may provide.
Each House may determine
rules
The Senate and the House
may be
adjourn from day to day, and
Penalties as each
Congress makes most of
a Majority of
do Business; but a smaller Number
Attendance of absent Members,
of conduct.
Judge of the Elections,
shall be the
Returns and Qualifications of
Concurrence of
Member.
shall
keep a Journal of
its
Proceedings, and from
may
time to time publish the same, excepting such Parts as
in their
and a publication called the
Judgment require Secrecy; and
Congressional Quarterly records
what happens
The general
in
congressional sessions.
public can learn
representatives voted on
how
bills
their
House on any question
either
the Yeas and
Nays of
the
Desire of one
shall, at the
Members
fifth
of
of those
Present, be entered on the Journal.
by read-
Neither House, during the Session of Congress, shall, without
ing the Congressional Quarterly.
the Consent of the other, adjourn for
more than
three days, nor to
any
other Place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting.
Section
The Senators and Representatives
6.
Compensation for
The framers
of the Constitution v^^nt-
ed to protect members of Congress
from being arrested on

political
enemies
who
false
did not
They
shall in all Cases,
except Treason, Felony and Breach of the Peace, be privileged from

Arrest during their Attendance
want
to court for something they said

in
be ascertained by Law, and paid
out of the Treasury of the United States.
charges by
them to attend important meetings.

The framers also wanted to protect
members of Congress from being taken
speech or
their Services, to
shall receive a
Houses, and
in
at
the Session of their respective
going to and returning from the same; and for any
Speech or Debate
in either
House, they
be questioned
shall not
in
any
other Place.
in
No
a debate.
Senator or Representative
he was elected, be appointed to any
shall,
during the Time for which
civil
Office under the Authority
of the United States, which shall have been created, or the
Emoluments whereof
shall
have been increased during such time; and
no Person holding any Office under the United
Member of either House

The power of taxing is the responsibility of the House of Representatives.
Because members of the House are
elected every two years, the framers
felt
that representatives
the public and seek
its
would
listen
Section
Revenue
House of Representatives; but the Senate
Amendments
as
Every
to
approval before
during his Continuance in Office.
All Bills for raising
7.
on other
Bill
States, shall be a
shall originate in the
may propose
or concur with
Bills.
which
shall
have passed the House of
Representatives and the Senate, shall, before
it
become a Law, be
pre-
passing taxes.
sented to the President of the United States;

sign
in
it,
but
which
if
it
not he shall return
shall
it,
have originated,
If
he appro\ e he shall
with his Objections to that House
who
shall enter the
large on their Journal, and proceed to reconsider
it.
Objections
If after
Reconsideration two thirds of that House shall agree to pass the

it
shall
which
be
it
sent, together
it
shall
become
Law. But
if
approved by two thirds
in all
such Cases the Votes
of both Houses shall be determined by Yeas and Nays, and the
Names
against the Bill shall be entered
on the
of the Persons voting for and
168
Bill,
with the Objections, to the other House, by
shall likewise be reconsidered, and
of that House,
at
such
>^x^^ ^yy/^^/û^^^/y^^^^ 4^^^ f^yr^y7^^^^.
Y4^/i'4.y^^4
THE CONSTITUTION
Journal of each
House
respectively. If any Bill shall not be returned
by the President within ten
Days (Sundays excepted)
have been presented to him. the
Same
shall
be a Law.
after
it
shall
Manner
in like
The veto power of the president and

the
ability
of Congress to override a
presidential veto are
as if he
had signed
vent
Return, in which Case
its
it.
unless the Congress by their Adjournment preit
Every Order, Resolution, or Vote

the Senate
be a Law.
shall not
the United States:
be presented to the President of
shall
and before the Same
thirds of the Senate
8.
be
shall take Effect, shall

shall
be repassed by
and House of Representatives, according
and Limitations prescribed
Section
The Congress
in the
shall
Case of a
to
Bill.
have Power To lay and collect
Taxes, Duties. Imposts and Excises, to pay the Debts and provide
common Defense and
but
Duties, Imposts and Excises shall be uniform throughout the
general Welfare of the United States;
of the Constitution want-
ed a national government that was
tion
lists
The
last
the powers given to Congress.
sentence
170) contains the
United States:
clause,"
To borrow Money on
the credit of the United States:
elastic)
To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among

several States,
The framers
strong enough to be effective. This sec-
for the
all
the
Constitution.
which the Concurrence of
to
approved by him. or being disapproved by him.
the Rules
of the imporin
and House of Representatives may be necessary (except
on a question of Adjournment)
two
two
tant checks and balances
the
and with the Indian Tribes;
To establish an uniform Rule of Naturalization, and uni-
in
Section 8 (see page
famous
"elastic
which can be stretched

to
fit
many
(like
different circum-
stances. The clause was first disputed

when Alexander Hamilton proposed a
national bank. Thomas Jefferson said
that the Constitution did not give
form Laws on the subject of Bankruptcies throughout the United
Congress the power to
States:
bank. Hamilton argued that the bank
To coin Money,
and
fix the
regulate the Value thereof, and of foreign Coin,
Standard of Weights and Measures;
To provide
for the
was "necessary and proper" in order to

carry out other powers of Congress,
such as borrowing
Punishment of counterfeiting the Securities
and current Coin of the United
ing currency. This
the court system
in
establish Post Offices and post Roads;
To promote
money and
v.
regulat-
argument was tested

in
1819
States;
of McCulloch
To
establish a
Maryland,
in
the case
when Chief
Justice Marshall ruled in favor of the
the Progress of Science and useful Arts,
by secur-
ing for hmited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to
federal government.
Powers given to
the government by the "elastic clause"

are called implied powers.
their respective Writings
To
and Discoveries;
constitute Tribunals inferior to the
To define and punish
Piracies and Felonies
high Seas, and Offenses against the
To declare War.
supreme Court:
Law
grant Letters of
committed on the
of Nations;
Marque and
Reprisal, and
make
Rules concerning Captures on Land and Water:
that
To
raise
and support Armies, but no Appropriation of
Use
shall
be for a longer Term than two Years;
To provide and maintain
Money
to
a Navy;
Government and Regulation of
the land
for calling forth the Militia to execute the
Laws of
To make Rules
for the
and naval Forces:
To provide
the Union, suppress Insurrections and repel Invasions;
To provide
for organizing, arming,
and disciplining, the
and for governing such Part of them as
may
Militia.
be employed
in the
Service of the United States, reserving to the States respectively, the
69
HISTORICAL
Docuntent
Appointment of
the Officers, and the Authority of training the Militia
according to the discipline prescribed by Congress.
To exercise exclusive
Legislation in
Cases whatsoever, over
all
such District (not exceeding ten Miles square) as may, by Cession of

particular States, and the Acceptance of Congress,
the
Government of
over
become
the Seat of
the United States, and to exercise like Authority
Places purchased by the Consent of the Legislature of the
all
State in
which the Same
shall be, for the Erection of Forts.
Magazines, Arsenals, dock- Yards, and other needful Buildings;
And
To make
Laws which
all
shall
be necessary and proper for car-
rying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and
ed by
this Constitution in the
Government of
all
other Powers vest-
the United States, or in
any Department or Officer thereof.

If
Section
Congress has implied powers, then
there also must be limits to
its
powers.
9.
Th e Migration
any ot
of tn
th e States
tates
i!>
Section 9
lists
powers
now e xisting
xistmg
or Importation of huch P e r ion j qh
shall think
snail
that are denied
to the federal government. Several of
prohibit e d by th e
Congr e ss
prior to th e
propor to admit,
proper
Ye ar
Importation, not e xc ee ding t e n dollars for e ach
writ oi habeas corpus and prohibits
Privilege of the Writ of
hail not
be
hun
e ight
may bo imposed on such
dr e d and e ight, but a Tax or duty
United States from unjust treatment.
The
f^
on e thousand
the clauses protect the people of the
For instance, Section 9 guarantees the
'
P e rson.
Habeas Corpus
shall not be sus-
bills
of attainder and ex post facXo laws (see
pended, unless when
page 163).
Safety
may
require
in
Cases of Rebellion or Invasion the public
it.
No Bill of Attainder or ex post facto Law shall be passed.

No Capitation, or other direct. Tax shall be laid, unless
in
Proportion to the Census or Enumeration herein before directed to
be taken.
No Tax or Duty shall be

No Preference shall be
or
Revenue
to the Ports of
Vessels bound
to,
laid
on Articles exported from any
given by any Regulation of
State.
Commerce
one State over those of another: nor
shall
or from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay
Duties in another.
No Money
shall be
drawn from
the Treasury, but in
Consequence of Appropriations made by Law; and
a regular
Statement and Account of the Receipts and Expenditures of
Money shall be published from time to time.

No Title of Nobility shall be granted by
no Person holding any Office of
all
public
the United States:
Profit or Trust
under them,
And
shall,
without the Consent of the Congress, accept of any present.
Emolument.
Office, or Title, of any kind whatever, from any King,
Prince, or foreign State.

Section 10
lists
the powers that are
denied to the states.
In
our system of
federalism, the state and federal gov-
ernments have separate powers, share
some powers, and are denied other

powers. The states may not exercise
Section 10.
170
State shall enter into any Treaty, Alliance, or
Confederation; grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal; coin Money;
emit Bills of Credit; make any Thing but gold and silver Coin a
Tender
in
Payment of Debts; pass any
Bill
of Attainder, ex post facto
Law, or law impairing the Obligation of Contracts, or grant any
any of the powers that belong to

Congress.
No
of Nobility.
Title
\9y/?4.^d^, y^y<fjt ty>y<^^^?Y/^siyr'i^^^
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THE CONSTITUTION
No
State shall, without the Consent of the Congress, lay any
Imposts or Duties on Imports or Exports, except what

absolutely necessary for executing
Produce of
all
Laws
such
inspection Laws: and the net
its
Duties and Imposts, laid by any State on Imports or
Exports, shall be for the

all
may be
shall
Use of the Treasury of the United
States;
and
be subject to the Revision and Control of the
Congress.
No
State shall, without the Consent of Congress, lay
of Tonnage, keep Troops, or Ships of
War
any Duty
time of Peace, enter into
in
any Agreement or Compact with another State, or with a foreign

Power, or engage
in
War, unless actually invaded, or
such immi-
in
nent Danger as will not admit of delay.
ARTICLE
II
Section
The executive Power
1.
Term of
Each State
thereof
shall hold his Office during the
four Years, and. together with the Vice President, chosen for
same Term, be
the
in a President
may
direct, a
Number
such Manner as the Legislature
of Electors, equal to the whole
may be
of Senators and Representatives to which the State

the Congress: but
Number
entitled in
no Senator or Representative, or Person holding an
Office of Trust or Profit under the United States, shall be appointed
chief of the execu-
the job of the presi-
dent to enforce the laws. The framers
term of
office
selection to be different
members
El e ctors shall
m ee
of Congress.
same
which 4=1**- th e y
ono
at
not be an
e ast shall
And th e y shall make a

Number of Vot e s for each;
State with th e mselves.
and of
List of all the Persons voted for,

shall sign
and
from those of
They decided
on four-year terms, but they had

cult time agreeing
on how to
president and vice president.
framers
finally
a diffi-
select the
The
set up an electoral sys-
tem, which varies greatly from our
Amendment changed
The Twelfth
the process by
requiring that separate ballots be cast
whom
Ballot for two Persons, of

Inhabitant of th e
and vote by
in thoir roGpoctive States,
vice presi-
and manner of
electoral process today.
an Elector.
Th e
It is
wanted the president and

dent's
elected, as follows.
shall appoint, in
Executive Branch
The president is the
tive branch.
He
of the United States of America.
be vested
shall
th e
and transmit sealed
certify,
for president and vice president.
The
rise of political parties has since
changed the process even more.
to th e Seat
of th e Government of the United Stat e s, dir e ct e d to the Pr e sid e nt of

th e Senate.
The President of
Senate and House of
the Senate shall, in th e Presence of tho
R e pr e sentativ e s,
the Vot e s shall th e n b e count e d.
Number
Numb e r of Electors
who have
th e n tho
all
the Certificat e s,
The Person having
of Votes shall b e th e Pr e sid e nt,
of tho whole
one
open
if
such
Number be
appoint e d; and
if th e re
Hous e of Representativ e s
Ballot on e of th e
for Pre sid e nt;
shall
and
if
a Majority
bo more than
Numb e r
such majority, and havo an equal
and
th e greatest
of Votes,
immediately choose by
no P e rson hav e a Majority,
then from th e fiv e high e st on th e List th e said House shall in lik e
Manner chooso
th e Pr e sident.
But
in
choosing
th e Pr e sid e nt, tho
Votes shall bo taken by States, th e Representation from e ach State
having on e Vote;
A quorum
M e mber or M e mb e
rs
all
from two
for this
Purpose shall consist of
thirds of the States,
and a Majority of
tho States shall b e n e c e ssary

jary to a L-noic
Choic e In
in e v ery Case, after tho
Choice of
th e Pr e sident, th e
Person having th e gr e atest
Votes of tho Electors shall b e th e Vic e Pr e sident. But
if
Number
of
there should
mm
171
W/ ^/4i'/^.
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\^vyJyi
HISTORICAL
Uocument
two or more who have oqual Voter the
r e main
. ,
from them by Ballot the Vice Pro

1845 Congress set the
In
after the first
Monday
in
first
Tuesday
November
of
every fourth year as the general election date for selecting presidential elec-
No
at the
. ,
John
F.
hull
choow
time of th e Adopti
Adoption of
thijj
Con ititution.
j
shall
be
was
Kennedy; he was 43 years old
when he was
i.
Person except a natural born Citizen, or a Citiiion of the
Unit e d Stat e r
elected president
LSonuto
.idoni.
The Congress may determine the Time of choosing the

Electors, and the Day on which they shall give their Votes; which
Day shall be the same throughout the United States.
tors.
The youngest
inaugurated. (Theodore
Roosevelt was 42 when he assumed
eligible to the Office of President; neither shall
who
to that Office
shall not
have attained
any Person be eligible
to the
Age
of thirty-five
Years, and been fourteen Years a Resident within the United States.
office after the assassination of
McKinley.)
The
was Ronald Reagan; he was 69 years

old
In
oldest elected president
when he was
inaugurated.
Case of the Removal of the President from Office, or of
his
Death, Resignation, or Inability to discharge the Powers and Duties

of the said Office, the
Same
may by Law
the Congress
shall
devolve on the Vice President, and
provide for the Case of Removal. Death.
Resignation or Inability, both of the President and Vice President,

declaring what Officer shall then act as President, and such Officer
shall act accordingly, until the Disability
be elected.
shall
Emolument means
In
"salary,
salary at
Times, receive for his Services, a
shall, at stated
Compensation, which
shall neither
be increased nor diminished dur-
$200,000 per year. The presi-
dent also receives an expense account

of $50,000 per year.
of office
is
ing the Period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not
receive within that Period any other
The president
must pay taxes on both.
The oath
The President
or payment."
1969 Congress set the president's
be removed, or a President
States, or
the United
any of them.
Before he enter on the Execution of his Office, he shall take the
administered to
the president by the chief justice of the
Emolument from
following Oath or Affirmation:
do solemnly swear
"I
(or affirm)
United States. Washington added "So

help me, God." All succeeding presi-
that
will faithfully execute the Office of President of the United
States,
dents have followed this practice.
and
will to the best of
my
Ability, preserve, protect
and defend
the Constitution of the United States."
The framers wanted to make sure
an elected representative of the people

controlled the nation's military.
the president
is
in
charge of the army,
the United States
will
Army and Navy

States,
may
navy, air force, marines, and coast
if
The President
2.
shall
be
Commander
in
Chief of the
of the United States, and of the Militia of the several
Today
guard. Only Congress can decide,

ever,
Section
that
how-
declare
war. This section also contains the basis
called into the actual Service of the United States; he
require the Opinion, in writing, of the principal Officer in each
of the executive Departments, upon any Subject relating to the Duties
of their respective Offices, and he shall have
Power
to grant
Reprieves and Pardons for Offenses against the United States, except
for the formation of the president's

cabinet. Every president, starting with
George Washington, has appointed
when
in
Cases of Impeachment.
He
cabinet.
shall
the Senate, to
have Power, by and with the Advice and Consent of
make
Treaties, provided
two
thirds of the Senators
present concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the Advice
and Consent of the Senate,
shall appoint
Ambassadors, other public
Ministers and Consuls. Judges of the supreme Court, and

Officers of the United States,
erwise provided
Congress
172
for,
whose Appointments
and which
may by Law
vest the
shall
as they think proper, in the President
Senate.
in the
Heads of Departments.
other
be established by Law: but the
Appointment of such
Most of the president's appointments

to office must be approved by the
all
are not herein oth-
alone, in the
inferior Officers,
Courts of Law. or

^^4^yi^4 y^X^^y>/^/^^^Jy/ir^^ ^:^\ ^^^âgvv^r
THE CONSTITUTION
The President
have Power
shall
to
fill
up
Vacancies that
all
may
happen during the Recess of the Senate, by granting Commissions

which
End of their next
shall expire at the
Section
He
3.
shall
from time
Session.
time give to the Congress
to
Information of the State of the Union, and
recommend
to their
Every year the president presents to
Congress
In this
Consideration such Measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he
may, on extraordinary Occasions, convene both Houses, or
either of them,
and
in
Case of Disagreement between them, with
may
Respect to the Time of Adjournment, he
Time
Section
4.
The
all
the legislative plans for the coming

year. This clause states that
president's duties
is
one of the
to enforce the
laws.
as he shall think proper; he shall receive
Commission
Union message.
adjourn them to such
other public Ministers; he shall take Care that the
executed, and shall
a State of the
message, the president explains
Ambassadors and
Laws be
faithfully
the Officers of the United States.
President, Vice President and
all civil
Officers
of the United States, shall be removed from Office on Impeachment
and Conviction
for,
of.
Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and
Misdemeanors.
ARTICLE
Judicial
III
Section
1.
The
judicial
Power of
the United States, shall be
vested in one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the
Branch
The Articles of Confederation did not

make any provisions for a federal court
system.
One
of the
first
things that the
Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The Judges,
framers of the Constitution agreed
both of the supreme and inferior Courts, shall hold their Offices dur-
upon was to set up a national judiciary.

With all the laws that Congress would
be enacting, there would be a great
need for a branch of government to
ing good Behavior, and shall,

Services, a Compensation,
at
which
stated Times, receive for their
shall not
be diminished during their
interpret the laws.
Continuance in Office.
Section
2.
The judicial Power
and Equity, arising under

States,
to all
shall be
all
Cases, in
Laws of
Law
the United
made, under
their
Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public
Ministers and Consuls;

Jurisdiction;
extend to
this Constitution, the
and Treaties made, or which
Authority;
to all
to Controversies to
State
and Citiz e ns of another
to Controversies
Cases of admiralty and maritime
which the United States
between two or more
between Citizens of
shall
same
State claiming
the Judiciary Act
establishment of lower courts, such as

district courts, circuit
courts of appeals,
and various other federal courts. The

judicial
system provides a check on the

branch;
it
can declare a law
unconstitutional.
be a
between a
between Citizens of
State;
the
States;
In
789, Congress provided for the
legislative
Party;
States;
shall
of
different
Lands under
Grants of different States, and between a State, or the Citizens there

of,
and foreign
In
all
States, Citizens or Subj e cts.
Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and
Consuls, and those in which a State shall be Party, the supreme Court
shall
have original Jurisdiction. In
tioned, the
Law and
supreme Court
fact,
the other Cases before
have appellate Jurisdiction, both as
shall
to
make.
Trial of all Crimes, except in
Cases of Impeachment,
be by Jury; and such Trial shall be held
Crimes
men-
with such Exceptions, and under such Regulations as
the Congress shall
The
shall
all
in the State
shall
where the said
have been committed; but when not committed within
173
^^^^^^^y/ryr'^'r/ij'^j'^
HISTORICAL
*uy >v^/^îr.
Aw/^Â^Zr/i
Document
any
State, the Trial shall be at
may by Law have

Congress has the power to decide the
punishment for treason, but it can
Section
in levying
Treason against the United States,
3.
War
such Place or Places as the Congress
directed.
shall consist
only
against them, or in adhering to their Enemies, giving
punish only the guilty person. Corruption
of blood refers to punishing the family of

a
person
It is
who
has committed treason.
expressly forbidden by the
them Aid and Comfort. No Person
shall
be convicted of Treason
unless on the Testimony of two Witnesses to the
on Confession
in
same overt
Act. or
open Court.
Constitution.
The Congress
have Power to declare the Punishment of
shall
Treason, but no Attainder of Treason shall work Corruption of Blood,

or Forfeiture except during the Life of the Person attainted.
The
ARTICLE
States
must honor the
States
laws, records,
and court decisions of other

person cannot escape a
IV
Section
Full Faith and Credit shall be given in each State to
I.
states.
legal obligation
by moving from one state to another.
the public Acts, Records, and judicial Proceedings of every other

State.
in
And
may by
the Congress
general
Laws
which such Acts, Records and Proceedings
prescribe the
shall
Manner
be proved, and
the Effect thereof.
Section
The Citizens of each
2.
State shall be entitled to
all
Privileges and Immunities of Citizens in the several States.
A
Crime,
Person charged
who
shall flee
in
any State with Treason, Felony, or other
from
Justice,
and be found
in
another State,
on Demand of the executive Authority of the State from which
shall
he fled, be delivered up. to be removed to the Slate having

Jurisdiction of the Crime.
No P e rson
Laws
Law
states to the Union.
of people living
in
When
an area that
is
b e d e liv e red up on Claim of
or Labor
may
new
state,
write a state constitution and offer
stitution
must set up
in
Congress
approves of the state constitution, the

state
is
admitted as a
member
New
States
may be
Union; but no new State
shall
admitted by the Congress into
be formed or erected within the
Jurisdiction of any other State; nor any State be formed by the
Congress.
The Congress
a representative
a majority of
such S e rvic e
to
any way contradict the federal

If
th e Partv to
Senic e or Labor,
whom
Consent of the Legislatures of the States concerned as well as of the

it
state con-
form of government and must not

Constitution.
th e
Junction of two or more States, or Parts of States, without the
The people then
Congress for approval. The
3.
und e r
not
asks Congress for per-
it
mission to do so.
this
b e du e
Cons e qu e nc e of any
or Regulation th e r e in, b e discharg e d from such
Section
group
part of an existing state wishes to form

a
thoroof. escaping into unothor. shall, in
but shall
Section 3 permits Congress to admit
new
h e ld to S e rvic e of Labor in on e Stat e
of the
shall
have Power to dispose of and make
all
needful Rules and Regulations respecting the Territory or other
Property belonging to the United States; and nothing
in this
Constitution shall be so construed as to Prejudice any Claims of the
United States, or of any particular State.
United States of America.
Section
this
4.
The United
States shall guarantee to every State in
Union a Republican Form of Government, and
shall protect
each
of them against Invasion; and on Application of the Legislature, or of

the Executive
(when
domestic Violence.
74
the Legislature cannot be convened) against
^^?^>^4^4 y'Af^^ ^yy/^îgX^^ZAf^^^
-^vr^r^^^r^
THE CONSTITUTION
ARTICLE V
The Amendment Process
The Congress, whenever two
thirds of both
Houses
shall
deem
ized just
it
necessary, shall propose
Amendments
the Application of the Legislatures of

shall call a
Convention
two
thirds of the several States,
Amendments, which,
for proposing
on
to this Constitution, or,
in either
would
Constitution,
when
several States, or
all
ratified
Intents and Purposes, as Part of this
by the Legislatures of three fourths of the
by Conventions
in three fourths thereof, as the
one
Mode of Ratification may be proposed by the Congress;

Provided that no Amendment which may b e mad e prior to th e Ye ar
One thour and e ight hundred and eight ihall in any Mann e r affe ct th e
or the other
how
real-
enduring the Constitution
be, but they did
make
provisions
for changing or adding to the
They
Constitution.
make
Case, shall be valid to
may not have
America's founders
it
did not
two
Constitution. There are
ways
in
want to
easy to change the

different
which changes can be proposed
to the states and
two
different
ways
in
which states can approve the changes

and make them part of the
Constitution (see the chart on page
163).
first
and fourth Claus e s
that
no State, without
Ninth S e ction of
in th e
its
th e first Articl e
Consent, shall be deprived of
its
and
equal
Suffrage in the Senate.
ARTICLE
National Supremacy
VI
All Debts contracted and
Engagements entered
into,
before the
One
of the biggest problems facing the
delegates to the Constitutional
Adoption of
this Constitution, shall
be as valid against the United
States under this Constitution, as under the Confederation.
This Constitution, and the
Laws of
Convention was the question of what
would happen
the United States
which
Treaties made, or
which
if
a state law
national law conflicted.
would be followed?
shall
be made
shall
be made, under the Authority of the United States, shall be the
supreme
bound
in
Law
Pursuance thereof; and
all
of the Land; and the Judges in every State shall be
thereby, any
Thing
in the Constitution or
Laws of any
the Contrary notwithstanding.
cial
those questions.
several State Legislatures, and
all
The
When
a national
and
Constitution
is
The
the supreme law of the

is
often called the
"supremacy clause."
executive and judi-
Officers, both of the United States and of the several
be bound by Oath or Affirmation, to support
the
decided?
state law disagree, the national law
land. This clause
The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and
Members of the
Who
second clause of Article VI answers
overrides the state law.
State to
and a
Which law
States, shall
this Constitution; but
no
religious Test shall ever be required as a Qualification to any Office
or public Trust under the United States.
ARTICLE
The
VII
Ratification
Ratification of the Conventions of nine States, shall be suf-
The
for
ficient for the
Establishment of
this Constitution
between the States
so ratifying the Same.
DONE
in
Articles of Confederation called
all
3 states to
to the Articles.
approve any revision
The Constitution
required that the vote of 9 out of the
Convention by the Unanimous Consent of the States
would be needed to ratify the

The first state to ratify
was Delaware, on December 7, 787.
1
3 states
Constitution.
present the Seventeenth
Day
of September in the Year of our Lord
one thousand seven hundred and Eighty seven and of the
The
Independence of the United States of America the Twelfth. IN WIT-
was Rhode
on May 29,
NESS whereof We
have hereunto subscribed our Names.
years
George Washington
President
and deputy from
last state
to ratify the Constitution
Island,
1
which
790, almost
finally did
two and
so
a half
later.
Virginia
liMI
175
HISTORICAL
Document
New
Hampshire
Delaware
John Langdon
George Read
Nicholas Gilman
Gunning Bedford, Jn
John Dickinson
Massachusetts
Nathaniel
Riifiis
Richard Bassett
Gorham
Jacob Broom
King
Mar>land
Connecticut
James
Mc Henry
William Samuel Johnson
Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer
Roger Sherman
Daniel Carroll
New
Virginia
York
Alexander Hamilton
John Blair
James Madison,
Jr.
New Jersey
William Livingston
North Carolina
David Brearley
William Blount
William Paterson
Richard Dobbs Spaight
Jonathan Dayton
Hugh Williamson
Pennsylvania
South Carolina
Benjamin Franklin
John Rutledge
Thomas
Charles CotesMonh Pinckney
Mifflin
Robert Morris
Charles Pinckney
George Clymer
Pierce Buttler
Thomas FitzSimons
Jared Ingersoll
Georgia
James Wilson
William Few
Gouvemeur Morris
Abraham Baldwin
Attest: William Jackson, Secretarv
Bill
One
of Rights
of the conditions set by several
states for ratifying the Constitution
the inclusion of a
Bill
of Rights.
was
people feared that a stronger central
government might take away

rights of the
anteed
in
THE AMENDMENTS
Many
basic
ARTICLES
in addition to,
and Amendment of the Constitution
of the United States of America, proposed b\ Congress, and ratified
people that had been guar-
state constitutions.
If
the
b> the Legislatures of the several states, pursuant to the
of the original Constitution.
We the
[The First through Tenth amendments, now known as the
people
were
truly
meanc
then the rights of the people needed to
be protected.
Rights, were
proposed on September
on December
176
fifth Article
three words that begin the preamble.
15, 1791. J
25, 1789.
and declared
Bill
in
of
force
\9^/?4.^^y4 y^y^^^ ^'y>/^^'^^>/^r7^^^
/>^y^vâvv^g^.
THE CONSTITUTION
First
Amendment
The
Congress
dom
make no law
shall
respecting an establishment of
reli-
Amendment
First
protects free-
of speech and thought, and forbids
Congress to make any law "respecting

gion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom
an establishment of religion" or
of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to
restraining the
assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.
gion as one chooses.
reli-
Amendment
Second
freedom to practice
well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a
free State, the right of the people to
keep and bear Arms,
shall not
be
infringed.
Amendment
Third
No
Soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house,
without the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner
to
be prescribed by law.
Amendment
Fourth
The
right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses,
home
not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but
upon probable cause,
with a search warrant,
which allows the law
papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall
may enter
police officer or sheriff
person's
officer to look for
evidence that could convict
someone
of
committing a crime.
supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the

place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.
Amendment
The
No
ments describe the procedures that
Fifth
person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise
Fifth, Sixth,
and Seventh amend-
courts must follow
infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand

Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the
Militia,
shall
when
time of
War
or public danger; nor
any person be subject for the same offense
jeopardy of
to
in actual service in
life
to
be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of
due process of law; nor
Amendment
trying people
Fifth
guarantees that no one
can be put on
trial
for a serious crime
unless a grand jury agrees that the evi-
be twice put
in
or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case
property, without
when
accused of crimes. The
life, liberty,
or
shall private property
be
dence
a
justifies
doing so.
It
also says that
person cannot be tried twice for the
same crime.
taken for public use, without just compensation.
Sixth
Amendment
In
all
The
criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to
trial
a speedy and public
trial,
by an impartial jury of the
State and district
wherein the crime shall have been committed, which

have been previously ascertained by law, and
to
and
person must be
Seventh
Amendment
exceed twenty dollars, the right of
trial
by jury
which the crime was
Amendment
compulsory process for obtaining witnesses
where the value
district in
states that an accused
and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defense.
law,
and a
by a jury chosen from the state
be informed of the
his favor,
common
several
trial
committed. The Sixth
told
In Suits at
Amendment makes
district shall
nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have
Sixth
promises, including a prompt
in
in controversy shall
shall
be preserved.
why he or
she
is
also
being tried and
promises that an accused person has

the right to be defended by a lawyer.
The Seventh Amendment guarantees a

trial by jury in cases that involve more
than $20, but in modern times, usually
much more money is at stake before a
case
is
heard
in
federal court.
177
HISTORICAL
Document
and no
fact tried
by a jun'
shall
be othervîse reexamined
in
any Court
common
of the United States, than according to the rules of the
lau.
Amendment
Eighth
Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines

imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments
The Ninth and Tenth amendments

were added because not every right
Amendment
Ninth
of
inflicted.
The enumeration
in the Constitution,
of certain
rights, shall not
the people or of the states could be

listed in
be construed
the Constitution.
to
deny or disparage others retained by the people.
Amendment
Tenth
The powers not delegated

Constitution, nor prohibited by
it
to the
United States by the
to the States, are reserved to the
States respectively, or to the people.
Eleventh
Amendment
[Proposed March
The
Judicial
to extend to
any
4.
1794: declared ratified January
power of
suit in
8.
1798)
the United States shall not be construed
law or equity, commenced or prosecuted
against one of the United States by Citizens of another State, or by
Citizens or Subjects of any Foreign State.
Amendment
The Twelfth Amendment changed the
Twelfth
election procedure for president and
[Proposed December
vice president. This
amendment
became necessary because of the

growth of political parties. Before this
amendment, electors voted without
distinguishing between president and
vice president.
Whoever
received the
most votes became president, and

whoever received the next highest
number of votes became vice president.
confusing election
resulted
in
in
800, which
Thomas Jefferson's becomcaused this amendment
ing president,
The
9,
1803: declared ratified September 25, 1804
Electors shall meet in their respective states and vote by bal-
lot for President
and Vice President one of whom,
be an inhabitant of the same
stale
w ith
at least, shall
themselves: they shall
and
their ballots the person voted for as President,
lists
all
persons voted for as President, and of
as Vice President, and of the
number of votes
all
in
in distinct ballots
the person voted for as Vice President, and the> shall
of
not
name
make
distinct
persons voted for
which
for each,
lists
they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the gov-
ernment of the United States, directed
to be proposed.
Senate:
The President of the Senate
Senate and House of Representatives, open

votes shall then be counted:
to the President of the
shall, in the
all
the certificates and the
The person having
of votes for President, shall be the President,

majority of the whole
number of
presence of the
the greatest
if
number
such number be a
Electors appointed: and
if
no person
have such majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers
not exceeding three on the
list
shall
of those voted for as President, the
choose immediately, by
ballot, the
President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by

states, the representation
from each
for this purpose shall consist of a
of the
178
Slates,
and a majority of
state
having one vote: a quorum
member or members from two

all
thirds
the states shall be necessar>' to a
Â^.
(^/V^4^^^V^
^^y>A^ûyîyr'iT^^
t^yr^y^^^^^
THE CONSTITUTION
choice.
And if th e Hou
wh e n e s e r the
f.
Pro idtMU
i.
before th e fourth duy of

li
hiill
act a i. Pro j. ident. u
di ii ahiHty
ii
in the
'.
of choico
March noxt
of the Pre ident;

i.
of R e pror ontQtivor
riiiht
i.
hul
cl
choo j.e
hnll not
e vitKi.
'
ft)llowing. th e n th e
V'^ i
upon
thorn,
c e Pr e^.i d e nt
cu o of the death or other con titutional

ii
^.
The person having
the greatest
votes as Vice President, shall be the Vice President,
if
number of
such number be
whole number of Electors appointed, and
a majority of the
if
son have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the
no perlist,
the
Senate shall choose the Vice President; a quorum for the purpose shall
consist of
two
of the whole
whole number of Senators, and a majority
thirds of the
number
be necessary to a choice. But no person
shall
constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to

that
of Vice President of the United States.
Thirteenth
Amendment
Although some slaves had been freed
[Proposed January 31, 1865; declared
ratified
December
18,
during the Civil
1865]
War,
slavery
was not
abolished until the Thirteenth
Section
Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as
1.
a punishment for crime
whereof the party
shall
victed, shall exist within the United States, or
Amendment took
effect.
have been duly con-
any place subject
to
to enforce this article
by
their jurisdiction.
Section
Congress
2.
shall
have power
appropriate legislation.
Fourteenth
Amendment
[Proposed June
Section
13,
1866; declared ratified July 28, 1868]
All persons
1.
In
bom
national
or naturalized in the United States
and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United

States
1833 Chief Justice John Marshall
ruled that the
and of the State wherein they
reside.
No
State shall
make
or
citizens of the
of
life, liberty,
United States; nor shall any State deprive any person

or property, without due process of law; nor deny to
any person within

Section
eral States
2.
states
were
its
jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.
Representatives shall be apportioned
among
state
able to keep African
Americans from becoming state

If
African Americans
citi-
were not
cit-
were not protected by the

Rights. The Fourteenth
izens, they
Bill
of
Amendment
defines citizenship and
prevents states from interfering

rights of citizens of the
in
the
United States.
the sev-
according to their respective numbers, counting the whole
number of persons
when
of Rights limited the
governments. This ruling meant that
zens.
enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of
Bill
government but not the
in
each State, excluding Indians not tax e d. But
the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for
President and Vice President of the United States, Representatives in
Congress, the Executive and Judicial officers of a State, or the

bers of the Legislature thereof,
tants of
is
mem-
denied to any of the mal e inhabi-
such State, being tw e nty one years of age. and citizens of the
United States, or
in
any way abridged, except for participation
in
rebellion, or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be
reduced
in the proportion
whole number of mal e
shall bear to the
age
in
which the number of such mal e

citizens
citizens
tw e nty on e y e ars of
such State.
Section
3.
No
person shall be a Senator or Representative in
79
7VV>VV^vv>7
HISTORICAL
Document
Congress, or elector of President and Vice President, or hold an\
office, civil or military,
under the United States, or under any State,
who, having previously taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or

as an officer of the United States, or as a
ture, or as
member of any
State legisla-
an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the
Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection
or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies

thereof.
But Congress may by a vote of two thirds of each House,
remove such
disability.
Section
The
4.
validity of the public debt of the United Slates.
authorized by law. including debts incurred for payment of pensions
and bounties for services

shall not
shall
in
suppressing insurrection or rebellion,
be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State
assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred
in aid
of insurrec-
tion or rebellion against the United States, or any cluim for th e lo
e mancipation of any
shall
be held
illegal
r. lav e :
but
all
or
such debts, obligations and claims
and void.
The Congress
Sections.
'i fi
shall
have power
to enforce,
by
appropriate legislation, the provisions of this article.
The
Fifteenth
Amendment extended
the right to vote to African American
Fifteenth
Amendment
[Proposed February 26, 1869; declared
ratified
March
30, J 870
males.
Section
shall not
The
1.
Section
The Sixteenth Amendment made

the income tax described
in
legal
Article
I.
United States to vote
be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State
on account of race,
cle
right of citizens of the
The Congress
2.
by appropriate
Sixteenth
color, or previous condition of servitude.

shall
have power to enforce
this arti-
legislation.
Amendment
[Proposed July
12,
1909; declared ratified February 25, 1913]
The Congress
shall
have power
to lay
and collect taxes on
incomes, from whatever source derived, without apportionment among

the several States, and without regard to any census or enumeration.
The Seventeenth Amendment required

that senators be elected directly by the
people instead of by the state
Seventeenth
Amendment
[Proposed
May
13,
1912; declared ratified
May 31,
191 3
legisla-
ture.
The Senate of
the United States shall be
composed of two
Senators from each State, elected by the people thereof, for six years:
and each Senator
shall
have one vote. The electors
in
each Slate shall
have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous

branch of the State legislatures.
When
vacancies happen in the representation of any State in
the Senate, the executive authority of such State shall issue writs of
election to
180
fill
such vacancies: Provided, That the legislature of any
^^^
\'^^/^4.i^^y.
^y>/,^Û^^^ly^^^^
^\
Y^4rf^yiW^^^.
THE CONSTITUTION
may empower
State
appointments
Thi
t
until the
may direct.
am e ndm e nt
legislature
tion or
the executive thereof to
'i
i.
people
fill
hall not
bo
make temporary
the vacancies by election as the
'i
o con
e rm of any S e nator chos e n befor e
t^
tru e d as to affect the oloc
it
b e com e;* valid
i\ \\
part of
the Coniititution.
Eighteenth
Amendment
[Proposed December
18,
Although many people
1917; declared ratified January 29, 1919;
repealed by the Twenty-first Amendment

Section
December
5,
1933]
Aft e r one y e ar from th e ratification of this article th e
1.
felt
that
was good for the health and

welfare of the American people, the
amendment was repealed 14 years
Prohibition
later.
manufacture, oalo. or transportation of intoxicating liquors within, th e

importation ther e of into, or the exportation th e r e of from th e Unit e d
States
and
purpos e s
all
Section
curr e nt
boon
e rritory subject to th e jurisdiction thoroof for bev e rag e
h e r e by prohibit e d.
is
Th e Congr e ss and
2.
pow e r
to entorc
enforce
e tnis
this articl e
'
This
Section
3.
ratifi e d
as an
of tho
articl e shall
am e ndm e nt
the several States shall have con
appropriat e l e gislationbv
by appropnat
b e inop e rativ e unl e ss
to th e Constitution
it
by the
have
shall
legislature s
Stat e s, as provided in th e Constitution, within sev e n
s e v e ral
y e ars from th e dat e of th e submission h e r e of to th e States by th e
Congre ss.
Nineteenth Annendment
[Proposed June
Abigail
4,
Adams was
disappointed that
the Declaration of Independence and
1919; declared ratified August 26, 1920]
the Constitution did not specifically
The
be
right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not
denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account

of sex.
women. It took almost 50

much campaigning by
women's suffrage groups for women
include
finally
Congress
shall
have power
years and
to
achieve voting privileges.
by appropriate
to enforce this article
legislation.
Twentieth Annendment
[Proposed March
2,
the original Constitution, a newly
In
1932; declared ratified February
6,
elected president and Congress did not
1933]
take office
Section
end
at
The terms of
1.
noon on
the President and Vice President shall
the 20th day of January, and the terms of Senators and
Representatives
at
noon on the 3rd day of January, of the years
in
fied;
and the terms of their successors

Section
year,
2.
if this article
shall
begin
at
rati-
shall then begin.
The Congress shall assemble
and such meeting
had not been
at least
once
in
every
noon on the 3rd day of January,
Section
3.
If, at
4,
which was
November
elec-
The officials who were leaving

office were called "lame ducks" because
little
four months.
influence during those
The Twentieth
Amendment changed the date that the

new president and Congress take
office. Members of Congress now take
office
unless they shall by law appoint a different day.
March
tion.
they had
which such terms would have ended
until
four months after the
on January
3,
and the president
takes office on January 20.
the time fixed for the beginning of the term of
the President, the President elect shall have died, the Vice President
elect shall
become
President. If a President shall not have been cho-
sen before the time fixed for the beginning of his term, or
President elect shall have
if
the
failed to qualify, then the Vice President
181
HISTORICAL
Document
elect shall act as President until a President shall
may by law provide
the Congress
have qualified: and
for the case wherein neither
a President elect nor a Vice President elect shall have qualified,
declaring
who
is
who
and such persons
to act shall be selected,
until a President or
Section
Vice President shall have qualified.
may choose
Representatives
from
whom
whenever
a President
for the case of
House of
the
the right of choice
have devolved upon them, and for the case of the death of any
of the persons from
whenever
whom
may choose
the Senate
the right of choice shall ha\ e de\
Section
S e ction
5.
Octob e r following
b e en
which one
in
shall act accordingly
The Congress may by law provide
4.
the death of any of the persons
shall
manner
shall then act as President, or the
!>
and 2
Section
6.
ratifi e d
as an
Thi!> articl e
'.
oh ed upon them.
tuUo offoct on the* 15th day of
ihull
of this
th t? ratification
a Vice President
articl e
hall b e inoporutivo unlos
am e ndm e nt
to th e Conr.titution
bv
;)
ohall
it
th e
havo
e gii lature r
of thre e fourths of the sovoral Stat e s within levon yoars from th e date
'
of
The Twenty-first Amendment is the

only amendment that has been ratified
its
submission.
Twenty-first
Amendment
[Proposed February 20, 1933; declared
ratified
December 5, 1933]
by state conventions rather than by
Section
state legislatures.
The eighteenth
1.
Constitution of the United States
Section
article of
amendment
hereby repealed.
is
The transportation or importation
2.
Territory, or possession
to the
any State.
into
of the United States for delivery or use there-
in of intoxicating liquors, in violation of the
laws thereof,
is
hereby
prohibited.
Section
boon
This
3.
ratifi e d as
an
articl e shall
am e ndment
th e sev e ral Stat e s, as
b e inop e rativ e unl e ss
to the Constitution b>
provid e d
in
it
shall
hav e
conv e ntions
th e Constitution, within
in
seven
years from th e dat e of the submission h e r e of to th e Statos by the
Congre ss.
From
the time of President
Washington's administration,
it
was
Twenty-second
Amendment
[Proposed March
24, 1947: declared ratified
custom for presidents to serve no
more
than
two terms
D. Roosevelt, however, was elected to
The Twenty-second
Amendment made into law the old custom of a two-term limit for each presi-
four terms.
dent,
if
Section
of office. Franklin
reelected.
President
No
1.
more
March
no person who has held the
President, or acted as President, for
office of the President
more
apply to any p e rson holding
mav be
th e
shall
th e office
of President
when
'.
hall not
this Articl e
Congress, and shall not pre e nt any p e rson

'
which
ii
id e nt.
this Article
to
be elected to the
than once. But this Article
holding th e offic e of Pro
e rm within
office of
more than two years of a term
which some other person was elected President
th e
1951
person shall be elected to the office of the
than twice, and
was propos e d by
1,
who
or acting as President, during
becom e s
operativ e from holding
the offic e of Pre ident or acting as President during th e remaind e r of

-.
such t e rm.
182
[vv>v>'^^; yÂf>. /'yyA^^v^^siLy^7r^^ ^^ K
fj^y^f^yi^T^
THE CONSTITUTION
Thi
Si tiioH 1.
'
bee*
oon
rutiti e d
of thr ee
of
it
ii
'.
Twenty-third
to th e Constitut ttn
i
os oral State t. within
to the State ',
iinl e'i'i
i.
hy thu Congroi
hy tho
ov e n y e ar;
i
it
'.
hull
hav e
ioî i.l utur e a
Uom
th e dat e
G.
Amendment
[Proposed June
Section
i.
h e inciporativ e
hull
'
li
of tho
uhmir r ion
'.
umonc nL iu
a ?, an
Ibiiith'
Articl e
'.
16,
The
1.
Until the Twenty-third
I960: declared ratified April
3,
1961 j
not vote
District constituting the seat of
manner
the United States shall appoint in such
Amendment,
the people of Washington, D.C., could

in
presidential elections.
Government of
as the Congress
may
direct:
A
the
number of
electors of President and Vice President equal to
whole number of Senators and Representatives
which the
District
would be
entitled if
it
were a
in
Congress
State, but in
to
no event
more than the least populous State; they shall be in addition to those
appointed by the States, but they shall be considered, for the purposes
of the election of President and Vice President, to be electors appoint-
ed by a State; and they shall meet
in the District
duties as provided by the twelfth article of
Section
article
The Congress
2.
shall
and perform such
amendment.
have power
to enforce this
by appropriate legislation.
Twenty-fourth
Amendment
[Proposed August 27, 1962; declared

Section
1.
The
ratified February- 4,
1964]
United States to vote in
any primary or other election for President or Vice President, for electors for President or
Vice President, or for Senator or Representative in
Congress, shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or any

State
by reason of failure
Section
cle
2.
to
pay any poll tax or other
The Congress
by appropriate
shall
have power
tax.
to enforce this arti-
legislation.
Amendment
Twenty-fifth
[Proposed July
6,
The
illness
of President Eisenhower
1965; declared ratified February 23, 1967]
President Kennedy
Section
1.
his death or resignation, the
Section
2.
removal of the President from office or of
In case of
Vice President shall become President.
Whenever
there
is
vacancy
in the office
of the
Vice President, the President shall nominate a Vice President

shall take office
who
upon confirmation by a majority vote of both Houses
1963 were the
Amendment. The Constitution

provide a clear-cut method for
did not
a vice
president to take over for a disabled

president or for the death of a president. This
amendment
vacancy occurs, and

3.
Whenever
the President transmits to the President
pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of

Representatives his written declaration that he
the
in
events behind the Twenty-fifth
provides for
ing the office of the vice president
of Congress.
Section
powers and duties of
his office,
and
until
is
in
the 1950s and the assassination of
unable to discharge
it
provides a
is
way
for the vice president to take over
the president
fill-
if
if
unable to perform the
duties of that office.
he transmits to them a
written declaration to the contrary, such powers and duties shall be
discharged by the Vice President as Acting President.
183
/ ^/4r /k^
>^lv>>loyv^^, l^^/>^<^>V^WfcrV
V/ivVV^*/^
HISTORICAL
THE CONSTITUTION
OocMwtent
Section
Whenever
4.
the Vice President and a majority of
either the principal officers of the executive departments or of such
other body as Congress
may by law
provide, transmit to the President
pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of

Representati\es their written declaration that the President
to discharge the
shall
is
unable
his office, the Vice President
immediately assume the powers and duties of the office as
Acting President.
when
Thereafter,
the President transmits to the President pro
tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of

Representatives his written declaration that no inability exists, he
shall
resume the powers and duties of
Vice
his office unless the
President and a majority of either the principal officers of the executive
department or of such other body as Congress
may by law
pro-
vide, transmit within four days to the President pro tempore of the
Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives their written

declaration that the President
is
unable to discharge the powers and
Thereupon Congress
duties of his office.
shall decide the issue,
assembling within forty-eight hours for that purpose

If the Congress, within
written declaration, or.
one days
after
the
shall
voting age at
trieo to set tne
8 years old. But the
Supreme Court ruled

not state or
same
not in session.
required to assemble, determines by twothat the President is unable to discharge
his office, the
Vice President shall continue
as Acting President: othenAise. the President

office.
Amendment
[Proposed March
Section
local elections. This
s.
Amendment
1.
23, J 971: declared ratified July 5,
The
1971]
right of citizens of the United States,
by
in ail
are
the United States or by any State on account of age.
Section
8-
year-old citizens the right to vote
who
eighteen years of age or older, to vote shall not be denied or abridged
The
gave
latter
not in session, within twenty-
that the act set
"7 several
Twenty-sixth
is
is
resume the powers and duties of his
Twenty-sixth
the voting age for national elections

only,
Congress
Houses
to discharge the
The Voting Act of 1970
if
Congress
thirds vote of both
if
twenty-one days after receipt of the
cle
2.
The Congress
by appropriate
shall
have power to enforce
this arti-
legislation.
elections.
Twenty-seventh
Amendment
[Proposed September 25,
No
789: declared ratified
May
7.
1992]
law, varying the compensation for the services of the
Senators and Representatives, shall take effect, until an election of

Representatives shall have inter% ened.
84
REVIEW
TIte Constitution
Create an
illustrated
passage of the
Bill
time
line
4.
of Rights and the remaining 17
When was
AND
IDENTIFYING PEOPLE
IDEAS
17.
Bill
4.
civil
Which
habeas corpus
deal with Prohibition?
ratified?
III,
what are the
chief
part of the Constitution addresses possi-
between
ble conflicts
Preamble
power
responsibilities of the judicial branch?
3.
each
According to Article
16.
2. writ of
can the executive branch check the
Which two amendments
15.
amendments.
1.
How
of the legislative branch? of the judicial branch?
showing the dates of
5.
ex post facto law
6.
bill
Which
18.
federal and state laws?
Article outlines the
According to the Article,
of attainder
amendment
how
process?
can the
Constitution be amended?
of Rights
7.
treason
liberties
8.
James Madison
9.
What
some
are
of the ways
which the
in
Constitution protects the rights of the states?
20.
Why
did the framers of the Constitution include
Article VII?
1
what are the
II,
chief
THINKING CRITICALLY
responsibilities of the president?

2.
What
in
3.
is
the purpose of the separation of powers

1.
government?
How
can the
judicial
branch check the power of
I,
what are the
Revolutionary
2.
What
6.
Why
amendment
the process
9.
Bill
process?
Why
did they
3.
women's
4.
it
Which amendments are termed the Civil War

Amendments? What does each cover?
How can the legislative branch check the power
III,
what are the
civil
Comparing
of
2.
3.
What
I?
in
I,
create a diagram showing
passing a
bill.
Describe the connections between
liberties are
addressed
in
government that
in
is
described
in
the
Declaration of Independence.
5.
Analyzing
How
do the
civil
liberties
guaranteed
the Constitution help to prevent abuses of
power?
Section 9 of
Classifying Classify the 27 amendments to the

Constitution according to whether they protect
rights,
Article
liberties?
chief
responsibilities of the judicial branch?
What
civil
ratified?
6.
I.
protecting
the Preamble to the Constitution and the theory
of the executive branch? of the judicial branch?
extend
rights,
or solve problems.
III?
Preamble?

Why was important for the framers of the
According to the Constitution, what are the
Constitution to include provisions for
six goals of
government are
listed in
the
it
qualifications for
becoming
the
suffrage?
in
10.
Why were
Synthesizing Using the information presented

in
make
difficult?
deals with
Effect
of Rights?
the steps involved
Which amendment
When was
8.
the
did the framers of the Constitution provide
for an
7.
in
Americans fought the
War?
framers of the Constitution especially interested

in
protections are listed
what ways does the Constitution
Cause and
Identifying
chief
responsibilities of the legislative branch?

5.
In
reflect the reasons that
the legislative branch? of the executive branch?

4.
Analyzing
becoming
a representative? for
new
states to
enter the Union?
a senator? the president?
185
America's
!
GEOGRAPHY
1790
T/ie West,
THE
AMERICAN
WEST
^ÔPULAR
views
of the American West have
400 Kilometers
200
changed greatly over time. As

the United States
expanded
In
its
borders from east to west,
most Americans
the area that
once thought of as an uninviting wilderness
became an
790 most Americans considered
the Trans-Appalachian
West
the area
between the Appalachian Mountains
and the
Mississippi River
to
be "The
^^H American territory

^^M Spanish territory
^^M British territory
r'^ " Spanish settlements
and missions
I
West " Few dared move beyond
the
new
land of opportu-
French forts
I
'
Mississippi River. Spain claimed
most
Iy^kih^^
exciting
Northwest Territory
of the
territory
west of the Mississippi.
and settlements
Native American
tribe
With the exception of a few small

nity.
Yet
many
travelers,
from
Native American groups to
Spanish and French settlements,

territory
remained the
free
this
domain of
Native Americans.
Spanish missionaries and
French soldiers, were drawn
West long before
to the
citi-
zens of the United States
began
the
to settle there.
West continues
Today
to
be one
of the most culturally and ethnically diverse regions of the

nation, attracting visitors
new
and
from throughout
settlers
the world.
As Americans moved west, they often adapted customs that

resembled those of Native Americans. Just as some
Americans
built dwellings out of caves and soil, western
Native
homes dug out of the sides of
settlers often lived in dugouts
and sod homes built from bricks of soil.
hills or ravines
closely
86
UNIT
18^5
Tfie West,
wWith the Louisiana
Pur-
chase, the western border
of the United States moved
beyond the Mississippi
River,
and non-Native American

settlement of the transMississippi
West increased
dramatically. U.S. exploration
and
ê
trails
M\lthough the western
creation of several
encouraged settlement
of the region by a
bor-
diversity
of
number of
der of the United States did
groups. As the
not yet extend to the Pacific
small farmers, large planters,
many Americans
Ocean,
slaves.
250
were
Coast
settling
along the Pacific
the Far
Chinese laborers, and Mex-
by
West
the mid- 1 840s.
Mormons, miners,
500 Kilometers
icans
grew
often
pushed Native Amer-
in
the West, they
POPULATION OF THE MIDWEST

icans off their land.
87%
10%
The West Today

3%
]hisp anic
origin
mûring the 20th century

the
West has continued
be a place of great
and
inspiration.
icans,
however,
ate the
West
to
diversity
Many Amerstill
associ-
with images
of cattle drives and Native

American culture. As a result,
The West
definitions
The Midwest
still
The South and

Northeast
Scale
and projection
as
of the West are
confusing. For example,
although the U.S. Census
map above
Interstate
highways
POPULATION OF THE WEST

76%
Chan informaiion from

I
considers Texas
homa
many
'v-aiiy.*5.
SloDsticol
^bstraa of the Untted Stales 1991
to
to
and Okla-
be souêrn
states,
people consider them
be more
culturally
and
ethnically like western states.

Hispanic origin*
Hispanic origin*
'Hispanic
ongm may
include persons o( any race,
thus charts represent more than
100%.
'Hispanic
ongm may
thus Chans represent
include
penons
of
more than 100%.
any race.
Chapter
1789-1815
A STRONG START
FOR THE NATION
UNDERSTANDING
THE MAIN IDEA
Domestic and foreign problems
plagued America
new
in its
early years.
government
federal
The
successfully
addressed some of the problems at
home. But
ened
and
relations with
Europe threat-
to involve the nation in warfare
divide
Americans along
political
These intrigues would even-
party
lines.
tually
erupt into the
War of
1812.
CONSTITUTIONAL
HERITAGE Why
might pro-
tection of individual rights be
needed, even under a govern-
ment
established by the people?
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT To what extent should a

government
assist
or regulate
I
What
challenges might a large
country with diverse natural

resources present for a
new
government?
I
DEMOCRATIC VALUES
How
might
political parties
strengthen a democracy?
1789
1791
Washington
Bill
inaugurated.
ratified.
of Rights
1803
1812
1814
U.S. completes
War declared
Treaty of
Louisiana Purchase.
against Great
Ghent
Britain.
signed.
By 1789
:s
LINK TO THE PAST
the states except
all
Rhode
had
Island
ratified the
new
plan
of government developed at the Constitutional Convention. Newly

elected government officials
Congress
the president and the members of
set out to put the Constitution into action.
Tj-
s.
t
April 30, 1789. In
is
New
crowd gathers on Wall
capital, a
York
Street to witness the inauguration of
the first president of the United States.
stands George Washington.

takes the oath of office.
As
temporary
City, the nation's
On
The people
the last
the balcony of Federal Hall
fall silent
words echo
while Washington
in the air, the
crowd
bursts into wild cheers.
We
do not know what Washington was thinking
that
day as he
gazed on the sea of admiring faces. Perhaps he was weighing the new
government's chances for success. Washington knew that America was
not yet truly a nation.
members of
Most Americans
still
thought of themselves as
individual states rather than as citizens of the United
States.
If
Washington's thoughts were on the nation's future, he was not
new
alone in his concerns. John Adams, the

that the
Republic might not
last
beyond
vice president, feared
his lifetime.
Both men
real-
ized that the United States was, in Washington's words, an "experi-
ment entrusted
would
would
tell
to the
how
hands of the American people." Only time
successful the experiment
be.
the
American
people and their leaders laid the foundations for the

built
new
political, social,
institutions.
to their
built
"American experiment." They
way
They
of
battled external threats
life.
In the process they
what Thomas Jefferson called "the
empire of liberty." Yet

George Washington
York harbor
Salute to
New
and economic
pushed farther into the
as settlers
interior of the
in
continent,
American
they disrupted Native

^
'^
societies that existed there.
Sampler celebrating
Washington's inauguration
STRONG START FOR THE NATION
189
Section
A FEDERAL GOVERNMENT IS ESTABLISHED
FOCUS
What
steps did the First Congress take to establish the federal
government?
How
did
Alexander Hamilton propose that Congress strengthen the
nation's finances?
What
controversies surrounded Hamilton's financial
programi
9,n early 1 789 newly elected federal officials gathered to

organize the government. They relied on their experiences
colonial administration, the examples of historical
in
and contem-
porary European governments, and the new federal Constitution.
The Constitution provided only the outline of government.

Congress and the president
still
had
to fill in the details.
that
Xhe
first president
Congress opened the ballots from the
on April
6.
states
1789. the unanimous choice for presi-
dent was George Washington.
American eagle
he wanted to be a king. Leaving Mount Vernon
for his inauguration,
who
When
Painting of
is
he said he
felt like
muddy
though, was a triumph. Crowds
trip,
cheered; towns celebrated.
The choice was not
But the
festivities
were soon over. President
surprising. Washington's popularity had soared
Washington and the other elected
since the victory at Yorktown. Several states that
down
had been unwilling
to ratify
"a culprit
going to the place of his execution.** The
set a
to
officials got
work. They knew that each step thes took
precedent, or guide, for future leaders.
the Constitution did so with
the expectation that
(O^rMiit,^
Wash-
ington would serve as the

first
The FIRST CONGRESS
president.
Yet, he said he
was
reluctant to accept this

honor. Washington doubt-
ed his
abilities
that people
and feared
would think
Although Washington had the
molding the new go\emment belonged
"Hail,
Columbia,"
composed for the inaugural, was performed

as Washington crossed
Trenton Bridge on
way
190
CHAPTER
to
New
York.
his
to the First
Congress. The people*s representatives faced a
crowded agenda.
The
<
spotlight, the task of
first
order of business was to add
a pro-
tection of individual liberties to the Constitution
promise that supporters of the Constitution had
made during
From the
were recommended
the struggle for ratification.
210 proposed amendments. 12

by Congress for adoption: of
these. 10
were
ratified
THE BILL OF RIGHTS

AMENDMENT
FIRST
guarantees freedom of
gion, speech,
and the press and the
ble peacefully
and to petition the government.
SECOND AMENDMENT
state militias
charges, the right to question and obtain witness-
reli-
assem-
and thus the
SEVENTH AMENDMENT guarantees
right to bear arms.
of
troops without consent as regulated by law.
FOURTH AMENDMENT
prohibits
seizures without warrants, which can be issued
AMENDMENT
criminal
charges;
same
tried
trial in
away
criminal cases, the right to
The
prohibited
by
the
original
contained 12
amendments.
The states
Those who insisted that the
ratified 10.
all
Bill
of Rights be
government might take
the basic rights of the people guaranteed by the state constitutions.
ANALYZING
Bill
or
of Rights
Bill
liberty,
know
to the Constitution feared that a strong federal
federal
by the
reserves for the states and
Constitution.
guarantees the right to a
PROTECTING LIBERTY
added
individual rights not
the Constitution.
persons from being
one may be deprived of life,

or property without due process of law.
speedy
in
offense; prohibits forcing
tees that no
AMENDMENT
mentioned
government
national
for serious
the accused to testify against themselves; guaran-
SIXTH
prohibits excessive fines
prohibits cruel and unusual punishment.
TENTH AMENDMENT
requires a grand jury indict-
prohibits
most
the people those powers not delegated to the
ment before persons can be

tried twice for the
bail;
specifically
only upon probable cause.
FIFTH
and
NINTH AMENDMENT protects
searches and
a trial in
cases.
civil
EIGHTH AMENDMENT
quartering
prohibits
and the right to have counsel.
es,
recognizes the necessity of
AMENDMENT
THIRD
right to
How
does the
Bill
of Rights
help protect against the
government gaining too much power over individuals?
states in 1791.
They became known
as the
retary of war,
Another task of Congress was the creation of

a federal court system.
By September, Congress
had passed the Judiciary Act of 1789, which
attorney general,
on
The
chief justice and five associate justices of the
be nominated by the president
and approved by the Senate; and
to advise
him
Congress passed the Bill of

Rights, set up the federal judiciary,
and established three executive
departments to assist the president.
three circuit courts of appeal; (2) provided for a
to
Edmund Randolph,
legal matters.
(1)
established a federal district court in each state and
Supreme Court
and Alexander Hamilton as secretary
of the treasury. The president also appointed an
of Rights.
First
(3) defined the
federal courts' powers and the relationship
between the federal courts and the

During
its first
RiESTORING THE NATION'S CREDIT
state courts.
session Congress also created
three departments to assist the president: the State
Department
to
handle foreign affairs, the
Department
to
manage
War
military affairs, and the
Treasury Department to oversee the nation's

finances.
The president appointed
the
government had inherited serious financial
problems. Not only did the Treasury lack funds to
pay off war debts,
it
did not have enough
money
the Treasury
Alexander Hamilton for help.
Over time these advisers became known
doing so they
set
Congress
as the president's cabinet.
Washington's
first
cabinet included
Jefferson as secretary of state,
Thomas
Henry Knox
as sec-
to
run the country. Lawmakers turned to Secretary of
departments to serve as his
secretaries, of these
advisers.
the heads, or
Next, Congress tackled the nation's finances, for
beginning
an important precedent: though
responsible for passing laws, from
is
it
In
its
has sought guidance from the execu-
tive branch.
19
The
most
the
West Indies
in the British
Congress moved quickly
owed
and controversial, of the nation's
He was born
founders.
Hamilton was one of
slight, fair-haired
brilliant,
from individuals about
work
to
S4() million during the war.
mostly by selling government bonds
certificates
countinghouse, where
issued by a government in exchange for loans of
money. Each bond was the government's promise
business
became
New
to repay the loan plus interest.
evident. In
1773 Hamilton went
But the govern-
ment's credit had fallen so low that
to
York City, where he
Many
almost worthless.
its
bonds were
original bondholders
had
attended King's College.
panicked and sold their bonds to financial specula-
He was ambitious
tors at a fraction of their original value.
in his
pursuit of public praise and
power. Through his writ-
Hamilton's proposal to pay the bonds
that speculators stood to
political intrigues, he
expense of ordinary
make
Congress agreed with Hamilton
Republic as the early presidents did.
nation's credit
that
however.
that restoring the
depended on honoring these bonds.
Hamilton's next proposal
America's
a fortune at the
citizens. In the end.
exerted almost as great an influence on the young
Alexander Hamilton believed
in full
caused an uproar. His opponents rightly charged
economic programs,
ings,
and
that the federal
government take over about $21.5 million of the
depended on a strong national government
future
his aptitude for transacting
in a
controlled by the rich and well born. Although
$25 million
debts
in state
met even
stronger
com-
opposition. All the southern states except South
mon
people to govern. They were, he said, "turbu-
Carolina had paid their debts and saw no reason
lent
and changing" and made decisions based on
why
self-made, he had
their
little faith in
the ability of
Hamilton's strong federalism shaped his ecoplans.
He
was
politically,
to establish
economic
policies that
business people
If
The
would support
Scottish economist
Adam
tant sources of wealth.
capitalism
from Virginia. Virginians believed
in the federal
the
most impor-
Establishing
Smith advocated
good
credit
also lacked the
and private ownership o
nation's
money
first
by paying off the national debt
its
government.
the only solution to
means
The government
manage
to
the
supply. Thus, Hamilton
bank with branches
major U.S.
knew
loca-
United States, a national bank consisting
step toward winning over
3f a central
owed
new
asked Congress to create the Bank of the
Congress to strengthen the nation's cred
money
was not
the nation's financial woes.
the merchant class. Hamilton advisei
it
this
D.C., would give
HAMILTON'S BANK PROPOSAL
property.
As
named Washington,
Smith heavily
an economic system based on
a free market
Potomac River
across the
site
them greater influence
Nations (1776), Smith stated that industry and
not farming were
south to a
it.
influenced Hamilton's views. In his book Wealth of
commerce
moved
tion, later
believed the federal government had their best

interests at heart, they
the
would be
porters pledged that the national capital
government, both financially and
helped business and industry.
compromise saved
a last-minute
plan. In return for southern votes. Hamilton's sup-
believed that one of the best ways
to strengthen the
they should help pay the debts of other states.
Only
immediate needs.
nomic
that the federal
government
to its creditors.
Hamilton
that a nation that did not
that
thi
to be a staggering
CHAPTER
in
Hamilton believed
such a national bank would pro-
ernment funds;
(2) a sound, uni-
fonn currency issued
bank
debts would have trouble bor-
total national debt
cities.
vide (1) a safe place to deposit gov-
pay
rowing additional money. The
192
Hamilton's proposal to
The Continental Congress had borrowed
Scottish merchant. At an
went
pay the $12 million
pay the domestic debt met with strong resistance.
in
1755, the son of a failed
early age he
to
to foreign nations, but
The
U.S. Mint began
was estimated
coins
in
$77 million.
some
of the
792.
making
Shown here
first
are
pieces minted.
in the
notes, or paper
form of
money; and
(3) a source for loans to assist the
government
and
to fuel
in
times of emergency
commercial expansion.

ÊSDENTIAL LlVg^
Hamilton proposed that

Congress pay off the national
debt, assume state debts, and
organize a national bank to
GEORGE WASHINGTON
/
strengthen the nation's finances.

Hamilton argued
that the nation
732-/ 799
had much to
gain from the creation of a national bank.
in office
Many
who
1789-1797
Americans, particularly southern planters

were short of cash, did not share
They feared
that the
his enthusiasm.
bank would be controlled by
wealthy northeastern merchants.
Thomas
Jefferson raised a more serious
charge: the bank was illegal!
Nowhere
Constitution
was
power
up a bank. Jefferson believed
to set
in the
government given the
the federal
As
president,
George Washington refused to

from the general
isolate himself
government could do only what the Constitution

specifically allows. This philosophy of constitutional interpretation is called strict construction.
Hamilton, on the other hand, supported the
he did not want to be shut away
Lama
ern
for greeting citizens
his
in
afternoons he met with
evenings he and
loose construction. That
refreshments to
he believed that the
home.
men
his wife,
On Tuesday
On Friday
only.
Martha, served
men and women.
Washington
government can do anything the Constitution does
"like an east-
[holy man]." So he set up a schedule
philosophy of constitutional interpretation called

is.
public, saying
that the
also had
government
officials
not specifically forbid. In support of this view, he
to dinner every Thursday, rotating the invita-
pointed to the clause in the Constitution that grants
tions so as not to play favorites.
Congress the right "to make
all
laws
necessary
and proper' for running the country. The government's power to collect taxes and borrow
money
were not formal functions

were
gatherings of
all
kinds,
to fox hunts and
a national bank.
ing
Jefferson replied that the "'necessary and

proper" clause was meant to limit
the
power of
national
not
much
as they
Washington loved
festive occasions.
could only be exercised, he argued, with the aid of
as
The dinners
social
from intimate tea parties
lavish balls.
He
enjoyed shar-
good food, wine, and conversation,
playing
cards, and attending the theater.
stretch
the federal government. In his eyes a
bank was not a
necessity,
and so Congress
had no authority to establish one. The members of

Congress debated the issue for months. In the end.
President Washington sided with Hamilton, and
Congress chartered the Bank of the United States

in 1791.
The
operate for 20 years,
when
it
Bank
therefore asked Congress to impose a tax on a
few
the right to
domestically produced items, most notably
would again be sub-
whiskey. The tax was to be paid by producers.
charter granted the
When
ject to congressional approval.
the
measure passed, the cry "No taxation
without representation" was again heard

land
Tax rebellion on
this
time aimed
The new
Many
the frontier
money
off the national debt. Unlike today, the
to
pay
government
power to collect an income tax.

depended on various tariffs to raise
coast.
U.S. government.
tax hit western farmers the hardest.
turned com, their most important crop, into
whiskey, because
Hamilton's next task was to raise the
at the
in the
News
it
was
easier to transport to the
of the tax infuriated them.
mous poet noted
the farmers'
An
anony-
mood:
did not have the
Instead
it
money. Hamilton knew

raise
enough money
that the tariffs could not
to
pay off the debt. He
Some
chaps
whom
freedom's
spirit
warms
Are threatening hard to take up arms,
And headstrong
A
in
rebellion rise
193
'Fore they'll submit to that excise:
Boys" quickly melted away
Their liberty they
will
maintain,
rather than confront such an army.
They fought
and
they'll
for't,
fight again.
government had demonstrated

its
In the hot
summer
Pennsylvania did
pay the
tax.
794. farmers in western
rebelHon.
When
ordered to
they attacked federal marshals, tarring
home
burned the
of
rise in
and feathering some.
frontier. Yet this
force cost the government support
western farmers
who
Hamilton's financial program
new
raised the issue of constitutional
country.
federal
interpretation and led to a tax
Hamilton urged the president
to take
rebellion.
states,
Washington assembled
from neighboring
some
commanded
Revolutionary War. The "Whiskey
a force of
13.000. almost as large as any he had
during the
among
believed their interests were
being ignored.
of the head revenue agent, while
action. Calling out the militias
New
power, even on the remote
show of
The Whiskey Rebellion challenged

authority.
Collection.
the effectiveness of
group of about 500 farmers
others talked of starting a
The Granger
response to the rebellion, the federal
In its
*^
backwoods
into the
tVALUATING HAMILTON'S
PROGRAMS
As
York
secretary of the treasury. Hamilton
create a strong government, a stable
aimed
to
economy, and
a favorable climate for business and industry. His
financial
brought
programs largely succeeded. The tax

needed revenue. Reducing the national
in
debt put the nation's credit on a firm footing. The
national banking system provided the United

States with a single currency.
But not everyone benefited equally from

these measures. Hamilton's program favored the
rich, as his
opponents argued. His desire
loyalty of the
against
to
win the
commercial class often made him
the
interests
of
small
act
farmers.
Nevertheless, his federalist outlook enabled busi-
ness to expand while laying the foundation for a
A An
excise officer
is
tarred and feathered by a
mob
in
1794.
new
national prosperity.
SECTION
IDENTIFY and
cabinet,
REVIEW
explain the significance of the follov/ing: precedent,
Bill
of Rights, Judiciary Act of
Whiskey
one controversy surrounding Hamilton's
Select
opposing that part of the
CONTRASTING
::
CHAPTER
financial
in
790s.
program. Write an editorial favoring or
plan.
Define strict and loose construction, and explain
used the philosophies
194
789,
Rebellion.
LOCATE and explain the importance of the following: Washington, D.C.

1.
MAIN IDEA What actions did Congress take to establish the federal government?
2.
MAIN IDEA How did Hamilton propose to solve the nation's financial problems?
3.
WRITING TO EXPRESS A VIEWPOINT Imagine you are a newspaper editor in the
4.
Alexander Hamilton, capitalism, national debt, government bonds, national bank, bank notes.
the debate over the national bank.
how Jefferson
and Hamilton
DEALING WITH A DANGEROUS WORLD

c u s
How did conflicts in Europe affect Americans?
What was the significance of the Native American
defeat at Fallen
Timbers?
What did Jay's Treaty and Pinckney's Treaty accomplish?

How did the two-party system in American politics develop?
He[amilton intended his financial program to strengthen the

American economy. In the
dence was not yet a
reality.
money and technology
1 790s,
however, economic indepen-
Americans
to strengthen
still
needed British
commerce and
to devel-
op manufacturing. France provided an important market for
American agricultural products. Therefore, the political

upheavals and wars that engulfed Europe between
1815 had an important impact on the United
789 and
States.
U.S. cannon, 1815
would spread beyond

This fear was intensified when
this revolutionary spirit
The FRENCH REVOLUTION
France's borders.
the
The American Revolution influenced events

across the Atlantic.
revolutionaries
enment
beliefs
On
new French Republic declared war on Great
Britain. Spain,
and the Netherlands
in 1793.
July 14, 1789, French
inspired
in part
by Enlight-
and by the American Declaration
of Independence, which put those beliefs into

practice
stormed
the Bastille (ba-STEEL), the old
royal prison in Paris. This attack

ing point in the
was
a key turn-
French Revolution.
The French revolutionaries proclaimed

their goals in the ringing cry "Liberty, Equality,
Fraternity,"" but
soon the revolution turned into a
bloodbath. During the period
known
as the
of Terror (1793-1794), thousands of
women, including Louis XVI and
Reign
men and
his queen.
Marie Antoinette, were beheaded.
as
The French revolutionaries saw themselves

champions of the people fighting against
the old order.
European monarchs feared
that
The
Bastille
tionaries
on
was stormed and destroyed by French revolu-
July 14, 1789.
195
military alliance treaty with France. Years later.
John
Adams
with
some exaggeration
recalled
Genet excited:
the frightening passions that
Ten thousand people
in
the streets
threatened to drag Washington out of

house, and effect a revolution
ernment, or compel
'
milium B.
lUt,
SJUur
(.r Ik.
S)uh^ oftnOxm
it
in
his
the gov-
to declare v/ar
in
favor of the French revolution and against
**
England.
tmmtfiwnaK.
Washington, knowing
i^
lit. 'l*y
.U
fiwu f
i-i
iL ijjrfr
-m* f<:.^f. It
"an 3Ut
.M/r..
fr tilt Briitf
:amrncan Atamtn." ^xS. funmmt

:..:el.i ^ ,:lilj. (L.ttUîU'^
'
Citi5tn of
t|ic
was unprepared
7,-Kcl,''- . tU
uUi |nitmion of
^ .^jjU. J
^^'
/,' _
sure.
On
April 22, 1793 he issued a proclamation
forbidding American support for any nation
QintH) *tatts of Stnrrica.
Genet defied
this neutrality f)olicy
and sending
in a U.S. port
shipping. Washington
its
United Stales
S.
^^
'
that the
for war. refused to give in to pres-
at war.
by arming a ship
out to attack British
it
demanded
France recall
that
diplomat. Genet was replaced in 1794, but the
divisions he created remained.
American seamen took to carrying
proof-of-
citizenship papers to guard against possible
impressment by the
Europe caused political tension in the United States,

disrupted trade, and strained U.S.
Conflicts in
British navy.
Americans' reactions
Europe were mixed. From
to tiiese events in
Paris,
Thomas
Jefferson
diplomatic relations.
wrote excitedly to his friend James Monroe. "All

the old spirit of 1776
is
rekindling."
Many
other
Americans, however, did not share Jefferson's
Many found
enthusiasm.
depended "on the
it
shocking that liberty
Trouble on the frontier
right of cutting throats."
The European
conflict disrupted
trade and threatened to
draw
American
the United States into
Washington managed
Territory.
American declaration of
which had ended
for enemy ports.

impressment or kidnapof U.S. sailors by the British aroused
American vessels bound
In addition, the
ping
American
hostihty.
Between 1790 and 1812, Great
Britain, claiming to be capturing deserters
from British naval vessels, impressed

some 10.000 American
sailors.
French actions also caused

resentment. In early 1793 a French
diplomat.
Edmond Genet
(zhuh-NE),
arrived in America. Citizen Genet,
as he
was known, toured the
nation, organizing "revolutionary
clubs" and trying to persuade
Americans
to
honor
their
A The
arrival of fiery
caused
many Americans
96
-II
CHAPTER
French diplomat Edmond Genet

to choose sides.
6
in
in the
Northwest
the terms of the Treaty of Paris,

the Revolutionary
War
in
1783,
But Native Americans considered the
territory theirs
and battled
settlers to
keep
it.
In
response. President Washington sent federal troops

against
American
To defend
Indians.
homes, some 1.500 Miamis,

Shawnees. Iroquois. Sauks (sawks), Fox. and
Potawalomis (pahd-uh-WAHD-uh-mees) joined
their
Miami chief
Michikinikwa (mi-chee-ken-EEK-wah), known as
together
in a
loose confederation.
Little Turtle, led the group.

gist,
He was
a gifted strate-
and his leadership helped the confederation
win several
battles against
American troops
in
1790 and 1791.
The
1778
1793
avoid foreign entangle-
the British granted the United Stales the Northwest
Territory.
sent
By
war. Both France and Great Britain ignored the
neutrality and seized
to
ments, but trouble brewed
tide turned
some 3.000
when
President Washington
well-trained and well-supplied sol-
under the command of Revolutionary War hero

"Mad Anthony" Wayne to defeat the confederation.
diers
^ Little Turtle led

Native Americans in
y\/EGOTIATING PEACE
successful battles against
American troops in the

Northwest Territory
Little Turtle's
during 1790-1791.
from British
confederation had received weapons
Northwest Territory. The
forts in the
existence of these British forts violated the 1783
Treaty of Paris. This situation further strained
America's tense relations with Great Britain.

Hoping
war
to avert a
that
he believed the United
States could not win, President
Chief Justice John Jay
resulting treaty,
Great Britain
to
Among
negotiate a settlement.
known
Washington sent
1794
in
to
the terms of the
as Jay's Treaty, the British
agreed to abandon their
forts. In return the
Realizing that the Native Americans were outnum-
government agreed
pay debts owed
bered. Little Turtle advised his allies:
British.
to
U.S.
to the
Great Britain, however, did not stop arming
4 We
have beaten the
enemy twice
under different commanders.
We
American Indians, impressing American
cannot
expect the same good fortune to attend us
The Americans
always.
chief
who
are
now
led by a
never sleeps. Like the blacksnake,
during
our
all
we
surprise him. ...
It
Americans who thought Jay had sold out
to the
ten to his offers of peace.
Jay in effigy, and the nation's
deepened. Congress, neverthe-
less, ratified the treaty.
major goal
have not been able to
would be prudent to
Mobs burned
political divisions
the time he has been marching on
villages ...
Washington had realized
preventing war with Great

came
Jay's Treaty
command.
Spain feared an American alliance with Britain
chiefs in the confederation rejected
In the
tion clashed with
Britain.
just as Spain shifted
could threaten Spanish territory
The other
remain
in
summer of 1794, the confederaWayne's army in the Battle of
Thus Spain moved quickly
in
North America.
to settle its disputes
with the United States. The result was Pinckney's

Treaty, negotiated in 1795 by
Thomas Pinckney of
South Carolina. Pinckney's Treaty
set the
southern
Fallen Timbers, near present-day Toledo, Ohio.
boundary of the United States near Florida
As
31st parallel.
Little Turtle
his
alliances, joining France against Great Britain.
lis-
9^
his advice, so Little Turtle refused to
or
many
British.
the day and the night are alike to him for
sailors,
seizing U.S. ships. These acts angered
had predicted, the fighting ended
at the
in defeat for the confederation. After the battle,
Wayne's men burned Indian villages and
The
blow
to
Battle of Fallen
American Indian
fields.
Ohio
Timbers dealt a severe
y*
resistance in the territory.
In 1795 over 1,000 chiefs, including Little Turtle,
entered negotiations with the U.S. government.
The
result
was
the Treaty of Greenville (1795),
which gave the United States title to Native

American lands making up much of present-day
Ohio and part of Indiana. In exchange Native
m^
\'"-
Historical Society
19 '^
*!
still
î^
held.
The Battle of Fallen Timbers

weakened Native American resistance and led to the surrender of
Indian lands.
^^^^^^^^H
i^s^.
.,
(<jM
.^^Sd
m^ -.-u'l^^
î^
'-
^Sî
riJTMf-
-t.
mBi,j<^^-.
*ww^r^
ri^^^^^^l
^ f_i
i^^
m
Americans received $20,000 worth of goods and a
they
^#1
Ml ^}jwr
formal acknowledgment of their claim to the lands
-'^gB^HHHilH^K
y^
'^
1
\
-^.
<
^^W
Nr
"fw
!uJHi
*i
General Anthony Wayne led the attack on Native

Americans during the Battle of Fallen Timbers. The
entire battle lasted about 40 minutes.
A
97
Frontier farmers carried their

goods on large flatboats down
the Mississippi River to

Orleans.
New
keenly aware that dangers threat-
ened the young nation.
In his
farewell address he urged main-
taining neutrality abroad and

unity at home.
"The great
conduct for us ...
is
rule of
... to steer
clear of permanent alliances
w ith
any portion of the foreign w orld."
Washington also warned of

the dangers posed by political
parties
and regional
In
interests:
contemplating the
causes which may disturb
our Union,
it
occurs as a
matter of serious concern

that
Pinckneys Treaty also guaranteed American
ting]
that there
dominated b\ water transportation, the Mississippi
ests
was
selves
to the rest of the nation
American West
and the world. Frontier
farmers and merchants used the Mississippi and
westward-flowing
River, to
move
tributaries,
their
produce to
Orleans.
designing [plot-
to excite a belief
a real difference of local inter-
and views.
You cannot
shield your-
too much against the jealousies and
heartburnings which spring from these misrepresentations.
its
such as the Ohio
New
is
men may endeavor
navigation rights on the Mississippi River. In an era
the superhighway hnking the
They tend to render
to each other those
From
bound together by
who
alien
ought to be
fraternal affection.
99
there goods were shipped to markets around the
world. Pinckney's Treaty gave Americans the

right of deposit
goods
at the port
the right to temporarily unload
of
New
Orleans without paying a
duty to Spain.
But Washington's warning was not heeded.
By
the mid- 1790s heated debates over whether to
side with Great Britain or France had already
deepened
political differences
ing
first
the
American
and aided
political
in shap-
parties.
Washington also had underestimated the extent of
Jay's Treaty and Pinckney's Treaty

prevented war and won important
military and economic advantages
for the United States.
regional and economic differences. In the mid-
1790s sectionalism, or loyalty to a particular part

of the country, helped to create two parties: the
Federalists (the party of Hamilton and
Adams)
and the Democratic-Republicans (the party of

Jefferson and Madison).
Domestic battles
In
still
1796 President Washington announced
would not seek a
third term
that
He had overseen
setting an informal
new government and had
the organization of the
skillfully
handled several
crises in foreign affairs. Still, the president
98
CHAPTER
w ith
sided with
was
that is
us today took shape.
Merchants, manufacturers, lawyers, and
he
precedent for later presidents that was not broken

until 1940.
As Americans
one party or the other, the two-party system
church leaders from
seaboard
Adams
able"
New England
Americans
whom
and the Atlantic
Federalist John
called "the rich, the well-born, and the
tended
to support the Federalist party.
Federalists expected the rich to provide national
The Republican
party believed
full
in
an
America
agricultural
of orderly farms,
such as the one
shown here.
The Federalist party drew its supporters from the ranks of

wealthy men, such as cloth merchant Elijah Boardman.
leadership.
who own
As one
leading Federalist said: "Those
the country ought to govern
it."
Besides
favoring a strong national government, Federahsts
wanted
to
promote the development of commerce,
especially with Great Britain.

In contrast, the
(the
ful Federalists.
Democratic-Republican party
name was soon shortened
to
on the frontier and
wage
earners.
historical connection to
today's Republican party)
was
in the
drawn together by common
beliefs.
was
and individual
who made up most
little political
of the
in the
financial
and
British, they
political
power saw
artisans, workers,
I .
could create such
The two-party political system

arose from the rivalry between
Federalists and Republicans and
from the growing sectionalism of
the nation.
the
and
REVIEW
and explain the significance of the following: French Revolution, impressment,
Little Turtle,
LOCATE
that
tended to be pro-French.
SECTION
Genet,
powers
North,
tradespeople were resentful of the rich and power-
IDENTIFY
liberties
a system. Because they distrusted the aristocratic
Republican party as a means of challenging estab-
These
Their main aim
deep fear of a strong national government and the
But the party also found support
lished leadership.
to protect states' rights
by limiting the federal government. They had a
especially in the middle states. Here, various
who had
the Revolution.
Both northern and southern Republicans were
particularly strong
population, deserved the most say in government.
groups
them by
instead, the political
South. Supporters
favored agriculture over manufacturing and

believed that farmers,
equality promised
Republican party)
included planters, small farmers, and
The party (which has no
They sought,
"Mad Anthony" Wayne, Treaty of
follov/ing:
Edmond
Greenville, right of deposit, sectionalism.
New
Orleans.
MAIN IDEA How did foreign events of the early 790s affect Americans?
MAIN IDEA What did the United States gain through Jay's Treaty and Pinckney's Treaty?
MAIN IDEA How were Native Americans affected by the Battle of Fallen Timbers?
WRITING TO INFORM Write an advertisement that describes the Federalist party in 1796,
1
telling
why
it
came
into existence and urging
Americans to
join the party.
Then write
a similar
advertisement for the Republican party.

5.
ANALYZING How
did Washington's Farewell
Address
reflect the state of U.S. affairs at the time?
199
Section 3
FEDERALISTS DOMINATE PARTY POLITICS
'
FOCUS
Why
did relations with France
Why
worsen
did Congress pass the Alien
in
the 1790s?
and Sedition Acts?
According to the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions, who should rule on

matters of constitutionality?
How
of
did Chief Justice John Marshall influence the
American
development
law?
\ahe formation of political parties created problems for

the
American electoral system. The process for electing a
president
and
Constitution,
vice president,
which was outlined
in the
proved flawed on two separate occasions.
Furthennore, the struggle between the Federalist and
Republican parties had a major impact on both domestic

politics
and foreign
affairs.
John Adams campaign bunon.
The
ELECTION OF
Gn THE VERGE OF WAR
1796
President .Adams faced the same challenges as
com-
Washington. While maintaining America's status
796
set in
motion the
first real
petition for the presidency. In that election

Federalists John
Adams and Thomas Pinckney
faced off against Republicans
Thomas
Jefferson
as an independent nation.
Adams
also sought to
protect .America's access to world markets. In

addition, he
wanted
to
improve relations with
The French viewed
and Aaron Burr.
France.
Envious of Adams, Alexander Hamilton

schemed to keep his rival from winning. Acting
U.S. policy of neutrality as evidence of pro-British
from behind the scenes, he persuaded a few south-
to seize
em
the
Jay's Treaty and the
leanings. In response, the French navy had
American ships bound
begun
for British ports.
Federalist electors to vole only for Pinckney.
According
to the Constitution,
whoever received
most votes became president: the runner-up
became
vice president. Hamilton's plot backfired.
The
XYZ
affair. In 1797 President
three diplomats to Paris to negotiate a
Adams
new
sent
treaty
with France. Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand.
spumed
however, w hen northern Federalists discovered the
France's foreign minister,
plan and responded by not voting for Pinckney. a
tions with the Americans. Instead, he sent three
When
southerner.
the \otes
were counted. .Adams
was president, and Jefferson

opponent was
Si
796
President Washington's decision not to seek

reelection in
200
CHAPTER
vice president!
his
Republican
direct negotia-
agents with his demands. Before talks could begin,

the United States
would have
liclv for anti-French
to
remarks that
apologize pub-
Adams had made:
(2)
gram France
a multimillion-dollar loan:
and (3)
pay Talleyrand a bribe of $240,000. Diplomatic

bribes
were
common
size of the bribe
who
in the
1700s, but the huge
shocked the American diplomats,
refused to pay.
President
demands
Adams
published the French
substituting X. K,
and
Z for
the
names of
Talleyrand's agents. Americans responded with
fur\'
against France, rallying around the slogan '"Millions
one cent for
for defense, but not
tribute." President
Adams and Congress responded to the XYZ affair

w ith a flurry of w ar preparations: creating the Navy
Department, building warships, fortifying harbors,
and strengthening the army. Congress also imposed

taxes to
pay for the military buildup. Although the
United States had not declared war. U.S. warships
Many Americans were shocked and angered by
XYZ affair. France Is symbolized as a multiheaded monster In this cartoon.
the
began capturing French vessels.

Pro-British Federahsts delighted in this grow-
ing anti-French sentiment.
Here was a chance
to
In
1799
Adams
sent another peace mission to
smash revolutionary France and cement an economic
France.
and
it
delegation arrived in Paris, General Napoleon
Republicans.
Bonaparte had overthrown the revolutionary govern-
political alliance
with Great Britain. Moreover,
was an opportunity
to discredit the
The timing was
fortunate. Shortly before the
Voters were dropping from the pro-French
ment and made himself
Republican party "like windfalls from an apple tree
recognized that French intrigue and hostility had
in
September." wrote one happy Federalist.
pushed the United States closer
Eager
War
avoided. While many in his own party

demanded military action. Adams was reluctant to
go to war. He discounted the likelihood of a French
attack, saying, "At present there is no more
prospect of seeing a French
in
dictator of France.
army here than
there
Heaven."
is
to Great Britain.
to forestall a stronger alliance
worked out an agreement with
the Americans.
alliance treaty of 1778. In return the United States
would drop claims against France
for seized ships
and cargo.
UV^
in office
1797-1801
1735-1826
nation's
Adams found
second president, John
that following
in
experienced diplomat, he had great
George
discipline
Washington's footsteps was no easy
his
Comparisons of the two men were
inevitable:
Adams's often
irritating
opinions and
man-
nature helped him during
sharply with Washington's calm and
to keep the
Adams possessed
bles,
m/
impressive credentials of his

brilliant
found
lawyer and
Adams was
^
A
his
presidency.
his salary
too small
White House pantry
stocked, he brought
stately disposition.
abilities.
in
also a practical man. This practical
When Adams
Yet John
self-
and a supreme confidence
ner and fiery outbursts contrasted
own.
The
terms required France to abandon the troublesome
JOHN ADAMS
task.
between
Great Britain and the United States, Napoleon
oÊSlDENTIAL
As the
Napoleon
in
fully
meat, vegeta-
and apple cider from
his
Massachusetts farm to keep
down
expenses.
201
The
Jay's Treaty, U.S. neutrality, and
was aimed
act
Republicans. Matthew
at
Lyon, a Republican congressman, was jailed for
diplomatic intrigues strained U.S.
four months and fined $1,000 for denouncing
relations with France in the 1790s,
President Adams. Throughout the country.
but war was avoided.
Republican newspaper editors and politicians

were arrested for sedition; 25 were indicted and
Adams
Pleased with the settlement. President

later wrote. "I desire
my
no other inscription over
gravestone than: *Here
lies
10 convicted.
John Adams, who took
Federalists passed the Alien and
upon himself the responsibility of the peace with

France
in 1800.'
Sedition Acts to limit Republican
"
power and to
silence
government
critics.
The alien and sedition acts

The
Kentucky and Virginia
with France increased the bad blood
crisis
resolutions
between the Federalists and the Republicans. The
Many Americans saw
Federalists viewed the pro-French Republicans
The Republicans, on
as traitors.
the other hand,
suspected the Federalists of using the crisis to

retain power.
gave way
Charges and countercharges
to action. In
eigners and citizens alike.
speech, two rights guaranteed by the

Amendment. Furious Republicans voiced
1798 the Federalist major-
Acts, a series of laws aimed not only at protect-
ing the country but also at
protests through the
weakening the
First
their
Kentucky Resolutions (written
James Madison), which were passed
(written by
the Alien
for-
inter-
by Thomas Jefferson) and the Virginia Resolutions
Republicans.
The Alien Act and
The Sedition Act
fered with freedom of the press and freedom of
finally
Congress passed the Alien and Sedition
ity in
the Alien and Sedition Acts
as attempts to curb the rights of individuals
Enemies Act
1798 and 1799 by those
in
states" legislatures.
"all
The Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions
such aliens [foreigners] as he shall judge danger-
declared the Alien and Sedition Acts unconstitu-
ous to the peace and safety of the United States."
tional. In
Enforcement proved unnecessary. The
tant question:
authorized the president to imprison or expel
threat of
imprisonment drove many French citizens from the
law or
doing
so. the resolutions raised
Who
should decide
remained.
Constitution? the
the Supreme
states?
Court? The Constitution
The Sedition Act

targeted American
zens. Sedition
is
the
a federal
government action violates the U.S.
country and quieted those
who
when
an impor-
did not say.
citi-
The resolutions
came down on the side
stir-
ring up of discontent or
rebellion against a gov-
of the
states.
The
states,
/-,
Under
ernment.
they argued, had created
the
,^^/^ Af ^y- /"-"

J/ia/y/i -.^'-''^- -^--'-'y ^^^,~
^^0, *0^^ ^wf t
Sedition Act anyone who
wrote, said, or printed
anything "false, scan-
~.//.y^
V,.',^*~~.*
/A...^^/W..
,î
,^/^/,
about the government, the
...^^
./K.
'..
"with intent to defame"
CHAPTER
December
^w/t'f^
/^.yjcyi^'
j^^Luf;
it
powers defined
by the Constitution. If
the federal government
t^,**X /^^^Y.f wU^&w
it
was
the states" right
//.
-...../;
,.
to declare the
act unconstitutional
and
therefore void.
The
Federalists
disagreed. Firm believers
24, 1798.
202
"/'
Virginia State legis-
Resolutions on
..
specific
and duty
could be fined and jailed.
lature passed the Virginia
.*. Jif*^,
government
as their agent, giving
^.J^.A^^^X
-.x^~.^
^'- <^,^^
the federal
exceeded those powers,
Congress, or the president
The
.^^^..M.,/
^/..u..//^.
/;._
^yjC^. /'"
/i
-~^ ^^.i />^-'''
^/jl.~..
/. /A^.^.,/. , /jU.
fJi./
-//-""'A'
dalous, and malicious"
^,A.. /,^
..
A When
Burr
he was vice president of the United States, Aaron

wounded Alexander Hamilton in a duel on July
fatally
I, 1804. The duel ended Burr's political career. The

shown here are dueling pistols of the period.
I
in a strong federal
the
government, they argued that
Supreme Court should decide matters of
arose: Jefferson
In the event of a
Because the Federalists controlled most
state
Kentucky and Virginia
the
Resolutions failed to win wide support. But

Jefferson and
Madison had posed questions about
the nature of the
Americans
and Burr received the same number
of votes for president!
constitutionality.
governments,
pistols
Union
until the Civil
that
would trouble
who
the president
Virginia
was the
states' right to decide whether a
federal law or action was unconstiResolutions argued that
the Constitution clearly
be. Ordinarily, the
some
Federalists
was
still
Day
just
president failed. With
weeks away,
This problem might have continued indefinitely
had help not come from an unexpected
source. Preferring Jefferson over the "unprincipled
and dangerous" Burr. Alexander Hamilton persuaded several Federalists
became
to vote for Jefferson.
1800
were
slipping.
The
that
Hamilton and Burr
felt
toward each other deepened over the years. In
election pitted
Republicans Jefferson and Burr against Federalists
Adams
rival, Jefferson
the third president of the United States.
The hatred
the election of 1800, the fortunes of the
Federalist party
the country
without a president-elect.
Thus, with the help of his former
By
who
hated Jefferson voted for Burr instead. Thirty-five
it
tutional.
The ELECTION OF
House
Jefferson, the Republicans'
preferred candidate. But
Inauguration
The Kentucky and
would
would have chosen
attempts to select
War.
tie.
authorized the House of Representatives to decide
and Charles Pinckney (of South Carolina).
1804 Hamilton publicly criticized Burr,

then running for governor of
demand for an apology led

fatally wounded Hamilton.
New
who was
York. Burr's
to a duel in
which Burr
the Republicans swept to power, gaining control of
To prevent future electoral crises. Congress

proposed the Twelfth Amendment to the
Congress. However, neither the Republicans nor
Constitution. Ratified in 1804, this
Capitalizing on grievances against the Federalists,
the Federalists
tinely
had a formal
do today. As a
result,
ticket, as parties rou-
another electoral crisis
amendment
requires electors to vote for presidential and vicepresidential candidates
on separate
ballots.
203
The federalists and

the judiciary
Knowing
their
days
in office
were numbered, the
Federalists feared that their programs
would be
abandoned. In the months between Election Day

in
November and Inauguration Day
March, the
in
Federalist majority in Congress tightened
on the judicial branch
its
hold
to "protect" the country
from Jeffersonian radicalism. They pushed

through the Judiciary Act of 1801, which created a
number of new
ships. President
of his
day
last
and federal judge-
circuit courts
Adams worked
late into the night
in office, signing the
papers that
appointed Federalists to these posts. These
last-
minute appointees were nicknamed "midnight
A John
Marshall was the fourth chief justice of the

United States and a man of such integrity that he
invariably won the support of his colleagues.
judges."
Adams's most significant appointment,
For
political reasons Jefferson's Secretary
though not one of the midnight judgeships, was the
State
selection of John Marshall of Virginia as chief jus-
Marbury, one of the "midnight judges." to take the
tice
of the Supreme Court.
brilliant legal
mind and
firm Federalist with a
a shrewd grasp of politics,
James Madison had refused
to allow
William
bench. Marbury asked the Supreme Court for

relief.
While the Court agreed
that
Marbury had
right to his appointment, the Court ruled that
more than
could hear the case only on appeal. By denying
cal
three decades he served (1801-1835).

politi-
and economic structure of the new nation,
molding
During
his years
many
constitutional law.
of judicial review
to declare an act of
Court
first
Marbury
v.
on the bench. Marshall
basic principles of
Among
these
was
the right of the
American
exercised this right
in the
case of
initiated the
role
this decision
MAIN IDEA What
events
in
Marshall
Supreme Court's most important
John
Marshall shaped the develop-
ment
of
American law through the
principle of judicial review

his
many court
and
decisions.
REVIEW
explain the significance of the following: Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand,
Napoleon Bonaparte, sedition, Twelfth

1.
original jurisdiction,
that of final interpreter of the Constitution.
through
(1803).
XYZ affair,
Amendment.
the 1790s strained relations with France and increased the risk of
war?
2.
MAIN IDEA What were
the provisions of the Alien and Sedition Acts and
why
did
Congress pass
them?
3.
ANALYZING How
did Chief Justice John Marshall's decision
in
Marbury
v.
Madison influence the
development of American law?

4.
WRITING TO EXPLAIN
Write
a paragraph outlining the
arguments presented
in
the Kentucky
and Virginia Resolutions.

5.
CHAPTER
it
Marshall declared a part of the Judiciary Act of
SECTION
IDENTIFY and
Supreme Court had
the principle
Supreme Court
Congress unconstitutional. The
Madison
that the
1789 unconstitutional. With
a truly national union.
established
:;
Marshall dominated the Supreme Court during the
His more than 500 opinions influenced the
204
of
democratic values did the Sedition Act violate?
THE NATION EXPANDS
FOCUS
What
policy changes did the Republican
President Jefferson's
Why
first
term
Congress make during
in office?
did the United States purchase Louisiana
from France?
What did explorers of the Louisiana Territory accomplish?

What were some of the positive and negative consequences
of the Louisiana Purchase?
M.[pon taking
government
office,
Jefferson pledged to preserve the
in its ''constitutional
right of election
by the people.
"
vigor" and guard "the
His promise of moder-
ation did not prevent Jefferson from taking action,
though. During his two terms the United States
expanded westward beyond the Mississippi River
to
Sacagawea guides
rake in the heartland of North America.
Lewis and Clark.
navy. Jefferson
yEFFERSON TAKES OFFICE
saw trimming mihtary spending
one way to achieve his campaign promise
to
as
pay
off the national debt.
Though Thomas Jefferson
later
heralded the
1800 election as the
The Republican Congress repealed
"Revolution of 1 800," the transition of power was
the whiskey tax and the Judiciary

Act of 80 cut military spending,
and reduced the size of the army
and the navy.
Republican victory
peaceful. This
when many
in the
was no small achievement
shifts
of political
nied by chaos or war.
To
in
an era
power w ere accompa-
fulfill his
promise of mod-
untouched some Federalist
eration. Jefferson left
programs, including the national bank and the debt
payment
He
plan, both of
which he had once opposed.
also tried to maintain the neutral course set
Washington and Adams
The
LOUISIANA PURCHASE
by
In the election of
in foreign affairs.
But Jefferson had not abandoned his view
government with too much power
state that
had a
800, the Republicans
frontier
won
ever}
on the Trans-Appalachian
threatened individual freedoms and states" rights.
West, the area between the Appalachian

Mountains and the Mississippi River. Unlike
Thus he urged the Republican-controlled Congress
Federalists,
that a federal
Federalist programs.
who feared that westward expansion

would weaken their power in Congress.
Congress responded by repealing the whiskey tax
Republicans favored expansion. Jefferson imag-
and the Judiciary Act of 1801. cutting military
ined "distant times,
to
overturn a
number of
funding, and reducing the size of the
army and
the
will
expand
A
when our
[the nation]
...
rapid multiphcation
&
cover the whole
!S
205
M Americans
as
new
pushed westward
territories opened. This
engraving shows a family crossing the Appalachians on their
way
northern
if
appealed to
tices
not southern continent." This view
Because
settlers.
were hard on the
hungry for new,
frontier farming prac-
soil, settlers
was not enough, however. Western
to the port of
New
largest land deal in history.
Although pleased with the purchase,

He did not believe that
Jefferson had reservations.
farmers also needed access to the Mississippi River
and
pleted the Louisiana Purchase, probably the
were always
fertile land.
Fertile land
to Pittsburgh.
Orleans to get their produce
the Constitution granted the
government
specific
authority to buy territory from a foreign nation.
Thus, he
amendment
constitutional
felt that a
might be necessary
to permit the purchase.
Spain had held the Louisiana Territory since 1762.
knew
an amendment would mean a
Now,
delay, during
to market.
Events
in
1800 put
in a secret treaty, the
that access in danger.
French ruler Napoleon
that ratifying
But he
which Napoleon might change
regained Louisiana from Spain. The territory cov-
mind. So Jefferson advised his attorney general to
ered an enormous, though vaguely defined, area:
"do what
roughly the northern and western reaches of the
purchase treaty through the Senate.
Mississippi River basin (see
Rumors of this
map on page
Why
209).
transfer reached the U.S. gov-
is
necessary
did France
The answer
in silence"
sell this
empire
in the
empire
in
Mississippi River might severely limit American
naval base in the West Indies.
trade and block westward expansion.
To remedy
valuable territory?
Western Hemisphere. To defend an
alarming Jefferson and other
in 1801,
and pushed the
lay in Napoleon's failure to build an
Americans. French control of the mouth of the
ernment
Louisiana. Napoleon needed a strong
was Saint Domingue (now
The most
Haiti)
likely place
on the island of
the situation. President Jefferson ordered Robert R.
Hispaniola. yet the colony was no longer under
Livingston, the U.S. minister to France, to negoti-
French control. In 1791 the colony's slaves had
ate with
France for a U.S. port
Mississippi or for access to
dragged on for almost

In
two
at the
New
mouth of
the
Orleans. Talks
had instructed Monroe

as
$10 million
No
for
New
revolted.
Under
the leadership of Toussaint
L'Ouverture (TOO-san loo-vuhr-TOOHR)
a gifted
years.
1803 Jefferson sent James Monroe to Paris
to assist Livingston with negotiations. Jefferson

to offer
Napoleon as much
Orleans and West Florida.
sooner had Monroe arrived, however, than
Napoleon's representative asked how much the

United States would pay for
all
This contemporary
painting of Toussaint
L'Ouverture
American
Lawrence.
is
by African
Jacob
artist
It is
one
in his
series of paintings dealing
with the Haitian Revolt.
of Louisiana. The
astonished American diplomats quickly agreed to
pay about $15 million for the entire
area.
Thus, for
about four cents an acre, the United States com-
206
::
his
CHAPTER
AmisQd Research Center. Tulane
University
HISTORY
DR.
the
Iff
Making
JOSEPH KETT
Jefferson's
use
do not
ost of us today
think of
Thomas
own
champion of
"Mad Tom,"
others he was
cast Jefferson as
common
To some he
liberty.
in
nation of American society's
support of their
who
the 1830s those
In
shared values and
To
of the
1860-1861
In
This
evident
the
in
1948 publication of volume one
champion of the
people.
beliefs.
new emphasis was
voting rights
and other democratic reforms
in his
day he inspired both admi-
ration and ridicule.
was
name
demanded broader
Jefferson as a
controversial figure. But
his
causes.
Omage
scholarly biography of
first
Jefferson,
Dumas
Malone's
Jefferson and His Time. Merrill
the southern states that had
seceded from the Union held
Peterson's The Jefferson Image
frenzied supporter of the
Jefferson up as a believer
the American
bloody French Revolution.
states' rights
Among
the late 1800s and early 1900s,
his
enemies he could
count a president, John Adams;

his
own
Jefferson
Aaron
vice president,
Burr; a secretary of the treasury,
Alexander Hamilton; and
chief justice of the
Supreme
Court, John Marshall.
These
Jefferson
was
contradictions.
tocrat
plain
man
He was
of
an
who championed
in
aris-
a strong national
power
of the presi-
dency to double the
size of the
nation through the Louisiana
The complexity
son's personality
and
of Jeffer-
social history. In
the
many
changes and
Great Depression of the 1930s,
mon
people would have
Americans
made
II.
Jefferson
in
in
Monticello,
became
new
historical research
Hemings that
first
affeir
his slave
surfaced
before the election of 1800.
in
difficult
home,
It is
to prove or disprove the
story, but Brodie's revelations
site.
nonetheless caused a furor That
of Jefferson
Brodie's allegations aroused such
a historic
The enshrining
examined
between Jefferson and

Sally
this
Brodie's
Intimate
the rumors about a love
dedicated
1943, and his Virginia
came Fawn
History (1974). Brodie
World
became the
DC, was
of
emphasis on
Thomas Jefferson: An
struggle
end, the Jefferson Memorial
Washington,
this
social history
of Jefferson
emerged during the
lives
both famous and
From
social-welfare policies.
against dictatorships
his-
ordinary citizens.
him a supporter of Roosevelt's
A new image
conflicts,
examining the everyday
sympathy for the com-
interest
in
the exami-
his actions
have allowed various groups

with vastly different aims
torians turned their attention to
coincided with a
Purchase.
area of historical research
midst of the decade's social
"Apostle of Freedom." To
executive
new
business and the negative effects
War
government, yet he used the
vein.
of industrialization. During the
of Independence that
"all men
He was
in
960) contin-
emerge
the
the Declaration
same
the
in
The 1960s saw another
a hero of social
are created equal."
opposed to
ued
In
Mind
reformers fighting against big
Jefferson's
many
farmer and a slaveholder
who wrote
over federalism.
Franklin Roosevelt argued that
conflicting images
of Jefferson are not that surprising.
was
in
emotion reminds us how
far
Thomas Jefferson's image has

come from the controversy that
once enveloped the man and his
to
views.
A Jefferson designed
Monticello
in
769.
!S
207
The United
States purchased
Louisiana from France in order to
secure navigation rights on the
THE LOUISIANA
PURCHASE
Mississippi.
^^pain was unpleasantly surprised to discover in 1803 that France
planned to
sell
tXPLORING THE
the Louisiana
LOUISIANA TERRITORY
had
Territory to the United States. Earlier, Spain
Neither buyer nor seller knew the exact size or
transferred the land to France on the condition
that the French never part with

that
it.
boundaries of the Louisiana Territory. President
Spain feared
Jefferson assigned the task of
if the United States acquired the territory,
ritory to
the young nation would threaten Spain's other
mapping
skilled frontiersmen,
new
the
ter-
Meriwether
Lewis and William Clark. The Lewis and Clark
colonies in North America, such as California
expedition, numbering about 45 men,
and Mexico.
Louis
The Marques de Casa
two
Irujo (eer-oo-hoh),
in
May
left St.
1804. In response to the president's
instructions to record
all
observations "with great
Spain's minister to the United States, wrote a
care and accuracy," Lewis and Clark kept detailed
harsh letter to Secretary of State James
journals of their travels. Typical
Madison denying the United
entry from
States' right to
buy
Louisiana: "The sale of that province to the
United States
4%
promise so absolute that
it
ought to be
re-
spected a promise without which the king, my

master, would not under any circumstances have
let
Louisiana
In
his
own government, Casa
Irujo called the Louisiana
U.S.
He
only
of a
predicted the
river has
now
in
bloom;
in
having the leaves and the bush
somewhat
smaller size.
We find
itself
the
mosquitoes troublesome, notwithstanding
government would be unable to hold such a
vast territory of diverse peoples together:
the following
they differ from those of the United States
Purchase "truly an
United States.
evil" for the
The
roses are very abundant and
go.'*
a letter to
is
23, 1805:
become more rapid, the

country much the same as yesterday,
except that there is rather more rocks on
the face of the hills, and some small spruce
pine appears among the pitch. The wild
founded on the violation of a
is
May
the coolness of the morning.
"One
The
buffalo
is
scarce to-day, but the elk, deer, and ante-
does not need extraordinary wisdom to antici-
lope, are very
**
numerous.
pate that the acquisition of Louisiana, far from

consolidating the strength and vigor of this
nation, will rather contribute to
weaken
it."
particularly the
Mandans
and Shoshonis (shuh-SHOHN-ees)
aided
the expe-
dition. After their first winter
Lewis and Clark
Native Americans
hired a French-Canadian fur trader and his

military strategist, former slave, and grandson of an
Shoshoni wife. Sacagawea (sak-uh-juh-WEE-uh), as
blacks eventually took control of the
guides and interpreters. Sacagawea proved invalu-
African chief
able to the expedition. She
whole colony.
In
1802
French attempt
Domingue ended
in disaster.
to regain Saint
Although Napoleon's
troops captured Toussaint (who later died in

prison), his followers
and the ravages of yellow
fever combined to drive the French from the
With no foothold
island.
which
sell the territory
his
208
in the
to protect Louisiana,
war
chest.
CHAPTER
West Indies from
expedition the best places to
fish,
to forage for wild vegetables.
As an
interpreter, she
helped the expedition obtain needed supplies

critical
moments. For example, when
tion reached the
the
to hunt game, and
at
the expedi-
Rocky Mountains, Sacagawea
helped Lewis and Clark purchase horses from the
to
Shoshonis. Without these horses the expedition
to enlarge
could not have made the crossing through the high
Napoleon decided
and gain $15 million
showed members of
passes of the Rockies before
snow blocked
the
w ay.
Relations with Native Americans were further
enhanced by the presence of York, a
slave. In his
journal Clark observed that the Indians were
astonished" by York,
"who
nity of [displaying] his
Apparently, they "never
powers Strength
a black
man
The Lewis and Clark expedition
down
to the Pacific
etc."
before."
traveled up
Snake and Columbia
the
bringing with
it
plant and animal specimens, animal bones and

pelts,
and various
soil
many
that region as unsuitable for settlement.
Meriwether Lewis, William Clark,

and Zebulon Pike mapped the
Louisiana Territory and cataloged
its
valuable natural resources.
rivers
Ocean. After nearly two and a half
years, the expedition returned
view
Rocky Mountains,
the Missouri River, crossed the
and canoed
to
"much
did not lose the opportu-
Saw
Great Plains as a huge desert, however, led
The importance of the

louisiana purchase
The Louisiana Purchase added
and mineral samples.
Before Lewis and Clark had the chance to
all
or part of 13
future states to the nation. This increased size
gave
publish the chronicles of their expedition, the
the United States a larger international stature.
reports of another explorer, Zebulon Pike,
Robert Livingston noted
appeared
chase:
in
Pike visited the upper
print.
Mississippi Valley in
town of Santa
gave Americans their
first
via
Fe. Pike's descriptions
quences as well. In addition to removing the French
far
west as
home
glimpse of the lands
beyond the Mississippi and helped spur expansion

into
As
time of the pur-
"From this day the United States take their

among the powers of the first rank."
The purchase had important domestic conse-
805 and went as
present-day Colorado before returning

the Spanish
at the
Texas and the Southwest. His depiction of the
place
threat
from American
soil,
the purchase
opened the
interior of the continent to white settlement.
Americans devoted more energy
As
to developing the
the Louisiana Purchase
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
200
200
400 Miles
400 Kilometers
FLORIDA
(Spanish)
120"W
115T
HOW
209
frontier, they increasingly
looked west, rather
than east across the Atlantic. This shift pro-
moted
THOMAS JEFFERSON
a greater sense of national identity.
However, developments
1743-1826
followed the historic
that
purchase were not as positive for Native

Americans.
When
France transferred ownership of
in office
Louisiana to the United States, neither nation con-
1801-1809
sidered Native
American claims
to the land. Indian
leader Sagoyewatha (suh-goh-ye-WAH-thah) (Red

Jacket) lamented:
Thomas
WW
about him. He was
thers
brilliant
ist
who
There was
owned
this
setting sun.
Our
seats
or philosophy.
and yours were
small.
loved art, geography, and architecture and
a great people,
and
not only knew French,
politics
Italian,
when our
time
forefa-
great land. Their seats
[towns] extended from the rising to the
conversational-
could talk just as easily about chemistry
or horse racing as about
He
Jefferson had a
good-humored manner
Spanish, Greek,
left
were once
large
You have now become
we
have scarcely a place
to spread our blankets.
99
and Latin but also studied some 40 Native
The purchase
American languages.
Though charming
in
African Americans. Historians John
person, Jefferson
often hated his rivals and recorded
in his
and Alfred A. Moss.
diary
The death
and
deep sense of
make
helped
loneliness.
Yet.
of his wife Martha Wayles Skelton
Franklin
possible the purchase of Louisiana.
caused him to
made
to
southern planters,
possible the extension of
slavery.
mourn: "My evening prospects now hang on

the thread of a single
Hope
point out that the blacks
by opening new lands
the purchase also

five of his six children
Jr..
many
of Saint Domingue. in throwing off slavery,
the petty gossip he heard about them. Jefferson

also struggled with a
also had an effect on
The Louisiana Purchase helped
life."
and national
and it had far reaching
consequences for American
Indians and African Americans.
build U.S. prestige
identity,
SECTION
IDENTIFY and
REVIEW
explain the significance of the following: Robert Livingston, Louisiana Purchase,
Toussaint L'Ouverture, Lewis and Clark expedition, Sacagawea, York, Zebulon Pike.
LOCATE
and explain the importance of the following: Trans-Appalachian West,
Haiti,
Louisiana Territory.
I.
MAIN IDEA What
steps did the Republican Congress take against Federalist policies?
MAIN IDEA What
did the United States
hope to
gain by purchasing Louisiana
from France?
ASSESSING CONSEQUENCES What positive consequences did the Louisiana Purchase have for
the United States? What negative impact did it have on Native Americans and African Americans?
WRITING TO CREATE
Imagine you are an American Indian
Write an account that expresses your
feelings
living in
the Louisiana Territory.
about white exploration, conquest, and settlement
of the territory.
HYPOTHESIZING
abandoning your
210
:i
CHAPTER
Imagine you are President Jefferson.
strict constructionist stand in
What
reasons might you give for
the case of the Louisiana Purchase?
II
THE COMING OF THE WAR OF

u
What foreign
actions In the early

the United States respond?
800s affected U.S. trade?
What were the major causes of the War of 1812?

What was the significance of the outcome of the War
6,
1800, U.S. trade
'y
1812
Thomas
Jejferson
the seas.
As with
How did
of 1812?
was expanding worldwide.
hoped
to protect
America's freedom of
earlier presidents, however, this goal
remained out of reach. Events across the Atlantic pulled

the nation into conflicts: first off the
North African coast
and then because of Napoleon attempted conquest of

Europe on the high seas and at home.
5
The Chesapeake and the
H.M.S. Leopard demanded the
British ship
The
perils
of world trade
Since 1783. U.S. merchants had been trading with
Barbary states of North Africa, including
Morocco. Algiers
(al-jiRZ),
Tunis, and Tripoli.
Barbary pirates demanded protection money from

all
ships that sailed there. This harassment of U.S.
ships convinced
many Americans
of the need for a
powerful navy.
war
in
Europe
refused, the British
spilled over into the Atlantic
In 1807 Britain passed the
Orders
Ocean.
When
opened
at
Embargo Act
of 1807. which stopped
shipments of food and other American products to

all
foreign ports.
Not
surprisingly.
New
England merchants
as did
foreign ships that cooperated with the British
navy.
America was again caught
between France and

In the
turn. Britain, facing a
manpower
of impressment.
On
its
because of
others
it.
measure,
this
who were thrown
out of
work
John Lane Jones, an unemployed
Boston laborer, complained directly
1807. events took an ugly
Royal Navy, stepped up
many
to Jefferson:
in the cross fire
Britain.
summer of
outrage
"peaceable coercion," Jefferson urged Congress
France, or even from entering ports under French
all
this
but wanted to maintain U.S. neutrality. In an effort
and western farmers angrily opposed
to seize
3 U.S. sea-
fire, killing
Americans. President Jefferson shared
in Council,
Napoleon reacted by threatening
right to
permission was
which forbade neutral vessels from trading with
control.
807
men and wounding 18 others.

The Chesapeake incident outraged many
to pass the
That conviction grew stronger as Napoleon's
board the U.S. Chesapeake to search for 4 sup-
posed British deserters.

the
Leopard,
shortage in the
long-standing practice
June 22 the captain of the
You
How much
infernal villain.
are you going to keep this
to starve us poor people.

.
afford us
you could
A
some
feel as
kind of
bad as
You must
relief.
do.
longer
Embargo on
**
...
wish
21
Westerners were particularly alarmed by the

ties
activi-
of the Shawnee leader Tecumseh (tuh-KUHM-suh).

Settlers
in
opponent
had a
tireless
in the tall,
(1768-1813).
When
and resourceful
handsome Tecumseh
was
his father
killed
by whites, Tecumseh
was adopted by
Shawnee chief
the
Blackfish.
As he grew older,
Tecumseh became convinced
that
Native
Americans' best hope for

survival rested in a mili-
tary alliance
among
the
Indian nations.
the lâKbatij Coast
In the early
Tecumseh
"TO THE SHORES OF TRIPOLI"
In
1800s
set out to rally the Indian nations east
the early
the Mississippi River.
1800s the United States sent naval and marine forces to the
From
the Great
Lakes
of
to the
Barbary Coast to stop the Barbary pirates' harassment of
Gulf of Mexico, Tecumseh urged Native
American
Americans not
ships.
PLACE
What
country!
geographical advantage enabled the
Barbary States to control shipping
in
Why
great sea?
the Mediterranean?
all
to sell land to the settlers: "Sell a
not
sell the air.
as
embargo
in
president in 1809,
place.
at first
kept
tiie
But public pressure became too
Congress repealed the embargo
in
great,
and
March 1809.
Congress then passed the Non-Intercourse Act.
which only prohibited U.S. trade with Great

Britain and France. The Non-Intercourse Act, like
the embargo, did more harm to the American econ-
omy
than to the economies of Great Britain and
France. As the situation worsened, war with

Britain or France, or both,
seemed
make them
support, settlers pres-
sured the government to take action. In the

1811, while
Tecumseh was
in the
fall
of
South seeking
support from the Creeks,
Choctaws, and
Cherokees, General William Henry Harrison
decided to move against Tecumseh's stronghold on
the Tippecanoe River in Indiana Territory. At dawn
on November 7, the Indians struck the army camp
first,
ignoring Tecumseh's warning that the time
was not yet
The Battle of
right to fight.
Tippecanoe ended
When Tecumseh
inevitable.
Spirit
for the use of his children?"
As Tecumseh gained
James Madison, who succeeded Jefferson
the clouds, and the
Did not the Great
in defeat for
Native Americans.
returned from the South in early
1812, he saw his dream of a united confederation
In
response to harassment of U.S.
shattered
replaced by
isolated border wars
between Native Americans and
ships by foreign powers, the gov-
settlers.
ernment strengthened the navy

and set
limits
on foreign trade.
UONGRESS DECLARES WAR

UONFRONTATION
IN
Problems abroad were compounded by events
home. Hunters,
trappers,
westward
and farmers sought new
into lands
occupied by
Rapid westward expansion fueled tensions
ued
212
::
settlers
and Native Americans,
to look to
CHAPTER
had supplied Tecumseh's forces with
again arose in Congress.

as
New
congressmen, such
Henry Clay of Kentucky, John C. Calhoun of
South Carolina, and Felix Grundy of Tennessee,

exhibited such war fever that Congressman John
Randolph of Virginia nicknamed them "War
Native Americans.
between
British
weapons. Thus, the clamor for war against Britain

at
Canada and Spanish Florida and
lands in British
also pushed
The
THE WEST
who
contin-
Great Britain for assistance.
Hawks." They called
for an attack
on Canada
in
order to seize land and end the British-Native
American
alliance once and for
all.
Their cries,

became
said Randolph,
pf^tS^DENTIAL
"like the whip-poor-
Canada! Canada! Canada!"
To reduce
Orders
UVs
one eternal monotonous tone
will, but
Council
in
JAMES MADISON
tensions, the British suspended the

in
I7SI-I836
June 1812. Before the news
reached the United States, however. President
Madison asked
for a declaration of war. In his
sage to Congress on June
Madison
1.
mes-
in office
cited repeated
1809-1817
violations of neutral rights, continued impressment
of American sailors, and British support of Native
American uprisings on
the declaration. After
the frontier as reasons for
some
debate, the
on June 4 and the Senate on June

declaration of
House voted
8 to support the
w ar.
The vote was

tional lines.
almost exactly along sec-
split
The South and
the
West
suffering
from an agricultural depression and Indian troubles

that they
blamed on Great
Britain
once remarked to Thomas
knew him [Madison]

improper
thing." Jefferson delighted in teasing
The Middle
Madison with
fearing
almost
a British
unanimously
opposed the declaration.
was indeed regarded
this story, for
as a
man
Madison
of great virtue.
Madison was also shy and self-conscious,

often feeling out of place
his
own
friend,
in
social settings.
At
inauguration party, he remarked to a
would much rather be
"I
in
bed." But
Frustration over violations of
Madison's awkward manner vanished during a
neutral rights, impressment of
good dinner with close
American
relaxed and charming, entertaining his
and
sailors,
British sup-
port of Native American uprisings

led to war.
The WAR OF
The United
States
of the military had
was
ill
ions with stories and jokes and even poking fun
left
American army weak
the
American navy enjoyed
to stop
victory.
Canada
Napoleon, Americans anticipated a quick
However, repeated attempts

States,
successes
war, U.S. frigates
Although the government made
hoping
to
effort to
African Americans
enslaved and
Many
fugitive slaves,
part in the war.
win their freedom, fought for the
Americans or the
naval
little
British.
crewmen on
At
the Great
least
war's
won many
months of the
victories against
Meanwhile. American pirates
seriously disrupted British
commerce by
British ships both in the Caribbean
raiding
and around the
British Isles.
The U.S. navy achieved even
greater success
on the Great Lakes. In 1813 a small ragtag naval
commanded by Captain Oliver Hazard Perry

won control of Lake Erie, helping to secure
Americans.
The
invade
however, did enjoy early
at sea. In the first eight
British warships.
one tenth of the
Lakes were African
to
failed.
The United
the advan-
tages of well-trained sailors and officers and a gen-
took
compan-
at himself.
erally high morale.
enlist blacks,
He became
prepared for war. The
and poorly equipped. Yet, despite Britain's great

sea power, the
friends.
1812
Republicans' reluctance to tax and their reduction
free
Jefferson, "[I] never
to do, or to say, an
his friend
blockade of their coasts and the possible ruin of

their shipping industry
of James Madison's former professors
overwhelm-
ingly supported the declaration.

Atlantic and the Northeast
One
force
phase. American war
strate-
America's northwestern border. After his victory
gy focused on the conquest of Canada by land and

sea. With the British preoccupied by their struggle
Perry notified General William Henry Harrison:
first
"We have met

A
the
enemy and
they are ours."
i:
213

Encouraged by these naval
victories,
General
New
Orleans.
They would
also continue to raid
Harrison crossed into Canada. With some 4,500
points along the Atlantic coast to disrupt
troops, he defeated the British and their Native
American commerce.
American
allies at the
British hold
Battle of the
On
Thames. The
on the Northwest Territory was
finally
the night of
forces struck Washington, D.C. Within a day

they had captured the
broken.
August 24, 1814. British
city,
burning the executive
mansion and other major public buildings before
The
ing
war's second phase. Soon
its
war against France early
in
after end-
1814, Great
Britain sent 14,000 reinforcements to Canada.
moving
mansion
the
would invade
north through
the United States
Canada and from
from the
the south through
Lady Dolley Madison escaped
just
minutes before the enemy
crashed through the doors.
The next
British strategists planned a three-pronged attack.
Britain
on. First
target for a coastal assault
was
the
port city of Baltimore, on Chesapeake Bay. There.

British vessels
bombarded
fort's
in
McHenry. but
Fort
brave stand
the
immortalized
Francis Scott Key's
poem
"The Star-Spangled Banner"

was a setback for the British.
Great Britain then assembled about 7.500 troops to strike
at
New
Orleans. General
Andrew
Jackson, a ruthless Indian-fighter
and commander of
militia, led the
a frontier
American forces
that included both whites
free African
and
Americans. U.S.
troops constructed
line of
earthworks, or embankments of
earth, fortified
the invasion finally
January
8.
When
came on
by cannons.
1815, the well-pro-
tected U.S. sharpshooters and

artillery easily
won the Battle of

Few Americans
New
Orleans.
were
killed, but British casualties
topped 2.000.
Jackson had ignored the

fear of
many
officers that
would be dangerous
to
it
arm
African American troops. After

the victory Jackson praised the
African Americans:
"I
expected
much from you. but you have

surpassed my hopes."
the
The Treaty
War of 1812
of Ghent.
Tragically, the fighting at

U.S.
WAR STRATEGY
Canada on three
frontier;
at land
and
and
(3)
fronts:
to
win the
sea, the
War
of
1812 by invading
war ended without
What
U.S.
forces achieved
some successes
a victory for either side.
tions
had produced the Treaty of
Ghent (gent), signed on Christmas Eve, 1814. Reports of the
route did Jackson and his troops follow to meet the British at
Americans'
Orleans?
New
Orleans victory
reached Washington, D.C,
214
CHAPTER
New
Orleans came after peace negotia-
along Lake Champlain toward Montreal; (2) across the Niagara
from Detroit into upper Canada. Although
k4 movement
New
(I)
The United States hoped
at the
same time
many
treaty.
as
news of
assume
to
the peace accord, leading
General Jackson did nothing to correct
view and
political
power.
By
much by
the Treaty of
the terms of the treaty, prisoners of
were exchanged, and the

existed before the
the
this
used his fame as a war hero to win
later
Neither side gained

Ghent.
had affected the
that the victory
war was
territorial
war were
war
boundaries that
restored. Nevertheless,
a turning point for the United States.
It
consolidated American control over the Northwest

Territory through the defeat of Native
and the removal of their British

it
resulted in a peace
Americans
allies. In addition,
between the United States
and Great Britain that marked the beginning of a

long partnership.
The War of
8 2 guaranteed U.S.
1
control of the Northwest Territory
while forging a
British troops
new alliance between
were defeated
as they attacked the line of
earthworks built for the defense of New Orleans. Painted by

H. Charles McBarron, Andrew Jackson is shown here mounted
on a horse.
the United States and Great Britain.

At the same time, however, the war further
New
southern states. Delegates carried the proposal to
opposed the war.
Washington, D.C., but arrived just as the city
divided the nation along sectional lines.
England Federalists had
bitterly
So great was their discontent
December 1814
that they
met
in
Hartford, Connecticut, to dis-
at
cuss seceding from the
Union so
that they could
learned of the peace treaty and Jackson's victory at
New
Orleans. Caught in the midst of the wild cele-
bration, they slipped quietly out of town.
The Hartford Convention helped
negotiate a separate peace with Great Britain.
Moderates
down
at
the
Hartford Convention voted
secession, suggesting instead that the
Federalists push for a constitutional

that
would
amendment
powers of Congress and the
limit the
ry at
New
ous.
The
end
Orleans, the convention appeared treasonparty never recovered from the charge of
disloyalty and collapsed a
SECTION
IDENTIFY and
spell the
of the Federalist party. In the wake of the U.S. victo-
few years
after the war.
REVIEW
Orders
Harrison, Battle of Tippecanoe, Battle of the Thames,
in
Council, Tecumseh, William
Andrew Jackson,
Battle of
New
Henry
Orleans, Treaty
of Ghent, Hartford Convention.
LOCATE
1.
MAIN IDEA What actions

ships
2.
3.
on the
Canada, Lake
did the United States take to prevent continued harassment of U.S.
United States domesti-
and internationally?
ANALYZING Why
tion
Erie.
seas?
you oppose the Non-Intercourse Act

5.
states,
MAIN IDEA Why did the United States declare war in 1812?
MAIN IDEA How was the outcome of the War of 1812 significant for the
cally
4.
and explain the importance of the following: the Barbary
fail
to achieve
did
its
Write
just as
a letter to President
Madison explaining why
you opposed the Embargo Act of 1807.
Tecumseh try to create an
Indian confederation?
Why
did the confedera-
goals?
215
Washington inaugurated.
French Revolution begins.
Act establishes
Judiciary
federal courts.
CHAPTER
6
1789 1790
WRITING A SUMMARY
Louisiana Purchase provide both benefits and challenges for the United States?
summary
write a
Democratic Values How does
4.
of the chapter
encourage the formation of
democracy
political parties?
Number your
and
list
paper
to
5.
Study the time
ond next to
the order
in
THINKING CRITICALLY
Using Historical Imagination
1.
Americans
the sec-
2,
above,
which
in
next to
first
line
activity
tion act might have
below.
1
resist settlers
Hypothesizing What
2.
Bill
3.
Washington
4.
Battle of
moving west?
effect
do you think
a sedi-
on today's press?
do you think the Embargo and
ratified.
than the economies of France and Britain?
gives Farewell Address.
Tippecanoe fought.
and Sedition Acts passed.
5. Alien
Why
did Native
Non-Intercourse acts hurt the U.S. economy more
of Rights
2.
Evaluating
3.
Treaty of Ghent signed.
Why
Review the
Evaluating Select an event on the time

paragraph, state
its
significance
in
line,
and
in
U.S. history.
it.
IDENTIFYING PEOPLE
AND
IDEAS
Skills
Basics beginning
to
3.
Study the
illustrates
It
Handbook
entry on Reviewing
Map
on page 992. Then number your paper
map
below, noting the numbers on
the states, either
in full
or
in
part, that
were formed from the Louisiana Purchase. Write the
name
of the state next to the corresponding
number

1.
George Washington
5.
John Marshall
2.
precedent
6.
Toussaint L'Ouverture
3.
Alexander Hamilton
7.
Sacagawea
4.
right of deposit
8.
Tecumseh

1
What
steps
were taken by the
First
Congress to
organize the federal government?

2.
How
did
its
close ties to France cause the United
States problems
3.
What
in
with Great Britain

4.
Why
the 1790s?
events pushed the United States toward
can
it
in
war
the early 1800s?
be said that the Louisiana Purchase had
negative effects for African Americans?
m
1.
REVIEWING THEMES
Constitutionai Heritage
How
does the U.S.
Constitution address possible conflicts between

individual rights
216

Historical Imagination You are a newspaper edi
and those of a society?
how
the early 1800s. Write an editorial about
2.
Hamilton's financial program affected the economy.
Tecumseh's confederation or the declaration of the
3.
War
CHAPTER
In
Describe
what ways
did the
tor
in
of
2.
Tecumseh
Jefferson reelected
president.
Jefferson elected
Tippecanoe fought.
Treaty of
Ghent
Tecumseh
state
..
freshets [floods], stripped and erod-
in
his Indian
your
ed with the naked bones of
clay
and rock exposed. The destruc-
Confederation. Read the following excerpts from
Then
signed.
1810
traveled throughout Native
American lands to seek support for

appeal to the Osages.
New
''
1805

1810-181
Madison elected
L
1
1800
In
Orleans fought.
president.
'r
Battle of
against Great
Britain.
Louisiana
Purchase.
War declared
1
U.S. completes
president.
tries to
unify Indians. Battle of
his
own words
tion of the forests
the
rainfall,
changed
for the searching
Tecumseh's reasons for forming a Native American
clouds could find no green
confederation.
and beckoning woods to
draw them on and milk
Brothers
The white men are not
them. The merciless 19th
friends to the Indians; at first, they only
asked for land sufficient for a wigwam;

now, nothing will satisfy them but the
whole of our hunting grounds, from the
century was
like a hostile
expedition for loot that
seemed
limitless.
99
Pioneer Mother statue
rising to the setting sun.
Brothers
peace;
My people wish for
are, there is
no peace.
Brothers
us,
if you
do not unite with
they will first destroy us,
you
BUILDING YOUR
PORTFOLIO
but where the white people
will fall
an easy prey
and then
to them.
They
have destroyed many nations of red

men because they were not united
.

cooperatively.
other's battles.
POLITICS
we must fight each
99
In
Chapter
you attended
create a chart demonstrating ways
LINKING HISTORY
By the
late
Appalachia.
In
were pouring
Read Steinbeck's comments, and
how
cal
their uses of the land.

in
government
a brief essay,
he saw the effects of western migration
THE CONSTITUTION
2.
focused on
the
new
how women
wonder
kindness to the land
When
that they [the settlers]
invaders.
ened by
in
order to maintain
its
use-
they had cropped [worn] out a
moved on,
The topsoil,
piece they
leaf-fall,
was
politi-
In
Chapter 5 you
could be represented
in
Constitution. Building on that experience,
imagine you are a
in
went land-mad, because there was so much of it.

They cut and burned the forests to make room
for crops; they abandoned their knowledge of
fulness.
not meeting the
is
and economic interests of your region.
showing two
It is little
or
which the
member
of a group that repre-
sents the rights of free blacks. Create a banner
on America's resources.
4^
is
in
into Trans-
America and Americans, \ohn Steinbeck
wrote about these migrants and

explain
federal
AND GEOGRAPHY
700s, people
a gov-
ernors conference. Building on that experience,
3.
the
Bill
rights
you want Congress to include
of Rights.
WAR
In
Chapter 4 you served
of Congress overseeing the
member
effort.
Building
on that experience, imagine you are a
member
of the War Department. Create a chart

how you will coordinate supplies for the
showing
raping the country like
American army and navy during the
held by roots and fresh-
Use icons to represent
left
as a
American war
War
of 1812.
supplies.
helpless to the spring
217
U N
T 2
mencan
wVevolutionaty Literature
The Revolutionary era inspired many writers
liberty.
Fiery orator and author
and poet Mercy
Otis Warren
up the cause of
Thomas Paine wrote pamphlets and
songs urging the American colonists

Great Britain. During the war
to take
to fight for their freedom from
women
writers
among them dramatist
encouraged American women
to partici-
pate in the struggle. After the war, African American mathematician
and almanac writer Benjamin Banneker argued

for
in the
that the liberty fought
Revolution should be applied to enslaved African Americans.
O ye swains,-'
But hear,
Liberty ^ree
How
all
To cut down
In
a chariot of light
The Goddess
Ten thousand
And
A fair
from the regions of
day.
From the
of Liberty came;
celestials' directed
guardian of ours;
east to the west

let
In
blow the trumpet to arms.
the sound of
Let the far and the near
hither conducted the dame.
most profane.
and Lords, are uniting amain,^
this
Thro' the land

the way.
a tale
'tis
Warren
Otis
the tyrannical powers.
Commons
Kings.
by Thomas Paine
Mercy
all
defense of our Liberty
it
flee.
unite with a cheer.

Tree.
budding branch from the gardens above,
Where
millions with millions agree.
She brought
And
in
her hand as a pledge of her love,
the plant she
named Ubeny
Tree.
angels
2 endowed
3 British coin
made of silver, worth
four pennies
4 countTN youths
5 with strength and speed
The
deep
celestial exotic struck
Like a native
The fame
of
it
flourish'd
To seek out
this
the ground.
and bore;
drew the
its fruit
in
nations around.
From
peaceable shore.
Unmindful of names or distinctions they came.

For freemen
With one
And
Beneath
spirit
like
was
in
Lamira wish'd that freedom might succeed.
the patriarchs of old.
contentment they
silver
ate,
and gold.
The cares of the grand and the great.

With timber and tar they Old England supply'd.
And supported her powV on the sea;
Her bat:les they fought, without getting a groat,-''
For the honor of Liberty
UNIT
tsty.'
But to such terms what female ere- agreed?
To
Unvex'd with the troubles of
218
Winthrop,
Liberty Tree.
this fair tree, like
Their bread
Hott. 7.
by Mercy Otis Warren
brothers agree;
endued,- they one friendship pursued.
their temple
To the
Tree.
British
marts forbidden to repair
The good, the
wise, the prudent, and the gay.
Mingle their tears, and sighs for sighs repay;
Deep anxious thought each
How
gen'rous
to avert the dread approaching
bosom
ills;
Let us resolve on a small sacrifice.
And in the pride of Roman matrons rise;

Good as Cornelia. or a Pompey's-' wife.
"
We'll quit the useless vanities of
life.
fills.
dangers to which you were exposed;
on that time
reflect
and you cannot
but be led to a serious and grateful
sense of your miraculous and providential preservation;
you cannot but
acknowledge that the present freedom

and tranquility which you enjoy you
have mercifully received and that
it is
the peculiar blessing of Heaven.
This
clearly
was
sir,
saw
a time in
which you
into the injustice of a state
of slavery and
which you had
in
just
apprehensions of the horrors of

condition,
it
was now,
sir,
its
that your
abhorrence thereof was so excited,

that you publickly held forth this true
and valuable doctrine, which
to be recorded and
Liberty Displaying the Arts and Sciences, by Samuel Jennings
succeeding ages.
wing, and
across the away:

ator with certain unalienable
Thanks to the sex, by heavenly hand design 'd,

Either to bless, or ruin
all
are
mankind.
life,
But,
A
A
sharp debate ensu'd on
wrong and
in all
hold these truths
liberty
sir,
and the pursuit of happiness."
how
you were so
pitiable
fully
is it
to reflect that although
convinced of the benevolence of
right,
the Father of mankind and of
warm, 'tis true, yet all unite,

At once to end the great politic strife.
his
equal and impartial
little
And
1
"We
all men are creendowed by their crerights, that among these
ated equal, and that they are

flit
worthy
to be self-evident, that
Amidst loud discord, sadness, and dismay,
Hope spread her
is
remembered
yield
up
Patriot
who
British
goods
but real wants of
all
requested a
poem
urging
distribution of those rights and privileges
which he
had conferred upon them, that you should at the

life.
women
J*
same time counteract

fraud and violence so
to boycott
his
mercies
numerous
in
detaining by
a part of
my
brethren under groaning captivity and cruel oppres-
2 ever
3
Roman woman who,
after the death of her
husband, refused to
sion, that
of that
Roman
detested
general
Sir,
of
From
Cetter to
Thomas
Jefferson
my
you should at the same time be found
most
remarry and was devoted to her sons and their education
in
criminal act which
guilty
you professedly
others with respect to yourselves.
suppose that your knowledge of the situation
brethren
is
too extensive to need a
here; neither shall
recital
presume to prescribe methods
may be relieved, otherwise than by

recommending to you and all others to wean yourby which they
by Benjamin Banneker
Maryland, Baltimore County
Near
Ellicotts'
Lower
Mills,
August
19th, 1791
selves
from those narrow prejudices which you have
imbibed with respect to them and as Job proposed to

his friends,
Thomas
"put your souls
in
their souls stead."
Jefferson,
Secretary of State.
Sir,
suffer
me
mind that time
to recall to your
in
which the arms
1 .
In
Thomas
Crown
2.
In
Mercy Otis Warren's poem, how does the author
3.
women to support the revolutionary effort?

What is Benjamin Banneker trying to convince Thomas Jefferson
and tyranny of the
British
were exerted with every powerful
effort in
order to reduce you
to a State of Servitude, look back

I
Paine's song,
what does the "Liberty Tree" stand
for?
inspire
to do? Summarize his argument.
entreat you on the variety of
AMERICAN LETTERS
219
Stirategies for
RECOGNIZING
Battle of
FALLACIES IN
ple learned of the battle
REASONING
treaty at the
fallacy
a mistaken idea;
is
a fallacy
results in an
1812
Irrelevant evidence means

basing a conclusion on infor-
produce
Facts that support
clusion
statements that sound true but
Then
ment
may be
one con-
useless regard-
determining cause
Example: The
and
in
drawing conclu-
Convention was a success because
The War
of
to an end
in
Constitutional
in
Identifying
ning
of
of the
most common types
with examples:
fellacies,
Single cause
one cause
is
for a major event
while ignoring other causes.
were away
ideas of the
Americans' revolutionary
Europe and unable
in
Evidence must be
logically
present-
zeal.
8 2 came
1
1814, as Federalist
Washington, D.C., to
demand
action.
The statement
contains a fallacy of
from the Convention

their participation
logical
is
a fact,
struggle.
Great
Britain
and
tiated settlement while the secret
and
would probably
significant.
armed
the United States reached a nego-
and Adams's absence
Jefferson's
no
Enlightenment were the source of
"irrelevant evidence." Tired of the
have been
Example: Ih^
reasoning.
to participate.
ed to support a conclusion.
identifying only
in
Thomas Jefferson and John Adams
may want to review

Cause and Effect begin-
on page 989.) Following are
some
analyze the following statefor a fallacy
Hartford Convention arrived
in
sions. (You
6, particularly
meeting known as the
occur either
or
Chapter
delegates from the antiwar
ing another.
Most reasoning errors
effect
in
mation that does not apply to

it.
are not.
of
Declares War," on pages 212-13.
fallacies
historical writing often

Review the account of the War
battle led to the war's end.
argument, or a mistaken, unsup-
in
and the
the subsection "Congress
unsound
ported conclusion. Such
Orleans. But peo-
same time. Thus

many people assumed that the
reasoning
in
New
But there
is
Hartford meeting was
The
in
progress.
had no
Federalists' opposition
effect
on the war's outcome.
or relevant relationship
between the Convention's success

and their being
in
Europe.
Examine the following statements

History
is
complex. Events are

for fallacies
seldom the
result of a single
The Revolution was driven

by social, political, and economic
cause.
How to
Recognize
Fallacies in Reasoning
1 .
fully. Find
Coincidence as cause
means
of
attributing the cause
2.
one event to another that
same time
just
to
ê War
1812,
yourself:
220
was negotiated
UN T
I
is
War
of
before the
effect.
Study the reasoning. Ask
of 1812.
Ghent, which ended the
that chronology
2.
not always an indicator of
read, the Treaty of
ended
French.
Remember
3.
Pontiac's rebellion
events. Decide whether the
logical?
As you have
because
cause and
the Batde of New Orleans brought
an end
found.
acquire military aid from the
order of events contributed to
U.S. victory at
and
Determine the order of
a cause-and- effect relationship.
order) of the events.
list
evaluate them.
at the
the timing or chronology (the
Example: The
the main ideas and
because of
occurred earlier or
reasoning. Then, on
explain any fallacies you have
Read the information care-
forces as well as ideas.
in
a separate sheet of paper,
The fact that the Bill of Rights

was not added until after the
Constitution was ratified
shows that protection of individual liberties was not a part
Constitution.
3.
The
U.S. offer of
lured
Does the conclusion
France into
from the
facts given?
$ 5 million
1
Napoleon Bonaparte of
connections been proven?

follow
to
of the debate over the
Are the arguments
Have cause-and-effect
his forces failed
selling
the terri-
tory of Louisiana.

Outlined
below are four
or cooperatively, complete

concepts involved.
historical
one of
and protesting citizens
oppose
chapters 4 and
in
how
Department
the
will
unfair taxes.
War
coordinate both
provision of necessary supplies
in
the future.
Video Review
of the period.
Write
designed
in
chapters 5 and
6,
write
and present your video
lage to the class.
col-
line
your
the philosophy of the party,
how your
party proposes to deal
with those issues.
Further Reading
Lavender, David
of a Nation. Scribner (1989).
events from the organization of

the U.S. federal government to
Adams
as
Hibbert, Christopher. Redcoats
&.
president.
script,
in
Your platform should out-
a petition to your state legislature
a script
narrators to different parts of the
and interests of the states
your region, and demonstrate
the election of John
to accompany the images. Assign
form that addresses the concerns
Examination of the significant
that best illustrate the major top-
chapters 5
discuss specific issues affecting
America
1763 and 1815. Choose images
6,
in
write a political party plat-
create a representative government.
outline for a video collage of
the years between
Using the portfolio mate-
you designed
region.
Birth
ics
parties.
rise of political
The framers of the

Constitution were determined to
Faber, Doris, and Harold Faber. The
nation would be spared
disunity, sectionalism
encouraged the
rials
THE
CONSTITUTION
6,
the recruitment of troops and the
in
new
the
from
and
create an organizational chart that
In
on the government's
right to tax versus the citizens'

right to
Washington hoped that
hold
5,
debate between government
1815. Using the portfolio materials
illustrates
chapters 4 and
in
between 1775 and
you designed
and free blacks.
POLITICS
that focuses
The United States experienced many threats to
women
for
to modify the
Although George
officials
its
RIGHTS
state constitution to include rights
defended during the Revolution.
security
asking
The right to protest is

many rights that colonists
designed
WAR
members
DEMOCRATIC
The American Revolution
Rebels:
through
(
990).
dence
British Eyes.
The
War
as seen
of the British.
Norton
for Indepen-
through the eyes
S.
The
Way
Western Sea. Doubleday
to the
(
990).
Recreation of the key events
surrounding Lewis and Clark's

expedition.
War
Marrin, Albert. 1812: The
Nobody Won. Atheneum (1985).

Overview of the causes and major
effects of the
War
of
2.
Shorto, Russell. Tecumseh and the
Dream of an American
Indian. Silver
Burdett Press (1989). Account of
Tecumseh's struggle to forge an

alliance
among Native Americans.
REVIEW
221
Chapter 9
Chapter 9
WORKING FOR REFORM
NATIONALISM AND
ECONOMIC GROWTH
1815-1845
I820s-I860s
SEPARATE SOCIETIES:
NORTH AND SOUTH

1820-1860
Qnwth and
Change
1815-1860
ith
economic growth and the
expansion of democracy, the United States

experienced great change, particularly
in the
North and Middle West. In those
regions
new
industry
and commerce
brought dramatic social and economic

change. In the South, however, the
economy remained dependent on

agriculture
and slavery. The challenges pre-
sented by a rapidly changing society and by

the issue of slavery led
religion
and others
to
some Americans
to
reform work. The
expansion of slavery also became a divisive

political issue as settlers
sought to bring
western territories into the Union.
Watercolor painted by Eunice Pinney on the back of

a letter, Connecticut,
Chapter 10
EXPANSION AND
CONFLICT 1820-1860
c.
1815
Chapter 9
1815-1845
NATIONALISM AND
ECONOMIC GROWTH
UNDERSTANDING
THE MAIN IDEA
The
War of 1812
with national pride
filled
Americans
and confidence
in
the future. The U.S. government began
a stronger foreign policy and
to assert
to
promote the growdi of the domestic
economy.
A new
spirit
of democracy
swept the nation, as symbolized by

"the
man
of the people," Andrew
Jackson.
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT What are some of the

factors that might influence a
region's
Why
might regions within a large
country develop different
economies?
TECHNOLOGY AND
SOCIETY How
might
new
technologies promote economic
growth?
DEMOCRATIC VALUES
How
might economic change
lead to greater political participation by certain groups?
1816
1820
James Monroe
Missouri
elected president.
Compromise
passed.
1825
Erie Canal
completed.
1830
Indian Removal
Act passed.
1841
John Tyler
succeeds to
presidency.
The War of 1812, although producing no clear-cut victory
LINK TO THE PAST
for the
United States, proved that the country could stand up to a major
European power. Americans began to believe that the United States

could become a power
and
in its
own
right, free
from Europe's influence
control.
9.
n 1828 Frances Wright of Scotland, a travel writer, social
reformer, and sometime U.S. resident, delivered a Fourth of July
speech
at
New Harmony,
the protector of
"human
Indiana. She praised the United States as

liberty [and] the favored scene of
improvement." Soon, she predicted,
"all
human
mankind" would celebrate
"the Jubilee of Independence."
The United
States
was
far
from granting
liberty to all in 1828, as
Native Americans and enslaved African Americans well knew. The

nation also faced growing sectional differences. Yet most Americans
of the time would have cheered Wright's speech. Americans during

this
period celebrated the Fourth of July with zest. Indeed, one British
visitor noted that
American national
pride "blazes out everywhere
on
all
occasions."
The new confidence
that
burst forth in this era took
many
forms. The United
States built
new roads
and canals, developed
new
a
industries, launched
period of economic
growth, secured
its
borders,
and warned Europe
to stay
out of Latin America.
Verdia of the People (1855)
Frances Wright
by George Caleb Bingham
NATIONALISM AND ECONOMIC GROWTH
225
THE
c u s
How did the War of
RISE
OF NATIONALISM
1812 help strengthen the U.S. economy?
What weaknesses did the war reveal?

What did the American System attempt to
How
accomplish?
did U.S. foreign policy reflect a growing sense of nationalism?
^he War of 1812 was a
turning point for the United States. The

-k
ii
k *
-k
k k
It
young nation 's stand against Great Britain gave Americans

dence and pride
weaknesses
But the war also brought
in their country.
in the nation's financial
and transportation
Following the war, government leaders took steps
problems and
to
The United
to light
systems.
remedy these
boost.
Flag of the United States,
1818
stirred a
States did not gain territory
new
from the
up
fully stood
spoils of war.
to
The United
States
not
just
hope
that
nation would survive and prosper.
Baltimore newspaper editor Hezekiah Niles captured the growing
economic
of the United
vitality
all
but
Americans had been forced
to
produce goods
themselves. U.S. merchants used the opportunity

to build
new
England cotton
factories.
The number of New
mills, for
example, jumped by 94

But the war also revealed weaknesses
had success-
Great Britain! Americans for the
time began to believe
new
The war
sense of nationalism, or national
pride and loyalty.
With the flow of European products
a big
stopped by embargoes and naval blockades,
of 1812. But confirmation of the young
more important than any
first
-k
The war had given U.S. manufacturing
Republic's independence from Europe was vastly
their
-k
* k
k k
to secure the nation 5 borders.
MATIONALISM TAKES ROOT

War
confi-
nation's financial system.
By mid- 18 14
in the
war
the
had drained the U.S. Treasury. Without the Bank of

the United States,
recharter in 181
1.
which Congress had refused

the Treasur>' had to rely
on
to
state
banks for loans. Instead of borrowing from one
States in an 1815 editorial in his Niles' Weekly-
central bank, the
Register:
scores of banks.
government had
to negotiate with
Securing loans was only part of the problem,
44
The
laurels
however. Each bank printed
on the
republic, reposing [resting]
of a glorious war, gathers the rich har-
amounts
Everywhere the
ver coin
vest of an honorable peace.
sound of the axe
is
As
heard, opening the for-
and towns
226
::
rise
of 10,000 wheels
The
republic
7
cities
up as by magic.
hum
CHAPTER
Our
lives,
and
fills
in
that the
bank held
Thus
the
sil-
back up the notes.
one
risk
The busy
.
notes, often in
the gold or
to accept
not deposit in another.
to
government ran the
of borrowing from one bank
99
own
banks often refused
grow
our seaports.
honor!
a result,
its
exceeding the specie
another's notes.
est to the sun and claiming for agriculture
the range of the buffalo.
far
New
money
instance, regularly refused to accept
from the South or the West.
that
it
could
England banks, for

bank notes
Warof 1812 led to a

boom in U.S. manufacturing
llThe
AMERICAN WORDS
backcountry
lightning
backwoods
potato
bullfrog
skunk
canoe
but revealed weaknesses

the nation's financial and
transportation systems.
bug
in
razorback
snowshoe
tomahawk
The AMERICAN SYSTEM

While the War of 1812 convinced many older
Republicans
Source: Noah Webster's American Dictionary of the English Language
AN AMERICAN LANGUAGE
(1758-1843), teacher, lawyer, and
listed
many words
to
members had already

Chief among these
was Congressman Henry Clay of
party
Kentucky. After the war. Clay began to push for a
1828. This landmark work
numerous words Americans had added
language, including
program of federal support
ment. Clay's program, which
of Indian origin.
How might
for
the English
American System, had
HYPOTHESIZING
govern-
in national terms.
"nationalists"
labored for
years to compile his American Dictionar/ of the English

Longuflge, first published in
many younger
been thinking
Noah Webster
politician,
ment,
to support a stronger federal
economic develop-
came
three
to
main
be called the
features: (1) a
Webster's
national
dictionary have contributed to America's growing sense of
as the
nationalism?
bank
to provide
sound currency and serve
government's banker;
(2) a protective tariff to
encourage industrial development; and (3) a national

transportation system to unite northern manufactur-
Wartime
also underscored the nation's trans-
ers,
western farmers, and southern planters.
portation problems. With sea trade blocked by

British ships, merchants
had
to transport
goods
Banking and industry. By
1816 the pubhc
was growing.
over slow and costly land routes. Goods, although
cry for a sound national currency
usually abundant and cheap where they were pro-
duced, became scarce and expensive in other areas.
Even Republican President Madison, who had

opposed the First Bank of the United States,
example, sugar that sold for $9 per
declared in his annual message to Congress that
In 1813. for
100 pounds
in
New
Orleans cost $40 in
By 1815 many Republicans

nents of a strong central
ing
national
for
New
York.
former oppo were
government
measures
to
promote
won them
this
Clay and other nationalists
in
message
Republicans
as a sign that
national bank.
On
January
8,
John C. Calhoun introduced a
needed a balance among agriculture, manufactur-
Second Bank of
and commerce. Even Jefferson had a change
Congress took
in
Congress would no longer oppose the creation of a
over to the Federalist view that a strong America
ing,
bank warranted
consideration.
call-
manufacturing, strengthen the financial system,
and improve transportation. The war
the establishment of a national
Madison signed
South Carolina's
bill to
charter the
the United States. President
the bill
on April
10, 1816.
of heart. "To be independent for the comforts of
Clay's call for a protective tariff also met
he wrote a colleague, "we must fabricate
with approval. After the Treaty of Ghent was
life,"
[make] them ourselves.
We
must now place the
manufacturer by the side of the agriculturist."
signed, British-made goods had again flooded
American
ports.
New
U.S. manufacturers, unable

to sell their
goods
as
cheaply as the much

During
larger
this
currency.
own
measures.
A five-
bank note
from the Bank of
dollar
Cincinnati
is
shown here.
firms,
demanded protective
period, state banks

issued their
British
Congress
responded by passing the
^0 ixJ^LIjL'--
Tariff Act
'///> -trnvtYtf^
y/*t/,.
rJ^>
V/.-
-_-^^rr^.
.<
which put
of 1816,
25 percent
duty on most imported
i:
227
Wheeling, West Virginia.
was
(It
later
extended
to
Vandalia. Illinois.)
Most roads and

by
were
built
by private companies (see map on
stales or
New
page 233).
canals, however,
York, for example, began building
the Erie Canal in 1817. Intended as a cheaper and

faster route to the interior of the country than the
National Road, the 363-mile-long canal eventually

linked the
Hudson River with Lake
Erie.
Calhoun
argued that the great scale of such undertakings
Enough members of Congress
required federal aid.
agreed, and Calhoun's
bill
passed. But President
Madison opposed it. As his last act in office,

Madison vetoed the bill on the grounds that it
The Book Bindery, a watercoior by an anonymous American

shows women workers.
overstepped federal powers:
artist,
am
I
factory goods. This
made imported goods more
tance of roads and canals and the improved

navigation of water courses ... to the gen-
expensive than similar U.S.-made goods.
The
tariff
had wide support among northern
eral prosperity.
power
manufacturers and among westerners and some
who hoped
southerners
to benefit
development. However,
who
and southern planters
opposed the
tariff.
New
from
withhold
who "bear
benefited from the
the
whole brunt of
Arguments
tariff.
economic
to override calls for
began
interests
1816 as sectional
economic growth. Even Calhoun, among
became
cham-
pion of southern interests by the 1820s.
jyiONROE AND FOREIGN POLICY
Internal improvements. In 1817. though.

Calhoun was still a nationalist. In February he
introduced a
bill to
and canals. "Let us

a perfect
Calhoun
fund a national system of roads

.
bind the republic together
system of roads and canals."
told Congress. "Let us
Congress was receptive. The
conquer space."
difficulty of trans-
porting goods and troops during the
war had con-
vinced most people of the need for such internal
improvements.
Some
1816 Congressional Republicans nominated
Madison's secretary of
made on
progress had already been
King of
New
War
even
CHAPTER
it
easily
its
opposition to the
of 1812. The party was losing political power

in
New
England, long a Federalist stronghold.
The collapse of
known
the Federalist party initiated
harmony
Era of
as the
to foreign relations.
By 1819
Monroe
York. The Federalist party had
angered many Americans by
presidency. Congress had authorized a paved high-
Good
in the
United States
Feelings. President
to bring the
same harmony
across the
territories. In
struction of the National (or
James Monroe of
defeated the Federalist candidate. Senator Rufus
Monroe moved quickly
mountains into the western
state.
Virginia, to run for president.
a period of political
way from Cumberland. Maryland,
:i
In
national transportation system. During Jefferson's
began.
**
it.
proposals for a national bank, a

protective tariff, and a national
transportation system.
like
after
the tariff's strongest defenders,
228
have no option but to
signature from
The American System attempted

to strengthen the economy with
the
Randolph's arose repeatedly
with
my
on British trade
war and taxation" and northern manufacturers who
national
But seeing that such a
not expressly given by the
Congressman John Randolph of
Virginia saw the tariff as a conflict between

southern planters
is
Constitution, ...
industrial
England importers
relied
not unaware of the great impor-
1811 con-
Cumberland) Road
reached as far as present-day
Relations with Great Britain. After the

War of 181 2. the United States and Great Britain
continued to
sail
warships on the Great Lakes.
Monroe, fearing further
conflict, ordered
Acting
Secretary of State Richard Rush to negotiate a dis-
armament plan with British foreign minister

Charles Bagot. In the resulting Rush-Bagot
Agreement of 1817, each

its
military presence
nation pledged to limit
on the lakes
to a
few armed
ships.
Next,
Monroe moved
to
defme
the northern
boundary of the Louisiana Purchase. In the

Convention of 1818 Great Britain and the United
States set the
allel
U.S.-Canadian border
49th par-
at the
west to the Rocky Mountains. Great Britain
agreed to occupy
Oregon Country
area of the Pacific Northwest
the disputed
jointly with the
The Intruders ( 966) by Native American artist Jerome Tiger

portrays the Florida home of the Seminoles.
I
United States for 10 years, with a boundary to be set

later.
The border agreement between
.American neighbors
w as one
the
two North
of the most important
outcomes of the War of 1812.
Mississippi and Alabama) into the Mississippi

Territory on the grounds that
in
trickier. In
Mexico
U.S. tSoundaries,
SECURING
major
U.S.
U.S.
BORDERS
1812 the
in
strip
of
present-day
at the time,
Then
in
only protested.
1818 General Andrew Jackson went
into East Florida (present-day Florida) to pursue a
group of Seminoles
away
who had been
harboring run-
slaves and attacking U.S. border settlements.
1820
Britain
and Spain.
About how many miles was the permanent boundary agreed upon
by the Convention of 1818?

Aibers EquaÂrea
ProjectJoo
part of the
The Convention of 1818 and the Adams-Onis Treaty settled
boundary disputes with Great
LOCATION
Europe
Settling border dis-
much
United States incorporated West Florida (a
land on the Gulf of
was
Louisiana Purchase. Spain, preoccupied with war
Relations with Spain.

putes with Spain proved
it
What was
Claimed by
its
absolute location?
U.S., ceded
in 1818
to Great Britain
PACIFIC
OCEAN
The United States and Great

Britain jointly
occupied Oregon
Country until
1846, long past
the
10 years called for by the
Convention of 1818.
NATIONALISM AND ECONOMIC
OWTH
::
229
?^tSDENTmL/jf^J
/n office
JAMES MONROE
/
James Monroe was the
dent
have
to
Revolutionary
last
fought
War
waistcoat, knee britches, long
last presiin
I8I7-I82S
758-/ 83/
the
stockings, and buckled shoes.
Monroe's generally quiet and
as well as the
modest manner matched
of the "Founding Fathers" to
occupy the White House. Indeed.
appearance.
Monroe looked very much
friend
powdered wig and draped

frame
In
cutaway coat,
that
Thomas
elegant
longtime
Jefferson remarked
Monroe was
"a
man whose
soul
might be turned wrong side out-
his tall
the fashion of an
earlier age:
the
He wore
18th-century statesman.
his
his
In fact,
ward, without discovering
Spain decided to deal. In the
Jackson, unable to catch those responsible, instead
claimed the territory for the United States.
blemish to the world."
V<Ji-'^''>^--*-?^
Adams-Onis
Treaty (1819). Spain transferred East Florida
to
Secretar> of State John
United States made a promise to drop
actions.
Quincy Adams denied that

Monroe had authorized Jackson's
Nevertheless. Adams offered Spain a
the United States for S5 million. In return, the
President
Texas. The treaty also settled the southern and
choice: either control the Seminoles or give
w estern boundaries of the Louisiana Purchase. The
new border
Florida to the United States.
claim to
its
ran in a stair-step fashion to the
Mountains and then along the 42nd
Rocky
parallel to the
Pacific Ocean.
The Monroe Doctrine.

little
Father Miguel Hidalgo

priest in Dolores,
Mexico. On September 16,
1810, Hidalgo called on the
option but to
In realit> Spain
sell Florida.
had
Most of Spain's
colonies in Latin America were in rebellion. In
was a
808 Napoleon, the emperor of France, had seized
the Spanish throne. Latin Americans, claiming
townspeople to revolt
both opposition to Napoleon and loyalty to the
against the Spanish. His
deposed Spanish king, organized independence
speech,
known
as the
movements. By 1819 these movements had spread
"Grito de Dolores," or
"Cry of Dolores," launched
the war for Mexican
independence.
throughout Spanish America.
Most people
in the
United States supported
which were inspired
the rebellions,
in part
by the
American Revolution. Henr\ Clay hailed the "glorious spectacle of eighteen millions of people
struggling to burst their chains and to be free."
After formal negotiations with Spain over Florida
were concluded, the United States moved

nize the
4 Simon
Bolivar,
known
leader who helped fight for

the independence of
Colombia, Venezuela, and

Peru.
The new republic of

was named after him.
Bolivia
230
CHAPTER
republics.
American
as
"the Liberator," was a South

American revolutionary
new
to recog-
officials
knew, however, that the
independence of these new Latin American

nations was far from secure. Thus, they were
alarmed by reports that France was prepared to
supply troops to help Spain retake
colonies. In an October 1823
ident
Thomas
letter to
Jefferson. President
its
former
former pres-
Monroe
wrote:
"We would
view an interference on the part of the
European powers
attack
(into Latin
America] as an
^H European
IB colony
on ourselves."
Adding
unease was a dispute with
to the
Russia over territorial rights
in
the Pacific
Northwest. In 1H21 Russia had extended
its
MEXICO
v"
BAHAMAS IBritiih)
closed the surrounding coastal waters to foreign
Tropic of Cancer
Mexico *
Guatemala
would not
tolerate the establish-
view
in
2.
this
/-\fCA A#
Clf
colombi/Wenezue^
ENEZUEIA guian as
1823
PACIFIC
'^''
OCEAN
<,,;yrm"i
Bogota
Equator
Monroe reaffirmed
President
(Spanish)
continents.
annual message to Congress on December
ATLANTIC
PUERTO RICO
W^"'^ C/4ff/B8f/ SEA TRINIOAO (British)

UNITED PROVINCES
INCES^(((British)
/
,
*.
wCaracas
^Caracas
OF CENTRAL AMERICA"
/ERICA>,
ment of any new European colonies on the

American
BRITIS
,..7;,>.^
'^f BRITISH
HONDURAS
'^'^*'Sf'
(British)
Cty
the Russian foreign minister that
the United States
HAITI 1804
1S23 Secretary of State John Quincy
Adams warned
^}^^
^
independence
1821
land
claims southward to the 51st parallel and had
ships. In July
Capital city
Ecuador, Colombia, and
his
came
1823. In what
States
Monroe
to be called the
Doctrine, the president
vowed
Venezuela formed Gran
Colombia
warned Europe
to
keep
its
1822
Tropic of Capricorn
America. But he also
in Latin
EMPIRE OF BRAZIL
1830.
United
that the
would not interfere with any existing
European colonies
until
hands off the Latin
Original
Janeiro
United Provinces
30" S
of Rio de la Plata.
American "governments who have declared
Riode
name was
CONFEDERATION
OF ARGENTINA
their
attempt to
it." The United

would consider any European
revive old colonies or establish new
ones
Western Hemisphere "as dangerous
1828
Buenos "^Montevideo
independence and maintained
Aires
States, he said,
in the
X^ URUGUAY
/.'<
1816
p,_,f3
An 1881 treaty divided

Patagonia between
LagoniaI
to
800
our peace and safety." (See page 1004 for the
1,600 Kilometers
Miller Cylindrical Projection
Strait
of j:i.v
Magellan
Doctrine.)
Cape
Chile
and Argentina.
ftr FALKLAND ISLANDS

(Disputed)
"^'i^S^
Catin American Rations, 1830

The United States expressed
nationalist spirit by securing
its
NEW
its
NATIONS
the early
borders and declaring the

Americas ofT-linnits to European
Many
Latin
American nations became independent
in
1800s after successful revolutions.

European countries
still
have
in
the Western Hemisphere
Wliat colonies did

in
1830?
expansion.
SECTION
IDENTIFY
anci explain
1816, internal
LOCATE
and explain the importance of the following: National (CumberlancJ) Road, Erie Canal,
3.
4.
Latin
America.
MAIN IDEA Why was

to
2.
the significance of the following: nationalisnn, specie, Henry Clay, Tariff Act of
improvements, James Monroe, Monroe Doctrine.
Oregon Country,
1 .
REVIEW
the
War
of 1812
good
for the U.S.
economy? What problems
did
it
bring
light?
MAIN IDEA What were the main features of the American System?
GEOGRAPHY: LOCATION How did the Erie Canal help promote the nation s economic growth?
WRITING TO PERSUADE Imagine that you are a newspaper editor in December 1823. Write
an editorial describing and either supporting or opposing each of President Monroe's foreign
policy actions.
5.
SYNTHESIZING
Provide evidence for the view that the United States entered a period of grow-
ing nationalism after the
War
of 1812.
231
Section 2
THE CHALLENGES OF GROWTH

c u
How
and market revolutions
did the transportation
affect the U.S.
economy?
How
did the Industrial Revolution
facturing goods
What
What
in
change the process of manu-
the United States?
growth of towns and
led to the
cities in
the mid- 800s?

1
sparked the Panic of 8 9?

1
\the United States entered a period of intense economic expansion in the mid- 1800s.
allowed merchants
to
increase production
and
Advances
in
transportation
extend their markets, manufacturers to
and profit, and farmers
to transport their
and production
goods
to
to increase output
market with greater ease. These
changes also spurred the growth of towns and
cities.
Leaving
most roads between
The transportation
crude
revolution
ê Junction
were
cities
by Currier and Ives
more than
little
trails that turned to mud when it rained.

Middle Western farmers faced the most
severe transportation problems. Flatboats could
820 poor transportation made it difficult to

manufactured goods and farm products
between regions. Except for the National Road and
float
a few other major routes connecting eastern
country by
Before
sell
cities.
farm products downriver but were useless
moving manufactured goods

from the East were shipped
upriver.
in
Most goods
to the interior of the
wagon over mountain roads
a slow
and costly process.

Canals offered one solution to the transportation problem, but they
consuming
to build.
were expensive and time-
By 1816
only about 100 miles
of canals had been dug. Canal building soared,
however, after
Canal
in
the cost of
New
of Robert Fulton's Clermont in 1807,
the era of commercial steamboat navigation began. This 1810

painting by Edward L. Henry shows the Clermont landing at
Croton-on-Hudson, New York.
232
CHAPTER
York State completed the Erie
moving goods between Buffalo and
York City by more than 90 percent, other
states
launched massive canal projects. By 1840.
rivers
and canals combined
that stretched
With the completion
New
1825. Impressed that the canal reduced
from
to provide a
waterway
Illinois to the Atlantic.
Improvements
in
steamboat construction also
aided transportation to the interior.
powered riverboat was launched
The
first
steam-
in 1787, but
only
with the completion of Robert

Fulton's Clermont in 1807 could
steamboats carry heavy loads
By 1817, steamboats
were moving goods up and
down the Mississippi River.
upstream.
Another steam-powered
invention, the locomotive,
into
1
commercial use
came
the
in
830s. Trains had one big advan-
tage over steamboats
they
could go anywhere tracks could
be
But they also suffered
laid.
from a serious drawback
early
locomotives were plagued by

mechanical troubles. Thus, few
when
people were surprised
Tom Thumb, America's
the
first
commercially successful steam

locomotive, lost a race against a
horse-drawn train in
observer noted,
830.
Mo'w
Roads, Canals, and Railroads, 18^0
As an
was going
all
95"
well until the locomotive's
THE TRANSPORTATION REVOLUTION

and railroad construction
in
the
1820s and
A boom
in
road, canal,
1830s helped spark America's
market revolution.
engine gave out:
REGION
How
thrive as transportation
At first
did geography help
New York and Chicago grow and
centers?
the gray [horse]
had the best of
it,
the
engine had to wait until the

rotation of the wheels set the blower to
The transportation revolution

helped promote economic
growth by making it easier to
transport goods.
work. The horse was perhaps a quarter of a
when
mile ahead
the safety valve of the
and the thin blue vapor issuing
engine
lifted
from
showed an excess of steam. The
it
blower whistled,
the pace increased, the
passengers shouted, the engine gained on

the horse,
nose and nose
the race was neck and neck,
The market revolution
then the engine passed the
By making
horse, and a great hurrah hailed the victory.
But
was not repeated;
it
time,
for just at this
the band which drove the pulley,
it
easier and cheaper to
move farm
products, raw materials, and manufactured goods
long distances,
new
transportation systems created
national markets for the first time. Regions no
which drove the blower, slipped from the
longer had to be relatively self-sufficient; they
drum, the safety valve ceased to scream,
could import some goods and concentrate on pro-
and the engine for want of breath began to
ducing what was most profitable.
wheeze and
pant.
**
The Middle West, linked

by the Erie Canal, specialized
By
1840, engineers had solved most of the
trains' early
mechanical problems. Over the next
hog production. Southern
much
of which was shipped to market
laying nearly 9,000 miles of track. Railroads
the Mississippi to the port of
isolated parts of the country and
became symbols of
industrialization
and the grow-
ing interdependence of the national economy.
west of the
Appalachian Mountains focused on growing cotton,
many
markets
wheat, com, and
states
decade companies spent more than $200 million
reached
to eastern
in
New
down
Orleans.
The
Northeast, with abundant waterpower, concentrated
on manufacturing such products as wool
and cotton
textiles
and specialized machinery.
233
They
new machiner>
also began to invest in
that
increased output.
This
'i
machine production was
part of
Industrial Revolution. The Industrial
the
shift to
Revolution began
Great Britain
in
with the invention of
in the
mid- 1700s
new spinning machines. The
and
machines, some so simple that children could

did
run them, revolutionized
the textile industry
by allowing for mass production
the manufacture
of large quantities of goods.
Fearing foreign competition, the British uied

Preparing for Market
is
the
title of this
856 print by
to
Nathaniel Currier.
keep
their
new technology
lawed the sale of
This creation of profitable national markets
come
The
to
be
known
as the
market revolution.
market revolution increased the profits of
farmers and manufacturers and changed the
revolution, for instance, entire families
most northern farms. They grew

and sold the surplus
their
locally. After the
worked
own food
market revo-
managed
memorized
plans
machines abroad and kept
to slip out with the
came
to
fortune.
Rhode
America
He quickly convinced Moses Brown,
tion of an English-style spinning mill. "If
good yam
promised Brown, i
as
will
cotton increased the profits of southern plantation
attempted over the bridge."
yam. By 1801
made
100
women
cotton fiber.
person operating a cotton gin could
clean 50 times as
much
cotton in a day as a person
working by hand. The growing
had
the mill
all
over Rhode
The market revolution was
tied to a
change
manufacturing. Before the market revolu-
importers and skilled artisans pro-
vided most manufactured goods. But as
markets grew, artisans could no longer

keep up with demand. To produce enough
goods, manufacturers reorganized produc-
They hired more workers and
divided tasks to speed up production.

Z!
CHAPTER
and
Chief among them
\\
as Eli Whitney,
in the
who
manufac-
He reasoned that the various muscould be machine-produced in mass
In 770 James Hargreaves, an English weaver,

patented the spinning jenny, which transformed
the manufacture of textiles
and helped start the
I
Industrial Revolution.
in
its
Inventors also contributed to the rise of U.S.
ket parts
t ARLY INDUSTRIALIZATION
234
Island
markets for each region's
products.
tion.
1790 his spin-
ture of firearms.
profitable national and interna-
tion,
ser-
have
employed more than
employed interchangeable parts
tional
and children. Brown and Slater soon
factories
industr\.
The market revolution opened
my
Massachusetts.
profitability of col-
ton also helped extend the slave system.
don't
ning machine, tended by 9 children, turned out

first
easier to separate, or gin. the seeds from
off. In
England," Slater
whole of what
gamble paid
invented by Eli Whitney in 1793. This machine

it
in
have nothing for
vices, but will throw the
Slater's
do
as they
the international market for
owners. They were able to meet the increased
Island manufacturer, to finance the construc-
crops for the national and international markets.
for cotton because of the cotton gin,
Slater. Slater
1789 with hopes of making a
in
make
demand
machine
to the last detail.
One such worker was Samuel
lution they hired laborers to help produce cash
The growth of
out-
But some workers, posing as ordinar) laborers or

farmers,
way
they worked and did business. Before the market
They
workers from leaving the country.
skilled textile
has
textile
a secret.
quantities and used interchangeably
GROWTH
making individual weapons. This
in
URBAN POPULATION, 1800-1860
IN
method would allow workers to

assemble more guns
would
it
1815 Seth
In
in less
time than
make them by hand.
take to
Thomas
applied the
technique to the manufacture of
wooden clocks. Soon workers
in
Thomas's factory were making some

500 clocks
New
at a time.
England merchant Francis
Cabot Lowell introduced the next

great
improvement
in
1800 I860
American
1800 I860
Northeast
Middle
1800 I860
1800 I860
South
Total
West
manufacturing. Workers in early texSource: Historical

tile
mills
made
thread that
Statistics
was then
delivered, or "put out," to nearby
GROWTH OF
homes where women with hand

looms wove it into cloth. To cut
areas grew dramatically between
Spurred by rapid population growth and industrialization, urban
1800 and I860.
in
which part of the country was urban growth
most dramatic?
Lowell
costs and increase output,
CITIES
had machines do everything under

one roof
to
from spinning the
weaving the
came
to
cloth. This
thread
system of manufacturing
be called the factory system. Lowell
tested the
system
at
his
mill in
Waltham,
Massachusetts, and his partners later applied
it
in
commercial and manufacturing center because
had the nation's best harbor and access to the
Hudson
map on page
which ships could
River, on
travel
some
150 miles inland to connect to the Erie Canal.
Equally impressive was the birth of new
Lowell, Massachusetts, which was founded after

Lowell's death (see
it
industrial towns, especially along the larger eastern
253).
where rapids were
rivers,
The Industrial Revolution shifted
plentiful to run water-
powered machinery. For example,
manufacturing from hand labor

making possible the
mass production of goods.
the mill
town of
Lowell, Massachusetts, on the Merrimack River,
to machines,
grew from 2,500 people
to
21,000 between 1825
and 1840!
The Middle West
also boasted
booming
urban centers. Growing rapidly during this period
(4RBAN
Industrialization
the
were such towns as Buffalo,
GROWTH
were defined as towns or
to
cities
with 8,000 or
more people. Between 1790 and 1860 America's

urban population
jumped from
3.3 percent to 16.1
percent of the nation's total population. This
growth was seen mostly
in the
Northeast and the
Middle West, although the southern port
New
York; Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania; Cincinnati, Ohio; and Chicago,
and the market revolution led
growth of urban areas. In the 1800s, urban
areas
New
cities
of
Orleans and Baltimore also grew tremen-
Illinois. Initially
they grew because of their loca-
tion near critical points in the transportation
system
lines.
major roads,
Soon they
also
rivers, canals, or railroad
became important business
goods and services
centers, providing
to
Middle
Western farmers and preparing farm produce for

shipment
to the Northeast
the fastest
and the South.
growing of these
Between 1833 and I860 the
cities
Among
was Chicago.
city's population sky-
rocketed from about 150 to 109,260.
dously during this period.

In the Northeast, Philadelphia's population
tripled to
more than half
a million between 1820
New York City's growth was even

more spectacular. Between 1820 and 1860 the
and 1860.
city's
population increased nearly tenfold, from
123,700 to 1,080,320.
New
York became a major
In
the mid- 800s the market

1
revolution and industrialization
urban growth, most

notably in the Northeast and the
Middle West.
led to rapid
235
NORTH-C.fROLlN.A.
XhE
PANIC OF
By 1818,
markets,
1819
Cmt/y, Ctedi^
largely due to the

all
growth of national
sections of the country prospered.
demand
Increasing
CZ^
for cotton and farm products
buy up land, often
manufacturers, eager for more business, built
To finance
mills and factories.
^^
<Ti> j.ljujgtdllfunit
iji
..J
^-.j^b-jXrwr
yo
*-auK to
.jf...,
rajdc
cj:i
I'jr
cfLim,
Ci^-ir.
\je
he. J
Oy
am of
ff ii *9m**t^^*mJ
ii3\hiivr/Ln .'j.tULtij
tor tr.; CuimrY at Ûjkf%,
whereof ihc uid

... .
/, ^ fJ Q-^/
^f
conricledznd tiablr,
apfcar to utof rconJ:
luTc j-oa the uid aonin bcforr the Judfr of our imi Superior Coun of
\Mm. ui be bcU for inoky Coa mj, >i C;cimui on, on ihc third Monday lAtr
(IcidnUai
JUi
Ar.<l
new
ibe fbii.-th Mondaj in

ihc Clerk's Uflicc the
these enterprises,
many manufacturers borrowed money from
^.:
..
high prices. Northern
at
be (oupj in'yjUT Count*
In
.1. :t:r.i:.
encouraged planters, fanners, and land speculators

to
gUCitttifin
bmics Tomzi^J,
next, Hxn x-xl there to

together cruh tha wr^
rodcT OM*
WRness. TlotBuT. Ktm iroa^, Ucrk of cur uklomrt. i")"\3i-,iV;ttkd

after li-.c founh Mutdir
Anno D.;mi!)i isC#,
, ff^
MiBdijr
state
^f.^
banks, which tended to lend freely on the flimsiest
^^f^^f^(?^4i^
security.
Late
in
1818 the Second Bank of the United
States attempted to bring state banks under control
demand repayment of all

The Bank also required state banks to
by ordering them
loans.
exchange
to
and silver
their notes for gold
The
thing few banks could do.
result
was
A Land foreclosure notices enabled the sheriff of a

county to seize all property and goods to pay off
debts. This notice was issued in North Carolina In
1820.
some-
the
James
Panic
of 1819: a chain reaction of bank failures, falling
"The banking bubbles are breaking,"

Secretar>' of State John Quincy Adams wrote in his
May
in ruin; the
1819. "The merchants are crumbling
manufactures perishing, agriculture
The nation quickly sank
nomic depression
think that
men
,500
months
in
have seen upward of
quest of
past, and
eral
into an eco-
within eleven
of these declared
men turned out
lodge
in
have seen sev-
of boardinghouses.
They had no other resource
that lasted several years.
left
but to
the woods, without any covering
except their clothes.
The attempts of the Second

Bank of the United States to
work
many
that they had no money. ...
stagnating, and distress universal in every part of

the countn,'."
America,
described the harsh effects of the depression on

workers:
land prices, and foreclosures.
diar>' in
Flint, a Scottish visitor to
**
For these homeless men and many other

Americans the panic and depression ended the
curb state banks' lending policies

helped trigger the Panic of 1819.
prosperity and optimism of the Era of
Good
Feelings.
SECTION
IDENTIFY and
explain the significance of the following: market revolution, cotton gin.
mass production, Samuel
LOCATE
REVIEW
Slater,
interchangeable parts, Francis
Buffalo.
Lowell, Massachusetts; Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Chicago,

1.
2.
3.
MAIN IDEA How was
the U.S.
economy helped by
Cabot
Eli
Whitney,
Lowell, factory system.
New York;
Waltham, Massachusetts;
Illinois.
the transportation and market revolutions?
MAIN IDEA What effect did the Industrial Revolution

IDENTIFYING CAUSE AND EFFECT What factors
have on the way goods were manufactured?
contributed to the
boom
in
urban growth
during the mid- 800s?

1
4.
WRITING TO INFORM
Write
5.
Imagine that you are one of President Monroe's economic advisers.
a short report for the president oudining the causes of the Panic of 1819.
LINKING HISTORY
AND GEOGRAPHY
railroads a particularly effective
236
:i
CHAPTER
Given the geography of the United States, why were
form of transportation
in
the mid- 800s?

1
THE
OF JACKSONIAN DEMOCRACY
RISE
FOCUS
What
role did the Missouri
Compromise
play in the dispute over
slavery?
Why did
the election of
bargain"?
Why did Jackson
Economic
824 give
rise to
charges of a "corrupt
favor the spoils system and rotation
in office?
developments affected national politics. The trans-
portation revolution encouraged westward expansion, which
created political conflicts over governing the
As
ritories.
voting laws changed, politicians
a wider range of economic
and
new western
had
interests. After the
to
ter-
appeal
to
Panic of 1819
the depression, voters looked for politicians
who could
handle economic problems.
Fabric
made
to celebrate Jackson's
inauguration
"You have kindled
The MISSOURI compromise
a fire
the ocean cannot put out,
which
in
all
1829
the waters of
which seas of blood can
only extinguish."
The United
lems
States faced
in 1819.
more than economic prob-
The nation was
also plagued by
Slave state
pohtical conflict caused by westward expansion. In

that year the Missouri Territory,
among
Slave territory
which counted
population some 10,000 enslaved
its
African Americans, applied for statehood. Because

the nation
states
was equally divided between slave
and free
slave state
Missouri's admission as a
states,
would
tip the
congressional balance in
favor of the slaveholding South.
Congressman James Tallmadge of
amend
tried to
New
York
the Missouri statehood bill to
include the gradual elimination of slavery in

Missouri.
exercised
when
it
He argued
its
power
to
that
Congress had already
ban slavery
in the territories
passed the Northwest Ordinance in 1787.
new
Slaveholders, seeing this

larger attempt to
proposal as part of a
end slavery everywhere, reacted
with alarm and anger.
pointed a shaking finger
Georgia congressman
at
Tallmadge and
Missouri Compromise
EXTENSION OF SLAVERY
of
1820 permitted slavery
in
The Missouri Compromise
Missouri but outlawed
it
in
other areas north of the Missouri Compromise Line.
MM
REGIONS
How many
following the compromise?
free states
How many
were there
slave states?
cried:
;;
237
To end the bitter debate, Henry Clay of

Kentucky led Congress in working out the
Missouri Compromise in 1820. The agreement
admitted Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a
tree state, thus maintaining the balance in
Congress. Moreover, slavery was banned

3630'
Missouri's southern boundary.
The Missouri Compromise calmed

tional crisis, but
the sec-
many Americans
would reemerge. Former
worried that
still
the slavery issue
dent
Thomas
This
terror.
momentous
considered
knell of the
Union.
moment. But
mark
it
presi-
Jefferson later wrote:

question,
the night, awakened and
bell in
the
in the
Louisiana Purchase north of latitude
rest of the
it
at
It Is
once
a fire-
tion are
me
Andrew
filled
with
medallions from the 1824 elecOne bears the likeness of

Jackson, the other of John Quincy Adams.
shown
here.
as the [death]
hushed, indeed, for
every
A Two campaign
like
new
deeper and deeper
**
frontier states,
irritation will
where most white adult males could
vote. This democratization of voting rights
accompanied by growing opposition
to the
was
nomi-
nation of presidential candidates by congressional
caucus. Thus, in the 1824 election, state nominat-
resolved the crisis over Missouri

statehood but left the larger
issue of slavery unresolved.
ing conventions played a major role in deciding the

list
of candidates. The result was a crowded field
of regional favorites.
Five candidates
all
Republicans
ended up
vying for the presidency: William Crawford of
The ELECTION OF
Westward expansion
tion of 1824.
By
Georgia, John C. Calhoun of South Carolina. John
1824
Quincy Adams of Massachusetts, Andrew Jackson
also had an effect on the elec-
the 1820s voting laws
becoming more democratic,
were
particularly in the
of Tennessee, and Henry Clay of Kentucky.

Crawford,
who
portrayed himself as the "southern
candidate." was the early favorite. But serious
pfCESlDENTIAL LlVg}
in office
JOHN QUINCY ADAMS
1825-1829
1767-1848
John Quincy
father,
and
Adams resembled
John Adams,
self-discipline.
his father's stern
sonality.
One
in
He
his
his brilliance
years.
He was
lavyêr,
also inherited
minister to the Netherlands, U.S.

senator, minister to Russia, and sec-
observer noted that

as a piece of
retary
Monroe
of
all
state
to
President
before becoming presi-
granite and cold as a lump of ice."
dent. After his presidency,
Adams's coldness contributed to
returned to public service.
his
Adams
In
1830
frustrating and largely unsuccessful
Massachusetts voters elected him to
presidency.
the
Adams's major achieve-
ments occurred outside
::
White House
Harvard graduate, successful
and reserved per-
Adams seemed "hard
238
his
CHAPTER
ft/^-V>v
House of Representatives,
where he criticized the
ol i*^--r%*< J0^M9VKl>
expansion of
slavery.
marred
illness
favorite in the
his candidacy.
Lower South,
Calhoun, although
AMERICAN
failed to build a nation-
wide following. He eventually withdrew
POLITICS
to
~^.
become the vice-presidential partner of both

Adams and Jackson. Adams, an economic nationalist
Colonel John
United States
with antislavery views, had appeal primarily
Northeast. Jackson, the popular military
in the
American System, drew
Compromise and
the
Andrew
Amendment
choose a
election of 1828. In Great Britain the prime
minister was (and
at the
such circumstances the Twelfth
American
president from the top three candiwas
fourth.
political scene:
i/ remark
Clay was out of the
in a position to help
whatever condition
determine
who
man
discussed by every
Adams became president.

named Clay his secretary of
is
a Politician.
.
We
These
in
the country. The sub-
now so worn out that am quite tired of

their names.
A common address in a stage
support behind Adams.
then
in life
American of
Candidates are freely talked over and their merits
considered
Jackson unqualified for the presidency, threw his
When Adams
[that] every
hear nothing but Jackson and Adams.
winner by recommending that his supporters
back a particular candidate. Clay,
the
mem-
elected by
directs the
running. But he
state,
still is)
bers of Parliament, not by ordinary voters.

Baillie recorded in his journal his amazement
Jack.son received the most popular
Having finished
dates.
the
the
from
no candidate won a majority of the elec-
toral votes. In
the
in
was fascinated
1820s,
Middle West.
votes, but
to
his support primarily
by the widespread public

interest in the presidential
hero, represented the southern frontier. Clay, the
architect of the Missouri
Baillie,
British traveler to the
ject
is
Jackson and his followers angrily accused
coach, which has been often put to me,
two men of making a "corrupt bargain." Adams
Mister, are you for Jackson or
and Clay denied any wrongdoing, but suspicions

generally "for which you like
is
is
"I
says
Adams?" My answer
sir."
persisted.
99
When the House was forced to

decide the outcome of the 1824
election, Clay threw his support
behind Adams. When Adams
won, Jackson charged that
Adams and Clay had made a
"corrupt bargain."
Who
federal
Adams
government
to a national university
man
in
so eager to be president?
1767
South Carolina frontier

grants.
Orphaned
at 14,
he had
later
Tennessee
to spell a
word!
frontier,
one resident described him
desire to avoid "playing politics" and his unwill-
as a "roaring, rollicking,
ingness to compromise with Congress, he was
horse-racing, card-playing,
much
his limitation a
moved
of weights and measures. Yet, owing largely to his
unable to accomplish
immi-
claimed to have no respect for any-
After Jackson
to the
cabin on the
formal school-
little
Making
one who knew only one way
from canals and roads
and a standardized system
he
in a log
to Scotch-Irish
ing and was a poor speller.
supported a wide range of
projects,
this
Jackson was born
virtue,
President
was
C'ÎH|H^
mischievous fellow." He
during his term.
became
successful
^7^
lawyer, land speculator,
The ELECTION OF
Jackson, a sharp
critic
and
1828
throughout Adams's presi-
planter.
In
1788
Jackson
met
Rachel
Donelson Robards, who
paign for the 1828 election. Opponents of the
was then separated from

her husband. Believing
Adams
Rachel's divorce had been
dency, resigned from the Senate in 1825 to cam-
administration rallied around the
hero from Tennessee.
tall
war
granted,
the
two were
^1
Andi'ew Jackson
239

married
1791. Her divorce,
in
was not
ever,
years
finalized until
how-
This portrait of Rachel Jackson was

painted by Louisa Catherine
Strobel. After his wife's death,
two
which time the

amid much gossip
later, at
Jacksons
Jackson wore this miniature

wherever he went.
quickly renewed their vows.

The Hermruge;
Jackson was the victor

the Battle of
War
New
Home
of
Andrew Jackson
at
in the
stressed his military skills and
of 1812 and a ruthless
frontier origins to portray himself
Indian-fighter
Orleans
in
campaigns
as a
against the Creeks and Seminoles.
man" won
him "Old Hickory"
Soldiers called
because he seemed as tough as the strong
hardwood. He entered national
laborers,
politics as con-
ers,
having no
became known
gressman and then senator from Tennessee.

Although a rich lawyer and planter, Jackson
îhenm^Now
"man of the
people."
Jackson's image as a
the support of farmers,
and frontier
official
as the
"common
name
settlers.
His support-
at first,
eventually
Democratic party (the origin
of today's party of the same name).
campaigning
and radio commercials.
And most
candidates
start running for office
In many ways the presidential

race of 1828 was the
mod-
first
years before the elec-
earlier candidates
who
relied
did.
Jackson's 1828
campaign set another
mainly on party supporters to
modern precedent by
campaign for them, Andrew
employing county and
Jackson and John Quincy
state campaign
Adams
tees.
actively
pursued votes
themselves. They used mass-
produced trinkets such
as but-
commit-
These committees
and
to attract
rallies
established a campaign
particular
organization of friends and

advisers
mon
him plot campaign
voter for support and
began campaigning three years

before the election.
Today presidential candidates
still
focus on reaching
out to the mass
public.
They
stickers, buttons,
and
and Adams's campaigns focused
cratic
in
buses and trains, but
CHAPTER
Demo-
and Republican national
committees.
An
organizational
1828 has become a
in
political
as
much on
the candidates'
personal qualities as on the

issues.
The same charge
has
been leveled against recent

presidential campaigns.
modern
presiden-
Although many years have
The 1828 race
for presi-
Jackson and
tial
often by airing television
of character assassinations and
spondence committee was

forerunner of today's
also appeal directly to voters,
more
full
accusations. Indeed, Jackson's
necessity
country
strategies.
The race has been
called "spectacularly dirty,"
His Washington-based corre-
posters. Today's officeseekers
occasionally by touring the
Missouri during the
campaigns.
Nashville to help
structure that was unusual
blanket the country with
bumper
In
in
1992 presidential campaign.
voters. Jackson also
appealed directly to the com-
Clinton and George Bush are
shown debating
cups, and plates to sway public

in
Bill
held parades, barbecues,
tons, metal tokens, bandannas,
opinion. Jackson
240
Jackson
tion, just as
ern election campaign. Unlike
In
passed since the 1828 election,
races.
dent also signaled a profound

change
in
the tone of presidential
right at
Adams might feel

home in a modern
presidential campaign.

Like many political campaigns today, the
1828 race focused more on the candidates' personalities
than on the issues. Each side used personal
attacks to
and
set
Commentary
win
Adams's purchase of
votes.
billiard table for the
a chess
White House raised
money on "gambling
of Adams labeled Jackson an
Democracy
Jacksonian
Jackson's political success reflected changes in
charges that he squandered
American society caused by
devices." Supporters
The old
adulterer because of the circumstances of his mar-
ally
nomic success than on
end Jackson swept the popular and

vote. "The virtuous portion of the people
In the
electoral
have well sustained me." Jackson rejoiced.

filled
Once
am
jobs. This practice
gave way
became known
as the spoils
based more on eco-
birth.
Jackson's image as
appealing promise for other Americans. "I believe
elevated," he said in a speech,
"capable of governing himself."
From
government
his supporters
to a society
a "self-made" man embodied this new sense of

economic opportunity. He also held out this
man can be
Jackson showed his apprecia-
in office,
by giving some of
tion
"I
with gratitude."
by the aristocracy, gradu-
social order, led
riage to Rachel Robards.
the market revolution.
today's perspective, changes in the
may seem
Jackson era
small. Full political rights,
system, from the expression "to the victor belong
including the right to vote, were extended only to
the spoils." Jackson also took steps to reform gov-
white men. Most African Americans lived under a
ernment bureaucracy by replacing
brutal slave system; and
all
public ser-
vants he judged "unfaithful or incompetent."
believed that government workers
who
office too long often forgot that they
He
Indians, and
free blacks
women, American
were denied the
vote.
Yet the changes of the early 1800s were sig-
stayed in
were servants
most
nificant. Voting rolls swelled as states
dropped
of the people. Thus he favored rotation in office
property requirements for voting and holding
the periodic replacement of officeholders. Yet
office.
Jackson's changes
tures,
tion.
fell far
short of complete rota-
During his presidency he replaced only about
one tenth
to
one third of the bureaucracy.
By
chose presidential electors and most public
officials in
rights
1828, voters, instead of state legisla-
almost every
state.
1832 and continued even
Jackson backed the
system
reward
to
his supporters and to reform
government.
and rotation
spoils
in office
LOCATE
I .
after
he
in
left office. In
1836, for example, around 1.5 million people

voted. Just four years later, continuing the trend
toward participation that Jackson had inaugurated,

roughly 2.4 million citizens cast their ballots.
SECTION
IDENTIFY and explain
Andrew Jackson, spoils
Expanding voting
paved the way for Jackson's reelection
REVIEW
the significance of the following: Missouri Compromise, John Quincy Adams,

system, rotation
in office.
and explain the importance of the following: Missouri.
MAIN IDEA Why
did Missouri's petition for statehood lead to a battle
in
Congress?
How was the
conflict resolved?
2.
3.
MAIN IDEA Why
did
a "corrupt bargain"
in
that John
Quincy Adams and Henry Clay had made
the election of 1824?
IDENTIFYING CAUSE
democratic
4.
Andrew Jackson charge
AND EFFECT How did the
election of 1828 signal a broadening of
rights?
WRITING TO PERSUADE
Imagine that you are
Andrew Jackson's
press secretary. Write a
defense of the president's support of the spoils system and rotation in office.
5.
EVALUATING Some
democracy
at best.
historians argue that Jacksonian
What
democracy was
a limited expansion of
evidence might have led the historians to adopt this view?
-^m
241
JACKSON'S POLICIES DEFINE
FOCUS
Why
did the U.S.
westward?
How
AN ERA
government force eastern Indians to move

Americans resist removal?
did Native
What sparked the nullification crisis?

What factors contributed to the economic crisis
How did the Whigs come to power in 840?
of the late 1830s?
A,.ndrew Jackson put his stamp on a decade, and his policies shaped
the nation for years to come.
He pushed for the removal of Native
Americans from the East and fought
to preserve the
Union against
sectional tensions. Jackson remained popular with the
American people,
but by the late 1830s severe economic problems had eroded his party's
strength. In
1840 an opposition party, the Whigs, emerged
to vie with
Jacksonian Democrats for political power.
Statue of mourning
The Cherokees were
A QUESTION OF LAND
in their efforts
greatly assisted
by the work of one man
Sequoya (si-KWOY-uh).
Thomas Jefferson had hoped that eastern Indians
would become farmers and blend into American
society.
But European Americans' hunger for land
Sequoya was
1760 and 1770
in
to a
or Sikwayi.
Tennessee sometime between
Cherokee woman. He variously
used the names George Guess and George Gist,
and American Indian support for the British during
which has led some
War of 1812 changed government attitudes. By

1824 many government officials were calling for
the removal of all American Indians to lands
son of Nathaniel Gist, an English explorer and

friend of
beyond
against the Creeks as a
the
the United States' borders.
historians to suggest he
was
George Washington. Sequoya was a
the
silver-
smith, blacksmith, and painter. In 1813 he fought
This change in attitudes had a profound effect
member of a Cherokee
ment
in the
regi-
U.S. Army.
on many Native American groups, particularly the
Although Sequoya
Creeks. Chickasaws. Choctaws. Cherokees. and
neither spoke nor read
Seminoles
Believing that their best
English, he recognized
adapting to white culture,
the value of a written
ers.
many had given up hunting and had become farmThe Cherokees. for example, had shifted to
farming in the late 1700s. Over the next several
literacy benefited whites
decades, they built towns with thriving agricultural
by enabling them to
spread ideas, keep
in the Southeast.
hope for survival lay
in
language.
economies. They wrote a constitution modeled on

that
records, and
He hoped
militia.
NatKJnal Portraxt Gallery
CHAPTER?
He saw how
communi-
cate over long distances.
of the United States, created a judicial system,
supported schools, and formed a
242
bom
Cherokee
that literacy
a
Diauv K/o-rj
IJ
The Cherokee primer

shown here uses symbols
based on the writing
it*z.i.
Native American resistance. By
M(T.
sys-
driven from the Southeast. Few, however, went
tem created by Sequoya.
They had
willingly.
I
would do
the
same
Jackson's promise of
permanent homeland.
Georgia and other southern

ti"
a writing system for the
Atr.
DV-q TJX O-C C.l**^Cr *!, Tif*ji*& T.ii* n^kjt D^ Ji^yiiTknrj iiir* hfcho^ nt.iAAT.
Vivy o^x i*v
Indian land and selling
ir<>4TiLT Kw<ir ls<aA 9<>-A

9*V TC-*.I ShCT
I**T 09Jf%AT.
Diiit.ic,
usflctarraitjiiTn.
The system Sequoya developed contained 86
symbols based on the syllables of spoken

Cherokee. Once the symbols were memorized, a
person could read or write anything in Cherokee.
their
white
to
settlers.
many Indians
Fearing further betrayal,
"Our cause
taming a wild horse.
were publishing
it
opposed removal. Some wrote appeals
being like catching and
the Cherokees
dis-
within state boundaries. Georgia was even seizing
\r
process he described as
had already
states
regarded federal treaties and limited Indian rights
years he worked to create
By 1828
reason to believe
little
for
the Cherokees. For 12
Cherokee language
end
the
of the decade, most Native Americans had been
own
newspaper, the Cherokee Phoenix.
is
your own." began one such
is
the cause of liberty and of justice.
own
your
was more
to Congress:
principles." Osceola, a
It is
letter. "It
based upon
Seminole
leader,
defiant:
My
man says
shall go, and he will send people to make
me go; but have a rifle, and have some
powder and some lead. say, we must not
leave our homes and lands. If any of our
Brothers!
the white
VACKSON'S INDIAN POLICY
people want to go west
and
American Indians'
efforts to gain
Americans' acceptance made
little
won't
let
them;
them they are our enemies, and
tell
we
European
we
will treat
difference.
will
protect
them
us.
so, for
the great
spirit
99
Indians in the Southeast occupied millions of acres
of fertile land suitable for growing cotton.
European American farmers and land speculators

pressured the government to open that land to
PUBLIC LAND SALES, 1820-1845
white settlement and soon found a friend in
Andrew
He viewed
Jackson.
the continued pres-
20-
ence of Indians in the East as a barrier to "the waves

^
of population and civilization
Jackson cloaked his
rolling westward."
calls for
removal
for their
moved westward, where
own
protection, be
"their white brothers will
not trouble them." In 1830 Congress passed the
Indian Removal Act, providing for the relocation
by
force, if necessary
IR
.9
16
14
in
humanitarian terms. He claimed that Native
Americans would,
V)
of Indian nations
living east of the Mississippi to Indian Territory in
_c
"O
c
n
12
10
6
(/)
0)
<J
<
0-
present-day Oklahoma. Indian Territory was part
1820
I
I
1830
1825
1835
1845
of the larger Indian Country the government had

set aside for relocated tribes.
I
I
1840
Year
Jackson promised
Source: Historical
Statistics
eastern Indians the land for "as long as grass grows
and water runs.
It will
be yours forever."
LAND FEVER
government
In
response to demands for land, the
sold millions of acres of public land in the
Southeast and Middle West to settlers and speculators
The U.S. government forced
first
eastern Indians to move in order

to open their lands to white
settlement.
effect
half of the
in
the
1800s.
IDENTIFYING CAUSE AND EFFECT What

do you think the Indian Removal Act of 1830 had on
public land sales?
Why?
IS
243
"now
~~~MD
lei
him enforce
it."
The Cherokees. without
Orilytit
federal protection, were
unable to hold out. In 1835

ihe\ vsere forced to sign a
treaty granting all their

land to the United Stales in
mone) and land
return for
They
Indian Territory'.
in
were ordered to move

w ithin three years.
ATLANTIC
Many Native
OCEAN
Americans
30
resisted removal:
the Seminoles
went to war; the
Forîmstroog 1836
jm bkeechobee 1837
Cherokees
HSLSI^Fort Jupiter
--^
appealed to the
MEXICO
c^^
Sndicut
Supreme
U.S.
Fort Lauderdale
1842
Court.
Removed from the Southeast, ISSOs

The
TRAIL OF TEARS
The Indian Removal
Aa
resulted in thousands of
Choaaws, Creeks, Chickasaws,
By
1838 deadline
few
only a
of the some
18.000 Cherokees had
Seminoles, and Cherokees being dnven from their lands and reloated to Indian Territory.
mM MOVEMENT
Whidi two groups completed part
Trail of Tears.
of the journey to Indian Territory via the
Gulf of Mexico?
the
moved
Federal
west.
troops began forcing the
remaining Cherokees to
In Florida, resistance to
War
Second Seminole
more money and
in
removal led to the
(1835-1842). which cost
lives than
make
w ho witnessed
U.S.
the removal later recalled:
any other Indian war
U.S. history. Although the Seminoles. aided by
saw the
Cherokees arrested
helpless
runaway slaves, fought bravely, most of them

were eventually killed or removed to Indian
Territory. Only a few escaped by hiding in the
Horida Everglades, where some of their descen-
and dragged from their homes, and driven by
dants
wagons and started toward the west.
still live.
The Cherokees fought
bayonet into the stockades. And

of a drizzling rain on an
saw them loaded
v.
Georgia, reached the Supreme Court
Chief Justice John Marshall ruled
in 1832.
in their favor.
"The Cherokee Nation." Marshall wrote
in his
decision, "is a distinct community, occupying
own
territory
have no right to
The
enter, but
victor>
its
with the assent of the
was
short-lived.
ignored
his decision."
CHAPTER
chill
I
catde or sheep into
**
An
estimated 4.000 Cherokees died on the
800-mile journey that came to be known as the
"Many
Trail of Tears.
faint
rest,"
fell
by the wayside, too
w ith hunger or too weak

remembered one of the
to
keep up with the
sur\ ivors.
44 a crude
bed was quickly prepared for
these sick and weary people. Only a bowl of
Georgia
with
the Court's ruling and
kept on seizing Cherokee land. "John Marshall has
made
the
which the citizens of Georgia
Cherokees themselves."
Jackson's blessing
like
in
October morning
for their rights through
the courts. VSlien the Cherokees* case. Worcester
244
One
the journey to Indian Territor>.
soldier
Jackson was said to declare.
water was
were
left
left
within their reach, thus they
to suffer and die alone.
The
children piteously cried day after day.
They were once happy
children.
**
litde
.
In the early 1830s, under the provisions of the Indian Removal Act, the
Choctaws were removed from Mississippi to Indian Territory. About one fourth
of some 14,000 Choctaws died along the way. This painting of the journey, entitled Choctaw Removal (1966), was painted by Choctaw artist Valjean Messing.
The Choctaws. Chickasaws. and Creeks

faced removal
in the
also
period from 1820 to 1840.
represented the best interests of his native region,

the South.
Responding
to this tariff.
Calhoun wrote
During the Chickasaw removal, for example, the
an anonymous essay outlining the South's position.
death rate was as high as that of the Cherokees
The essay argued
during the Trail of Tears. Those

left to
who
survived were
rebuild their lives in the strange surround-
that the states, as creators of the
federal union, had the right to nullify, or refuse

to obey,
any act of Congress they considered
unconstitutional. This view
ings of Indian Territor)'.
became known
as the
doctrine of nullification.
South Carolina threatens secession.
The nullification crisis
The
Indian removal remains one of the Jacksonian era"s
1830 Senator Robert Hayne of South Carolina,
tariff
debate raged for the next two years. In
most controversial legacies. Yet for many
speaking for southern planters, argued for
Americans
rights:
at the time, the issue
of states" rights
seemed of more immediate concern. This

having troubled the Republic since
was revived
in the
its
1820s in debates over
issue,
"'The ver>' life of our system
is
states"
the indepen-
dence of the States." He called the 1828
tariff
founding,
"unauthorized taxation"" and warned that the South
tariffs.
would
resist.
Senator Daniel Webster of Massachusetts,
The doctrine
of nullification. To
protect
widely recognized as an outstanding orator, rose to
U.S. manufacturers. Congress passed in 1828 a
defend what he interpreted as an attack against the
new
Northeast. Webster countered that only the
tariff that
some
doubled the
1816 for
items. Outraged southern planters charged
Congress with promoting the

trial
North
The
tariff
at the
interests of the indus-
expense of southern agriculture.
would make
British goods, on
southerners relied heavily,

yet.
rates set in
which
more expensive. Worse
Great Britain might fight back by buying less
southern cotton.
Thomas Cooper,
South Carolina College

the South
in
president of
Columbia, warned
would soon have "to
Supreme Court had

acts of
the
power
to decide
whether
Congress were unconstitutional. In a mov-
ing speech to the Senate. Webster warned that if

state
could decide which federal laws to obey,
the result
would be violence and needless blood-
each
shed. Acceptance of the doctrine
would
shatter into
"broken and dishonored fragments'" the "once glo-
that
rious Union."" Webster closed his address with this
calculate the value
memorable appeal: "Liberty and Union, now and
of the Union, and ask of what use to us
is this
most
fore\er.
one and inseparable!"
unequal alliance."
By 1828 Vice
abandoned
President John C. Calhoun had
his earlier nationalist views.
He no
longer believed that the national government
Passage of a new tariff in 828

sparked a bitter states' rights
debate in Congress.
1
i:
245
Both sides eagerly awaited some indication

of the president's stand on the issue. The answer
was not long
in
coming. At a formal Washington
dinner in April 1830, President Jackson rose from

his chair
and fixed his eyes on Vice President
Calhoun. Then holding his glass
posed a
After a
toast:
"Our Union:
moment
in the air,
he pro-
must be preserved!"
it
next
to our liberty, the
always remember that
it
most dear!
May we
can only be preserved by
respecting the rights of the states."
1832 Henr> Clay attempted a compromise
by pushing
a slight tariff
Congress. But
it
1828 and 1832
reduction through
was too small a reduction
South Carolina. In November
if
to satisfy
that state declared the
and void. South Carolina
tariffs null
threatened to secede
government
the federal
tried
to collect tariffs within the slate.
of silence. Calhoun stood up. His
hand trembling, he defiantly challenged: "The

Union
In
furious Jackson privately
one drop of blood be shed there

laws of the United States.
of them
can get
my
will
in
in
that "if
defiance of the
hang the
hands on to the
To calm tensions
find."
warned
man
first
first tree
Clay convinced Congress to pass a compromise
tar-
1833 that lowered rates over a 10-year period.
iff in
p|ÊS\DENTIAL
can
South Carolina. Henr>'
with no
accepted
At Calhoun's urging. South Carolina
Uy^^
support from other southern states

the
ANDREW JACKSON
new
tariff.
The immediate
crisis subsided.
but sectional tensions continued to 2row.
1767-1845
UNITED
STATES
\n office
Upposing the bank
POSTAGE
1829-1837
For
the passion around the issue of states' rights
all
in the
i;--
1830s. the Second
Bank of
may have caused even more
,:
JaChsOn
7 CENTS 7
attacked the
Bank
as a dangerous
benefited rich investors

British
Jackson's presidency
came to an
end, well-wishers streamed into Washington.

D.C., to say good-bye.
at the
the industrious.
many
monopoly
of
whom
that
were
expense of the poor, the honest, and
Such a privileged group should not
be allowed to control the nation's money, he
gifts as well:
wagon made of
even a 1,400-pound cheese.

ing in office,
Making
"Old Hickory" received
thousands of letters and many

hats, pipes, canes, a
excitement.
the banking issue a personal crusade, Jackson
L_.;i,
As Andrew
the United States
On
hickory,
his last
morn-
Jackson rode with Martin Van
Buren, the president-elect, to the inauguration.
The crowds along the road
did not cheer for
Van Buren but removed their hats
in
respectful
silence for Jackson instead. "For once," an
observer noted, "the
rising
sun was eclipsed by
the setting sun."
Jackson returned to the Hermitage,

plantation
in
his
Tennessee, where he remained an
active, influential force in politics. Eager politi-
cians sought his advice.
most
politicians.
Though he turned away
Jackson publicly supported
favorite candidates
and causes.
c:^^2:t^^:^.=jL>î^^'v-^
246
CHAPTER
his
This political cartoon satirizes the collapse of

the Second Bank of the United States.

insisted.
Americans who disliked the Bank's
strict
lending policies or simply feared concentrated
power tended
to agree.
of acres of public land

to
make quick
in the
Middle West, hoping
by reselling
profits
to settlers at
it
higher prices. But as land prices increased, so did
The Bank became a campaign issue when

Jackson sought reelection in 1832. Opposing
the price of everything else.
Jackson was Henry Clay, nominee of the National
President Jackson issued the Specie Circular in
Republicans (the party of John Quincy Adams).
July 1836. This executive order instructed the
who
Clay,
supported the Bank, decided to force an
election-year
was not due
showdow n over
to expire until
1832 Clay pushed
Though
it.
836. in the
its
charter
summer of
through Congress to
a bill
recharter the Bank.
controversy, just as Clay had hoped. Clay vigor-
Treasury to accept only gold and silver (specie) as
payment
mate. Martin Van Buren of
He and
New
sonal.
The
fight
'The Bank
will kill
is
his
moved to
had become bitterly
trying to
running
won by
shut down
York,
large margin. Jackson then
the Bank.
for public land.
that their
do so
failed.
As
By June
Many
people began
banks exchange bank notes

in
1819. banks that could not
1837, hundreds of banks had
gone under.
Contributing to the panic was the economic
crisis in
Great Britain. Faced with financial
per-
me. but
kill
Because few people had
specie, land sales plunged.
demanding
ously attacked the veto during the campaign. But

voters sided with Jackson.
this intlation-
ary spiral and slow the feverish speculation.
for gold or silver.
Jackson vetoed the measure, sparking a great
To curb
he grimly \ow ed.
it,"
MARTIN VAN BUREN
Jackson stopped depositing federal funds

in the national
bank.
New
deposits went to
1782-1862
selected state banks chosen for their officers' loy-
Democratic party
alty to the
pet banks, as
in office
Jackson's enemies called them.
The Bank, however, retained much of

existing federal deposits and
influence. Nicholas Biddle.
dent of the
Bank
still
1837-1841
its
had financial
who had been
presi-
made one fmal effort

He had the Bank tighten
since 1823.
to save the institution.
credit to force a financial crisis, in
hope of con-
Martin Van Buren loved
vincing Jackson and the American public of the

administration the
folly of attacking such a stabilizing institution.
power by Biddle reinforced Jackson's arguments that the Bank had dangerously concentrated powers that it could use
of
many
galas.
Instead, this exercise of
And
stylish living.
During
his
White House was the scene

it
was common to see him
about the streets of Washington riding
in
his
olive green carriage pulled by fine horses in
silver-mounted harnesses and attended by
against the public good.
uniformed footmen. As
a friend recalled,
Van
Buren was "as polished and captivating a person

in
The PANIC OF
Jackson had
won
his
I837
Despite
bank war. But by weakening
federal control over the banking system, he also
opened the door
to financial crisis. Jackson's pet
banks issued
own bank
far
their
notes, often in
amounts
exceeding what they could back up w ith gold or
money
silver.
Furthermore, the amount of
lation
more than doubled between 1830 and 1837.
as
the social circle as America has ever known."
in circu-
his aristocratic tastes,
Van Buren
was determined to appear friendly and

approachable. Thus, he was grieved by his
opponents' attacks on him:
it
"Why
the deuce
is
that they have such an itching for abusing
me?
try to be harmless, and positively
natured, and a
most decided
good
friend of peace."
many banks eased their loan requirements.

Much of the money that was lent was used
for land speculation. Speculators bought millions
::
247

problems
at
home, the
British
bought
less
southern
money
cotton. British investors also pulled their
The rise of the whigs
out of the United States, further decreasing the
supply of specie. Factories closed; construction

projects stood idle.
jobs. In
New
Thousands of workers
workers were unemployed.
In the cold winter of
1837-38. hungry people rioted

eastern cities.
deepened
lost their
York City alone, an estimated 50,(XX)
What had begun
in the streets
of
as a panic soon
into a depression that lasted until 1843.
The economic
crisis
of the late
830s was caused by Jackson's

monetary policies, easy credit,
land speculation, and British economic problems.
1
Jackson
office before the inflationary bubble
left
Martin Van Buren, Jackson's vice president
burst.
and handpicked successor,
who was
elected presi-
dent in 1836, suffered the consequences of mount-
economic problems. Unwilling
ing
to take steps to
help the economy. Van Buren
fell prey to the new

when he sought reelection in 1840.
Jackson's opponents had organized the
Whig party in 1834. taking their name from the
Whig
party
Whig
old
power of
party in England that had opposed the

the king.
who
people
The Whigs
disliked "King
initially attracted
Andrew" Jackson's
policies and use of federal power. Jackson's
heavy-handed attacks on the national bank and

backing of Georgia against the U.S. Supreme
his
Court on the issue of Indian removal, for
^tSDENTIAL L/yg
example, led some Americans to distrust the
grow ing power of Jackson's presidency. The
Whigs
WILLIAM HENRY
HARRISON
did not defeat Van Buren in 1836. but
their support
the nation's
1773-1841
grew over
the next four years as
economic problems deepened.
the
Rather than run Henr\ Clay
edged leader of the Whig party

in office
Whigs
in
1840 nominated General William Henry Harrison,
Jackson a war hero. Clay's nomination had
like
1841
the acknowl-
been opposed by such influential Whigs as

Calhoun and Webster. In addition. Clay's 1839
speech attacking some abolitionists undermined
chances of winning voles
his
in the
North. Clay
defended his remarks by saying.
"I
William Henry Harrison was a military man
right than be president." but the
Whigs wanted
and war hero with
candidate
experience. But
political
little
when
the Whigs offered him
the party's presidential nomination

quickly
embraced the
as a
young
is
His opponents
1840, he
Van Buren, remarked
"is as tickled
woman
in
with a
with the Presidency
new
were not so amused. They
criticized his inexperience
and accused him of
drunkenness, bad language, and "loose
But Harrison had

charges; he died of
little
"My
shot
friends are not worth the
would take
it
upon hearing
am
the
parties:
the
to kill
most unfortunate man
or any one.
now
powder and
them." Clay bitterly said
news of Harrison's nomination.
always run by
defeated, and
I.
my
friends
in the history
when
of
sure to be
betrayed of a nomination
when
would be sure of election."
living."
time to answer these
pneumonia shortly
could win. Harrison had the advan-
and thus received the party's nomination.
"I
bonnet."
who
tage of having few political (or sectional) enemies
idea. After Harrison's
election, his predecessor,
that Harrison
ambition or
had rather be
Clay's last assessment was probably right

economic problems created during the Van
Buren administration seemed to ensure the election
the
after his
inauguration.
of almost any
Whig
candidate. Although adopting
no party platform, the Whigs targeted such eco-
nomic
issues as the Bank, the
tariff,
and especially
ongoing depression. The Whig campaign

focused on presenting their candidate as a "man of
the
248
CHAPTER?
;ÊS\DENTIAL UKfj
They portrayed Harrison,
the people."
a rich
landowner, as a poor, hardworking tarmcr
who
JOHN TYLER
lived in a log cabin.
Whig
rallies featured
and tlowing barrels of hard

of farmers and
many
1790- (862
miniature log cabins
cider, the favored drink
workers. The Whigs' chant
'Tippecanoe and Tyler too" referred

eral's 1811 battle against Indians at the
to the
gen-
UNITED
STATES
in office
POSTAGE
I84I-I84S
Tippecanoe
River and to his running mate. John Tyler of

Virginia. Ridiculing Van Buren, they added: "Van.
Van
is
a used
The Whigs'
10 CENTS 10
840 the "packaging" of candidates
their
emphasizing
images as much as (or even more than)
ideas or abilities
became standard
their
practice.
But the tactic worked. Harrison
won
The 68-year-old president died of pneumonia

four weeks after his inauguration, making his the
long.
shortest presidential term in U.S. history. Vice
President Tyler, a states'-rights Virginian and
the presidency
and sectional
A
lit-
erature, he played the

violin
and wrote poetry. The courtship leading
up to
Tyler's
second marriage was so romantic
that his bride's sister scolded: "You spend so
much time
Harrison, however, did not enjoy his triumph for
Andrew
kissing, things of
in
more impor-
an
impressive 234 electoral votes to Van Buren's 60.
strong opponent of
lover of music and
the election of 1828 and set
unfortunate precedents for U.S. politics. After
was
Virginia gentleman.
reliance on slogans during the
campaign echoed
Tyler
John
up man!"
Jackson, succeeded to
and inherited the ongoing economic
tance are
left
undone."
In public,
When
first
though, Tyler could be stubborn.
President Harrison died
president to die while
in
in
the
many
1841
office
government leaders challenged then-Vice

President Tyler's right to assume
duties. But Tyler
full
presidential
was determined not to be
merely a "Vice President acting as President."

His bold action set a precedent for the transfer
crises.
of presidential power.
The Whigs came
to
power
in
1840 by emphasizing econonnic

such as the Panic of
1837 and by relying on slogans
and images.
issues
SECTION
IDENTIFY and
War, Worcester
c:
REVIEW
explain the significance of the following: Sequoya, Indian

v.
Removal Act, Second Seminole
Georgia, Trail of Tears, pet banks. Specie Circular, William
Henry Harrison.
LOCATE and explain the importance of the following: Indian Territory.

MAIN IDEA What factors led the U.S. government to shift its policy toward Native Americans
I.
from one of coexistence to one of removal? How did Native Americans in the Southeast attempt
to resist this policy
shift?
MAIN IDEA How did the Whigs win the election of 1840?
IDENTIFYING CAUSE AND EFFECT Describe the relationship
doctrine of
nullification,
between the
tariff
of 1828, the
and South Carolina's threat to secede.
WRITING TO EXPLAIN
Write a short essay explaining what
led to the Panic of
837 and the
depression that followed.
WRITING TO CREATE
Imagine you are a Cherokee on the
Trail of Tears.
diary entry explaining your feelings at being forced to leave your
Write
poem or
home.
249
Monroe elected
president.
CHAPTER
Bank
Second
and
list
paper
to
Doctrine
passed.
issued.
Erie Canal
completed.
2.
the order
in
REVIEWING THEMES
differences
above,
did the trans-
in
Technology and Society What were some

the ways
which
in
next to
first
line
3.
activity
Industrial Revolution?
Democratic Values Why

market revolution and
rise of
of
which 19th-century America was
in
changed by the
the sec-
can
it
be said that the
industrialization aided the
Jacksonian democracy?
Jackson vetoes national bank recharter.
2.
Cherokees begin
3.
Missouri
THINKING CRITICALLY
Trail of Tears.
Compromise
1.
passed.
4. Tariff crisis resolved.

5.
Monroe
- I
below.
1
Missouri
Compromise
portation and market revolutions lead to regional
Study the time
5.

2,
of the chapter.
ond next to
begins.
Number your
Financial panic
1820
summary
elected president.
States chartered
WRITING A SUMMARY
write a
John Quincy
Treaty signed.
of the United
evtew
Adams
Adams-Onis
Monroe Doctrine
Identifying
Cause and
from the time
2.
issued.
Evaluating What caused the upsurge of

American nationalism
after the
Synthesizing What
did the
reveal
role
line,
and
in
War
of 1812?
Monroe Doctrine
about the way the United States viewed
its
the Western Hemisphere?
in
3.
Analyzing Could
industrialization
and the trans-
portation revolution have occurred without each
IDENTIFYING PEOPLE
AND
other?
IDEAS
1.
American System
5.
Industrial Revolution
2.
Martin Van Buren
6.
Sequoya
3.
Rush-Bagot
7.
Indian
Agreement
8.
doctrine of
John Calhoun
How
2.
How were
What
American System?
the causes of the Panic of 1819 and the
roles did
Francis
4.
5.
play
in
Eli
reasoning
Our
distant regions.
Whitney, and
America's Industrial
in
the Southeast resist
own
be cruel
it
How
discontented
westward expansion
Why
lead to passage of
Compromise?
did South Carolina not carry through
CHAPTER
in
the early 1830s?
his lands,
on
its
evident
in
new homes
These remove
in
... at their
expense, purchase the lands they occupy,
their forced removal to Indian Territory?
did
is
children by thousands yearly leave the
from the moment
Americans
support of Indian
Jackson's speech.
How
did Native
in
Reasoning on page 220. Then
in
fallacy in
Revolution?
threat to secede
250
what
and support themselves
the Missouri
6.
Slater,
common?
in
an excerpt from the message President
land of their birth to seek
Samuel
Cabot Lowell
is
Jackson delivered to Congress
indicate
Panic of 1837 similar?

3.
have
of 1812 help prepare Americans
for acceptance of Clay's
did the crises over Missouri

tariffs
removal. Review the Strategies for Success on
nullification
War
did the
Comparing What
Following
Removal Act

1.
or why not?
statehood and over
4.
4.
Why
when
in his
new homes
Can
the Indian
ancient
to give him a
tory, to pay the
at their
of their arrival.
new and
expense of
support him a year
home
in his
his
is
made
to purchase
extensive terri-
removal, and
new abode?
**
Tariff of
828 passed.
Jackson vetoes
Andrew Jackson
national bank
elected president.
Calhoun's doctrine of
recharter.
nullification issued.
William Henry
Harrison elected
Specie Circular
issued.
Van Buren
elected president.
Indian
Removal
Act passed.
John Tyler succeeds
Cherokees begin
resolved.
Trail
il of Tears.
ô presidency.
I
i i
president.
Tariff crisis
1830
1845
1840
Given the information on
Using Historical Imagination Imagine
think the Erie Canal
are a reporter
in
1828.
Write
that you
this
map, why do you
was so important?
a short article tracing
Jackson's political career from the election of 1824
through the election of 1828.

When the U.S. government first began
pressuring
the Chickasaws to exchange their lands
Southeast for lands
in
Chickasaw leaders offered the following
What
the
in
'Tom Thumb" locomotive
Indian Territory, the
racing a horse-drawn car,
830
reply.
reasons did the Chickasaws give for not
wanting to move westward?
^^
We never had
BUILDING YOUR
PORTFOLIO
a thought of
other, as we
we would not find a country that
would suit us as well as this we now occu-
exchanging our land for any

think that
being the land of our forefathers,

we should exchange our lands for any
py,
it
other,
which
tree,
would wither and die away, and we are

fearful we would come to the same.
We have no lands to exchange for any
.
other
We wish our father [the
President] to
extend his protection to us here, as he pro-
do on the west of the Mississippi,

as we apprehend [fear] we would, in a few
poses
to
years, experience the
same

cooperatively.
may be
fearing the consequences
similar to transplanting an old
if
difficulties in
1.
THE ECONOMY
Imagine you are a north-
ern textile manufacturer. Create an illustrated

chart for a
new
nologies you
shows what new techuse to produce cloth from cotton
factory that
will
and where you plan to build your factory for easy

access to markets.
2.
EXPANSION
Imagine you are a reporter for
the Cherokee Phoenix. Write a newspaper article

English that traces U.S. policy
nation from 1789 to 1835. Include reasons for
why
any other section of the country that might
these policies can be viewed as a product of U.S.
be suitable to us west of the
expansionism.
Mississippi.
99
3.
INDIVIDUAL RIGHTS
Imagine you are a
western farmer supporting Andrew Jackson

1832 presidential election. Create a
LINKING HISTORY
Refer to the
AND GEOGRAPHY
map on page
U.S. roads, canals,
233, showing the major
and railroads
parts of the country
were most
in
1840.
In
what
that illustrates
the people."
In
toward the Cherokee
why Andrew Jackson
political
is
in
the
poster
"man of
The poster should draw on events
from Jackson's
first
term
in office.
canals located?
25
America's
GEOGRAPHY
EARLY
INDUSTRIALIZATION
industrialization in the United
States
were largely influenced
by geography. Early factories

relied heavily
Thus most
on water power.
industrial centers
formed around the
fall line
As
the eastern United States.

rivers
of
descend from the
uplands to the lowlands, they

create waterfalls
fall line is
and
rapids.
the imaginary line
formed by connecting the

waterfalls
The
on numerous
fall line
rivers.
usually marks the
farthest point that ships can

travel inland.
land port
Thus many
cities,
The multitude of water-
falls
and streams
New
its
Carolina.
Today
textiles
first
represent the largest
430
some
mills.
fall
line.
land contributed to
the
in SoutJi
industry in that state, which houses
Philadelphia and Baltimore,
in
became
center
in-
such as
can be found along the
\Jran'rteV\l\e
textile
U.S.
!i
Eng-
\^mAw^
MANUFACTURING
CENTERS, I860
New England
becom-
^^
-1
ing the leading region of early
v3-
industrialization in America.
South
Is
Other regions
Ji
^W^
-^^H^^hh^
"'
^^
By
Middle Atlantic
I860 the small
establishments as the entire South.

industrial imbalancti
between the North and the South
would have a major impact on the
UNIT
New
38%
8%
The
252
region of
England had as many manufaauring
Civil
War.
In
the early
9th century canals created a revolution
in
some 1,000 miles of canals

were constructed between 1825 and 1848. As railroads
transportation. In Ohio alone,
-j
Railroad
M Canal
expanded, most canals
fell
into disrepair
shut down, as did the Ohio system
in
909.
Canalized river
accessories
Food products
Iron or steel
or brass
or equipment
and eventually
Clothing
Locks, hardware,
Machinery
Paper
*>a5,
Rope
Textiles
<
iJl
Weaponry
Diverse industries
Clocks,
watches
Other
mgii.
mhe boom
in
transportation
impact on
now
could
canal and railroad
had a tremendous
industry.
Manufacturers
ship materials
and goods
throughout the country. The three

small states of Massachusetts,
Connecticut,
and Rhode
Island
already contained a multitude of
waterways that helped power nu-
merous
tiles.
states
road
industries, particularly tex-
By the mid- 1 800s these three
were covered by webs of rail-
lines
connecting their major
industrial centers.
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
25
50 Kilometers
1820-1860
Chapter 8
SEPARATE SOCIETIES:
NORTH AND SOUTH

^
UNDERSTANDING
THE MAIN IDEA
The market
revolution
changed
northern and southern socieês. In

the North, with
factories,
new
new working
South, the
tJie
its
growing
cities
and
middle class and
class
emerged.
In
dominance of cotton
strengdiened the slave-based social
order
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT How might economic

changes affect society?
CULTURAL DIVERSITY
How
might a people's culture be
shaped by slavery?
TECHNOLOGY AND
SOCIETY What
effects
unexpected
might a technological
advance have on society?
1831
1834
Nat Turner leads
National Trades
Union founded.
slave uprising.
1844
Lowell Female
Labor Association
organized.
1856
American party
nominates Millard
Fillmore for president.
As early as the
LINK TO THE PAST
had begun
to
regions, the
760s, the
economies of the North and the South
grow apart. Although farming was important
North
diversified
its
economy
in
both
to include importing
and
manufactured goods.
selling
tmr-
mi-j-g
>
'^
'-u
S7
new
n the early 19th century,
'^""
industries and
"''** *'"*'"'
growing
cities
changed how and where people worked. Before the market revolumost people worked
tion,
at
home. People grew food and made cloth
and other necessities for themselves. During the market revolution,

however, people increasingly began to work outside the
factories, businesses,
and on other people's farms. As a
members took on new
the 1830s, noticed a
(shuh-vahl-yay). a
new
American man, he remarked,
attitude
"is
French
ligent he will
cities
and
that if he is active
make
family
visitor to
America
in
brought up with the idea that he will

is to
manufacturer, merchant, speculator, lawyer,

.
in
among American men. The
have some particular occupation, that he
result,
roles.
Michel Chevalier
physician
home
and
intel-
be a farmer, artisan,
xr>r^.
his fortune." In northern
Chevalier noted that
"men of
business,
instead of being scattered over the town,
occupy a particular
sively to them, in
quarter, devoted exclu-
which there
is
not a build-
ing used as a dwelling house and nothing but

offices
and warehouses
to be seen."
Chevalier traveled to Virginia, where he
observed a society in which the majority of the

population
little
enslaved African Americanshad
choice of occupation. While Chevalier
praised the flourishing tobacco and flour markets in Virginia, he also criticized southern slavery,
Northern
textile factory
noting that the slave '"has no
civil rights."
Despite their lack of legal power, enslaved

African Americans created a unique culture
to resist
and survive
slavery.
Carrying cotton
from southern
SEPARATE SOCIETIES: NORTH AND SOUTH
fields
255
Section
THE NORTH AND THE MIDDLE WEST

c
Who made
up the new middle
class?
How did northern workers react to the labor conditions they faced?
What led to increased Irish and German immigration in this period?
How did nativists react to Irish and German immigrants?
w^.
v/?e'
market revolution profoundly affected the North and the
Middle
for
West.
The growing economy brought better
many Americans.
immigrants
It
also attracted
many
Irish
in the first half of the 19th century.
Wm^
living conditions
and German
But economic
^_
growth did not always improve the
lives
of the working
class.
to call for changes.
Between
a wide gap between
new
filth,
and disease.
the wealthy and the poor arose a
social class
the middle
Prosperous
class.
farmers, artisans, shopkeepers, ministers, lawyers,
new middle
and
These families lived
shared in the economic prosperity of the growing
lavish
in
huge,
homes with running

marble mantels.
water,
elegant furnishings, and

the latest in
household
crowded
apartments,
made up
the
free blacks, despite facing discrimination,
middle
class.
Middle-class families lived in modest
but comfortable
homes with conveniences such
as
iron cookstoves, lamps, bathing stands and bowls,
and rugs.
into small
attics,
or
damp
food, clothing, and other products
worked together
at
home
to
clothing, and other necessities.
and few conveniences.
to
work outside
these items.
home and
middleclass homes were heated
by modern downstairs
heaters rather than by oldfashioned fireplaces.
in
made
available
by the market revolution. Thus, families no longer
cellars with little furniture
4 Some rooms
class.
Middle-class families had the income to buy
The poor, by contrast,
their families
Some
conveniences.
gp ^^
^fl w
^cn ^ 3a
made up
the wealthy upper class.
bankers, manufacturers, and their famihes
CHAPTER
wPiM
1
plagued by crime, soot,
the rich and the poor. Prosperous merchants.
256
m.'<^
including sewers. Poor neighborhoods were
NORTHERN SOCIETY
The market revolution created
fiS^JVi
Detail of immigrants from Samuel

Waugh's The Bay and Harbor of
New York. 847
Northern factory owners often paid low wages and provided poor
working conditions, causing northern workers
"-
-,
"i_rîk
pWv* fc^J^^^f
the
home
Women
produce their food,
Men were
to bring in
expected
money to buy
to work at
were expected
care for the children, and children were
expected to go to school. These
new
middle-class
family roles became the ideal for most families,
though not
all
arransement.
could meet
this
economic and
social
z
*
J>
The middle
new
day. always tilled with
class consisted of
Lowell
prosperous farmers, artisans,

ministers, lawyers, shopkeepers,
and their families.
Harriet Robinson.
girl
Conditions changed by the
Owners
wrote former
recruits."
however.
IK3()s.
searching for larger profits
cut wages,
sped up production, and increased working hours.

Protests and attempts to form labor unions had
tle
Changing working
many unemployed
there were
also
worked. Workers
made most
changed how people

products, like
shoes and barrels, by hand in small shops. In the

early 19th century, however, workers began
more items
in factories,
employees. Early
recruited
New
whole families
Such employment
which needed many
England factory owners

to
work
when
in textile mills.
offers usually included housing.
factories
needed hundreds of
employees.
the
from
New
for long hours
class
women
women had the
problem by hiring young, single
England farms. Most
garment-making
survive.
They
else
ha\
girls
lived
women
as
Lowell
to attend church.
enforcing curfews, banning alcohol, and reporting

behavior. Despite such
strict
supervision, recruitment was easy in the early

years.
"The stage-coach and canal boat came
get nothing to eat and turned
nothing, for
Cooking? Oh.
Collection,
New Yoiic
cook
haven't the time."
Children often worked as hard as their parents
Child labor was
common on
farms, so manufac-
for granted in factor}' work.
New England
By
1832.
workers w ere
factor\
children. These children faced especially grim
required children to run machines late into the night.
JLabor fights back
ever\'
As conditions worsened by
the 1830s. workers
organized more than 60 unions. Labor leaders held

their first national
convention
the National Trades Union,
in
1834 and founded
which campaigned for a
10-hour workday. President Van Buren responded

in
The Granger
even
Older
acted as matrons in these boarding houses,
girls*
tea;
company-
"moral education" for the
workers and required them
on the Lowell
on bread and
to
Mill owners organized cul-
tural activities to provide
women
known
in closely supervised,
owned boardinghouses.
labored
money
working conditions. Factory superintendents often
ing to support their families.
These single
we
into the street besides.
five
than
York City's
prepare. "It's awful." lamented a mother of four. "I
two out of
women less
women were not seen as
Mill owners paid single
New
district, entire families
lived mainly
it
male workers, since
In
beans were too expensive and time-consuming to
mrers took
hire.
York
of the working
through the night, earning barely enough
did.
to
New
prosperous times many workers
in
made
home. They were also cheaper
a third
on the edge of poverty.
necessary skills for textile mills, since they had

cloth at
In
were unemployed.
Even
lived
laborers willing to
and low wages.
City 50,000 people
must work,
Mill owners in Lowell. Massachusetts, over-
came
work
mak-
But the system of housing entire families became

impractical
As a result of the Panic

many workers their jobs,
of 1837. which had cost
The market revolution
ing
more job seekers com-
success, however, as
peted for factory positions.
conditions
still
lit-
1840 with a 10-hour
workday
for selected
groups of federal em-
Some
ployees.
states
passed similar legislation, but
working hours
remained long
in
many
occupations.
This 1836 picture shows children

in the weaving room of a
England textile mill.
employed
New
::
257
Labor unions used
many methods
lactic
mill in 1845, Bagley
to press
A common
for reforms.
was
After leaving the
the
strike
work
the refusal to
traveled across
New
England, organizing
other
until
workers.
mill
employers meet union
Later she became the
demands. During the

1830s, workers led
more than 100 strikes,
operator
mostly
w ages
or to avoid
limit
working hours,
her efforts pointed the
Women
way
played an
important role
in the
Most unions e.xcluded African American workers. Whites

often refused to work
After wages were cut in
1834, the Lowell girls

strike,
march-
ing in the streets and
"Union
shouting
with blacks, sometimes

calling for laws barring
is
power." Reacting to the
This
Frank
Massachusetts
860 drawing accompanied an article
in
from particular trades.
Some
the paper, 800 women led a strike procession

through the city's streets on March 7, i860.
to investi-
anics, coach drivers,
This was the
first official
investiga-
Lowell mills
in
who went
to
work
and caulkers, eventually formed organizations to

promote
tion of labor conditions in the United Slates.
Sarah G. Bagley.
African American
workers, such as mech-
gate conditions in the

textile mills.
Americans
African
Newspaper on a shoemak
Lynn, Massachusetts. According to
Leslie's Illustrated
ers' strike in
legislators established a
committee
for future labor
organizers.
movement.
early labor
strike.
Lowell.
not win her fight to
w age
reductions.
went on
telegraph
in
.Although Bagley did
low
to protest
woman
first
their
own
interests.
in the
1836. was active in the labor
During the mid- 800s, northern

factory workers campaigned for
1
movement. At
1
first,
840 she w rote the
she liked her job. In fact, in
of Factory
article "Pleasures
better labor conditions.
Life" for the Lowell Offering, a magazine published by
women
mill workers. But
when
mill
ow ners sped up production without raising

wages, Bagley urged
Growth
in
coworkers
The labor
grew considerably
to
form
union. In 1844 she
force
immigration
more than 500,000 newcomers
Female Labor Reform
1860 they numbered nearly 4.3 million
As
its first
percent of the U.S. population. This increase
14
was
aided in part by a transportation revolution in
nounced labor condi-
Europe. Railways made
it
cheaper to reach major
and collected more
ports,
and steamships reduced the time and cost of
than 2.000 signatures on
ocean
travel.
a petition
urging the
Massachusetts legisla-
Irish
work-
grants
ture to limit the
day
to 10 hours.
immigrants. The
more than
.9
Cover of the Lowell
Offering, 1845
largest
group of immi-
came from
million
Ireland.
Poverty, hunger, and mistreatment by the British
had driven them from
about
president. Bagley de-
tions
CHAPTER
830s as
poured into the country. By
land,
and equality
eager for work,
organized the Lowell
Association.
258
in the
Protestants had seized
their
homeland. British
much of
Ireland's farmland
by the 1600s. forcing most of the countr>
mainly
Roman
Catholic population
lo rciu land Ikhii
As
1780
Ireland's population nearly doubled
to 1840, the available land
from
in the
could no longer
two years
in a
row.
unloaded
Many
freight,
and
laborers
cleaned streets
were
mended clothes, cared

and worked in factories. "You
gray-haired Irishman" became
wealthy, washed and

for children,
the major Irish food source
More
mined
jobs.
Irishmen. Irishwomen cleaned the houses of the
mid -1840s, when disease wiped
out the potato crop
helped
coal,
support the growing population. The situation
worsened
who
build the nation's canals and railroads,
mosl-dangerous
Protestant landowners.
seldom see
than a million people (out
common
of a population of .some eight million) died from
average
starvation or disease.
so short.
work, the
United States. Able to afford only the cheapest
Most
accommodations, these immigrants
Whole
crammed together below deck

makeshift berths. Passenger Robert Smith
lars,
in
in
described the conditions:
in the 19th
expectancy of
century because the
Irish
Americans was
addition to enduring such
In
the Atlantic Ocean,
saying
life
Most of those who could scrape together

money for a steamship ticket left Ireland for the
set off across
demanding
grim living conditions.
Irish often faced
lived in dark, poorly ventilated tenements.
families
or attics.
crowded
Slum
into single rooms, cel-
streets
and yards, ankle-deep
garbage and sewage, spread diseases through
Irish
neighborhoods.
But Irish immigrants forged their own
women
and children of
together without
in
communities out of these conditions. They
Hundreds of poor people, men,
body, dispirited
light,
in
ages,
all
without
heart,
air,
established hundreds of Catholic churches and
huddled
.
created a vigorous and active parish
sick
with-
living
By
out food or medicine, except as administered by the hand of casual charity.
99
the 1880s Irish
Irish
The
Americans ran the local
governments of Boston, Chicago, Buffalo,
New
Milwaukee,
Most
life.
Irish also actively participated in local politics.
immigrants had been farmers,
York
City, Philadelphia,
San Francisco. In return for votes
and
Irish politicians
but few could afford farmland in the United
helped poor and working-class Irish by
crowded
providing them with emergency food and money,
States. Thus, the majority settled in

city slums,
competing for the lowest-paying or
city jobs,
IMMIGRATION TO THE
aid.
1830-1860
[
I
1855
1850
1845
1840
1835
1830
U.S.,
and legal
I860
Year
Source: Historical StoVstics of the United States
IMMIGRATION PATTERNS
English stock. This changed in the
came
Prior to
1800, most white immigrants to the United States were of
1800s as millions of
Irish,
German, and other non-English immigrants
to America.

year did German immigration reach
its
In
which year did
Irish
immigration reach
its
peak?
In
which
peak?
259
IMMIGRANT
LIFE
Between 1820 and I860 more than
five million
Europeans
came to the United States in search of a better life. Although

most arrived in the "promised land" with high hopes, many of
them soon realized that their dreams would not come true.
As competition for good jobs was stiff, skilled work was often
hard to find. One Scottish immigrant expressed both despair and
disappointment in this new land:
wimehca
is
no place
[in
for
no place
lawyers, weavers, or shoemakers, for
lated by the sun.
everyone
there are but few readers.
is
a pettifoger [corrupt lawyer],
a weaver or a shoemaker. For masons

there
is little
The houses are
It is
for printers,
The houses
being very simply furnished, cabinet-makers
use, for slaters [stone
roofers] none.
much
are consequently not
chiefly built
In short, to gain
in request.
tradesman and labourer, must be a
Watch and clockmakers may stay at home
all trades.'
German immigrants.
in the
from the then-independent
The second-largest
mid-1 9th century was
'Jack
of
99
home, both groups immigrated
at
to
the United States.
make up pre860, more than
From 1831
Germans came to
to
1.5 million
the United States.
Some came
for political reasons.
and German immigrants

economic and social hardships in Europe to seek opportuIrish
left
few thousand
fled after the failed Revolution of 1848,
which had
nities in
the United States.
Germany. Others sought religious
Many German
freedom. Most, however, came in search of eco-
nomic opportunity. German
many
states that
sent-day Germany.
tried to unify
opportunity
a decent livelihood, the
with wood, and the roofs are shingled.
group of immigrants
left
Europe], for the Americans are regu-
immigrants went into skilled
had
occupations, becoming brewers, bakers, butchers,
traditional artisans without jobs.
machinists, tailors, cabinetmakers, distillers, or
Farmland was growing
industrialization
scarcer.
Lacking economic
cigar makers.
at
home
Most German-born women worked
or on the farm.
employment outside
Those women who sought
the
home tended
to
family shops or businesses that served the
work
in
German
immigrant community.
Unlike the
Irish,
most 19th-century German
immigrants were Protestant (especially Lutheran).
About a
third
were Roman Catholic, while some
250.000 were Jewish. From 1825

influx of
to
1860 the
German
New York City from about 500
Jews increased the Jewish popu-
lation of
to
around 40.000.
Most German Jews remained on

Coast, but other
German immigrants
the East
settled in
small towns and rural areas in Wisconsin, Ohio,
This photograph shows a Pennsylvania-German

from the early 9th century.
birth certificate
260
CHAPTER
Pennsylvania,
Illinois.
Missouri, and Texas, and
elsewhere. Those in larger cities usually lived in

tightly knit
German neighborhoods, complete
with
European-style beer gardens where families met to

socialize.
Many communities
papers
German.
in
In the
also published news-
mid-1 850s, 56 German-
language newspapers were published

States.
And
in
some communities,
conducted classes
in
German
New
York, and Philadelphia. Vandalism against
Catholic institutions grew so
common
that
some
insurance companies would not cover Catholic
and churches.
.schools
wrote
1854
in
A Roman
that he feared "to
Catholic priest
walk the
streets
after sunset":
United
in the
public schools
rather than in Enelish.
4^
Twice
dows
the
the
the
month have
The winI
rock entered
about
door
panels of the church
stove [smashed]
Some native-bom Americans were troubled by

new immigrants* customs. They disapproved of
the past
of the church have frequently been
broken
The nativist response
vîthin
been stoned by young men.
in,
and
last
week
a large
my chamber unceremoniously
o'clock at night.
99
beer gardens and the "clannishness" of the Germans.
They feared
political
the
Roman
power of the
nativism
Catholicism and the growing
Irish.
Such
feeling
gave
rise to
the policy of favoring native-born
Some
nativists urged limiting immigrants'
and to hold public
rights to vote
wanted
to limit Irish political
office. Nativists
power because they
Americans over the foreign-bom. Nativists viewed
believed that the pope directed decisions for Irish
the immigrants, particularly the Irish, as politically
Catholics. In
cormpt and socially

most of the people
inferior.
Were
in jails Irish?
Philadelphia. Boston, and
New
not, they asked,
Were
not parts of
secret society of nativists, the
Order of the Star-Spangled Banner, emerged.
Members swore
to support
only native-born
Protestants for public office, to lobby for a 21 -year
"Dead Rabbits"?
waiting period for naturalization, and to fight the
gangs with names
Slum
conditions rooted in joblessness and low wages
like the
were blamed on the new-comers.

the 1830s through the 1850s. anti-
Catholic riots hit eastern cities such as Boston.
This 1844 picture shows an anti-Catholic

in
849 a
York controlled by
Irish
From
mob
Roman
Catholic church.
formed
itself as the
about their nativist
answer
"I
know
The organization soon
American
party.
activities, party
nothing."
When
re-
asked
members would
They were
thus
dubbed
battling the state militia
Philadelphia.
26!
their organization was

Know -Nothing party.
The American party, with its slogan
"Americans Shall Rule America," won numerous
Know-Nothings. and
the
called the
and
city
1856 presidential
state elections. In the
election, the party ran former
who had
Fillmore,
lash
Whig Millard
served as president from 1850
Maryland, and the
to 1853. Fillmore carried only
American party
Boston,
though
not the nativist back-
soon faded away.
Manufacture,
and Offfr
Sale,
for
most Complete and Rxtetiaire
the
assortment
<it
Nativists responded to increased
German and
TO BE FOUND IN THE UNITED STAITS.
immigration
Irish
Hay, Straw and Com Sulk Cutters, Com Shelleiv, Fanning Mills,
Com and Cob Criishers, Burr Stone Portable Grinding Mills, Seed
Sowers, Corn Planters, Horse Powers, Threshers, Carts,
with violence and demands for

limits on immigrants* rights.
.\lso,
Cart Harness,
Ox
Yokes, Haiul
Com
Mills, Store,
Steamboat and Wharf Tracks, Sugar

&c. tec.
The middle west
3 IB ID
Mills,
S.
This advertisement from a Boston company for

equipment and seeds appeared in 1854.
ftu'm
Many
immigrants, especially Germans, Swiss,
Scandinavians, and Dutch, sought opportunity in

the
newly prosperous Middle West. Growing

more farm
northeastern factories and cities needed
products, which middle western farmers began to

supply.
Some middle
western areas developed lum-
bering or mining, but commercial farming dominated most of the region.
As
the market revolution
made many manu-
factured products less expensive, farm families
began
at
to
purchase items they had previously
home. For example,
stopped spinning
As
a result, they focused
more land with
on growing wheat or
Women
making items to sell.

Farm women had long made butter and cheese for
their families.
Now
for sale. In Ohio,
making
they began making such items
women
earned so
butter and cheese that
settlers to attract
ing manufactured goods.
Farm
merchants
sell-
families could then
Department of
women who also

chores. An 1862
.-Xgriculture report
three farms out of four the wife
noted that "on
works harder [and]
buy household items and new mechanized farm
endures more than any other [person] on the
machines, such as Cyrus McCormick's reaper, that
place."
increased crop yields.
contribute directly to the growing family income.
SECTION
IDENTIFY and
Many women
took pride
in their ability to
REVIEW
explain the significance of the following: middle class, Lowell
girls, strike,
Sarah G. Bagley. nativism. Know-Nothings.

1.
2.
3.
4.
MAIN IDEA
5.
::
Identify
some occupations
that
were considered part of the new middle
class.
MAIN IDEA How did factory workers respond to unacceptable working conditions?
MAIN IDEA What kinds of restrictions did nativists try to impose on immigrants?
WRITING TO DESCRIBE Write an essay describing the life-style of middle-class families
early
262
to
specialize in dair\ production.
performed other home and farm
had enough
to
much money
some farms began
make. Most middle western communities even-
tually
which was cheaper
com
also began
This work was handled by
cloth,
less labor.
or on raising livestock for the market.
buy than
and weaving
to
women
made
With reapers and other new devices, farm

families could cultivate
9th century. Include a discussion of male and female roles.
CONTRASTING How
CHAPTER
did
life in
America
differ for Irish
and German immigrants?
in
the
THE COTTON KINGDOM

c u s
What factors
Why did
than
led to the rise of the
manufacturing and
cities
Cotton Kingdom?
develop
more
slowly
in
the South
the Northeast?
in
How did white southerners view the institution of slavery?

What was the class structure of southern society?
cihe market revolution helped tie the South

response to the increased
to agriculture. In
's
economy
demand
for cotton fueled by industrialization, cotton suc-
ceeded tobacco as the South
and
the plantation system
their grip
ture
gave
's
most important crop,
and slave ly tightened
on the region. This reliance on agriculrise to
a distinct southern social structure
of planters, small farmers, poor whites, free blacks,
and African American
Moving cotton bales
at a
warehouse
slaves.
Mississippi. Arkansas. Louisiana, and eastern
K\ING COTTON
Texas.
By
the 1850s the cotton belt stretched in a
long crescent from central and western North
When
tobacco prices
fell in
the early 1800s,
Americans thought slaven' and plantation

ture
would soon vanish. Before
this
many
agricul-
could happen,
however. ne\^ machines that cut the cost and time

of cloth making sent the
rocketing.
Armed
demand
for cotton sky-
with Eli Whitney's cotton gin.
southern planters were ready to respond.
Cotton production
in the
2,133,000 bales in 1850.

tion reached a
in
By 1859
1830
to
some
cotton produc-
peak of some 5.387.000
bales.
From
1815 to 1860 cotton represented more than half of

all
American
As
cotton production expanded, the
for slaves rose.
The number of
about 1.5 million
in
1820
to
demand
grew from
slaves
some 4 million by
1860. Because of the abolition of the international

slave trade in 1808. planters had to rely
increase, or births, for
South soared from
around 731,000 bales harvested
Carolina to eastern Texas.
more
slaves.
on natural
The Upper
South, with more slaves than the region needed,

sold slaves to the cotton-producing states of the
Lower South. The breakup of

resulted
was one of
families that often
the crudest aspects of a cruel
and inhumane system.
exports.
Periodic
booms
in the cotton export
market
Booming markets, the cotton

and newly cultivated lands
created the southern Cotton
drove planters to open new lands for cultivation.
gin,
Cotton growers moved west from South Carolina

and Georgia into the fertile lands of Alabama,
Kingdom.
IS
263

nation's population but
only 15 percent of the
manufacturing centers.
This occurred for several
reasons. First, instead of
new
investing in
most
ries,
facto-
southern
investors continued to
put their
and
money
land
in
Second,
slaves.
planters used their influ-
ence to discourage states
from passing taxes for

internal
improvements
improvements
might
that
have promoted manufacturing. Third, there
was
shortage of factory workers.
The
reliance
on slave
labor discouraged immi-
the Cotton Kingdom
grants
the
main source
of cheap factory labor
THE COTTON BOOM

caused a
boom
The market revolution, coupled with the invention of the cotton
gin,
the North
cotton production by the mid- 800s.
in
in
from coming
South. Fourth, the market
REGIONS
Which two
states
began producing cotton
after
1839?
slaves and poor whites
SOUTHERN MANUFACTURING
lation
economic growth,
Upper South. Sawmills,
hurt by the fact that
the bulk of the rural popu-
or no purchasing power.
South's continuing emphasis

on plantation agriculture and
slave labor slowed industrializa-
formed the basis of the southern economy, manufacturing also played a role in
little
manufactured goods
was
The
Although cotton and other agricultural products
especially in the
had
for
tion and urban growth.
iron-
works, tobacco factories, textile mills, and brickyards, as well as rice, sugar, corn, and wheat mills
dotted the region.
The South
also had one of the
Iron
Tredegar
Works of Richmond. Virginia which oper-
ated
its
and best-equipped ironworks
largest
labor.
the
rolling mills in the 1850s mainly
by slave
The company manufactured steam engines
for sugar mills, locomotives, cannons, railroad

spikes and
rails,
and many other iron products.
Railroad construction and mining also added

to
the
expanding southern economy. The
Though
slave labor formed the foundation of the
southern economy,
ery.
few argued
tion agriculture
some
that an
southerners criticized slav-
economy based on
and slavery was
one based on wage labor and
planta-
less profitable than
industry. Others criti-
Mississippi River and other inland waterways bus-
cized slavery as incompatible with the American
and Mobile
Revolution's spirit of liberty and freedom. People in
tled with trade. Baltimore, Charleston,
were important ports. New Orleans grew to

become the nation's most prosperous export center
by 1840 and the
fifth-largest U.S. city
by 1860.
Industrialization and urbanization, however,
developed more slowly
264
Southern attitudes
toward slavery
the
Upper South, who were
ton,
were among the most vocal
less
dependent on cot-
critics
of slavery.
Other criticisms came from southern reformers such as Jesse Burton Harrison of Virginia,
who
in the
attacked the inhumanity of slavery. Fearing the
North. The South in 1860 had 35 percent of the
upheaval that he was sure would result from
CHAPTER
in the
South than
4 Free black opponents of slavery used arguments

from the Declaration of Independence to protest the
enslavement of African Americans.
slaveholders to free their slaves voluntarily. The
money
society raised
to
compensate slaveholders
for the value of the freed slaves.
Once
former slaves were to be sent to Liberia
freed, the
a nation
the society carved out on the west coast of Africa.
The impact of such
efforts
The number of slaves born
week exceeded
was
limited, however.
United States
in the
number of blacks
the
Colonization Society sent to Africa
One major obstacle

ment was
American
in a year.
for the colonization
the reluctance of African
move from
the
in a
move-
Americans
the United States to Africa.
to
The idea of
sending blacks "back" to Africa was a misconception.
Most African Americans
in the 19th-century
United States had never been to Africa.
As northern
immediate abolition, Harrison called for a gradual
end
to slavery.
He was
not alone in his view.
Most
white southern abolitionists did not support immediate abolition or full equality for African
Like
many white
Americans.
abolitionists in the North, they did
not believe that African Americans could
American
society.
To avoid
the
fit
into
problem of having
to accept freed blacks as citizens,
many
southern
attacks on slavery
drowned out by
that slavery was
supporters. Planters argued
its
the only
that planters
who provided
erners
who
feared that free African Americans
would encourage
slave rebellions.
In 1817, prominent northerners and southerners
founded the American Colonization Society
for this purpose.
In this
ing,
The
society's plan called for
also
insisted
slaves with shelter,
and
food,
clothing,
care in sickness and old
helping
United States was especially strong among south-
to ensure an ade-
defenders
Slavery's
crops.
ing that slaves be freed gradually and then sent to

forcing freed slaves to leave the
way
quate supply of field workers for southern cash
age were actually
The idea of
in
the 1800s, southern critics of slavery were
abohtionists joined northern abohtionists in suggest-
Africa.
mounted
African
Americans.
Many
masters
saw themselves
as kindly par-
ents and their
slaves as simple children.
As
1832 engrav-
freed slaves from
the United States are
shown
arriving in
Liberia under the
sponsorship of the
American Colonization Society.
J. J.
Roberts, the
first
ident of Liberia,
pres-
is
also pictured.
265
Thomas
Dew.
R.
Mary
a professor at William and
some nonslave-
wealthiest planters. This troubled
and noted defender of slavery, wrote:
Ct>llciie
Slavery mainly served the interests of the
holding whites in the South. Most southern whites,
44 We are well
convinced that there
however, supported slavery. Small farmers, even
is
nothing but the mere relations of husband
and wife, parent and

ter
good master are
The
slaves of
warmest, most con-
his
and most devoted
stant,
held no slaves, backed the institution
because they hoped to become wealthy planters
sis-
than the rela-
tie
master and servant.
tion of
a
brother and
child,
which produce a closer
who
those
one day.
Many poor
because
gave them a sense of superiority. As one
it
whites supported slavery
white Missourian wrote
1854:
in
friends; they have
With
been accustomed to look up to him as their
^*
supporter, director, and defender.
class:
us, color,
black
is
not money, marks the
the badge of slavery; white
the color of the freeman.
Another champion of slavery, southern lawyer and
George Fitzhugh. contrasted
writer
"secure"
the supposedly
The white
pation, feels himself a sovereign.
Some
northern and European factories
in
and mines. Such workers. Fitzhugh argued, were
mercy of employers who paid them
them
occu-
his
99
of southern slaves with the sad plight
life
of wage earners
the
man. however poor, whatever be
economic reasons, but most
fired
little,
and heartlessly abandoned them when
at will,
southern whites opposed
slavery for humanitarian or
at
defended the
institution.
they became too old or sick to work.

Th Granger
Collection.
York
U il/i:<aililr lliiil rr rfllirSrrlli
hfti-f
New
brrn
li'piilx:
'<
Irmlnl ul Hir -Smlli
flllimL ,r i
frriirl xisil
|
U- ^ruth.htTi'rr iiv rttiunf this
\lr.iililr lirlitirit
llirXrHh
niiil
iiiHfiii'rt
H i*
'
\
twtfA hurti trrlinrt^X

riir friritilx fit tirinri
iii-nlh.niiif Tr
'
SOUTHERN
SOCIETY
tlrm%vil hr fnhr
ll'lir iliil
ft-' It
mtrrtil thimj. xitiw
~\
fnrrj-rrplirHi.iifitr t/Hiirhm-r
ilnw a rrHntH antninl rf Liinn'

wliirli litre ImUl, hu trf/iPM.
tirr,
mil
Irll .1
The importance of land and
itifTrntil Slrrt- ifltrii llirr r.:.irti
llrllirXrrl/il/trl/i.iif/ilrifl'if'
(ttiiti
hniif ilisM-liTil
It Ir ilrr.ul-
rill II llilliti
If tif
hill rrinll.rl
laUrli- ilinn fr riijri' tltetiufhrj

ill Iff rritxilinhlr ariif.
ri-hU
i-nlflnlilulfil.
slaves to the southern
economy was
reflected in the region's class struc-
Ihl
Ir/ ll- .:
ff
l.r
Only one
ture.
in
four southern whites
slaves, but this small
owned
group dominated southern
society and politics.
Planters.
In
1860
less than 12 percent of the
South's planters held 20 or more slaves; of these,

less than
more
ers with as
SLAVERY AS
IT
.H.iy.ii liirr n-r ffifrulitTSr
Utrl
III,
,;,.,
>i
mill fciirrnt/i:
ul ffrlii.
: \
ff
aU
I iritr iiif
\t*t'tt
1
EXISTS IN AMERICA.
many
thf Ktflfririiiitl i-r

r*.r //i/vr liilff
i
Irwfrk nilflHtfttf4 it tliif mrlriiil
I
mtuii httft
as
500
listed 14 slavehold-
slaves each; only one of

1
.000 slaves.
richest planters lived elegantly in beauti-
ful tree-shaded
llrur frtfiiH hrir u
/I'rt f frill' rfll linrlr
J j/tlttt'ttmlfJ
The 1860 census
these planters claimed control of
The
.1,1
percent, or about 2,300. held 100 or
slaves.
mansions. Despite such trappings
iiwitf rtfiit
i- llir I nil iliiirl
[.ril.Uffti
ilfliftf.
of wealth, planters often had
Much
little
available cash.
of their wealth went to brokers, mostly from
the North or Great Britain,
who bought
their cotton
and sold them household goods and farm equipment. Yet with good weather, high market prices,
and
skillful
farm management, the cultivation of
cotton or other cash crops could bring high profits.
The
plantation owners' reputation for a
of ease often was more image than
reality.
life
The
owners were usually quite busy managing the plantation:
planning and supervising the work, assign-
ing tasks to supervisors or slaves, keeping records
This 1850 cartoon
compared an
idealized
image of slavery with the factory system.
266
CHAPTER
and unrealistic
of business transactions, writing to shipowners or

bankers, and contracting with brokers.
zJic^ceS.
yc<yiao
to
O^b to
markets. They built simple two-room log
cabins, raised cattle and pigs, and sold

Q^^ciiid/uw
-0^d~
JihiLu
2^
(often grain) for cash.
^S
food
waaacK,^ /u
usually
af^ci
Z^
1/
Vi?
^J^<^
Mi^^c^
S(^<â^d^
'f
4^
',
SJf-
B^^
,f
-JlieA/
(Ûh^n^
percentage of the South's population, farmed
Poor whites. The
If
poorest whites, a small
the least-productive soil
^0
The wealth and
to afford a few.
planters, varied considerably.
hills,
ifam/
own
'ivaâmu/cJ
^2/
,/
their
social status of small farmers, just as that of the
They grew
small patches around their
homes. Most small farmers owned no slaves, but
some managed
ffSTfH/
in
some crop
La/tJu'Ufw
the pine barrens,
and marshes. They lived
sand
rough cabins
in
with few material comforts. Often these fami-
Z%
lies
survived by hunting, fishing, and raising a
1o
few
pigs.
Planters kept careful records of
transactions on their plantations.
all
business
1854-56 record book of Jacob Thompson,

the ages of his slaves,
shown
is
African Americans.
page from the
American population
listing
here.
southern states varied
in
from about 10 percent
In 1860, the African
in
Missouri to nearly 59
percent in South Carolina. Although most south-
The plantation mistress was not
the lady
ern blacks were enslaved, by 1860 about 260.000
of leisure depicted in myths of the Old South. In
free blacks lived in the South. Nearly half of
reality,
she supervised the spinning, weaving,
all free
mending, housecleaning, and food preparation;
states of the
cared for the sick; and often educated her children.
number of
In addition,
to the
the mistress was often expected
needs of the slaves.
own me," complained one

noon, and night,
Fm
to see
who
"It is the slaves
mistress. "Morning,
obliged to look after them, to
doctor them, and attend to them in every way."
The majority of
planters, those
owning
by the
made their homes in the border

Upper South. In Baltimore, the
blacks
late
Americans
free African
1850s
far
exceeded the
population of some 2,000.
And
city's slave
Maryland
in
as
a whole, free blacks nearly outnumbered slaves.
The pattern was much
different in the
South. Less than 2 percent of the

less
some 25,000
Lower
Lower South's
black population was free.
than 20 slaves, lived
more modestly. Their

homes were usually
POPULATION
IN
THE SOUTH, I860
two -story, frame buildings
with
10
to
rooms, deep porches,
Slaveholding
Total
Population
Households
and comfortable but not

luxurious furnishings.
Small farmers.
Below
the planters
the social ladder
on
were
Nonslaveholding
whites
the hundreds of thou-
sands
of
yeoman
farmers who made up

the majority of south-
ern whites.
Most of
Slaves
Sources: Historical
SLAVERY
Statistics
0-49
slaves
of the United States; Slavery and the Southern Economy; The Black American Reference Rook
THE SOUTH
Although slavery played an important part
in
the southern economy, only
a small minority of southerners owned slaves.
these small farmers

lived on fertile lands
IN
Others
Free blacks

South?
What
percent of
all
Which group made up
slaveholders ov/ned 50 or
more
the largest section of the population in the
slaves?
but had no easy access
267
A Some
worked in skilled trades. This

shows a barber's shop in Richmond,
free blacks
1861 engraving
Virginia.
The
social
and economic status of free blacks
South, however, was never really secure.
in the
White southerners
freedom of
restricted the
all
black people. After 1830, southern legislatures

severely limited the
movements of
free blacks,
requiring them to register with local authorities
and
were not runaway
slaves. Free African
often had to post bonds

property
Free blacks were often

required to wear identification
badges such as this one when
traveling through the South.
passes proving they
to carry identification
money or
as a guarantee of
Americans
a pledge of
good behavior.
Free blacks in the South could not vote, hold

public meetings, speak in public, bear weapons, or
testify in court against whites. In
many
places free
African Americans were forbidden to attend
all-
black churches unless a white person was present.
Some
Some
free African
Americans were
skilled
write.
makers, carpenters, or masons. Others found
ply:
Some
free blacks
had never
been slaves, while others had worked extra hours

to earn
money
to
purchase their
were rewarded with freedom

service.
or
for years of dedicated
William Ellison of South Carolina, for
example, learned
slave. After
the
own freedom
to repair cotton gins
buying his
own freedom,
editorial in a black
how
are not slaves,
we
and
to read
newspaper put
it
sim-
are not free."
The South's nearly four million enslaved

blacks lacked even the limited rights of free
African Americans. The majority of these
women
some 55
Kingdom of
the
percent
Lower
lived
men and
in the
Cotton
South, where they tended
the fields and houses of the planter class.
while a
The southern
he purchased
freedom of his wife and children.
An
"Though we
as cooks, waiters, laundresses, or
domestic servants.
denied free blacks the right to go into
business for themselves or to learn
workers: mechanics, barbers, seamstresses, shoe-
employment
states
class structure con-
sisted of wealthy planters, small
small
minority of free blacks, including Ellison, became
farmers, poor whites, free blacks,
landowners and even masters of black slaves.
and
SECTION
IDENTIFY and explain the significance of the
Thomas R. Dew, yeoman farmers.
slaves.
REVIEW
Burton Harrison, American Colonization
following: Jesse
Society,
^^%
LOCATE
I.
and explain the importance of the following: cotton
MAIN IDEA What factors

grow more
slowly
MAIN IDEA
in
belt,
Tredegar Iron Works.
created the southern Cotton Kingdom?
the South than
in
Why
did industries and cities
the North?
Identify the five different social classes in the South.
CONTRASTING What
reasons did
some southerners
give for opposing slavery?
What
reasons
did other southerners give for supporting slavery?
WRITING TO INFORM
Write an essay about the
Who were they? What advantages

SYNTHESIZING
slaves
were better
their arguments?
268
CHAPTER
free African
in
southern society.
and disadvantages did they face?
Defenders of slavery such as Thomas

off than
Americans
northern factory workers.
R.
Dew
What
and George Fitzhugh argued that
biases might have influenced
THE SLAVE SYSTEM
FOCUS
What
was
How
How
life like
for slave laborers?
did slaveholders control slaves?

did African
Americans
Uavery dominated southern
codes controlled the
lives
resist slavery?
society.
Slaveholders and slave
of enslaved African Americans, who
nevertheless continued to hope
and struggle for freedom.
African Americans resisted slavery in
many
ways, from quiet
sabotage to outright rebellion, and strengthened family and

Advertisement for
cultural
life in efforts to
survive the brutalities they suffered.
runaway
slave
built canals, quarried rock, or drained
HAVE LABOR
Still
swamps.
others were dockworkers, loading and unload-
ing ships in southern ports.
more than 75
The
worked on southern plantations
grim than
Most enslaved African Americans

percent
lived and
and farms. In the
cities slaves
worked
as skilled
seamstresses, shoemakers, weavers, and carpenters.
Slave labor was also "hired out" to employers
running coal mines,
salt
mines, ironworks, tobacco
factories, sugar mills, or flour mills.
Some
slaves
life
of slaves in the city was generally less
that of a field hand. Field
from dawn
to
hands worked
dusk and beyond, as many as 18-20
hours per day during the harvest. Ex-slave Peter

Clifton wrote,
"The
rule
on the place was: Wake up
the slaves at daylight, begin

see,
work when they can
and quit work when they can't see." Instead of
working the
women
fields,
served
some slaves
especially
the plantation household as maids,
cooks, or nannies. Others did sewing or laundry.
Some male
worked
slaves
as wheelwrights,
coach
drivers, gardeners, carpenters, or blacksmiths.
On
small farms slaveholders usually super-
vised their slaves directly.
overseers
who
On
larger plantations
were usually planters' sons,
other relatives, small farmers, or skilled workers
^managed
the slaves.
To help supervise
slaves, overseers used drivers
from among the

cult position
slaves. Drivers
the
assistants picked
occupied a
diffi-
between master and slave and were
A Maid to the Douglas Family, painted by an

unknown artist in 840, shows a slave woman who
worked in a plantation household.
1
!:
269
"
even expected
to
handle the haled whip.
might be praised by the master for
done but be despised by the slaves

them too
On
driver
job well
for driving
one-r(xim log cabin with no more comforts than a

fireplace.
Gaps between
the logs and the uncov-
ered openings for doors and
windows made for a

such homes, an
hard.
cold cabin
cotton and sugar plantations, slaves were
observer noted, "the wind and rain will
in the winter. In
organized into tight work crews with drivers as
and the smoke
foremen. This system of gang labor allowed over-
will not
go
come
in
out.
do specialized
Food was rationed on the plantation. Ben

Horry, a former slave from South Carolina,
jobs such as plowing, hoeing, or picking, depend-
explained that on Saturday every slave on the plan-
ing on the season.
tation lined
seers to assign groups of slaves to
up
smokehouse
at the
her share of meat, rice,
Some
slaves
worked
in
manu-
grits,
to
draw
his or
and meal. But these
shares were seldom enough to feed slave families.
To supplement
facturing or skilled crafts, but

75 percent toiled in agriculture.
at night
their diet, slaves
hunted and fished
or on Sundays and grew greens or sweet
potatoes in small gardens. House slaves sometimes
received food from the planter's kitchen.

slaves resorted to stealing food.
JLlVING CONDITIONS
To make
make
Slaves" clothing
a profit using slave labor, planters had to
sure slaves were fed. clothed, and free from
Masters had reason to value their
illness.
Some
human
of linsey-woolsey
was simple, usually made
a coarse woolen and
linen or
cotton material similar to burlap. Most slaves
were given two
outfits a year,
one for summer
property: at an average price in 1860 of SI. 200 to
and one for winter, though household slaves
$1,800 each. 50 young slaves represented an
might receive hand-me-down clothing from the
investment upward of S60.000. The death or
planters family.
seri-
On
average, slaves got one pair
ous injury of an able-bodied slave was a major
of shoes a year and went barefoot
financial blow.
wore
Many
enslaved African Americans did
when
this pair
out.
fall
common
was made worse by
victim to illnesses. Infectious disease
among
whites as well
living
and working conditions. Pneumonia and
slaves*
dysentery were widespread. Malnutrition fre-
Some
quently led to dental and other health problems.
ditions and treatment varied
Slave quarters were cramped and sparsely

furnished.
An
entire familv
An Overseer
Doing His Duty
the
title
is
of this
watercolor by
Benjamin Henry
Latrobe.
270
Treatment of slaves
CHAPTER
miaht
live in a small
slaves fared better than others. Living con-
plantation.
Some
punishments
from plantation
to
planters used rewards instead of
to gain their slaves'
obedience.
These planters promised
money,
gifts of
extra food or clothing,
easier tasks, dances,
days
off, or shorter
working hours
to duti-
Those who
ful slaves.
obeyed orders might

granted
be
small
favors, given a garden

plot, or
field
promoted from
work
to easier
more-desirable
and
slave
bidder
tasks in the household.
woman
in this
is
auctioned off to the highest

L.J. Cranstone.
painting by
Domestic slaves were

generally better fed
and clothed than
An
field slaves.
Other slaveholders relied on the use or threat

of violence to control their slaves.
As
a planter
1835
handbill advertises
slaves for sale at an
auction
wrote
in the
ment
is
which we must and do

awe and order."
the principle to
If slaves
work
them
were
fast or
in
upcoming
Orleans.
Carohna
especially harsh form of solitary confinement
the
"sweat box":
late getting to the fields or did
44
hard enough, overseers could be
particularly brutal. Prince Smith, a former slave
a South
New
Southern Patriot, "The fear of punish-
appeal, to keep
not
in
[The box] was made the height of the
person and no
on
larger. Just large
enough so
the person didn't have to be squeezed
plantation, recalled the use of an
The box
is
the hot sun;
in
winter
dampest
coldest,
and
nailed,
summer
in
it is
put
in
in.
put
is
in
the
**
place.
Sometimes slaveholders and overseers disciplined

slaves with extra
work or reduced
whipping was the most
rations, but
common form
of punish-
ment. William Wells Brown, a former slave and

the author of the first published novel by an
African American, wrote that the whip was used
"very frequently and
and a small offence
freely,
on the part of a slave furnished an occasion for

its
use."
Many
recipients of the lash tried to resist
the master's will as best they could
often by
refusing to cry out. Frederick Douglass, an

escaped slave
ist,
who became
remembered one
slave
prominent abolition-
woman who "was
subdued, for she continued to

seer,
and
to call
him every
bruised her flesh, but had
left
not
denounce the overvile
name. He had
her invincible
spirit
undaunted [determined]."
One method
of slave punishment involved placing a special brace around the head to restrict the
person's movement. Wilson Chinn, a slave from
shown here
a restrictive brace.
Notice also the brand across his forehead.
Louisiana,
is
in
Slaves
who
resisted authority or
showed
signs of independence were whipped. If such disci-
"down
away from family and community ties.
pline failed, they were sometimes sold

river"
27
"Marsier Biggers believe
whipping and working
in
and hard," recalled ex-slave Peter
his sla\es long
man was
Clifton; "then a
scared
the time of
all
Slave marriages had no legal standing
in the
South. Thus, slaveholders would sometimes break
one but not the other
selling
or by auctioning a husband and wife to different
when
buyers. Since slaves brought higher prices
Solomon Northup,
parents.
who was kidnapped and
free black
a northern
enslaved for 12
years, described an 1841 slave auction in
mother pleaded not
The
to
afflicted
which a
be separated from her child:
mother
ging and beseeching them,
Another
boy.
But
was of no
avail.
mother] ran to [her son]
remember her
all
if
told
Then
[the
had dared.
**
It
Charleston.
The
masterminded by African American

Denmark Vesey, a prosperous carpenter and popumassive slave uprising
lar preacher, called for a
in
Charleston and the surrounding areas.
The plan was discovered before
could
it
be carried out, and Vesey and the other leaders
were
tried
and executed.
It
nevertheless struck
terror into the hearts of southern whites.
Slaveholders
knew
was based on
force; they feared a massacre of the

if
power over slaves
that their
slaves sought revenge.
The
number of African Americans who might

in 1820 Charleston was
Most of
fears.
the accused slaves had been liked,
respected, and trusted by their masters. Even
him to
like rain. ...
mournful scene indeed.

myself
own household
three of the governor's
the while her tears
the boy's face
falling in
in
have joined the revolt
them how she loved her
it
Richmond
nearly 57 percent black deepened whites'
not to separate the three. Over and over

again she told
in the
plan,
sheer
piteously,
1822
plot surfaced in
white population
kept on beg-
most
half of the 19th century
South. In 180() a planned rebellion near
sold separately, slave children were often sold
away from
first
saw several small uprisings involving slaves
involved hundreds of slaves led by Gabriel Prosser.
being sold away from his wife and chillun.'
up a slave couple by
Slave revolts. The
was
had joined Vesey's
servants
revolt!
White southerners' worst fears

when Nat Turner
would have cried

I
materialized in 1831.
led a violent slave uprising in South-
Laws
Americans from
slave codes
lives
brutality.
On
which covered
rendered slaves
were forbidden
own
ampton County.
failed to protect enslaved African
all
Soon
legally powerless. Slaves
800
to
after, his father
ran
away to freedom. Turner

was very bright, and he
later claimed to have
to testify in court against whites, to
curfew, or to leave their plantations without a pass.
person could stop any black person and
taught himself to read
see proof of either free status or permis-
after his
away from
sion to be
patrols
in
an African-born mother.
aspects of slaves*
property, to possess firearms, to be out after
Any white
demand to
bom
Turner was
the contrary, southern
Virginia.
roamed
his or her master.
him
White
mother gave
a spelling
book.
Turner's grandmother,
the rural South to enforce the laws
who
and to apprehend any slaves trying to escape.
took charge of his
spiritual education, told
Slaveholders used rewards,

punishments, and laws to
control slaves.
him he was destined
He
to
grow up
to
be a great man.
prayed, fasted, and read the Bible to discover his
hfe's purpose.
The deeply
religious Turner believed that he
had received his answer when he began seeing
nEBELLION AND RESISTANCE
visions of white and black spirits battling in the
heavens:
God had
chosen him to free the slaves.
solar eclipse in February 1831
Despite their lack of legal power, slaves used sev-
it
was time
Independence Day. but
or working slowly to open rebellion. African
August 21 Turner and
CHAPTER
their living
to resist slavery.
went into
to
him
a sign
for action.
the quiet revenge of running
From
Americans found ways
272
that
Turner planned to
conditions.
away
improve
and working
eral strategies to
seemed
action.
They
start his rebellion
on July
illness forced a delay.
a small
4,
On
band of followers
killed Turner's master, the
master's family, and

about 60 other whites
the area.
The
in
miU-
state
and terrified local
tia
whites organized a hunt

for Turner, killing at
least
the
100 slaves during
two months
that
it
took to track him down.

After being captured
his hideout, a spot
at
still
called "Nat Turner's
Cave," the fugitive was
brought to
trial.
Asked
why he
refused to plead
guilty.
Turner replied.
"Because
guilty."
don't feel
He was hanged
on November
1831.
11,
Following these
some
slave uprisings,
southern states passed

stricter slave codes.
These laws made
ille-
it
gal to teach slaves to
read and placed more

restrictions
on slaves'
Some
movements.
whites took the law into

their
own
hands, arrest-
ing, beating,
and
killing
slaves at will. Recalled
one slave woman:
4 The
^he Underground Railroad

ROAD TO FREEDOM
whites
threatened to punish
Railroad helped from 50,00(
'em dreadfully,
mM
if
the
least noise vâs
heard.
The
LOCATION Why
It
to
is
estimated that the more than 3,000 members of the Underground
75,000 enslaved African Americans escape to freedom.
do you think Cairo,
Illinois,
and Cindnnati, Ohio, were important stops on
the Underground Railroad'
patrols
was low drunken

Whites; and
in
Nat's time,
if
they heard one
avoid being sold or to escape harsh treatment and
of the colored folks praying, or singing a
hymn, they would

times
kill
'em.
**
themselves, cutting off toes or hands, hoping to
abuse 'em, and some-
overwork. Others committed suicide.
The most tempting form of
resistance
was
to
run away, whether for only a few days or perma-
Slave resistance. Open
rebellion
Slaves generally protested their
individual actions.
slow their work
was
rare.
bondage through
They might fake an illness,

damage tools or other
pace, or
property in an effort to disrupt the plantation routine. In
some
cases, desperate slaves mutilated
nently.
Chances of success were
ment
caught was brutal.
if
Underground Railroad,
black abolitionists
freedom
in the
Some
a
aid
and punish-
came from
the
network of white and
who helped
North or
slim,
in
way
slaves escape to
Canada. Escaping
slaves slowly
made
den
and haylofts by day and taken by
in attics
their
out of the South, hid-
273
I
M
Harriet
Tubman
used the
Underground Railroad
free
more than 300
to
19 limes to lead
more than
3(M) slaves to safety in
the North.
slaves.
Slave resistance took many

forms, from work slowdowns
and sabotage to escape and
open
rebellion.
Despite the daring of the slaves and those

people
who
aided them,
many
fugitives
were cap-
tured and returned to their masters. But the stream
of runaways never stopped.
JLAVE CULTURE
Although
to
sundown,
the
were controlled from sunup
slaves' lives
their time
was mostly
their
own when
workday ended. After dark and on Sundays and
rare holidays, slaves devoted time to family
community, creating
a unique African
and
American
culture. This culture blended to a remarkable
degree customs drawn from the variety of African
'conductors" to the next safe house
most slaves were smuggled
first,
foot.
or boat, hidden inside crates.
many
their
the attempt,
used.
song
rail
that inspired
slaves on their dangerous journeys expressed
hope
new
for a
life in
groups thrown together under slavery. At the center
of this culture were family, religion, music,
folktales,
and humor.
Some-
runaway slaves were even smuggled by
times,
At
to safety at night
As more slaves made

covered wagons and carriages were
and on
at night.
Canada:
Family and kinship bonds.

family
ties
was a
Preserving
difficult challenge for
enslaved
African Americans. Slave marriages were not

legally recognized, and slave families
were always
subject to being split up by the sale of individual
99
Farewell, old master
Don't
I'm
come
after
me.
on my way to Canada
Where
colored
free.
men
are
99
The conductors on the

Underground Railroad helped
thousands of slaves gain their
freedom. Harriet Tubman,
who
escaped from a Maryland plantation
in
1849, was the most
famous and successful conductor.
Risking her
Tubman
own freedom.
returned to the South
This colorful
quilt,
which was
made about 886 by an ex-slave

named Harriet Powers, depicts
I
Biblical
274
themes.
CHAPTER
i- j.i.*-
._.
members.
In response to forced separations, slaves
extended their family
include distant as well
ties to
as close relatives. Nonrelaied individuals also
to the poor!
shared significantly
sakes,
commonly known
Many
family's
in a
life
to children as aunts
and were
He
to the rich? Did
shake hands only with
them? No! Blessed be the Lord! He came
my
He came
to us, and for our
brothers and
sisters!
**
and uncles.
made valiant efforts to stay in

contact with family members despite being .separated. One slave told how he ran away from his
stopped allowing slaves to congregate, even for
master to seek his mother on a distant plantation
slaves
years after their forced parting:
rebellion.
slaves
After Nat Turner's rebellion,
many masters
religious meetings. Slaveholders feared that the
would seize every opportunity
to plot a
Enslaved African Americans continued
to hold gatherings, but they took to hiding in the
she
asked [my mother]
said, no. ...
any sons? she
me.
and
said, yes;
how
knew me?
then asked her
then [described]
slavery,
she
if
if
in
To
quiet
ing enclosures of wet quilts. With the noise thus
my
loss.
.
muted, one former slave explained, they "could
shout and sing
own son
we were
Of
clasped
they wanted to and the noise
all
wouldn't go outside."
she had so often
an instant,
each other's arms.
patrols.
being sold into
she grieved at
whom
by white
devised methods of muffling sound, such as mak-
[Her] dire feelings on that occasion
before her, for
to avoid detection
the noise during these secret meetings, the slaves
but none so large as
rushed to her mind; she saw her
wept; and,
woods
she had
great importance to slave religion were
the haunting songs called spirituals. Rich in
in
99
Biblical lore, these
"Sorrow Songs" were sung dur-
ing work, relaxation, and worship.
modeled
Religion and music. Religion played
Most worship services were
a vital
Americans.
role in the lives of enslaved African
a rich
blend of
in part
They were
on Christian hymns and
in part
on
traditional African rituals and musical forms.

Spirituals
movingly expressed the slaves' deep
longing for freedom. Favorites like
"Go Down,
Christian elements and traditional African beliefs,
Moses," "Blow Your Trumpet. Gabriel." and
music, and dance.
"Didn't
Embracing
the Christian belief in salvation
My
Lord Deliver Daniel?"
tell
of deliver-
ance from bondage.
and a heavenly future helped some slaves endure

the hardships they faced. Central to the slaves'
religion
was
their belief that they
were God's cho-
John Antrobus.
Ptantation Rurial, (1660) oil
on canvas. The Historic
New
Orleans Collection
sen people who, like the Hebrews in the land of the
pharaohs, would eventually reach a "promised
land" free from their oppressors. The slaves'
promised land was not just an

it
was
afterlife
of freedom;
also a world without slavery.
Unlike white ministers
who preached
obedi-
ence to masters, African American preachers spoke

to
what was close
example,
in
to the hearts of slaves.
For
1851 a black Baptist minister named
Bentley preached
sermon on the occasion of
President Millard Fillmore's visit to Savannah,

Georgia. According to Bentley,
when
the president
arrived in a "grand, beautiful carriage and drove to

the best house in
coming too
went
The
town," blacks were kept from
close.
great gentlemen and the rich folks
freely
up the steps and
in
through the
door and shook hands with him. Now, did

Christ
come
in this
way? Did
He come
only
Plantation Burial, painted by John Antrobus in I860, records

an African American funeral on a plantation in northern
Louisiana.
275
^hen
SHOUTS ACROSS THE OCEAN
01/1/
Wh
hen Africans were
forcibly
brought to North America as
and
slaves, their culture
tradi-
tions crossed the ocean with
them. Today, African influences

are visible throughout American
American dance and
society.
music, for example, have roots

in
the centuries-old dances and
musical forms of Africa.
much
In
of Africa, religious
and ceremonial dances are per-
formed
a ring, with dancers
in
slowly moving counterclockwise

in
Bradford Singers, a noted gospel group.
Noting the subtle
a circle.
movements of
a dancer,
A The influence of African musical forms is still evident in African

American religious ceremonies. Shown here are members of the
one
from the ground, they rhythmi-
observer remarked:
cally
It
takes time to
pounded the earth with
their heels.
As
dancing and singing were forms
Robeson, Marian Anderson,
and
of spiritual expression directed
and Leontyne Price, helped
to ancestors.
popularize spirituals.
detail in the different
Over time the
unceasing, wave-like rip-
which runs down the
ple
new forms
inspired
along the arms to the
America.
fin-
Every part of the
body dances, not only

the limbs.
dance
fling
99
In
built
on the rhythmic
ments of the
The
ring often symbolizes the
cycle
the
circle of birth
ring
and death. Thus,

tant part of
it is
many
monies, used to
an impor-
burial cere-
show respect
shout
in
country.
circle.
Barely
CHAPTER
lifting
over the
realized
a religious
it
dance
With new forms of dance
Some
of music.
slaves adapted songs with
Christian lyrics to the ring
clapped their hands as they
moved counterclockwise
ail
Few people
came new forms
slave culture.
in
their feet
turn,
in
shaped today's popular music.
Rock musicians such
as the
Rolling Stones and Eric Clapton
have drawn on the blues for

inspiration.
Well-known performers,
such as James Brown and
African ring dances
American
the blues,
Aretha Franklin, trained
wildly popular
in Africa.
Slaves sang, shouted, and
the
And
both blacks and whites danced,
ancestors.
of the ring
in
as well.
was
was based on
The
was
greatly influenced blues music
The Charleston, which
for and a connection to one's
were the source
shuf-
shouL But the
probably most widespread

1920s.
in
arm move-
influence of African dance
tones of the ring shout
tional
of dance
the early 1900s jazz
and pistonlike
The rhythms and emo-
shout
ring
and other African dances
muscles of the back and
ger-tips.
276
cert artists, such as Paul
appreciate the variety
movements and the
life
emonies. Several leading con-
the
in Africa,
African American religious cer-
shout.
The
Negro
spiritual,
result
was the
which remains
an important part of many
in
the
musical traditions of the black
church, have also influenced a
new generation of artists,

among them Janet Jackson.
In all
these ways, African dance and

music,
like
other features of
African culture, have
and
lasting imprints
American
left
strong
on
life.
Dr. Sterling Stuckey
We
Folktales and humor. Slaves used folktales

means of passing on their culture.
of our chains.
These folktales were based on African
completely broken.
did
it
to keep
trouble, and to keep our hearts
as an important
stories but
down
from being
**
related local situations, family histories, and per-
sonal experiences.
Most of
the tales concerned
This ability to maintain hope
in the face
of
everyday human relationships, detailing the impor-
overwhelming abuse was perhaps enslaved African
tance of friendship or a parent's love and caring.
Americans" most remarkable form of resistance.
Children
who misbehaved might
of the chicks
w ho disregarded
be told the story
their
Through family
mother's warn-
music, and folktales, African

Americans endured slavery and
ing cries and were eaten by a hawk. Moral tales
warned of the
pitfalls
ties, religion,
of excessive pride or stressed
created a unique culture.
the ideals of cooperation and lo\e.
Storytelling, especially the use of animal

trickster tales,
gave African Americans a way of
talking about whites and slavery in a guarded

form. In these humorous tales the attempt by the
strong to trap the
weak always
fails.
Instead, the
weaker animal, such as Anansi the spider or Brer

Rabbit, tricks the stronger animal and in the end
gains wealth, success, and power.

Trickster tales allowed African Americans to
reverse, at least in the mind, the harsh fact of the
master-slave relationship. Laughter helped slaves
them
deal with painful situations, allowing
endure
John
slaverv'. rather
Little, a
They
laugh,
than be crushed by
say slaves are happy, because they
and are merry.
in
myself and three or
two hundred
the day, and had our feet
[chains]; yet, at night,
dance, and
Wrote
former slave:
four others, have received

lashes
it.
to
we would
make others
in
sing
fetters
and
laugh at the rattling
A Joel Chandler Harris popularized animal trickster tales in

books such as Uncle Remus and Brer Rabbit. This collage contains original A.B. Frost illustrations for Harris's stories.
SECTION
REVIEW
IDENTIFY and explain the significance of the following: overseers, drivers, gang
Denmark Vesey, Nat Turner, Underground Railroad, Harriet Tubman, spirituals.
1.
2.
3.
MAIN IDEA What kind of work did most slaves perform?

MAIN IDEA What strategies did African Americans use to resist slavery?
IDENTIFYING CAUSE AND EFFECT Why did many slaveholders try to discipline slaves
using severe punishments such as whipping and the "sweat box"? How did the use of these
ods
4.
labor, Gabriel Prosser,
affect the slave
by
meth-
community?
WRITING TO CREATE
Write
a folktale that reflects the experiences of a slave living in the
1850s.
5.

a slave rebellion
in
183
I.
Imagine that you are Nat Turner facing
Prepare a speech to give to the
trial
for leading
jury.
SEPARATE SOCIETIES; NORTH AND SOUTH
277
National Trades Union

founded. Lowell girls
go on
Denmark Vesey
CHAPTER
Nat Turner leads
plots slave rebellion.
slave uprising.
iêview
1825
1820
1830
WRITING A SUMMARY
^REVIEWING THEMES
1.
write a
summary
strike.
of the chapter.
Economic Development What

the ways
in
are
some
of
which the growth of manufacturing
affected northern society?

2.
Number your
paper
to
5.
Study the time
line
above,
3.
and
list
ond next to
2,
in
the order
in
event next to
first
How
Cultural Diversity
African American culture
which they
I
did slavery influence
in
the 1800s?
Technology and Society What
effect did
Eli
Whitney's cotton gin have on the slave economy of
the sec-
the South?
activity
below.
1.
2.
THINKING CRITICALLY
National Trades Union founded.
American party nominates
Millard Fillmore for
4.
5.
led to the increase in
immigration to the United States from 1820 to
president.
3.
Evaluating What factors

I860?
Order of the Star-Spangled Banner formed.

Nat Turner leads slave uprising.
President Van Buren sets 10-hour workday for
2.
federal employees.
3.
Writing to Create Create a poster

any two events on the time line.
How
Analyzing
fer
did the lives of large planters
dif-
from those of yeoman farmers?
How
Hypothesizing
affected
if
might slavery have been
industrialization
in
that depicts
advanced as
it
did
in
the South had
the North?

IDENTIFYING PEOPLE
AND
IDEAS
Review the
Handbook entry on
Studying Primary
and Secondary Sources beginning on page 998. Then

study the following verses from a slave
how
What
spiritual.
Along
might the words
1.
strike
6.
2.
Sarah G. Bagley
7.
yeoman farmers
Thomas R. Dew
with their religious meaning,
3.
nativism
8.
overseers
places,
4.
Know-Nothings
9.
Nat Turner
Israel,
5.
Harriet
Tubman
10.
spirituals
"oppressed so hard" and "smite your first-born dead"?
1.
What
How
did the
on
market revolution and

life in
industrializa-
the Middle
West?
3.
How
economy
9th-century people,
Tell o/e
let
in
Egypt land,
Pharaoh,
my
people go.
When Israel was in

my people go.
Egypt land,
Let
influence the South 's
on southern
living
plantations.
respond to these conditions?
CHAPTER
Let
my
people go.
Thus spoke the Lord, bold Moses
Describe the working and

slaves
Oppressed so hard they could not stand,
did the slave
class structure?
4.
of a slave?
Egypt, and the Pharaoh and by the phrases
To
politics?
tion change farming and farm
life
and events might be represented by Moses,
'Way down
effects did increased immigration have
American society and

2.
relate to the
WW Go down Moses,
278
Skills
conditions of
How
did slaves
Let
If
my
not
Let
I'll
my
said,
people go,
smite [strike] your first-born dead.
people go. 9
American party
Lowell Female
President Van Buren

sets 10-hour workday
Labor Reform
Order of the
nominates
Association
for federal employees.
organized.
Star-Spangled
Banner formed.
for president.
i
1845
Writing to Describe You

Railroad.
LINKING HISTORY
are a "conductor" on the
Write
a diary entry describing
your most recent efforts to help a slave family escape

to freedom.
In
the period from
planters,
I860
1855
1850

Underground
Millard Fillmore
AND GEOGRAPHY
820 to
860 some cotton
newly arrived immigrants, and established
northern farmers moved westward. Write an essay

explaining the reasons for such migrations.

Many of the Lowell
who
girls
were well-educated women
found that their
daily
work
To
fulfill
this
lectual fulfillment.
did not provide intel-
need they established
the Lowell Offering, a literary magazine written and

edited by female mill workers. Read the following
excerpt from an article written by the magazine's editors
1845.
in
Then write
a paragraph explaining
how
the editors believed the Lowell Offering was different
from other magazines and why they thought others
Mississippi cotton plantation
should support them.
4 Our magazine is the only one which

America has produced, of which no other
country has produced the
is
The Offering
evidence, not only of the American
"factory -girls,
the
like.
BUILDING YOUR
PORTFOLIO
"
mass of our
but of the intelligence of

country.
intelligence of the
mass
And
it is
that the
in the
cooperatively.
permanen1
cy of our republican institutions depends.
And our last appeal
is to
those
who
ial,
cy.
There
us, iffor
is little
In
Chapter 7 you created
a chart for a textile factory. Building on that mater-
no other reason but

cultivation
their interest in "the
of humani"
ty.
and the maintenance ofiruQ democra-
should support
THE ECONOMY
but this of which we, as a
imagine you are a southern plantation
Draw
map
that illustrates
revolution will
make
it
how
owner
the transportation
easier for you to transport
your cotton to northern
textile factories.
IMMIGRATION Imagine you are a newly

arrived immigrant in New York City. Present an
2.
people, can be proud. Other nations can
look upon the relics of a glory
gone upon their magnificent

have other and better
upon our
come and
ruins.
oral
We
things. Let us look
"free suffrage,
".
our
3.
to
these are our jewels.
living
In
political poster. Building
Chapter 7 you
on that
material,
imagine you are a factory worker on strike. Create a
all that is indige-
our Republic, and say
INDIVIDUAL RIGHTS
created a
Associations, the Periodical of our
nous [native]
United States, your
trip to the
and working conditions.
Common
Schools, our Mechanics' Literary-
Laboring Females; upon
account of your
passage through customs, and your current
speech to be given to your co-workers inspiring
them to
join
you
in
protesting unfair treatment
Tf
279
Chapter 9
1820s-1860s
WORKING FOR REFORM
^
UNDERSTANDING
THE MAIN IDEA
Industrialization
and the nnarket
revolution transformed
society.
Not
positive.
all
American
of the changes were
The rapid growth of cities was
accompanied by an increase
and
the
crime
in
Other changes, such as
poverty.
mass departure of people
West and the
for t/ie
flood of new immi-
grants, threatened the familiar social
order Alarmed, Americans launched
a variety of reform movements.
DEMOCRATIC VALUES
What
impact might
citizens'
reform groups have on public

policies?
CULTURAL DIVERSITY
What
changes
lead to a
new
in
society might
interest
and to an interest
in
in religion
new forms
of community?
1821
1829
1841
First public high
Walker's Appeal
Dorothea Dix
school opens.
published.
begins crusade
for mentally ill.
1848
Seneca Falls
Convention held.
1856
Wilberforce
University
established.
During the early 1800s the United States changed with bewildering
LINK TO THE PAST
speed. Northeastern cities grew at spectacular rates as
commerce
quickened and new factories sprang up, attracting thousands of new

residents from rural
America and abroad.
helped tighten slavery's
&^ aiSr tmj^
,yi ^
Boom
times
the South
in
grip.
ne response to the rapid social change that transformed the
United States
in the early
1800s was an increase
in religious activity.
Religious revivalism swept the nation as huge crowds

to listen to
came
together
thunderous sermons, to sing hymns, and to seek God's
help in reforming their lives.
Many
came away convinced
participants
of the possibility of attaining moral perfection, both for themselves
and for
society.
A few people formed new religions and established communities

new
along
B1
sitions." Alexis
stantly
"Americans of
lines.
'J
form
IbSaafll^jW
to
.xx^^^^^^K^'^'^'
^ -^^
worked
for ranged
conditions, and
all
dispo-
kinds."
The causes
from health and education
variety of groups attacked slavery, and a
growing movement for women's
rights
emerged.
active participation in these reform
brought criticism from those

their
all
associations of a thousand
world peace.
Women's
-
ages,
de Tocqueville (TAWK-veel) observed in 1831, "con-
these associations
reform
all
who
insisted that
reforming effoits to the family. But
women
movements
should
restrict
many women agreed
with
Sarah Grimke (GRiM-kee) that "the sphere which her Creator has
assigned her" included speaking out against the sin of slaver}' as well
as other evils.
wL^^^^m-'^^tmmB^^'^f^^^
Grimke 's reform

ities
activ-
and those of countless
other
women and men
coupled with the advance

of political democracy
ff^
jft
^^^^
^^
^H
^^^^^H
An
antislavery meeting, 1841
inspired hope. Perhaps
American democracy's
larger
equality,
all
vision
justice,
and opportunity for
might be
possible.
Tray depicting Reverend Lemuel Haynes

preaching
WORKI NG FOR REFORM
281
m
m
m
m
h. M
Sect ion
RELIGIOUS ZEAL AND
NEW COMMUNITIES
FOCUS
How
did
Why
9th-century Americans renew their enthusiasm for religion?
did Protestant church
membership soar during the Second
Great Awakening?
What were some common
features of Utopian communities?
A,Ifter visiting the United States

TocqiieviUe said he
in
1831, Alexis de
knew of "no country
in the
whole world
in
which the Christian religion retains a greater influence over

the souls of men than in America. "
was
in the
lished
new
midst of a revival of religious faith. Revivalists estabreligions,
gave new
communities where they could

values
The America he observed
and philosophical
life to
live
old ones, and founded
according
to their religious
Circuit rider preacher
beliefs.
was
The second great awakening
ever\' bit as intense as the Great
the mid- 1700s.
ministers expressed what
Americans responded by the thousands
to reli-
gious revivals that swept the country beginning in

the 1790s. This renewal of religious faith
known
as the
was
Second Great Awakening, and
it
ing:
Awakening of
These revivals caught on because
many people were
feel-
deep religious yearnings and an optimistic
belief in an individual's ability to achieve salvation
and improve
his or her life. This
optimism was
fueled by both economic growth and the heralded,
although
still
limited, expansion of
In the frontier areas of
democracy.
Kentucky. Ohio,
Tennessee, and South Carolina, preachers traveled from
town
to
town, promising that
all
sinners
could find salvation. This promise, which contrasted sharply with the
common
belief that only a
chosen few could be saved, broadened the appeal

of formal religion. Frontier revivals were usually
huge outdoor camp meetings
that
10.000 people eager to accept

lives. In
drew up
God
to
into their
1801 James Finley. later a Methodist
preacher, captured the emotional intensity of one
A Religious revivals attracted people from throughout the frontier regions. This picture shows a group
of Methodists traveling to a camp meeting.
282
:!
CHAPTER
of the earliest revivals, held
Cane
at
Ridge, Kentucky:
99
The
seemed to be
storm.
all
human
vast sea of
agitated as
counted seven ministers,
preaching at one time.
were
of the people
praying,
beings
by a
if
some
over me. ...
came
though
felt as
crying for mercy.
peculiarly strange sensation
to the ground.
fall
Some
others
singing,
must
99
Revivalist ministers also spread

the
word of God
to
urban audiences
in
the Northeast. Charles Grandison
a powerful and persuasive
Finney
preacher with piercing eyes and a low,
solemn voice
sermons
delivered hundreds of
in the
1820s and 1830s. His
sermons included
calls for
immediate
conversion that stirred many

renounce their
Let the truth take hold upon
your conscience
throw down
up
your rebellious weapons
your refuges of
moment's
ever.
you
to
sins:
The
.
lies.
delay,
Spirit of
and
seal
of eternal death.
Two
and
it
The Bethel African Methodist Episcopal Church

here, along with
give
its
in
Philadelphia
is
shown
founder, Richard Allen.
Another
may be too
God may
died for her also," Lee questioned. "Is he not a
late for
whole Saviour, instead of a half one?"
depart from
you over to
all
the horrors
Americans
99
African American
women, Zilpha Elaw
and Jarena Lee, separately traveled thousands of
rekindled their inter-
est in religion through revivals,

which captured people's energy
and optimisnn.
miles to preach sermons to both black and white

worshipers. Lee proclaimed that she was called to
preach by a heavenly voice that told her, "Preach

the Gospel;
will put
words
in
your mouth,
and will turn your ene-
mies
to
friends."
become your
At
first,
Lee
had reservations about

her calling
especially
since female Methodist
ministers were unheard
of
at the
time
but she
followed her inspiration.

"If a
man may
preach,
because the Saviour

died for him,
Jarena Lee
the
woman?
why
not
seeing he
nELIGION FOR THE PEOPLE

The reawakening of
changes
religious enthusiasm sparked
in Protestant congregations.
vation available to
encouraged new converts. As a

soared
in
many
By making
sal-
19th-century churches
all,
result,
membership
Protestant denominations, or reli-
gious groups.
men and women
African American
joined
Baptist and Methodist denominations in substantial
numbers and formed
their
1794 the Reverend
(later
founded
in
own
churches as well. In
Bishop) Richard Allen
Philadelphia one of the
American churches,
first
African
the Bethel African Methodist
Episcopal Church.
WORKI NG FOR REFORM
283
uTOPIAN COMMUNITIES
THE SECOND GREAT AWAKENING
2.0
il.5
Methodists
The optimism that inspired revivalism also led

men and women to found Utopias communities
Presbyterians
designed to create a better social order. More than
Southern Baptists
90 Utopias sprang up
in the
United States between
1800 and 1850. They were influenced by a wide

w
range of religious beliefs and philosophies. But
ing family
Utopias experimented with
.5-
new ways of
all
organiz-
work, and property ownership.
life,
Their experiments with family organization

ranged from the banning of sex and marriage to
"free love" communities.
I860
1845
Source; Historical
Statistics
The Shakers.
The Shakers, or United
Scx:iely
of Believers in Christ's Second Appearing,
GROWTH
IN
CHURCH MEMBERSHIP
Protestant
founded Utopian communities
in the eastern
United
church membership soared during the Second Great Awakening.
States.
Methodists, Presbyterians, and Southern Baptists were
among
Which
Led by "Mother Ann" Lee. Shakers
of these
God was
preached that
Lee also claimed
three groups gained the most new members?
the messiah
Finney and other preachers
in the industrial-
new members from the

expanding middle class. Middle-class women,
prosperous enough to hire servants to handle many
izing Northeast attracted
to
who would
found a society free

from sin. Shaker communities had separate
equal
relatively
but
household duties, generally had leisure time to
devote to church activities. They led prayer
property.
They
also
groups, taught in and estabhshed Sunday schools,
refrained
from
sex.
and supported missionary
Shakers saw no need to
societies.
both male and female.
be
for men and

women, and community
members jointly owned
roles
have children, since
Protestant churches attracted

new converts by preaching that
salvation was available to all.
they believed that the
millennium
a time in
which some Christians
enslaved African Americans met with a

reaction
among
slaveholders.
Some
encouraged slaves' conversion
Many
was property. Although
passed laws making
exclaimed
South
unspeakable fools?"
CHAPTER
to read
them
southern
your writings
to cut our throats!"
Carolina
Hammond. "Can you
many
illegal to teach slaves
it
"Allow our slaves
[the Bible], stimulate
284
slaveholders
to Christianity.
Protestants stressed Bible reading,
to read.
ers.
This table
one
is
example of their
on earth
was
at
Shakerism declined
became
are
difficult to recruit
remembered
designs.
hand.
after
1860 because
it
new members. Shakers
for their useful inventions and
their simple but beautiful furniture
and music.
and humanity under God contradicted
the notion that a slave
states
among
mixed
others, however, believed that recognizing a
slave's soul
The Shakers were

woodwork-
excellent
functional furniture
believe Christ will reign

In the South, the spread of revivalism
first
arrived in America from England in 1774. Lee
the groups that experienced the greatest growth.
planter
Jesse
believe us to be such
The Mormons.
The most enduring Utopian
venture was undertaken by the
Mormons,
or
mem-
bers of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day

Saints. Joseph Smith,
who founded
the
Mormon
church, claimed that divine assistance had enabled
him
to discover
and
translate buried golden plates
that contained religious revelations.
Smith pub-
lished his translation of these revelations as the
Book of Mormon and tormcd

congregation
in
western
New
Mormon
ihe tirsi
York
in 1830.
Smith's religious teachings and
call for
group ownership of property and economic cooperation attracted
many
converts. These
same
principles also attracted strong opposition.
Non-Mormons were especially outraged by the

Mormon practice of having more than one wife at
a time. The Mormons encountered violence wherever they tried to establish a community. In 1844 a
mob
in
Carthage.
Illinois, killed
Smith.
Ralph Waldo Emerson once described Brook Farm as

"a perpetual picnic, a French Revolution in small, an age of
reason in a patty [pie]-pan."
But the Mormons did not give up. Under the
leadership of Brigham Young, thousands of

Smith's followers crossed the Rockies and founded
successful communities in the Great Salt
Mormons (who no
Lake
val-
time for study, discussion, and cultural pursuits.
longer prac-
Dedicated to education and self-cultivation. Brook
ley.
Over
tice
group ownership of property or allow men
the years.
Farm was
to
a stimulating intellectual
have multiple wives) have spread their religion
But the experiment ended
throughout the world.
destroyed part of the farm.
Brook Farm.
in
1841 near Boston by
Unitarian minister George Ripley.
He was
inspired
by the philosophy of the transcendentalists. a

small group of
New
writers Ralph
Waldo Emerson. Henry David
England
intellectuals led
family
society in Utopian communities,
began
retreated from
industrial society to live close to nature.
to translate the faith in
They
They were
who
taught that
salvation could be both demonstrated and gained
by working
to
improve
society.
REVIEW
Second Great Awakening, Charles Grandison
Finney, Zilpha Elaw, Jarena Lee, denominations, Richard Allen, Utopias,
I.
2.
"Mother Ann" Lee, Joseph
Ripley, transcendentalists.
MAIN IDEA What effect did revivals have on religion in America?

MAIN IDEA Why did Protestant churches attract new members during
Awakening?
3.
George
What
perfection
into direct attempts to perfect society.
SECTION
Smith, Brigham Young,
some Americans
human
encouraged by those revivalists
shared farm and household chores in order to have
IDENTIFY and
the passion for cooperative living
had faded. Rather than secluding themselves from
that
the self, and the universe.
The Brook Farm residents
life.
By 1850
people could attain perfection and could acquire
knowledge about God.
fire
by
Thoreau, and Margaret Fuller and educator

Bronson Alcott. Transcendentalists believed
1846 after a
in
Utopian communities experimented with new ways of organizing economic activities and
Perhaps the most famous Utopia.
Brook Farm was founded
community.
effect did this have
COMPARING What were some
the Second Great
on church membership?
characteristics that the Shakers,
Mormons, and
residents of
Brook Farm shared?

4.
WRITING TO PERSUADE
local
5.
You are
Brook Farm
newspaper to recruit new members
EVALUATING Why
can
it
into
resident.
Write an advertisement for your
your community.
be said that the Second Great Awakening had both positive and
negative consequences for African Americans?
WORKING FOR REFORM
285
Section 2
MOVEMENTS FOR SOCIAL REFORM
How
and why did reformers work to improve prisons and other
institutions?
What
motivated the temperance reformers?
Why did
Why did
reformers support free public education?
reformers establish alternative schools for African Americans

and women?
M^Ven and women who joined the
religious revivals of the
Second Great Awakening firmly believed
in the possibility
of
attaining individual perfection. Their optimism soon led them to

believe they could perfect society as well. Troubled by the effects
of rapid industrialization, people

direct their religious zeal
and
drinking
the
Northeast began to
toward solving social problems. Their
many concerns included better

oners,
in the
treatment of the mentally
poor They also tackled
ill,
pris-
the problems of excessive
and an inadequate educational
system.
Pupil
working with
slate
and pencil
Dorothea Dix and the mentally ill. One

women was Dorothea Dix. A deeply reli-
nEFORMING INSTITUTIONS
of these
gious teacher inspired by transcendentalist ideas,
days people cared for the mentally
In colonial
their
ill
in
she led efforts to improve treatment for the mentally
own homes. Criminals were punished but

And
ill.
rarely confined for long periods of time.
[II
how
townspeople helped the poor through informal
in
need of help, prisons were overcrowded,
and too few family members could offer assistance

to their kin.
and reforming existing ones
institu-
in institutions that
lives
in
286
::
many
^^^H
^m
^^^^B H ^^fl
^H
^F
1.
jf^^^H
life.
Middle-class
CHAPTER
She was
horrified
mentally
kept
damp dungeon
attempts made
ill
in a
with no
to cure
them. Dix learned that

while a few mental hospi-
for the mentally
tals
had been established,
the most
by placing them
women
she saw
Massachusetts
women were
taught moral values and provided
of these reform efforts.
when
in a
to see that
tice
a stable environment free from the corrupting influ-
ences of city
interested in the plight
in 1841
prison.
criminals, and the poor. Refomiers believed they
could improve these people's
ill
they were treated
^^^P^^ '^^'M II^^H
Reformers responded by building new
ill.
became
were no longer adequate. Cities had too many
people
tions
first
But by the early 19th century these solu-
charity.
tions
Dix
of the mentally
took the lead
^^1
Dorothea Dix
was
tally
ill
common
prac-
to put the
men-
in
prisons and
poorhouses without providing treatment.
Outraged. Dix spent US months visiting jails

poorhouses
and
throughout Massachusetts. She
found that the mentally ill were kepi "in c(ii>i's.
AMERICAN PRISONS
In 1831
Gustave de
Chained, naked,
Beaumont (goohs-tahv
beaten with rods, and lashed into obedience." In
detailed, factual report and plea for action and
duh boh-mohn) and

Alexis de Tocqueville,
two French aristocrats,
delivered
Massachusetts legislators. Her

report convinced them of the need to establish
visited the
United States
to observe
its
more
hand. They were surprised to find that
closets, cellars, stalls, pens!
January 1843 Dix collected her observations into a
it
to
institutions in
which the mentally
treated humanely. Dix

offer the mentally
to restore
them
ill
ill
could be
emphasized the need
first-
in
country where democratic liberties were so

highly valued, prisoners often suffered under
horrible conditions. They concluded:
to
rehabilitation, or treatment
to a useful
prisons
and constructive place
in society.
New
tune
held
ideas about mental illness
with the optimistic spirit of reform
in
^/o sum up
that
must be acknowledged that the penitentiary
mental illness was a curable disease rather than a
tem
moral defect, as had previously been taught.
sin or
the whole on this point
in
America
it
sys-
severe. Whilst society in the
is
This changed point of view helped Dix carry her
United States gives the example of the most
crusade to other states and even to other countries.
extended
She was responsible for the founding or enlarging
try offer the spectacle of the
of more than 30 mental hospitals
despotism [oppression]. The citizens subject to
States.
in the
United
Canada. Europe, and Japan.
liberty,
the prisons of the
the law are protected by

free
Prisons and poorhouses. Other
it;
same coun-
most complete
they only cease to be
when they become wicked.
**
reformers
during this period worked to rehabilitate prisoners
and the poor. Reformers persuaded lawmakers

provide
houses.
money
New
to build
new
to
prisons and poor-
systems of prison organization placed
prisoners in individual cells so that they would
poorhouses taught work

train the
poor
to
become
skills
and discipline
to
self-supporting.
think about and repent their crimes. Prisons set up

strict
routines for inmates to teach
live disciplined lives.
tutions that
them how
Reformers established
institutions
insti-
housed only juvenile delinquents
separate them from hardened criminals.
Reformers established mental

and reorganized and
to
built prisons to offer rehabilita-
to
New
A Prison reforms included teaching inmates special

shows prisoners at Sing Sing Prison making hats.
tion to inmates.
skills
and
jobs. This 1853
image
WORKING FOR REFORM
i:
287
The American Temperance Society was founded
The crusade against alcohol
in
826 with the aim of preaching the benefits of
total abstinence
from
alcohol.
supporters, however, took
Alcoholism was a serious problem in early

America, and some reformers attacked e\ccssi\e
drinking.
Concerned people organized
ance movement
persuade
to
Some temperance
more
active roles by
demolishing liquor stocks.
temper-
the
others to limit alcohol
consumption. Reformers blamed nearly
social
all
including mental illness, poverty, and

crime on alcohol. A popular pro-temperance
ills
novel. Ten Nii^lus in a
Bar-Room and What
There (1854). which was
echoed
this sentiment.
"never knew a
hadn't
rum
The
to
man
blame
to
later
By
won many
into a play,
a character observed, he
go
to the
almshouse
that
he
movement began
in
for his poverty."
the mid- 1830s
local organizations
Saw-
As
national temperance
the 1820s.
made
some 5.000
state
and
had sprung into being. Ministers
converts to the temperance cause. In
Businesspeople became enthusiastic sup-
emotional sermons, they persuaded people to give
up drinking completely. According to a
who
woman
attended an 1842 revival meeting in Maryland:
porters of the temperance
V%
Upwards
of 100 gallons of spirits
were
poured not down people's throats but on the

sand and
place.
believe there
Dean and Knotts
become members
and are
now
is
now none
in
the
[liquor sellers] have
of the
Temperance Society
earnestly seeking religion.
99
movement,
in part
because they saw temperance as a way of creating
more disciplined work
women
force.
Temperance
linked abstaining from alcohol to preserv-
ing the family.
They saw
a clear link
between
alcohol abuse and domestic violence.
African Americans, often excluded from
white temperance organizations, formed their
own temperance
societies and spoke at rallies.
African Americans tended to view
temperance, like education, as a
way to overcome prejudice and

become accepted as political and
social equals.
Many
immigrants, on the other
hand, viewed the temperance move-
ment
as an attack on their customs,
which often differed from those of

native-born Protestant Americans.
Most German and
Irish
immigrants
did not view alcohol consumption as

a social evil. For them, beer gardens
and pubs were places where people
came
together to socialize. Both insti-
tutions helped
German and
Irish
immigrants preserve their cultures
in
the United States.
^ As
a step toward abstaining from

were encouraged to
alcohol, families
temperance pledges such as the

one shown here.
sign
The
Reformers supported the temperance movement as a way to

eliminate
many
public school
to
social evils.
meet the needs of
expanding,
The temperance movement
movement.
Reformers
worried that the existing schools were inadequate
called for legal
if still
that the nation
limited,
growing nation and an

democracy. They argued
needed public, tax-supported
ele-
reforms to limit alcohol consumption. Some

reformers went so far as to call for prohibition,
mentary schools to provide a
or a ban on alcohol. In 1846
essential to educate citizens about democratic val-
first state to
Maine became
ban the sale of alcohol.
states followed, as did
the
few other
some communities. Many
free education for all
students. Reformers insisted that schools
ues, to unite an increasingly spread out
were
and diverse
population, and to create a literate and disciplined
other states strictly licensed taverns and adopted
work
heavy liquor taxes
reformers hoped, by teaching a basic curriculum
tion.
By
to help limit alcohol
consump-
the middle of the 19th century, the
nationwide rate of alcohol consumption had
force.
The schools could achieve
these goals,
instilling in students the middle-class values
and
of
hard work and respect for authority.
declined substantially.
Reformers supported free public

schools to help children
good
f?EFORMING EDUCATION
In the 1840s
Most schools established
chusetts established the
before the 1840s were private, and most children
mentary education.
could not afford to attend them. The few public
first
elementary schools that existed

the Northeast
plies,
had
and teachers'
little
most of them
money
salaries.
in
for books, sup-
The curriculum was
basic: reading, writing, arithmetic,
and a
bit
of his-
tory and geography. But the quality of teaching
was often poor, attendance was
irregular,
and many
students received only a few years of schooling.
'PI CTORIAL
PRIMER;
become
and good workers.
Horace Mann's reform
and 1850s. reformers turned their
attention to education.
citizens
efforts in
model
Massa-
for free public ele-
In 1837, as Massachusetts's
secretary of education,
Mann
united local
school districts into a state system, raised teachers'

salaries,
He
and increased spending on local schools.
also extended school terms, updated the cur-
riculum, and established schools for training teachers.
Mann's school reforms soon spread beyond
Massachusetts as an increasing number of states

set
up
state
boards of education.
i;>
CPIOTORIAL PaXM BajVIl
(US
Mary
II
reciting her Lesson.
Hary had
learned to read and

from the "Pictorial Primer"
Could sew and knit a little
too, and inany other things could
do. wliilc her mother ever kind,
would study to improve her mind,
(pell
well.
and
iu hymtLs of praise and love

taught her to lift her heart above.
'dT^^^^ys.--^^
This 1857 drawing shows a rural schoolmaster with his pupils. The lessons
they are reading may have come from the ^mencan Pictorial Primer. Pages
from this primer flank the drawing.
WORKING FOR REFORM
i:
289
Another educational reform during this

period was the creation of the public high school.
The nation's first, the English High School of
but these institutions were generally under-
Boston, opened
educator,
funded.
Lewis Woodson, an African American

knew that this situation must be changed.
1821. Free public high schools
in
He
offered poor children a chance to pursue advanced
hailed education:
courses that could prepare them for specialized
careers in law or medicine.
Although these reforms provided a model

for public education for
ents were pleased.

class families
all
children, not
all
Some farming and working-
their
opposed public schooling because
This strong faith
schools as a means of spreading Protestant
The
little
in
[restraints]
education inspired free
blacks to pursue an education for their children.
impact on the
movement made
antislavery
defensive about slavery

tion"
**
African Americans successfully pressured a few
Educational reform had
all
minds from the trammels
of ignorance and vice.
beliefs.
South.
ennoble,
race from the shackles of bondage, and
par-
they depended on their children's labor. Also

opposed were many Catholics, who viewed public
(as a] jevêl that will elevate,
and rescue the bodies of our long injured
its
public schools in the North to admit their children.
They
the South
and many southerners increasingly viewed
reform efforts with suspicion. As a
behind the North
also set up private schools. John Melvin.
an African American merchant, established
"'peculiar institu-
Cleveland's
first
school for blacks and sponsored
other such schools throughout Ohio in the
result, the
educational
Despite widespread opposition to educating
reform. Planters hired private tutors or established
African Americans, some colleges allowed free
South lagged
far
private schools for their
own
in
blacks to enroll. The
children, but they did
not support public schools to educate
all
lege graduate
children.
who
African American education. The public
school movement also failed to benefit many
African American children. By the 1850s only a
few towns permitted black children
public schools.
Some
first
received a degree from Vermont's Middlebury
College
in
1823. Within a few years other African
Americans graduated from Amherst College

Massachusetts and Bowdoin College
in
Maine.
northern states maintained
sion from most colleges by founding their own.
American
Several colleges for black students were estab-
children.
L Donnel
Cheyney
State College
(1837). Avery College (1849). Lincoln University

(1854), and Wilberforce University (1856).
Joseph
S.
Thompson
Lincoln University
two
CHAPTER
in
African Americans responded to their exclu-
lished in this period:

Darius
African American col-
was probably Alexander Twilight,
to attend
separate schools for African
290
830s.
early graduates.
in
Pennsylvania
is
shown here, along with photographs
of
Oberlin College, founded
by ministers and
nation's
first
addition to
in
Ohio
1833
in
soon became the
abolitionists,
integrated, coeducational college. In
collegiate programs. Oberlin
its
offered college preparatory courses for students
who had
not attended high school.
By
African American graduates of Oberlin,
them
fugitive slaves and the children of fugitive
had gone on
slaves,
ters,
1860,
many of
to
become
journalists, minis-
missionaries, and teachers.
Women
and higher education. Women
tion. In
lor
of
1841 the
arts
first
women
three
to receive
.^f.j.'U^'^^'''
in
bache-
from Oberlin. In 1862 Mar>' Jane Patterson, also an
woman
tution.
to receive a college
first
for institutions of
r^'
:r\
,.'>^/^
higher education for
women. A diploma
African American
degree from a U.S.
Massachusetts
became the model
1./-''
degrees from a U.S. college graduated
Oberlin graduate, became the
Mount Holyoke
Female Seminary
,/< .imiiii'-/-'
also challenged their lack of access to higher educa-
shown
is
insti-
at
left.
These women's achievements were revolu-
tionary because during this period
women,
as well as
African American men. were widely considered

unable to compete intellectually with white men.
Reformers realized
prevented
women from
To help remedy
that educational barriers
winning equal
status to
this situation, several
Holyoke allowed women
to study, for the first time,
subjects that society had thought only white
men.
schools for
women were established. Emma Willard founded

the first women's high school. Troy Female
Seminary, in New York in 1821. Two years later
could master.
Women
men
graduates from these institu-
tions launched careers as teachers, writers, journalists,
doctors, and reformers.
Catharine Beecher opened the Hartford Female

Seminary, and
in
Alabama
in
Reformers established alterna-
1831 the Huntsville
tive schools to provide African
Female Seminary opened. Mary Lyon, an accomplished teacher, founded the
first
women's
Mount Holyoke Female Seminary,

Massachusetts. The programs
at
in
Americans and
college,
1836
Oberlin and
in
them by
Mount
movement,
1.
2.
3.
REVIEW
prohibition,
Dorothea
Dix, rehabilitation,
Horace Mann, John Melvin, Mary Jane Patterson,
MAIN IDEA How did

MAIN IDEA Why did
MAIN IDEA How did
with edu-
public institutions.
SECTION
IDENTIFY and
women
cational opportunities denied
Emma
temperance
Willard,
Mary Lyon.
reformers hope to rehabilitate prisoners?

reformers believe that the nation needed free public education?
reformers attempt to provide educational opportunities for both African
Americans and women?

4.
WRITING TO INFORM
for your employees.
You are
Write
a letter to the president of
about the advantages and disadvantages of

5.
this policy.
RECOGNIZING POINTS OF VIEW How

this
owner with a strict temperance policy

another company informing him or her
a 19th-century business
did
Dorothea Dix view the mentally
ill?
How
did
view influence her work?
WORKING FOR REFORM
291
Section 3
THE CRUSADE FOR ABOLITION
FOCUS
How
did African
What
What
Americans change the focus of antislavery
helped spark the
call for
immediate
efforts?
abolition?
obstacles did abolitionists face?
1^,ith the transportation,
market,
and
industrial revolutions
of the early 19th century, regional economic differences

heightened the existing social and political tensions between
the North
slave
and
the South.
The division between the systems of
and free labor became more pronounced, leading
increased support for abolition
among
northerners.
1830s influential blacks and whites joined together

ous, organized
campaign
to
end
By
in
to
the
a vigor-
slavery.
Medallion bearing the seal of
an antislavery group
enslaved and free, were inferior to whites and
t ARLY OPPONENTS OF SLAVERY
would never
into U.S. society. In 1829 an
fit
American Colonization Society report described

Most northern
states
early 1800s. After
own
many
states,
had abohshed slavery by the
working
for abolition in their
antislavery northerners
wanted
end slavery across the country. To achieve

goal,
many
to
free blacks as "notoriously ignorant,
miserable.
ment by
degraded and
scarcely reached in their debase-
the heavenly light."
Northern free blacks strenuously objected to
this
northerners
this unfair characterization.
They opposed
supported the American
American Colonization Society's plan
Colonization Society's
them from
plan for ending slavery
Garnet, a black abolitionist, declared:
their countr>' of birth.
the
to banish
Henr\ Highland
gradually.
Unlike
many
of the
society's southern supporters,
44
I
America
is
my home, my
have no other. ...
country, and
mourn because
who saw
colo-
accursed shade of slavery rests upon
way
to rid
love
nization as a
the South of free blacks,
it
my
will
country's
flag,
be cleansed of
most northern advocates
by
genuinely wanted to rid
and independence,
all
nations as the
and
its
it.
hope that soon
stains,
emblem
the
and be hailed
of freedom
yy
the country of slavery.
Yet both groups shared

the prejudice that
Henry Highland Garnet
292
CHAPTER
all
African Americans, both
To provide an
alternative to the
American
Colonization Society, free blacks founded

abolitionist societies.
By
1826, African Americans
energetic, and
more organized
attack on the insti-
tution of slaver>.
1S29 David Walker, a Boston businessman
In
and tree black, published the Appeal
to the
Colored Citizens of the World, in which he

demanded immediate, universal abolition. Walker
bid free blacks and slaves to take action
action
if
necessary
for
freedom and
violent
equality. In a
blistering attack he criticized slaveholders
who
used the Bible to justify slavery. He urged white
Americans
to
condemn slavery and to recognize

humanity of black Americans.
the rights and
rREEDOM'8 mil JOIRNA L.

rXALTETH
-RICIITri>t<f^r><
0\
Before he could put his words into practice, however.
%!IATIf
RtS)*WrRl-
Jîl. B.
'"
.Vrir-Vork. Snii'rihui.
.Uiiii
I:).
'"
KIT,
,'
(left)
cir-
mood among
Walker's Appeal represented a new
'
'
Opponents of
abolitionists.
Samuel Cornish
1830 under mysterious
in
cumstances. Nevertheless, the publication of
THE COLORED AÎERICAN.

''*""\i'"
Walker died
and John Russwurm

American newspa1827. Cornish later
(right) started the first African
per, Freedom's Journal, in

served as editor of The Colored American.
white, were
slavery, both black
becoming impatient with
and
their lack
of
progress in promoting abolition.
This impatience led William Lloyd Garrison, a
New
England
journalist, to action.
With
the financial
backing of wealthy African American and white
had formed more than 143 antislavery
societies. In
1827 Samuel Cornish and John Russwurm started
American newspaper. Freedom's
the first African
Journal, to express African American opposition to

slavery. Free blacks called
on whites
to join
them
abolitionists. Garrison
launched the abolitionist
newspaper the Liberator
in 1831. In the first issue,
Garrison expressed his determination to work for the
immediate abolition of slavery:
in
WW
the fight to free "their brother[s] in chains."
These
efforts helped mobilize public opinion
in Liberia, the
by the
society.
The
ject,
holders to free their slaves.
And
ination that free blacks faced,
On
this sub-
do not wish to
moderation. ...
few slave-
earnest
despite the discrim-
few wanted
be as harsh as
will
am
to leave
will
not excuse
Most free blacks objected to colonization efforts. They formed
abolitionist societies as an alter-
WILL BE HEARD.
Wfflj.;
"ie!J
:^f/7 ''///
will
not
and
retreat a single inch
slavery.
noipxr,
in
not equivo-
cate [evade the truth]
the United States.
native way to end
think,
or speak, or write, with
West African republic founded

society had persuaded
will
as justice.
American Colonization Society. By

1831 only some 1,400 African Americans had set-
against the
ded
truth and as uncompromising
99
This colorful banner

proudly displays William
Lloyd Garrison's famous
motto.
Garrison soon became one of the most artic-
ulate supporters of
insisted that slavery
it
immediate abolition. He
was
a sin and a crime because
contradicted both the Bible and the Constitution.
Garrison argued that the sin of slavery should be
Xhe call to action
given up immediately in order to save the country.
He
Although early black and white
shared
common
abolitionists
strategies, in the
to join forces to call for an
had not
1830s they began
fiercely attacked both slavery
and
racial preju-
dice and argued that blacks should enjoy equality
with whites.
immediate end to slav-
The appearance of two important publications,

David Walker's Appeal and William Lloyd
ery.
Garrison's Liberator, marked
the start of a bold.
Demands
for
immediate
aboli-
began with the publication

of the Appeal and the Liberator.
tion
WORKING FOR REFORM
293
Douglass was also
powerful writer. His
autobiography. Narrative of the Life of Frederick
Douglass (1845), became a classic indictment of

the slave system, in 1847 Douglass and a partner
began an antislavery newspaper, the North Star
which was
renamed Frederick Douglass's
later
Paper. Published
in
Rochester,
1847 to 1864, the paper
An
won
New
York, from
support for abolition.
editorial in the first edition urged those
had "suffered the wrong"
who
to lead the abolitionist
"He who has endured the cruel pangs of

Slavery is the man to advocate Liberty.^'
Frederick Douglass's wife, Anna Murray
cause.
Douglass, was also an active abolitionist. Using

their
home
Rochester as
in
depot for the
Underground Railroad, she helped runaway slaves

tlee to
"MCfTOiiMtni ai'jttmiiOTr**
ROTIiltt
Hit
"'
"
'*X
JESSK
TATSS
BQNBI
IN
' ITS WVJ7XS TIUBBI
n?|l Sojourner
kMn
iHJiHtl
II
CAJTASAa
BOSTON
TC
rul,h:ti.-,l
It,.
lll?f
HON
HtHRY rttllTiaS
.V)
A.i'
Truth. Another
ex-slave
American
tirelessly for the
Anti-Slavery Society was Sojourner Truth.
JITA'"
l..j.,rt
who worked
?;
m,'
Canada and freedom.
She was
.11
bom
Isabella
estate of a wealthy
Abolitionists used antislavery songs to protest
the evils of slavery. One notable example v/as "The

Fugitive's Song," composed in honor of Frederick
Douglass's escape from slavery.
Baumfree on
New
New
York, she
mandatory abolition of
managed
to flee
from her
slaveholder. After her
escape she joined
reli-
gious reformers
who
preached on the
The AMERICAN ANTI-SLAVERY
of
New
feet tall,
SOCIETY
In
formed the
first
devoted
City. Six
extremely
thin,
immediate abolition
Dutch accent, she made

a powerful impression.
national antislavery organization
the American
In
1843 Baumfree
Anti-Slavery Society. The society soon claimed
said she had a religious
more than 200 branches across
vision in which
Middle West.
It
the North and the
papered the country with countless
antislavery publications and organized petition
new mission and

Sojourner
Most important,
the society sponsored national lec-
Americans
that slavery
who hoped
to
convince
England on
the truth
new
identity.
Adopting the name
(visitor) Truth, she traveled
foot,
through
women's
rights.
was morally wrong.
RESISTANCE TO ABOLITION
Society was Frederick Douglass, a fugitive slave
By
from Maryland. He was the
life
as a slave
many people
CHAPTER
who
power of
runaway
first
publicly against slavery. His
lash without the
New
preaching what she believed to be
abolition and
Frederick Douglass. Among the best at winning converts to the American Anti-Slavery
about his
God
instructed her to find a
drives to protest legislation supporting slavery.
ture tours of abolitionists
294
York
streets
and speaking with
1833, prominent black and white abolitionists
to
York
Dutch landowner around 1797.
In 1827, the year before the
slavery in
the
to
speak
moving speeches
"suffered under the
resisting" convinced
to support abolition.
1840. abolitionists had recruited
some 200,000
northerners to their cause. Southern slaveholders,
of course,
felt
threatened by the growing move-
ment. But some northerners also opposed abolition.
Garrison once remarked that he found
"contempt more
bitter,
opposition more active,
Changing
THE AM/STAD MUTINY
Wa
n 1839 the Spanish ship
Amistad set
sail
from Havana,
Cuba, bound for
on
a plantation
the eastern end of the island.
While
at sea,
Joseph Cinque and
some 50 other
Africans
killing
on board mutinied,
the captain and part of
the crew.
sail
enslaved
The
Africans tried to
back to their homeland but
were picked up by
ship.
a U.S. war-
The mutiny aboard the

the subsequent
They were imprisoned and
Amistad, the return of the captives, and

are depicted here In a series of three paintings.
trial
charged with piracy and murder.

Abolitionists,
who saw
the
situation as an opportunity to
rally
support for their cause,
arranged for the Africans'

defense
manner throughout the
the verdict, which freed the
trial
The decision, however,

was more narrow than it
earned him the respect and
Africans.
sympathy of many.
court. Cinque told
in
Abolitionists rejoiced over
of heroism," and his dignified
1841 the U.
In
S.
Supreme
seemed. Although the
trial
the court that he had been kid-
Court, under Chief Justice
helped to focus national atten-
napped
in
Roger
tion
slavery.
The defense then
cessfully
Africa and sold into

suc-
argued that because
B.
Taney, heard the case
on appeal. Former president
decision
Adams argued for

Adams told the
John Quincy
on the
the defense.
tional slave trade in 1820, the
court that the Declaration of
that
accused were not slaves but
Independence guaranteed that
slaves,
free
men who had
acted
in self-
American newspapers
followed the
trial closely,
paying
particular attention to the
One
newspaper described him
as
"possessing the true elements
and apathy more frozen" in
As
tum
He
man
has a right to
liberty." In
said, "I
ask nothing
New
the antislavery
mob
human
men
later
On
in
The
Dred
Scott
v.
Sandford case,
which Chief Justice Taney
handed down
"property" and therefore had
its
decision, which
no fundamental
upheld the lower court.
England than
in
movement gained momen-
violence increased. In 1835
Why
did
with such fury?
destroying his printing press.
rights.
on prejudice against African Americans.

northern
wage
Many
earners feared competing with free
abolition
killed in 1837 as he tried to prevent a
were indeed
some northerners oppose abolition

Much of the opposition was based
blacks for jobs.
mob from
a basic
right as self-defense.
ruled that slaves
Elijah Lovejoy, an abolitionist editor in Alton,
was
they would not have
Amistad case foreshadowed the
in
Garrison was almost killed by a Boston mob.
Illinois,
the defendants had been
March 9 the Supreme Court
exaggerated, but not by much.
in the 1830s,
more
if
been entitled to such
life
behalf of these unfortunate
nothing
legality of slavery.
Furthermore, the ruling implied
summary, he
than this Declaration."
striking figure of Cinque.
the South.
"every
and
defense.
itself said
about the
Spain had outlawed the interna-
issue of slavery, the
Many
northern merchants feared
would disrupt cotton production, thus

cutting into the profits they made from selling
cotton on the world market.
One merchant warned
WORKING FOR REFORM
i:
295
"We mean.
abolitionists:
sir.
\uu Abol-
lo put
down by fair means if we can. by foul

means if we must." Anti-abolition mobs were
itionists
sometimes led by
local civic leaders fearful of the
social disorder they associated with abolitionism.
The movement splinters

Abolitionists also faced problems within their
movement. William Lloyd Garrison's attacks on

churches and the government for condoning slavery
became more fierce and frequent. He also began to

denounce the Constitution as an "agreement with
hell,"
warning abolitionists
to rely
A An abolitionist group is shown gathered on the

porch of Lucy Stone's house. Lucy Stone was a
well-known suffragist and abolitionist. Abby Kelley
is seated in the middle of the top row.
on moral appeals
alone to end slavery. Garrison's stubborn refusal to

use other tactics angered moderates,
who
supported
organized female abolitionist societies, which

sponsored petition drives and raised money.
change through the ballot box.
When
many moderates was

rights for women. Many
Just as troubling lo
Garrison's call for equal
white male abolitionists believed that
Abby
women
in the
women's increased
political activity within the
formed
and
visibility
assumed important
movement.
roles in the
teacher,
1832
won
the
women
grow.
By
societies
still
The
the cause, however.
split
did not
The number
the late 1840s
most
more than 2.000
of them in
New
local
York. Ohio,
were keeping
public attention focused on abolition.
converts to abolition as early as
Abolitionists faced violent opposition from some northerners
year before the formation of the
American woman
abolition before
to
the
and disputes within their own
speak publicly about
movement.
mixed audiences. Other women
SECTION
IDENTIFY and
REVIEW
explain the significance of the following: David Walker, William Lloyd Garrison,
American Anti-Slavery
1.
organization.
1840, moderates
Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania
journalist and
American Anti-Slavery Society. She became

first
own
damage
in
of local abolitionist organizations continued to
movement. Maria
W. Stewart, an African American
their
seriously
Although excluded from formal membership

in the American Anti-Slavery Society,
Kelley,
Slavery Society committee
domestic sphere. They did
should remain
not appreciate
woman.
on an important American Anti-
Garrison's supporters put a
Society, Frederick Douglass,
MAIN IDEA Why
did African
Sojourner Truth, Maria
Americans oppose colonization?
What
Stewart.
steps did they take to
change the direction of the antislavery movement?

2.
MAIN IDEA How
did publications such as the Appeal and the Liberator affect the abolitionist
movement?
3.
USING HISTORICAL IMAGINATION Why were

Sojourner Truth so effective
4.
WRITING TO DESCRIBE
In
You are
woman
obstacles you face and your experiences

5.
in
abolitionist in 1840.
:i
CHAPTER
Write an essay describing the
the movement.
Provide evidence to support the following statement: "African
Americans hastened the end of slavery by taking an
296
the appeals of Frederick Douglass and
persuading people to join the abolitionist movement?
active role in the abolitionist
movement."
Section ^
THE CAUSE OF WOMEN'S RIGHTS
What
What
women's rights activists demand?

the women's rights activists achieve? What
rights did the early
reforms did
remained unresolved?
Why were
middle-class
women's
issues
rights groups unable to gain
wide support among African American
women
and white working-class
women?
WW Comen played major roles in all reform movements.
They
ran organizations and mastered the skills offund-raising,

public speaking, and petitioning legislatures. But
met opposition
to their roles as reformers.
women
still
Many women
involved in reform movements realized that they needed

secure economic
society.
work
As a
and political
result,
women
rights to participate fully in
in the late
to include the struggle for their
1840s expanded their
own
A BOLITION AND WOMEN'S RIGHTS
view abolition and women's rights as parts of the
same
struggle.
The experiences of Sarah Grimke and Angelina
%%
Grimke, two early lecturers for the American Anti-
slave has
how supporting
many women to work
Slavery Society, illustrate
African
Americans" rights led
for their
own
rights.
Daughters of a prominent Charleston,
South Carolina, slaveholder, the Grimke sisters
moved
in the
to the
Speaker for women's rights
rights.
The
Angelina Grimke argued:
discussion of the rights of the
opened the way
for the discussion
of other rights, and the ultimate result will
most
certainly be the breaking of ewery
... an emancipation far
more
yoke
glorious than
any the world has ever yet seen.
**
North
The Grimkes'
1820s and
became abolitionists. The sisters at
efforts
met sharp
opposition. Cath-
devoted their
arine Beecher. an
energies solely to
education reformer
against
slavery. But over
and advocate of
women's traditional
time they came to
roles, criticized the
first
the
fight
Sarah Grimke
Angelina Grimke
WORKING FOR REFORM
i:
297
Grimkes and other women

litionist petition
for participating in abo-
Elizabeth
Cady Stanton
campaigns. "Petitions to congress,"
Beecher argued, "seem,
all cases,
in
to fall
entirely without [outsidel the sphere of female duty.
Men
make appeals
are the proper persons to
whom
rulers
to the
ihe\ appoint."
group of Congregationalist ministers from
Massachusetts echoed such sentiments. In 1837

they denounced the Grimkes for speaking before
mixed audiences. The ministers said women's

influence should be "unobtrusive and private"
through quiet prayers and through their work
home and
in
Sunday schools.
But the Grimkes refused to back down.
and
women
at
"Men
were created equal." Sarah Grimke
wrote. "They are both moral and accountable

beings, and whatever
is
right for
woman." Her
woman's
right to
right for
whether
Church or
in
that soci-
grew stronger
who became
women's
rights
equal rights for
call for
in the
THEIR RIGHTS
between abolition and women's
endured as the
ists
governed,
to be
She added
rights."
wOMEN DECURE
link
arrangements" on these matters "are
ety's "present
a violation of human
The
"it is
laws and
in all the
is
State."
to do, is
agreed that
sister
have a voice
regulations by which she
man
840s.
Two
women
noted abolition-
leading active supporters of
status in
cially
Denied the
society.
second-class
citi-
far less access to education, espe-
higher education, than men. Social
prejudices limited
and
American
women remained
They had
zens.
women
Married
women
to a
few rights to
own
property
(even inherited property) or to keep their
Women who
own
divorced their husbands
York, in 1848.
More
when
they attended the
World's Anti-Slavery Convention

speak.
As
a result. Stanton
:i
women
and Mott agreed
democratic ideals contained
in the
4^ We hold these truths to

evident: that
first
U.S.
in the
Declaration
self-
because
rights.
women do
feel
themselves aggrieved, oppressed, and fraudulently
we
deprived of their most sacred
insist that
rights,
they have immediate admission
the rights and privileges which belong
to
them
women
be
men and women are crethey are endowed by their
Creator with certain inalienable
that
women's
all
ated equal; that
all
end the daily discrimination
the birth
movement
of Independence:
to
ment
CHAPTER
attended the
Declaration of Sentiments modeled on the
to
convention they would launch a move-
faced. Their efforts led to the
298
London.
in
officials refused to allow
after the
to
women and men
United States. The convention adopted
Now,
Stanton and Mott became painfully aware of
Convention
than 300
of the organized women's rights
could not get custody of their children.
these injustices in 1840
New
Falls.
few professions,
received lower wages than men.
women had
earnings.
Seneca
Seneca Falls Convention, which marked
Stanton and Molt were deeply troubled by
right to vote,
rights convention, held in
were Elizabeth Cady Stanton and
Lucretia Mott.
women's
Lucretia Mott
rights
as citizens of the United States.
The Declaration of Sentiments
**
also called for
reforms to strengthen women's legal position.
These reforms included granting married

the rights to control property
women
and earnings and
be awarded custody of their children
OMEN'S RIGHTS ACTIVISM
lo
event
in the
of a divorce. Most important, they included grant-
women
ing
Although the Seneca
the right to vole.
The Declaration of Sentiments
many women
the discontent
woman from
town
a small
Emily Collins, a
felt.
in
publicly voiced
New
western
rights
devoted mo.st of their energies to attaining
To achieve
Sentiments.
revolted
in spirit
against the
customs
women's
my
aspirations.
that meeting at Seneca Falls
But not
in
1848
North and the Middle West. At one such conven-
until
.
tion in
a
gave this feeling of unrest form and voice,

did
take action.
to
work
for
women's
women
in
4 Look
her town
rights.
men
own
my
at
Sojourner Truth gave
in 1851,
many men
Falls
arm!
have ploughed and

.
and
ain't
woman? could work as much and eat as

when could get it and
as a man
bear the lash as well! And ain't a woman?
a
much
rights
enjoyed.
have born thirteen children, and seen most
fiercely debated issue at the
Convention was suffrage, the
attendance
experiences:
when
of 'em sold into slavery, and
The most
in
She eloquently
their equals.
planted and gathered into barns
rights activists
demanded the same

white
women were
recounted her
Women's
Akron. Ohio,
speech that convinced
that
99
Collins went on to organize the
rights conferences, and
organized a series of state conventions across the
of society and the laws of the State that
crushed
these goals, the activists
organized a system of linked local organizations,
held national
I
women's
for suffrage, early activists for
other legal reforms called for in the Declaration of
York,
expressed her reaction to the convention:
4%
Falls reformers agreed to
work
Seneca
out with
right to vote.
heard
my
me
mother's
and
ain't
grief,
cried
none but Jesus
woman?
99
Stanton said attaining the right

to vote
full
was
crucial to winning
equality because "the
power
"1
/
A WOMAN^ DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 1848 \

CADY STANTON
EllZABETH
to
was the
Alto Mia(
ml ill bcfen dv Um. to
(lIl^Koq:
tW end ftd ^4bm bntveni

Ik oSa o( bn ladto. I>^
choose rulers and make laws,
6k
^mA
Cady. ,fc>
na> ai
to find a war to kdp diaafa
laws.
maniatt
to tW iltoiilinntil leads. HcsiT B. Smdiwi. .cr*
nftly into the ovnnl ef iiaHowal pajillii TUs la^ a fas
feandalion fr Hw pofiHcal cxpcrltfla to wafa Ihc bank
lor unto
ricks to ^kiik ih>
to becoaia a tooM
toap iiM^ Icado. TocMkn wMi frindi.
pbaad
cUd,
^^
right
by which
all
others
11
could be secured."
Opponents of women's
suffrage said demanding the
was too
ple
agreed with Catharine

that
radical.
women
cuntad Aa
ff^-Â^yc:
ad
ab
Ital Wotoan't lUclaa rimiiBliiMii

laly lt aad IMi
FaOa.
Naw Yait
ixvIt
Ifca liiil u i j
to
ScMca
UU. Hb May
of the Wfltoan'i tlgfcas
>
Most peo-
vote
Beecher
Ho
iWm
should not
participate in political activities.
Others believed that such an

unpopular demand might jeopar-
Mi fJ >gZJ &miul Af dtt .tniî^

jfriitT/'iff'v^f-f-
-<- r-'i
r^.i^ 4i Kn
X/uLt /JLobt/^
-ft
jtiûgu t^ ^
cM.-î^
irrU^
dize support from influential

politicians.
A commemorative
printing of
the Declaration of Sentiments is

shown here. The declaration called
for legal reforms, such as granting
women
the right to vote, and
insisted that "all
men and women
are created equal."
ifaVliiiiJ
trnt im
m^mkmmJi^ tymk^ ^miVI^
i/îwan itoAa. lag'*T*^
/"Iff 'î^*f^'ujif*'i^fi^'*'< '

"
-^
HtCvi^ ri'iniT'^ (ta\
"
''
T*^
L,..-
WORKI NG FOR REFORM
i:
299

rights.
At Elizabeth Cady Stanton's urging.
Anthony dedicated
the rest of her life to
working for women's rights. She

organized petition campaigns and
meetings, gave speeches, and raised
money
for the cause.
Anthony, along with Stanton,

Mott, and Truth, also argued for a
variety of legal reforms that
women. One of
benefit
women's
property
class
first
own and
way of
protecting what they
New
York and
other states revised their laws to permit married
women
to
own
their earnings.
property, file lawsuits, and retain
But
political
and
legal equality
the national level, including the right to vote,
be slow
Another important women's rights leader
was Susan B. Anthony. She was
raised in a
family that affirmed the equality of
Quaker
men and
women. From her involvement in temperance and

abolition. Anthony learned the limits society
placed on women's roles in reform movements. In
1852 she was forbidden to speak at a temperance
convention because she was a woman. This event
women could not be effective in

reform movements unless they won political
convinced her that
Male election judges
refused to accept
suffragist Victoria
Woodhull's ballot
when she attempted
to vote. In 1872
Woodhull helped form

the Equal Rights party
and ran unsuccessfully
for president with
abolitionist Frederick
Douglass as her running mate.
300
CHAPTER
this
saw as fam-
property from untrustworthy sons-in-law.

In response to calls for reform.
Susan B. Anthony participated in temperance

and antislavery causes, as well as those of women's
rights. In 1872 she was arrested for attempting to
cast a vote in the Rochester city elections.
control their
been proposed by middle-
men. Some fathers had long supported
cause as a
ily
right to
had
would
these reforms
in
would
coming. Despite passionate demands for
political rights in
suffrage,
on
women
848 and the subsequent focus on
did not gain a constitutional guar-
antee of voting rights until 1920. Nevertheless, the
women's
the
rights activists of the mid-1 8(X)s initiated
movement
that continues today.
Women's rights activists

achieved some gains in legal
on the state level but did
not win the right to vote.
rights
improve
Who
Participated in the
Rights Movement?
Seneca Falls
middle-class women. The demands for married

women's property rights, control of wages, and
custody of children were meant to cement middle-
the
These
social status.
were not
rights
main concerns of women with few resources,
such as the majority of African American
rights activists
showed
commitment
to
women
struggle for better
to abolition
women
for
in
1853, most
wages and working conditions.
women
For example, when
such as Sarah Bagley
organized strikes (see Chapter
8),
they allied
themselves with white working-class
men who
shared their concerns.

It is
women's
wages
fair
women's rights activists ignored workplace

issues. As a result, most white working-class
women looked to other groups for support in their
and white working-class women.

Stanton, Mott, and other white
way
to focus first
Although Susan B. Anthony helped draft
Convention mainly retlected the concerns of white
women's
women was
on improving ihcir status as African Americans.
Women's
at the
believed that the best
their status as
code of
The grievances expressed
class
women
These black
Commentary
therefore important to realize that the
movement
created
at
Seneca Falls failed
to
and equal rights for African Americans. However,
include all American women. Most African

American and white working-class women
many
had concerns
women's rights activists feared a shift

away from women's rights and toward
abolitionism. In addition, some white women
in
local
focus
believed that African Americans were inferior and

did not deserve full rights.
As
a result, local
and
state organizations often discriminated against
black
women. When black
abolitionist Sojourner
Truth rose to address the Ohio convention,
many
people tried to keep her from speaking.
women's
rights groups,
their
own
separate path to equality. At the same time,
women.
women
many more
Few
middle-class
I .
rights
women.
African Americans.
REVIEW
explain the significance of the following: Sarah Grimke, Angelina Grimke,
Catharine Beecher, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Lucretia Mott, Seneca

B.
women's
groups addressed the needs and

concerns of African American
women and white working-class
SECTION
Susan
won by main-
stream women's rights activists were enjoyed by
In addition to these activities,
IDENTIFY and
organizations and found a
however, many of the advances
they also participated in organizations devoted to

all
therefore they did not partici-
the mainstream movement. Instead, they
formed
aiding welfare and educational institutions in their
abolition and equality for
from those of middle-
either joined groups that shared their concerns or
of them devoted their energies to building and
own communities.
women, and
pate in
all
Although some African American

participated in
class
that differed
Falls
Convention, suffrage,
Anthony.
MAIN IDEA What vâs the goal of early vyômen's rights activists?
MAIN IDEA How successful were women's rights activists in achieving reforms?
MAIN IDEA Why did African American women and white working-class women
organizations rather than
join middle-class
women's
rights
groups?
What
form their own
issues did these organi-
zations tackle?
WRITING TO CREATE
for
women's
rights in the
Write an
inspirational
song or poem that demonstrates the struggle
850s.
ASSESSING CONSEQUENCES How did
the suffrage issue divide the women's rights
movement?
WORKING FOR REFORM
301
Mormon
African American Alexander

Twilight graduates from
Middlebury College.
high school
Freedom's Journal
opens.
begins publication
Slavery Society
published.
established.
estaoii!
^REVIEWING THEMES
WRITING A SUMMARY
Using the essential points of the chapter as
summary
American Anti-
write a
Garrison's Liberator
begins publication.
Walker's
Appeal
First public
CHAPTER
church
founded
a guide,
Democratic Values
ers successful
of the chapter.
in
In
what ways were reform-
changing public policies that
affected mental illness, prisons, schools, and
women's
Number your
and
list
paper
to
5.
Study the time
the order
in
ond next to
2.
What
social factors
Utopian communities
activity
below.
in
the 1800s?
THINKING CRITICALLY
Synthesizing Why did reformers
1 .
1.
Seneca
2.
Wilberforce University founded.
Falls
Convention
held.
wide variety of causes during

2.
3.
Maine bans
4.
Mormon
5.
Garrison's Liberator begins publication.
Identifying
on the time
sale of alcohol.
church founded.
Cause and
line,
and
this
Hypothesizing What
factors
ed reformers to persist
in
tackle such a
period?
may have motivat-
their efforts even
under
the threat of violence?

3.
Analyzing
How
might the abolitionist
have been different
in
con-
tributed to the rise of revivalism and the spread of
the sec-
2,
above,
which
in
next to
first
line
rights?
Cultural Diversity
compromised with
if
movement
William Lloyd Garrison had
his
opponents?

IDENTIFYING PEOPLE
AND
Review the Strategies for Success on Interpreting
IDEAS
the Visual Record on page 98. Then study the paint-
ing of a

1.
Second Great Awakening
6.
Utopias
2.
Frederick Douglass
7.
Sojourner Truth
3.
temperance movement
8.
Lucretia
4.
Horace Mann
9.
suffrage
5. William Lloyd Garrison
Why
2.
Which
3.
Why?
What are some
illegal
did
10.
many southern
Susan
idealized setting.
B.
Mott
Anthony
states pass laws
making
to teach slaves to read?

kinds of reforms
met
significant opposi-
tion?
of the ways
Americans participated
in
in
which African
the reform efforts of
the 19th century?

4.
Why were
many women's
rights
reformers also
abolitionists?
5.
How
did reformers
poor Americans?
302
CHAPTER
work
revival
and suggest why the

1.
camp
meeting below.
On
separate
sheet of paper, describe the physical surroundings
to improve the
lives
of
it
artist placed the
meeting
in
an
Abolitionist Elijah
Lovejoy
killed.
Dorothea Dix
begins crusade for
mentally ill. Brook
bans sale
Farm founded.
of alcohol.
North Star begins
Maine
Enslaved Africans
Douglass's
mutiny on Amistad.
autobiography
publication.
Seneca Falls
-Convention
held.
Wilberforce
African American
Mary Jane Patterson
University
graduates from
founded.
Oberlin.
published.
^ .+
Major temperance society
Writing to Express a Viewpoint You

cian running for office in the 1850s.
are a
Write
Center of antislavery activity
politi-
a short
speech that explains your position on one of the
fol-
lowing issues: prohibition, public education, abolition,
or women's
rights.

who
Fanny Wright was a reformer
many
scandalized
by her outspoken views. Read the following excerpt
from her lecture
entitled
"Of
Existing Evils and Their
Remedy." Then write an essay explaining why Wright

advocated reform as a necessary part of a democracy.
44
Great reforms are not wrought
in
A free people may boast that all

day.
power is in their hands; but no effectual
power can be in their hands until knowl.
edge be
minds.
in their
But how may knowledge be imparted

to their
minds? Such
effective
knowledge as
shall render apparent to all the interests of

all,
and demonstrate
a nation
united,
to
the simple truths: that
be strong, must be united;
must be equal
in condition; to
to
be
be
equal in condition, must be similar in habits
and feeling; to be similar in habits and in

feeling, must be raised in national institutions, as the children
and citizens of a
of a
common
common
family
^9
cooperatively.
country.
1.
INDIVIDUAL RIGHTS
you explored
LINKING HISTORY
Study the
map
at the
AND GEOGRAPHY
top of the next column. Each
dot represents an organization associated with a

reform movement. Note that reform organizations
are concentrated
in
the Middle
BUILDING YOUR
PORTFOLIO
West and
the
Northeast areas of intense urban growth. Why do

you think reform movements were most active in
In
chapters 7 and 8
individual rights. Building
on that
experience, imagine you are a women's rights

activist.
Prepare a pamphlet
calling for
women's
rights.
2.
IMMIGRATION
In
Chapter 8 you were a
newly arrived immigrant. Building on that experience, write an editorial casting temperance as an
issue of immigrants' rights.
urban areas?
WORKING FOR REFORM
303
1820-1860
Chapter 10
EXPANSION
AND CONFLICT
UNDERSTANDING
THE MAIN IDEA
In the early
800s Americans moved
beyond the boundaries of the United

States
and
into
New Mexico,
present-day Texas,
California,
and Oregon.
These migratons resulted

flicts
with
in U.S.
Mexico and Great
and the expansion of U.S.
con-
Britain
territory to
the Pacific Ocean. This expansion
disrupted the ways of life of Native
Americans and Mexicans
living in
these areas.
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT How might individual

economic choices
affect a gov-
ernment's policies?
CULTURAL DIVERSITY
Why
might a nation of many
cultures experience short-term

conflict but
emerge stronger
in
the long run?
GLOBAL RELATIONS Why

might
territorial
expansion lead
to international as
domestic
v\êll
as
conflicts?
1836
1846
1848
1851
Treaty of Fort
Laramie signed.
Texas declares
U.S. Congress declares
Gold discovered
independence.
war on Mexico.
in
California.
The 19th century was the principal era of

::
LINK TO THE PAST
America.
In
North
U.S. expansion in
803 the Louisiana Purchase added to the United States a
vast portion of the continent west of the Mississippi River.
Then
in
1819 the nation acquired Florida from Spain.
-5
mi
-kw-ina
IT
n 1827 the Mexican government sent General Manuel Mier y
Teran, a hero of the struggle for
Mexican independence,
to inspect
Mexico's northeastern border. In a report written two years
later
he
described the United States as hungry for more territory:
The North
adjoins them.
Americans have conquered whatever territory
In less
than half a century, they have
become masters
of extensive colonies which formerly belonged to Spain and France,
and of even more spacious territories from which have disappeared

the former owners, the Indian tribes.
Mier y Teran warned

States
his superiors that people in the
United
were already calling for the annexation of Texas. He predict-
ed that soon U.S.
settlers in
in the territory."
settlers
the
**
Texas would begin
to "incite uprisings
His words proved prophetic:
both American and Mexican rose up
in
1835, Texas
in revolt against
Mexican government.
Americans also moved
to other territories in these years. After
1820 the search for trade and furs drew American
Mexican provinces of
New Mexico
settlers to the
and California and
to
Oregon
Country, jointly occupied by Great Britain and the United States.
These migrations caused conflicts as the United States sought
expand
its
to
boundaries to include
the territories.
Carl Nebel's 1851 print of U.S.
troops entering Mexico City
Covered wagon moving westward
EXPANSION AND
305
Section
THE LURE OF THE WEST
C [} S
What argument
did western expansionists use to win support for
their views?
Why
did the
What
Mexican government
conflicts
American
invite
settlers into Texas?
between the Texans and the Mexican government
led to revolution?
How
did Texas independence affect Tejanos?
Mjefore 1820 few

territories
U.S. settlers ventured into the Spanish
of Texas, California, and New Mexico. Even fewer,
mainly trappers and traders, went

territory to
to
Oregon Country;
which Great Britain and the United States shared a
disputed claim. After 1820, however, U.S.
settlers,
driven by the
search for economic opportunities and rich farmland,

the
Far West
them
the
in
moved
to
increasing numbers. U.S. expansionists urged
on.
from The Funeral of an Angel
Detail
Many Americans
ANIFEST DESTINY
supported manifest destiny.
Northerners troubled by economic instability and
urban crowding believed that expansion would
In 1845 the
magazine editor John
L.
O" Sullivan
coined the phrase manifest destiny, which

expressed the popular belief that the United States
lessen population pressures and
would
create
new
markets for U.S. products.

Southerners hungr) for more land for cotton
territory to the Pacific
production also supported manifest destiny. To
Ocean. O* Sullivan urged the United States to ignore
counter northern fears about the spread of slavery,
other nations' claims to territory in North America:
they suggested that expansion would actually help
was destined
to extend
its
Upper South by shifting the

slave population westward. This argument
end slavery
44
Away, away with
all
these
cobweb
tis-
sues of rights of discovery, exploration,

settlement.
The American
claim
is
by
the right of our manifest destiny to over-
in the
appealed to northern whites
who opposed
slavery
but did not want to see freed blacks settle in the
North.
spread and to possess the whole of the

continent which Providence [God] has
given us for the development of the great
experiment of
306
:;
liberty.
**
U.S. expansionists argued that it

was the nation's manifest destiny
to claim
all
of
North America.
Not
tiny,
all
Americans supported manifest des-
Some
however.
objected to expansion because
were already claimed by other nations.
the lands
empresarios (em-pruh-SAH-ree-ohs). businesspeople

for
who
new
agreed to recruit and lake responsibility

.settlers.
The empresarios
attracted thou-
Others feared that expansion would produce a

nation too large to govern. But for most
sands of settlers to Texas. Though Mexico granted
Americans, particularly those facing the sometimes
some
bitter realities
of the market revolution, debates
over manifest destiny were of
and opportunity were
little interest.
Land
main concerns.
their
most empresurio contracts

to Tejanos.
1824
tract in
He founded
to
Americans,
it
gave
Martin de Leon received a con-
to settle
Mexican families
Texas.
in
Victoria, Texas, as the capital of his
colony. Lorenzo de Zavala, a prominent
Mexican
politician, received a grant in eastern
Texas
in
829, but transferred the contract the next year.
EXICAN TEXAS
Mexico promoted U.S.
ment
clearly visible in the
By 1815
crossed the
Mexican
territory of Texas.
few hundred Americans had already

Sabine and Red rivers and settled in
Moses
This immigration increased after Mexico

its
in
U.S. invasion.
northeastern Texas.
won
independence
in 1821.
After more than 10
years of fighting Spanish rule. Mexicans estab-
settle-
Texas to shield Mexico

from Indian raids and a possible
U.S. settlement of foreign territory was most
Austin, a Missouri businessman hop-
ing to rebuild his fortunes after the Panic of 1819,
was
the first
tract. In
American granted an empresario con-
1821 the Spanish granted Austin permis-
lished the independent Republic of Mexico.
sion to start a colony, but he died before he could
Mexican
recruit
authorities
encouraged U.S. immigration
to its northern territor>' to boost Texas's
non-Indian
population, which was about 4.000 in 1821.
as a barrier
tactic
risk.
Mexican
offi-
United States, which had twice
by force. The few thousand Tejanos
icans living in
chance of blocking an inva-
sion.
But
Mexico could
enough American
them
Texas
to select a
Many
of the settlers were cotton farmers
who
brought enslaved African Americans with them.
By
1830 Austin and the other empresarios had relocated
some 7,000 Americans
to Texas.
native MexTexas stood
little
turn
to
colony.
land in the United States sold for SI. 25 an acre.)
raiders.
was a calculated
(tay-HAH-nohs)
if
site for his
Austin,
Recruitment proved easy, since Austin sold
purchase Texas, would one day take the
territory
assumed the grant and went
F.
large lots for 12 cents an acre. (At the time, public
cials feared that the
tried to
His son. Stephen
would serve
the non-Indian settlers
and Apache and Comanche
The
settlers.
between Mexico's northern settlements
hoped
Officials
any
recruit
settlers
into loyal
Mexican
and
cit-
something it hoped to
accomplish by making them
izens
landowners
the countr\ might
build a defensive force large
enough
sion.
to prevent a U.S. inva-
As
a precaution, however,
Mexican
the
government
planned to recruit other foreign

settlers to offset the
American
presence.
As an additional
guard,
safe-
Mexico did not open
set-
tlement to everyone. Instead,
gave generous
it
land grants to
Shown here
are Mary and John Rabb, two of the

in Stephen F. Austin's colony.
first settlers
to
receive a land grant
307
slavery in 1827. but Texans had negotiated a law to
The TEXAS REVOLUTION
classify slaves as indentured servants. If the gov-
ernment overturned the law, they feared
By
1830, non-Mexicans outnumbered the Tejanos
by about two
to one.
These new
arrivals
made
In
little
Mexico, fearing a rebellion
in
1834 the tense situation worsened when
General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna seized con-
effort to learn Spanish or adapt to Mexican culture.
In 1830,
that the
Texas cotton industry would collapse.
Texas as
trol
of the Mexican government. Santa
Anna
own
further immigration from the United States and
representatives with his
prohibited funher importation of slaves to Texas.
of state power angered the residents of
to slow immigration.
Mexican
states, including
By 1835 approximately 25,000 Americans, including some 3,000 slaves, lived in Texas. Many of
American
settlers
these immigrants had entered illegally.
scale rebellion
But these measures did
little
elimi-
nated state representation by replacing elected
well as a U.S. invasion, closed the Texas border to
appointees.
The
Texans. Outraged
and Tejanos rose up
in revolt the
next year. Isolated clashes quickly grew into a
The recent immigrants deeply resented the

1830 measures. Slaveholders feared that Mexican
authorities would soon crack down on the practice
known
as the
loss
many
full-
Texas Revolution.
Conflicts over immigration,
and state power

the Texas Revolution.
slavery,
of slavery. The Mexican legislature had banned
In
led to
December 1835. Texas
rebels captured San Antonio.
Other volunteers soon joined

Santa Anna,
them.
several
thousand
troops, arrived at
leading
Mexican
San Antonio
in
February 1836 to restore

Mexican rule. From the Alamo,
a
stronghold built by Spanish
missionaries. 187 Texas rebels
fought off repeated attacks by

Santa
6.
Annas
troops.
Mexican troops
On March
finally over-
ran the fort, killing all 187
some 30
The Mexicans paid
rebels (but sparing

civilians).
a
heavy price for
though
some
A few weeks
their victory,
1,500 casualties.
later.
Mexican
troops defeated a Texas army
near Goliad (GOH-lee-ad) and
Mexican victory
executed some 350 prisoners.

Texan forces
Texans. who had

declared their independence
The
Mexican forces
on March
2,
were badly shaken
by these defeats.
T/te
Texas Revolution
LONE STAR REPUBLIC
Texans wanted to become part of the
United States after winning independence, but for nine years

policy
and domestic politic prevented
PLACE
Which
the Texas Revolution?
308
CHAPTER
10
city
U.S.
foreign
this.
saw both Texan and Mexican
On
April 21,
1836, however, a Texas army
victories during
under the command "of Sam

Houston surprised Santa Anna
near the San Jacinto River.
Shouting, "Remember the
Alamol." and "Remember
GoliadI," the Texans tore
2.
settlers
()()()
estab-
lished larms with the
supplies
and
seeds
Castro provided.
The Texas government also allowed a
German company
to
1845
recruit settlers. In
company's agent,
the
Prince Carl of SolmsBraunfels, and several
German
families found-
New
ed
Braunfels
in
From
central
Texas.
1844
1847 the Ger-
to
man company brought
In this painting
to
Sam
by William H. Huddle, Santa Anna is shown surrendering

Houston. Houston, who is lying on the blanket, was wounded In the
ankle at the Battle of San Jacinto.
more than 7,000 German

settlers to the land
it
called the "Paradise of
North America."
through Mexican lines, killing about 630

Mexican troops
ing Santa
in less than
Anna
20 minutes and tak-
San
prisoner in the Battle of
Jacinto. With his troops already diminished and
supplies low. Santa
Anna agreed
troops and grant Texas

set
its
to
remove
his
independence. Texans
Following a German
in
New
small
and house
lot
German
Texas
town. Ferdinand Roemer, a
in
who traveled to
new colony's
geologist and naturalist
in the 1840s,
described the
houses:
up the independent Republic of Texas, electing
Sam Houston
Zavala the
The
the first president and Lorenzo de

vice president.
first
ernment refused
The Mexican gov-
houses were of diverse architecture.
Some houses were
studding framework
to recognize the Republic.
were frame while
ZÎFE IN
THE REPUBLIC OF TEXAS
filled in
otheirs
were
Several families
were packed
no matter how
small
it
1837
Sam Houston
some were of
with brick, some
of logs,
was.
such a house, where men,

In
most families
tradition,
Braunfels had a farm outside town and a
huts.
into
The
one house,
interior of
women, and
chil-
dren were cooped up with their unpacked
petitioned the U.S. Congress
for annexation. But northern opposition to admitting
chests and boxes, often looked
another slave state and a cautious foreign policy
age of an immigrant
ship.
The
new Republic of Texas, shown here

Houston. The capital was later moved
like
the steer-
**
toward Mexico kept the U.S. Congress from granting the petition.
From 1836 to 1845 Texas existed as

known as the Lone Star
an independent republic,
Republic because
its
flag
had a single
star.
In
1857,
first
capitol of the
was located
in
to Austin.
French and German immigration.

One of the Republic's first tasks was to bring
more settlers to Texas. In 1842 the Texas
congress awarded Henri Castro, a French banker
of Portuguese descent, an empresario grant in
September 1844 Castro brought

many of them
35 French colonists
central Texas. In
his first
from the German-speaking region of Alsace to

found the town of Castroville just west of San
Antonio. In the colony's
first year,
more than
309
The families did
crowded
not remain
for
for long,
however, since most soon moved out of town and
on
settled
Many
their farms.
rebels.
He
then joined
Houston's army and
families kept their
homes in town, but used them only when they

came into town for church or shopping.
German settlers spread their farming prac-
fought bravely
Battle of
San
in the
Jacinto.
Segufn served as mil-
language, and customs throughout the Hill
tices,
besieged
the
itary
Country of central Texas. German-language
commander
San Antonio
of
after the
newspapers, church services, and social clubs
war. bringing order
helped them retain their language and customs for
to
many
reassurance to the
generations.
San Antonio and
threatened Tejanos.
Discrimination against Tejanos. The

German
Tejanos did not fare as well as

in the
Lone Star Republic. During
many Tejanos had fought and
settlers did
the revolution,
died alongside other
Texans. After the revolution, however, a
revenge against
all
of
Mexicans prevailed. Many
Anglo Texans rushed

property.
spirit
to seize
Tejano lands and
Anglo Texans attacked some Tejanos
and drove many others from the country.
noh se-GEEN),
member
of a prominent San
mayor of San
Antonio, Seguin worked to improve conditions

for Tejanos.
"The American straggling adventur-
ers," he later wrote of those early years,
already beginning to work their dark intrigues

against the native families,
was, that they
owned
whose only crime
large tracts of land and
The pressure on Segufn gradually mounted.

"At every hour of the day and night," he
me
"my countrymen
the Texas
tion." In
1842 Anglo pressures forced Seguin
to
Mexico. Seguin eventually returned
to
ran to
flee to
pendence and recruited Tejanos
Texas for a time, but he lived out his
became
to face
Santa
in battle,
he
Mexico, where he died
in
for protec-
last
years in
890.
a captain in the Texas cavalry.
Segufn escaped the slaughter
at the
Alamo
only because he was sent through the Mexican

lines
later
recalled,
Revolution began, Segufn joined the fight for inde-
Anna. After distinguishing himself
"were
was a
settlers,
When
tragic victim of prejudice.
the Texas congress and as the
a senator in
desirable property."
Juan Nepomuceno Seguin (nay-poh-moo-SAY-
Antonio family and friend of Anglo
As
in
desperate
attempt to find help
SECTION
IDENTIFY and
After independence
Tejanos
faced increased discrimination
and
lost
much
of their land.
REVIEW
explain the significance of the following: manifest destiny, Tejanos, empresarios,
Martin de Leon, Lorenzo de Zavala, Stephen
Sam Houston,
Nepomuceno Seguin.
Revolution,
F.
Austin, Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna, Texas
Battle of San Jacinto, Henri Castro, Prince Carl of Solms-Braunfels, Juan
LOCATE and explain the importance of the following: San Antonio. Goliad.
MAIN IDEA How did western expansionists try to gain support for their views?
I.
2.
MAIN IDEA What
did the
Mexican government hope to accomplish by encouraging American
settlement of Texas?
3.
4.
IDENTIFYING CAUSE AND EFFECT Describe

Revolution. What caused these conditions?
WRITING TO INFORM
the conditions faced by Tejanos after the Texas
Imagine you are a newspaper reporter. Write a news story giving three
causes of the Texas Revolution.

5.
310
SYNTHESIZING How
CHAPTER
did Texas's empresario policy contribute to the state's cultural diversity?
AMERICAN EXPANSIONISM
-*
FOCUS
What
issues
and events led to the war between the United States
and Mexico?
What territories did the United States gain as a result of the war?
What was the impact of the war on former Mexican citizens?
Jueled by
expansionist dreams, southerners
add Texas and
By 1850
and Democrats hoped
Mexican borderlands
the northern
the United States did indeed
expand
to the
United States.
to the Pacific
war with Mexico and after
but only after a bloody
to
Ocean
intense political
conflicts within the United States. This expansion disrupted the lives
offormer Mexican citizens living
in the
newly conquered regions.

1
846 cartoon
criticizing
Polk's policies
could not agree on a candidate
after they
Xexas annexation
convention. (A dark horse
is
a candidate
at their
who
has
not been considered a strong contender prior to the
From
when Texas won
independence, to
convention.)
1845. the question of annexing Texas never died.
Clay's
1836.
its
Convinced of America's manifest destiny to

expand westward, many citizens believed Texas
Whig
platform, on the other hand,
made no mention of
the Texas issue. Polk received
170 electoral votes to Clay's 105. but the popular
should be added to the Union. The issue caused
vote was
much
heated debate in Congress.
New
which he
would have won
The debate over annexation.

of Texas annexation argued that
if
Supporters
Texas was not
closer. In fact, if
York
lost
the election
closer to the brink of
with Mexico. Mexico had
independent Texas as a source of cotton and as a
previously warned that
market for British goods. Opponents of annexa-
would consider U.S. annex-
however, feared Texas's admission would
ting the balance
The
the
power
in
Congress by upset-
between slave and
free states.
issue of western expansion
dominated
which Whig
1844 presidential campaign,

Henry Clay of Kentucky opposed
in
electoral votes.
pushed the United States
admitted to the Union. Great Britain might

its influence there. Britain wanted an
increase the South "s
by 7
he
Polk's immediate call for Texas annexation
increase
tion,
Clay had won
by only 5,080 votes
war
it
ation of Texas "equivalent
war
against
the
Mexican
Republic." On March 28.
1845, in the wake of the
to a declaration of
party candidate
Democrat James K. Polk.
Tennessee
politician.
Polk called for annexation of Texas and Oregon.
He became
the dark horse choice of the
Democrats
James and Sarah Polk

were the first presidential
couple to be photographed.
31
I^tStDENTIAL LIV^
congressional resolution annexing Texas.
Mexico broke diplomatic
relations with the
United States.
K. POLK
795- 1 849
JAMES
1
Prelude to war.
crnnicni's anger by
Polk fueled the Mexican gov-
demanding
that
it
recognize the
in office
Rio Grande as Mexico's northern border. The Rio
Grande was about 100 miles
.south
1845-1849
of the Nueces
(nooh-AY-suhs) River, which Mexico recognized as
between Texas and Mexico. To
the dividing line
James K.
back up the demand. Polk ordered troops under

General Zachary Taylor to
As Polk was
territory.
move
into the disputed
CENTS
11
temporaries thought
11
him unsociable
well aware, a U.S. military
armed clash with Mexican
minded. Because of
beliefs,
troops.
After receiving information that

willing to resume
John
politician
Polk sent
Mexico in late 1845 to

Grande as the U.S. -Mexico
Slidell to
establish the Rio
boundary and
Mexico was
diplomatic relations,
to
territories in the
purchase the remaining Mexican
When Mexican
Southwest.
Giving
angrily.
in to public outrage, the
government refused
Mexican
to negotiate with Slidell.
immediately ordered General Taylor
to
Polk
move
deeper into the disputed area. While publicly

insisting that the troops
American
territory,
commit an
act that
were only defending
Polk hoped that Mexico would
would justify war.
cold,
his wife's strict religious
Polk shunned the social
White House.
Besides, his
"No
time for recreation.

believed,
work
"who performs
his
of
life
Washington. Dancing was even banned
the
in
ethic left
little
President," Polk
duty
faithfully
and
conscientiously can have any leisure."
He
citi-
zens learned of Slidell's mission, they reacted
formal, and closed-
presence south of the Nueces River would almost

certainly provoke an
Polk's con-
usually rose at
most of Washington was
ate breakfast before
awake. After a
late into
day
full
would return to
dawn, took a walk, and
in his office,
the president
desk after dinner and work
his
the night. Polk confided to
that the duties of the presidency
his diary
sometimes
bewildered him. After attending several elaborate diplomatic receptions, he wrote, "Such cer-
emonies seem very ridiculous to an American."
XhE MEXICAN WAR

Months passed and Polk's impatience grew
On May 9, 1846, he finally received the
stronger.
news he had been waiting
for:
Mexican troops had
crossed the Rio Grande and had attacked a U.S.

patrol.
Polk sent his war message to Congress.
"Mexico," he
said,
"has invaded our territory and
shed American blood upon the American
May
soil."
On
in
December 1847 challenging

spilled. If the site
was indeed on American
he would support the war;
soil,
war was
3 Congress declared war.
where American blood had
identify the exact spot
been
the
its
tory.
U.S. annexation of Texas and

quest for more territory led
to war with Mexico.
if not,
he said, the
unjustified.
In addition, Polk's
The
the president to
war was aimed
acquiring more slave
at
The Liberator
opponents charged
called the
that
terri-
war one "of aggres-
sion, of invasion, of conquest." In
Concord,
Massachusetts, writer Henry David Thoreau went
Americans respond. Some

ticularly
312
:!
Whigs and
Americans, par-
northerners, criticized the
to jail rather than
pay taxes
Mexican War, calling it "Mr. Polk's war."

Congressman Abraham Lincoln of Illinois, for
"disgraceful, cruel
example, introduced a series of "spot resolutions"
Americans "leave off
CHAPTER
10
to support the war.
Abolitionist Frederick Douglass
lic." In riveting
condemned
war with our
public speeches, he
sister
repub-
demanded
this horrid conflict,
the
that
abandon
murderous plans, and forsake the way
their
ol
blood."
Generally, however,
Americans especially
southerners and westerners wanting Mexican

supported the war. Young men eager for
lands
adventure rushed to
enlist.
The two
sides clash. While Taylor pushed

into northern Mexico, other U.S. forces seized
New Mexico and California. In August 1846 an
expedition led by Brigadier General Stephen
Kearny (KAHR-nee) took Santa Fe and won control
of
New Mexico.
California,
where
Next, Kearny marched to
a group of U.S. settlers in north-
ern California had recently revolted against
Mexican
rule.
Declaring California an indepen-
dent republic, the settlers raised a flag bearing the
image of a grizzly
bear, giving the uprising
its
the
Bear Flag Revolt. Captain John C.

Fremont, an American army officer and explorer
who had led an expedition into California in 1845,
name
helped organize the revolt after receiving a secret
message from Polk.
marines under the
U.S.
Commodore John
command
Monterrey (the capital of the province)

Kearny's troops
of
Sloat had already captured

in July.
faced armed resistance
first
at
San
the Mexican
MEXICO LOSES A VAST TERRITORY

acquisition in the Southwest
was gained
MOVEMENT
would a
Pasqual (puh-SKWAWi) near San Diego. After several other battles, troops led
Commodore Robert
F.
War
Why
The United States" huge
at Mexico's expense.
U.S.
general want to seize Veracruz?
by Kearny and
Stockton defeated Mexican
troops in January 1847 at San Gabriel near Los
Angeles, completing the U.S. conquest of
Soon
In
thereafter, fierce fighting raged in
Mexico near
the hacienda of
Buena
men
withdraw, Taylor
great loss
some
Anna to
battled Santa Anna's force of
15,000. Although the battle forced Santa
me
Vista.
February 1847 Taylor's force of fewer than
5,000
on both
thought they'd run like
sheep; instead, they turned on us like bobcats."
Despite the fierce resistance. U.S. troops reached
Mexico City
in
September. They took over the
National Palace, which President Santa
Anna had
already abandoned. In the hilltop garrison of
sides," he wrote, "has deprived
cadets fought hard to hold off U.S. soldiers.
at the victory.
Despite their individual heroism, Mexico City's
bold siege of Mexico City marked the

war's final campaign. Led by General Winfield
some 10,000 U.S.
fied castle at Veracruz
on the Gulf of Mexico
Scott daringly maneuvered

the very heart of the
in
the coast. General
into position to attack
Mexican
nation.
He avoided
large-scale battles, thereby preserving both sup-
and soldiers for the
defenders
fell as
U.S. troops assaulted and cap-
tured the capital on September 14.
troops captured the forti-
March 1847. Marching from
Mexicans
We
how them
Chapultepec (chuh-POOL-tuh-pek). young Mexican
joy
plies
fight.
told us
"The
felt little
of everything like pleasure."
Scott,
"Nobody ever
[Mexicans] could
California.
northern
soldier wrote:
of
Guadalupe Hidalgo. By
September 1847, U.S. forces held California and
New
Mexico; General Taylor's troops occupied
much
of northern Mexico; and General Scott's sol-
diers held
Mexico
City. In February 1848 the
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (GWAHD-uhl-oop
siege.
valiantly defended the long,
tainous road to the capital.
The Treaty
moun-
One wounded U.S.
hi-DAL-goh) ended the war on terms dictated by the
United States.
i:
313
HISTORY
BY DR. RICHARD SALVUCCI
the
in
War
'the Mexican
F ew
Americans consider the
War
Mexican
point
major turning
U.S. history.
in
Even
Raima
la
not yet formally recognized.
ments stand CO mark the events.
Although Mexico believed
contrast, Mexicans view
t
*r
independence and annexation by

the United States Mexico had
and Palo Alto, no great monu-
In
In
some Mexicans hoped

reconquer Texas, whose
addition,
to
in
Brownsville. Texas, the site of
the battles of Resaca de
the "Colossus of the North."
on
"right"
had
it
side and fought
its
from the
Detail
the war as a
critical
event
bravely,
in
their history. Every year
large
monument
the fighting.
the
names
Mexico City
in
Many
who
died
in
streets bear
of soldiers, and their
portraits appear
on Mexican
Mexican and
the American views
differ?
To
answer that question, we need

to look at the
war through
Mexican eyes.
In
early
846
U.S.
them some 80,000 Mexican
At the war's end the

United States
laid
ural
about two
Tragically for Mexico, gold,
land
fifths
of
all
Mexican
To
as the spoils of war.
Mexico the terms of the Treaty
unfair
and
were
as
between Mexico and the United

States.
Mexico saw these troops
as an invading force.
The United
States had been pushing
bor-
its
ders toward Mexican lands for

decades.
in
The
Louisiana Purchase
1803, the acquisition of
Florida
in
settlers to
1819, the migration of
Oregon Country, and
the annexation of Texas

all
in
845
convinced Mexico that
New
Mexico
For many years after the
lize its
Cresencio Rejon, cried:
its
ther losses of territory to the
our
side,
what
United States. As a
the right on
all
most of the
cannot see by
result, for
9th century,
Mexico focused on
justification [the
internal
United States] comes to us
rather than external
giving us as a condition for
inward-looking policy delayed
the reestablishment of the
Mexico's
peace .... the renunciation
world marketplace.
[forfeit]
of our northern
frontier
from sea to
and
all
In
omy
sum
of 18,250,000 pesos [IS

million dollars].
full
affairs.
This
entry into the
the 20th century, as
Mexico's government and econ-
sea,
for the measly
have grown stronger,
political
99
Mexican
some
leaders have used the
War to
criticize U.S.
expansionism and foreign
policy.
resentment at the United States
territories.
this land
was
twentieth of
less
its
than one
for
The war and the terms

California and
defend their homeland against
ritories
were
New
Mexico
becoming the most powerful
country
value.
the treaty shattered Mexico.
they had no choice but to
10
Many Mexicans have expressed
United States as a land-hungry
CHAPTER
to prevent any fur-
the United States offered for
aggressor Mexicans believed
::
government and develop
economy
According to Rejon, the sum
Thus, Mexico saw the
314
California just nine days
in
California and
the entire continent. Mexico

its
ered
war, Mexico struggled to stabi-
Americans intended to occupy
feared for
Mexican economy, was discov-
Congress member Manuel
44 With
on the border
which could have boosted the
had been. As one
of the treaty, Mexican
troops crossed into disputed

territory
resources of the regions.
before the signing of the treaty.
unjustifiable as the
U.S. attack
critic
citi-
zens and the tremendous nat-
claim to
Mexico's northern territories
of Guadalupe Hidalgo
currency.
Why do the
848 Treaty
of Guadalupe Hidalgo
stand the U.S. attacks.
Mexicans make pilgrimages to a
that honors those
army could not with-
its
the Americas at
of
Mexico's expense. Thus, even
Its
today the Mexican
ter-
taken, and with
in
War
remains
an important part of Mexican

consciousness.
Qoundanes, 1853
iA.S.
TERRITORIAL EXPANSION
more
territory
would help ease
PLACE
How many
Many Americans supported westward expansion,
social
states
believing that
and economic problems.
were admitted
to
the Union
between
1820 and 1853?
WEBSTER-ASHBURTON TREATY OF 1842
OREGON TREATY 1846

The treaty extended the 49th parallel boundary from the Rockies
to
Sound, then through the channel around Vancouver Island to the
Pacific.
The treaty with Britain settled the boundary between Maine and Canada.
Puget
The treaty also adjusted the U.S.- Canadian border from Maine westward
to the
VANCOUVER
Lake of the Woods.
I.'
PACIFIC
OCEAN
120^,
MEXICAN CESSION 1848

In
the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo,
Mexico gave up much of
its
land
in
"^
return for $ 5 million.

1
GADSDEN PURCHASE 1853
<=><
Pushed by southern transcontinental railroad builders, the United
States paid Mexico
$10
million for this land, which
the boundaries of the continental United
By
all
States.
'
known
as the
California, Nevada, and Utah, and parts of
United States agreed
New
to
Mexico. In
pay Mexico
1845
return, the
$15 million
In 1853 U.S. diplomat

tiated a deal with
strip
Mexico
James Gadsden nego-
to purchase an additional
of land south of the Gila (hee-IuH) River (in
present-day southern Arizona and

for
Date admitted
to the Union
Acquired by WebsterAshburton Treaty
Gadsden Purchase
the present-day states of
Arizona, Colorado, and
Mexican Cession
Atbers Equal-Area Projection
Guadalupe
ao
Texas Annexation
Oregon Treaty
200 Kilometers
claims to Texas and
surrendered the vast territory
Mexican Cession:
200 Miles
rounded out
the terms of the Treaty of
Hidalgo, Mexico gave up
Acquired by
$10
million.
Mexico)
With the Gadsden Purchase the
United States had acquired

tory north of the
New
all
of Mexico's
terri-
Rio Grande.
and take over payment of the damages claimed by
Americans against Mexico. The United States also

agreed to grant
full citizenship to
Mexican Cession and

beliefs
and property
Mexicans
in the
to respect their religious
rights.
EXICAN AMERICANS
With the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, two
fifths
of Mexico's territory and some 80,000 Spanish-
Mexico surrendered present-day

California, Nevada, Utah, and
parts of Arizona, Colorado, and
New Mexico to the United States.
speaking people became part of the United States.
But many of these new citizens felt, as one

Mexican American explained, like "foreigners in
their
own
land."
!:
315
prejudice and discrimination helped spark
Mexican American rebellions

Juan Nepomuceno
in the
Southwest.
Cortina, a Tejano rancher and
began one such rebellion
politician,
in
1859.
Cortina shot and wounded a Texas marshal
had been using excessive force
who
to arrest a fellow
Tejano. Cortina fled south across the Rio Grande

to
avoid imprisonment. There he found sympa-
thetic supporters,
border to
whom
he led
across the
in a raid
avenge the murders of Mexicans by
Anglos. Cortina explained:
44
There
is
no need to
fear.
Orderly
people and honest citizens are inviolable

[sacred] to us
ests.
French artist Theodore Gentilz painted this scene of San

Antonio, Texas, around 848. The painting is entitled Invitation
Our
in
object
their persons and inter.
has been to chastise
[punish] the villainy of our enemies.
These have connived with each other
to a Ball.
to persecute and rob us, without any cause,
and for no other crime on our part than
For some Mexican American landowners

with
relatively easy. Despite the guarantees of the

treaty,
that of being Mexican
Anglo Americans, adjustments were
ties to
however, most Mexican Americans
their lands.
New American
Spanish land
titles,
settlers
New Mexico
lost
Cortina continued his raids off and on into the
challenged
1870s. In response to such rebellions, Anglos in
and California
for generations fought costly legal battles to
defend their claims.
Some former landowners
became peons or took low-paying jobs

mines or on the
Texas and
Many Americans
ings,
to subside.
in the
After
looked
its
down on
the cul-
blend of Spanish and
the Mexican War, many

Mexican Americans lost their
lands and faced violence and
discrimination.
SECTION
REVIEW
explain the significance of the following: James K. Polk, Zachary Taylor, John
Mexican War, Stephen Kearny, Bear

Hidalgo,
intimidated Mexican
and even murders. The bitterness raised by the
Mexican War was slow
Indian ways. The resulting atmosphere of
IDENTIFY and
New Mexico
American communities through harassment, beat-
railroads.
ture of the region, with
99
848
and Mexican Americans whose
families had resided in
in origin.
Slidell,
Flag Revolt, John C. Fremont, Winfleld Scott, Treaty of Guadalupe
Gadsden Purchase, Juan Nepomuceno Cortina.
LOCATE
and explain the importance of the following: Rio Grande, Nueces
River,
Monterrey,
Chapultepec, Mexican Cession, Gila River.

I.
MAIN IDEA What events led to the Mexican War?

MAIN IDEA What problems confronted Mexican Americans after the Mexican War?
GEOGRAPHY: LOCATION What present-day states did the United States acquire as
a result of
the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo and the Gadsden Purchase?
WRITING TO CREATE
Chapultepec. Write a
HYPOTHESIZING How
if
316
Stephen Kearny, John
CHAPTER
10
Imagine you are a Mexican cadet
poem
who
fought
in
the siege of
describing your efforts to defend the hilltop fort.
might the terms of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo have been different
Sloat,
and Robert Stockton had not contributed to the war effort?
THE FAR WEST

u
How did mountain men and Native Americans advance the fur trade
and western settlement?
What
How
on the Oregon Trail?

Americans respond to the flood of white settlers?
difficulties did U.S. settlers face
did Native
9,n the early 1800s U.S. merchants carried on a lively trade with residents of New Mexico, California,
and,
later,
and Oregon Country. These merchants
fur trappers established
trails that
into these regions in the 1840s. Missionaries
Oregon Country
in the first
American ways of life.
brought new settlers flooding
and farmers moved
into
half of the 19th century, disrupting Native
U.S. settlement of Oregon
another international dispute,
this time
Country also led
to
with Great Britain.
Fur trapper
such merchant was
The PROMISE OF TRADE
WiUiam
Becknell. In 1821 he
loaded a wagon train with tools, clothing, and

other goods and blazed a
westward from
Mexico. There, he
trail
New
U.S. merchants began trading in the Far West as
Missouri to Santa Fe,
early as 1790. Boston mariners sailed around
traded his merchandise for furs, livestock, and
South America and up the Pacific coast
to trade
with the coastal communities of California. People

in these
communities were eager
to
exchange
furs,
tallow (animal fat used in candles and soap), and

cattle hides for U.S.
manufactured goods. But
American
wanting to be arrested for
traders, not
silver.
Becknell's huge profits encouraged other
merchants
Santa Fe
controlled
to cross the
approximately 700-mile
Trail. Within a
much
decade U.S. merchants
of the trade with the Mexican
borderlands.
violating the Spanish ban on foreign traders, sel-
dom
ventured far inland.

After Mexican independence in 1821. how-
ever, the
new government encouraged
trade with
Many
U.S. mer-
the neighboring United States.
chants looked to Mexico for
new
markets.
-iJyii^J&to.,!.^'.
One
This print of Santa Fe is based on a drawing by

Richard H. Kern. Before the opening of the Santa
Fe Trail, New Mexicans relied on pack trains from
the neighboring state of Chihuahua for most of
their supplies.
;:
317
On
came the fur

mountain men. Beaver pehs. which
were used to make men's hats, were in great
the heels of the merchants
trappers, or
present-day Reno. Nevada. Today, the pass, mountain
peak,
and nearby town bear
valley,
Beckwourth's name.
demand. American Indians helped the mountain
men extend
new
the fur trade to
in the fur trade as trappers,
interpreters. Indian
women were
tioning of the fur trade.
guides, and
vital to the
men and American
Indians trapped furs and blazed

trails that would take U.S.
American Indians
ing with other Indian groups.
worked
Mountain
areas by negotiat-
the
settlers to the Far
func-
West.
They skinned and prepared
the beaver pelts and provided food and special
clothing for the trappers.

It
was
River and
most
its
in the
tributaries
profitable.
ceeded
Rockies
in part
along the Missouri
that the fur trade
The Rocky Mountain
proved
fur trade suc-
because of the rendezvous system
worked out by William Ashley,
a Missouri politi-
cian and owner of a fur-trading business. Ashley
SETTLING OREGON COUNTRY

The
fur trade also spread west of the Rockies to
Oregon Country.
In
1811, U.S. fur trappers
founded the fur-trading post of Astoria near the
mouth of
Columbia River on
the
Although the
fur trade
way
the Pacific coast.
proved disappointing, the
more U.S.
recognized that transporting furs out of the Rockies
venture paved the
was expensive. To cut
newspapers publicized the trappers' route to

Oregon Country in 1813. This route, known as the
costs,
he persuaded his trap-
pers to remain in the mountains and gather once a
year to
sell their furs
system increased
and purchase supplies. This
men
fanned out for hundreds of miles across the

Rockies trapping beavers. In the process the
of the mountains and pioneered the
trails that set-
used to reach the Far West.
Mountain men
like
Trail, followed the Platte River across
Hugh
descended into Oregon along the Snake and

Columbia rivers.
rest-
and adventurous trappers explored every inch
tlers later
U.S.
settlers.
treeless plains to the lowering Rockies, then
profits.
After each rendezvous the mountain
less
Oregon
for
Glass, Jim Bridger.
Farmers and missionaries.
The new route
was of
particular interest to farm families
wanted
to settle in
Valley.
The
first
who
Oregon Country's Willamette
U.S. settlers in the valley were
who
and Kit Carson became American legends. African
American
American mountain man James Beckwourth also
as farmers just south of present-day Salem,
won fame. Beckwourth
Oregon,
spent his last years
fur traders
and
their families
settled
in 1830.
exploring and looking for gold. In 1850 he discov-
Missionaries were also attracted to the region,
ered a key mountain pass a few miles northwest of
not for fanning but as a fertile ground for converting
American Indians
to
Christianity. In
1833
the Christian
Ad-
vocate and Journal.

a Methodist
per,
ter
newspa-
published a
let-
supposedly from
an American Indian
requesting missionaries to instruct the
M James Beckwourth was

known
to exaggerate
some
of his daring deeds, but he

did lead an interesting
He served in two
among the Crow
life.
wars, lived
Indians,
and established the trading

post pictured here.
Routes to the West

OREGON FEVER
establisfi
The presence of missionaries,
America's claim to the Oregon Country.
Oregon and Washington
PLACE
or
Look
territories
at the
relief
were created
fur
in
traders and
trappers, and settlers fielped
1848 Oregon became a
In
territory,
from which
1853.
shown on the map. Did the Santa fe
Trail
pass chiefly through
flat
mountainous land?
MAKAH
i^HINboK^
t?'
BRITISH
WASHINGTON
TERRITORY
KUKITAT
Astori^'A
YAKIfvTA
Portland l? ft:âncouver v
NORTH AMERICA
ê '"'''^ô^
J.POKANE
V
-WA|.LA
WALLA
Gulf of
Mexico
95*W
1,500 3,000 Kilometer:
SO'W
Miller Projection
Indians of Oregon Country in the Christian faith.
Historians
suspect that the letter was
pious hoax, but Methodist response
was
at the
time
The half Canadians were my portion.

About twenty understood French, [which]
spoke simply to them.
Methodist missionary Jason Lee

arrived in Oregon Country in 1834. Missionaries
from other Protestant denominations soon
who
followed.
were requested to
swift.
Catholic missionaries from France established a church
and boarding school for Indians
Sister
Mary
Cornelia had the best portion, which consisted of
about a dozen old Indian
did not
know
women
word of French, yet

know their prayers in
that language. Imagine, then,
what
task for pupils as well as teachers!
a painful
99
near present-day Portland in 1840. In her journal
Mary Catherine Cabareaux described the

language problem the missionaries faced when
converting the Indians to Christianity. Besides
trying to teach Indians about Christianity:
having a natural desire to retain their
Sister
Missionaries had
little
success, though, in
own
beliefs
i:
319
and traditions, many Native Americans blamed the
The
missionaries for spreading the diseases that
required that the travelers pool their resources.
severely reduced the Native American population.
some blamed the missionaries

waves of new settlers through their
In addition,
attracting
ters,
difficult journey.
The rugged journey

The
travelers helped one another repair broken
for
equipment, shared information about the
let-
and traded goods.
Some
trail,
of the larger traveling
groups even wrote codes of law and elected
speeches, and newspaper articles.
officers for the journey. Traveling in large groups
impact. As more
Political
to
U.S. settlers
Oregon Country, Oregon became an
moved
issue in the
1844 presidential campaign. Polk had already
won
also helped the pioneers deal with such obstacles
as ravines,
swollen
claimed America's right to
all
of Oregon Country.
Using "Fifty-four forty or fight" as
his slogan
(meaning he favored setting the border with

Canada
it
was
5440' north
at
latitude),
the
all
Once
way
to
in office,
expand
Polk made good on his
promise to acquire Oregon. Great Britain and the
Early snows
in the Sierra
left
the trip
the
Nevada
Donner
in
1846.
California only after resort-
ing to cannibalism.
Even under
ney was long,
Oregon.
in tragedy.
snowbound
The survivors reached
Polk declared that
the nation's manifest destiny to
westward
could end
party
rain-
rivers.
Even with cooperation, however,
southern support by calling for the annexation of

Texas. To win northern support as well. Polk pro-
deep mud. heavy snow, and
it
wagon
had
the best circumstances, the jour-
difficult,
and extremely dangerous.

even slower when
train traveled slowly,
to cross a river or stream. Since there
no bridges or
ferries, a river
was
were
major prob-
United States had quarreled for decades over the
lem, sometimes taking days to cross and often
boundary of Oregon Country, which they had
exacting a
jointly occupied since 1818. Several times the
Deady,
toll in
who was
human and animal

11 years old when
lives.
Lucy
her family
United States had suggested a division of Oregon

at the
Now
49th parallel, but Britain had always refused.
Polk astounded the British by claiming
Oregon up
to the southern
all
of
Only 47 of the 87 members of the
border of
Donner party survived the snow-
present-day Alaska.
clogged passes of the Sierra Nevada.

Before resorting to cannibalism, the
group ate mice, twigs, and their own
Polk was bluffing. He hoped the

threat of
war would persuade
the British
shoes.
American offer of a
boundary at the 49th parallel. The two
sides finally reached an agreement in
to accept the old
June 1846 to extend the U.S. border to

the 49th parallel (see
map on page
The agreement allowed

Vancouver
315).
Britain to keep
Island. Polk, increasingly anx-
ious about the growing tensions with
Mexico, could afford

Oregon.
And
to
compromise over
Britain concluded that the
North American fur industry, which was

in decline,
was not worth
fighting over.
XhE OREGON TRAIL

Even before
the
boundary dispute had been
settled.
U.S. settlers flocked to Oregon Country. Between
1840 and 1848. thousands of

overland
trail to
wagon
the challenses of the overland
CHAPTER
10
followed the
Oregon. Pioneer families orga-
nized themselves into large
320
settlers
trail.
Two
survivors,
Margaret and
James Reed, are shown here.
trains to
meet
crossed the Oregon Trail
1846, later described
in
the hazards of the journey:
remember how
I
filled
with terror
was when we experienced the

derstorms.
K^.^
violent thun-
Our oxen would
71. <^
try to
stampede, our tents would be blown down,
and everybody and everything would be

soaked with the driving
rains.
to cross a desert that took
one
all,
we
We
had
days' and
at
every keg and dish with
filled
water so the
There was no water
night's travel.
so
two
cattle should have
**
well as ourselves.
water as
This painting by Alfred Jacob Miller shows Native

at Fort Laramie.
Americans encamped
Pioneers often suffered from exhaustion and
disease.
To
seemed
to take forever.
all
Lavender noted,
the travelers, the trip to
was
it
As
Oregon
historian David
a "remorseless, unending,
weather-scoured, nerve-rasping plod on and on and
on and on, foot by aching
foot."
ity,
and invariably [always] comes out A-1
in a bargain."
Although eastern newspapers played up

reports of Indian massacres of hundreds of
travelers,
Travelers on the Oregon Trail

faced a long, difficult journey,
with unpredictable weather and
many natural obstacles.
in
Women
played
They cared
They
ficult conditions.
managed
died,
vital roles in this vast
for children
Well-defended wagon trains were hard
and American Indians
women had
dif-
also drove oxen and
livestock. If their
husbands
fell ill
or
The over-
to take over entirely.
land trek was especially difficult for pregnant
women. Many women died

trail.
Speaking of her
sister,
along the
in childbirth
one
woman
knew
she does not
remember
a space along there.
It all
Still, settlers
Responding
pain.
**
other Indians near what
Wyoming,
From
in 1851.
is
this
now Laramie,
meeting came the
Treaty of Fort Laramie. By the terms of the

treaty,
each American Indian tribe accepted a

the U.S.
government
to
and
to the Indians
to
make annual pay-
honor the boundaries
of each tribe's territory. For the most part, the

treaty kept the
peace
until 1861,
when
the contin-
uing surge of non-Indian settlers touched off war.
assistance.
American
-ONFLICT IN
Indians often helped migrants cross Indian lands.
American Indians acted as guides, carried

messages between wagon trains, and sold wild
game to the travelers. Settlers often complained
tolls for
government
held a conference with the Sioux, Cheyenne, and
ments
like a
and the never ceasing
American Indian
that Indians
some-
feared the possibility of attack.
to such fears, the federal
the United States promised to
jumble of jolting wagon, crying baby,

dust, sagebrush
to locate
build roads and forts in their territory. In return,
anything for quite
seems
settlers
defined territory, pledged not to attack settlers
wrote:
were so great that
sufferings
to attack,
most
farther west.
moving west, and allowed
Her
that
were only crossing Indian lands
migra-
and cooked under
lost their lives
Indian attacks between 1840 and 1860.
where
tion.
fewer than 400 pioneers
drove hard bargains and charged
One woman
of no mean abil-
crossing their territories.
wrote, "The Indian
is
a financier
stiff
As
OREGON
the 1840s passed, the
wore deep
ruts in the
Oregon, and the
trail
wagons' heavy wheels
roadway from Missouri
became
littered
to
with house-
hold goods discarded to lighten the wagons. Ortce

in
Oregon Country, most migrants moved
into the
Willamette Valley to establish farms. Though
321
Oregon was
which Indians had no immu-
not quite the par-
some had claimed
adise
it
nity. In addition,
to
stayed and prospered.
the Indians
few African Amer-
among
icans were
new
settlers
the
coming
As
Oregon
Indian lands,
the
were free blacks or escaped
wars
White
settlers
more
some American
settlers look
Indian tribes fought back. In
brought west as slaves; others
slaves.
of a series of Indian
first
Oregon Country,
in
sionaries
slavery but did not necessarily
Whitman and 12 others near

what is now Walla Walla,
Washington. The resulting
blacks
as
equals.
Concerned with competition
from black labor, whites

tried to
region.
New
free blacks
militia
discourage African
Americans from
from serving
white
women
to
Oregon Trail and

across the Rocky Mountains.
tion by U.S. officials of the
travel along the
five
and from voting.
ders. Later, in the early 1850s.
American Indians and
rich natural resources.
lived in
Klickitats.
shellfish, river
vegetables and
By
came
at
the region's
variety of Indian tribes
Oregon Country, including
Makahs. and
These
the Chinooks,
tribes lived off
the
Yakimas (YAK-uh-maws). Walla Wallas,
Spokanes, and others unsuccessfully fought
Indians continued to fight settlers
on
who
trespassed
their territory.
salmon, deer, elk, and wild
fruits.
with settlers disrupted Native American
Oregon Country. The contacts
life in
resulted in the spread
of measles, smallpox, and other diseases against
U.S. settlement of Oregon

Country disrupted the lives of
American Indian tribes, some
of whom fought to retain their

lands.
SECTION
REVIEW
explain the significance of the following: William Becknell. mountain men, rendezvous
system. William Ashley, James Beckwourth, Jason Lee. Treaty of Fort Laramie, Cayuse War.
LOCATE
49th
1.
and explain the importance of the following: Santa Fe
Trail,
Oregon
Trail,
Willamette
Valley,
parallel.
MAIN IDEA What
contributions did the mountain
men and American
Indians
make to the
fur
trade and western settlement?

2.
3.
4.
MAIN IDEA What led American Indians to armed resistance in Oregon Country?
GEOGRAPHY: LOCATION Why do you think the Oregon Trail was established beside rivers?
WRITING TO EXPLAIN Write a short guidebook warning travelers of some problems they
might face on the Oregon
5.
Trail.

result of the arrival of missionaries
CHAPTER
10
in
to
defend their lands. For many years American
the 1840s, however, increasing contacts
IDENTIFY and
Cayuses judged responsi-
ble for the missionaries' mur-
in the
U.S. settlement of Oregon Country
ocean
first
Marcus and Narcissa
Cayuse War. which began in

1847. ended with the execu-
Whitman
Missionary Narcissa
was one of the
settling in the
laws prevented
the expense of
:;
group of Cayuses killed mis-
in
Oregon generally opposed

accept
322
for
survival.
Some had been
Country.
wildlife
depended upon
wave of
to
non-Indians
much of the
be. the majority of farmers
destroyed
unintended consequences
Oregon Country?
befell
American
Indians as a
THE RUSH TO CALIFORNIA
FOCUS
Who
were the
What was
How
life like in
and how did most reach California?
the gold-mining camps?
did the gold rush change California society?
Wv^/2 as
made
forty-niners,
the
their
Americans
Mexican War raged
way
to California.
on, small
groups of U.S.
settlers
But the Californios and Native
living in California in
1848 were soon
be swamped
to
by afar greater migration of people from around the world. In

cities
across the United States, newspaper headlines shouted
their largest type a single electrifying
word: "Gold!
in
The Patron, or Ranchero of Old
"
California
by James Walker
where San Francisco now stands. Also scattered
tARLY SETTLEMENT
over
immense
this
territory
were the haciendas
small communities in themselves.

California, a land of rare beauty, vast distances,
and
In
1834 Mexico took land away from the
unbelievable contrasts of climate and topography,
Catholic missions and transferred the land to set-
has from
tlers.
In
earliest
its
days attracted diverse
settlers.
1769 more than 300.000 Native Americans lived
in California.
in the 1790s.
Spanish settlement began to increase

Since few Spanish
women
California in the late 18th century,

soldiers married Native
tled
permanently
migrated to
many Spanish
American women and
in California.
set-
The Spanish govern-
Mexican
officials issued
most along
after 1834.
some 700 land
the California coast
grants
between
San Diego and San Francisco. Some of the land was

to
be given
to the
mission Indians. Most of the land,
however, went to Californios and Anglo
many mission
moved inland.
a result,
or
Indians either
As
settlers.
became peons
ment encouraged these unions by offering the

Spanish soldiers land if they married Indian women.
The
first
known
Spanish
settlers
and
their descendants are
ÔLD IN CALIFORNIA
as Californios.
Spanish officials tried to bring more Spanish

colonists to California
by
recruiting artisan families
to teach mission Indians blacksmithing, carpentry,
herding, cooking, and sewing.
About 18 percent of
these colonists and over half of the original settlers
the mid- 1800s there were
some 8,000
to
12,000 Californios dispersed throughout several

settlements,
late as
1830 only about 500 Americans lived
California,
earliest
most of them merchants.
non-Spanish
Augustus
Sutter, a
among them San Diego. Los Angeles,
Monterey, and Yerba Buena (yuhr-buh BWAY-nuh),
Among
in
the
settlers in California
was John
Swiss adventurer
who had
acquired a huge Mexican land grant

Sutter's headquarters, an
of Los Angeles were of African descent.
By
As
adobe
post near the Sacramento River,
fort
in
1839.
and trading
was a major
ping point on the California Trail, a
stop-
trail that
forked off southward from the Oregon Trail (see

the
map on page
319).
i:
323
** eat
-g.,.^.
/ -^
111
1
-<r
v'^:
Forty-niners' tents cover San Francisco's Telegraph Hill in this gold-rush-era painting.
Posters such as the one above encouraged immigrants to pool their resources and try
their luck in the goldfields of California.
On
ees,
January 24, 1848, one of Sutter's employ-
James W. Marshall, detected flakes of heavy
yellow metal
to divert
at
the bottom of a
wooden
canal used
Story of former laborers
President James Polk confirmed the accounts, and
water from the American River. Marshall
the great California gold rush
reached my hand down and

made my heart thump, for I was
was gold." He was right, and word of the
far
By
later recalled, "I
picked
it
certain
it
up;
it
Soon
after the
was
on.
early 1849 hopeful gold seekers
away
as Europe, Australia, and
North America
to join the
from as
China sailed
news reached San Francisco, a
Many
goldfields.
to the
so
traveled to
of the U.S. forty-niners
called because of the year, 1849
newspaper complained:
to
thousands of Americans,
Mexicans, and South Americans trekking
gold strike spread quickly.
local
washing out $50 of gold a
day with nothing but shovels and dishpans. Soon,
California through the mountain passes of the
The whole country from San Francisco
California Trail.
to Los Angeles, and from the shore to the
the Salt
base of the Sierra Nevada, resounds with
By
the sordid cry of
go/d.'
Gold!!
GOLD!!!
while the
field
half built,
and everything neglected but the
is
left half
planted, the
manufacture of shovels and pickaxes.
house
99
the
had
Lake
end of
sailed
tip
trail,
which passed through
May
849, more than 40,000 people
from Independence, Missouri, on the
set off
dangerous
The
Valley, stretched almost 2.000 miles.
trip to California.
down
Other forty-niners
the eastern seaboard and around the
of South America or to Central America, where
they crossed over by land to the Pacific Ocean and
That was the newspaper's

staff, advertisers,
last issue.
Left without
or subscribers, the editor sus-
pended publication and rushed
to the goldfields
in
324
::
of the discovery reached the East Coast
September 1848. Dispatches
CHAPTER
San Francisco.
By ship and covered wagon,
10
told the exciting
from
over the
world rushed to California hoping
to make their fortunes in gold.
forty-niners
himself.
News
sailed north to
all
The mining
cannps. These mining camps,

with names like Skunk Gulch, F'oker Flat, and
Hangtown, were
dirty, disorderly,
and dangerous.
Law enforcement
scarce, but there
uncomfortable,
were
officers
was no shortage of thieves and
gamblers ready to relieve miners of their money.

prospector could easily strike
be broke a week
it
rich
one day and
later.
While some miners found riches beyond

wildest dreams
one man took out
pounds of gold from a single claim

days
in just
most found only disappointment.
months went
by.
newcomers eager
their
whopping 52
eight
As
the
for fortunes
passed disappointed forty-niners on the California

Trail.
Many
of the
William Swain
latter
probably
did. After a
felt
as prospector
summer of "hardship
and exposure." Swain confided regretfully

ter to his
wife that
"it is
in a let-
a fact that no energy or
industry can secure certain success in the business
of mining."
The gold rush added

California society.
Though
to the diversity
nearly 80 percent of the
forty-niners were Anglos or African
The
California gold
Rush
of
Americans
from the United States and about 8 percent came
from Mexico, others arrived from around the

FORTY-NINERS
The discovery of gold at Sutter's
world: almost 5 percent from South America and
sawmill on the California Trail drew thousands of people
from
all
most of the
over the world.
rest
from Europe, Australia, or China.
This international mix of gold seekers helped swell
PLACE Why
did Sacramento and Stockton
become
California's non-Indian population from
important during the gold rush?
some
14.000 in 1848 to more than 200.000 in 1852.
Many
Xhe
cultures mingled and clashed
in the unruly mining camps during

the California gold rush.
forty-niners
Most gold seekers were young, unmarried men

only 5 percent were women and children. The few
women who went

tumble
to California
life far different
found a rough-and-
from the one they
who
behind. Louisa Smith Clapp,
CaUfomia with her husband

frantic
in 1849,
left
sailed to
described the
atmosphere:
44
The news spreads
that wonderful "dig-
gings" have been discovered
[men] rush
vulture-like upon the scene and erect a
round tent, where,

swearing and
in
fighting,
Pandemonium
gambling, drinking,
the
mony reproduce
while a few honestly and
commence digging for gold, and

fairy's wand had been waved.
industriously
lo!
as
if
a full-grown mining
existence.
99
town hath sprung
into
Mining camps attracted groups of different ethnic and racial

backgrounds. Miners at Auburn Ravine are shown here in 1852.
325
THE GOLD RUSH

m^n
April
851 Belgian jean-Nicolas
250 to 300 per-
Per/ot arrived in Monterey, California,
with 44 other
men
hired by a French gold-
Upon
seeking company.
landing, the
Hornitos from
men
sons, all
the prime of
life:
saw no women
discovered that during their six-month
voyage from Europe the company had
there, nor children, nor
gone bankrupt. "There we were," Perlot
old people. In business, they spoke
wrote, "thrown on the shore like cast-
English
aways, without money, without resources,
covered with brush, we heard
an unknown land whose language we
When
The group looked for work
camp near
Hornitos, a mining
Yosemite
around
Valley. "All
in
precious metal
reported Perlot.
relying
seeking this
"I
estimate that there could have been at
Conflict
the mines. Because
in
possible
all
his
prospects
in
California
more
on
his skills as
By
a gardener, he built
a successful nursery and landscaping busi-
in
still
successful than his mining ventures.
the
but people occupied

,"
the street,
started a business that would be
the
.
in
dried up, Perlot went to Oregon. There he
in
we saw nothing
creeks, in the gulches,
and Spanish;
tongues spoken."
did not understand."
ness
and hired miners who had found the
gold
boom
a bust.
Many Chinese
they
left the
gold camps and
reached the goldfields early, Californios made
returned to China. Others headed for rural areas
some of
throughout the Far West, where they became field
By
the
late in
first
major gold
strikes, or discoveries.
1849. however. Anglo American miners
outnumbered
all
other groups and increasingly
workers or tenant farmers.
where they worked
Some
By 1852
grocers, or unskilled laborers.
notices declaring that "foreigners'" had no right to
Chinese population numbered over
African Americans
American miners ignored
the fact that the
Californios were not foreigners: under the terms of

the Treaty of
Guadalupe Hidalgo, they were
zens of the United States.
remained
in the goldfields
Many
Californios
.000.
and free
that they possessed a mysterious
to deal with the strange but
black miners
widely held notion
power
to detect
gold. Fearing competition, white miners tried to
drive African Americans from the goldfields.

better. Shortly after
Cahfomia. which they called
Gam
Saan (Gold
Mountain). Prospective Chinese miners often bor-
rowed money
to California.
to strike
it
at
high interest rates to buy passage
The majority were males who hoped
rich quickly
Anglo prospectors
them
ers. In addition to racial prejudice,
citi-
word of the gold rush reached China, men from

Guangdong (gwahng-doohng) Province headed
also suffered at the hands of the white min-
who
were beaten: some were
The Chinese fared no
force
California's
enslaved
had
killed.
for
alike
settled in cities,
as merchants, storekeepers,
drove Californios from their claims. They posted
be there and must leave the mines. These Anglo
and return home. But
once they
had arrived
in
often took advantage of the Chinese, using
as poorly paid laborers while keeping
from staking
:i
in
in
326
men
CHAPTER
10
their
own
claims.
them
Many Chinese abandoned

mining camps and became
laborers in areas throughout
the Far West.
Lawmakers showed
similar prejudices.
Urged by
delegates from the mining districts, hiwmakers
Indians were responsible, organized a posse and
When
seriously considered, but finally rejected, banning
130 people.
blacks from migrating to California. They did,
front of a firing squad:
however, deny African Americans the rights
44
some African
Americans became independent miners, and a

it rich. By
I860 some 4,000
handful even struck
free blacks resided in California.
Most
the miners gathered 7 Indians in
to
serve in the state militia and to vote.

In spite of these obstacles,
settled in
they [the Indians] broke and ran.

given to
diately
The others who had
the
fell.
hills
bowie
fire,
knives.
shot.
shore,
The other swam to the opposite

but was prevented from landing by
.
until ...
he sank to
Some American
mines.
Miwoks
rise
Indians fought back. The
Nevada and
the
San Joaquin
Valley,
the
American
The
Anglo property
in
known
Mariposa War,
as the
850.
raids,
1851. In the early 1850s, attacks by
suffering hardships. Fur trappers had
unknowingly
Mohaves (moh-HAHV-ees) of Arizona and
introduced malaria and other diseases, which phys-
weakened Indians and contaminated many
hunting grounds.
By
the early 1850s non-Indians
outnumbered Indians nearly two
Miners forced American Indians off
their
be
Yumas and
California
kept miners from crossing the Colorado River into

Indian territory.
The U.S. Army
end the raids but was forced

year. Later
to one.
to
lasted throughout
were already
ically
whose
which came
whom
of
**
no more.
lands had been taken over by miners, began raids on
The CALIFORNIA INDIANS

many
at
(MEE-wahks) and the Yokuts (YOH-kuhts) in
the Sierra
Indians of California,
into
one was
two mounted men who threw stones

him
fled to
Of the two who plunged
severe problem than in the mining camps.
Anglos soon took control of the

goldfields, pushing Californios
and other gold seekers from the
were overtaken and stabbed with
the almost freezing waters

.
and two imme-
The word was
towns, where discrimination was usually a less
The gold rush increased pressure on
more than
raided several Indian villages, killing
army
Indian resistance.
raids
on
to
built Fort
abandon the
Yuma
By 1860
Yuma
to
fort for a
weakened
villages
disease, starvation,
and
Many were
pressed into service in
violence had reduced California's Native American
the mines. Volunteer militia
companies and regular
population to about 35,000.
gold-rich lands.
army
units in California raided Indian villages,
even attacking groups

In
camp
that did not take
to find the place
Once the majority population
up arms.
one incident, two miners returned
American Indians
became a minority during the
ransacked and their five
companions missing. The miners, assuming
that
gold rush.
SECTION
IDENTIFY and
LOCATE
1.
2.
3.
4.
James W. Marshall,
War.
and explain the importance of the following: Sutter's Fort, American
River.
MAIN IDEA What drew the forty-niners to California? From which areas did the forty-niners come?
MAIN IDEA How were the California Indians affected by the gold rush?
GEOGRAPHY: MOVEMENT What routes did the forty-niners use to get to California?
WRITING TO CLASSIFY Write an essay that characterizes the experiences of the following
groups
5.
REVIEW
explain the significance of the following: Californios, John Sutter,
forty-niners, Mariposa
in
California,
to their
in
the gold rush: Anglo Americans, Californios, Chinese, and African Americans.
EVALUATING
Using the California gold rush as an example, explain
try to exclude another by stereotyping
them
why one
social
group might
as "foreigners."
327
General Antonio
Lopez de Santa Anna
Mexico wins independence

from Spain. Moses Austin
CHAPTER
granted permission to
start colony in Texas.
William Becknell crosses
Santa Fe Trail.
10
and
5.
list
ond next to
2,
the order
above,
the sec-
activity
3.
Gadsden Purchase negotiated.
4. Juan
in
Hypothesizing What policy changes might

Anna have made to increase Texans' loyalty
1.
Nepomuceno Cortina
begins rebellion
Analyzing
3.
How
IDEAS
the Far
line
1.
empresarios
7.
rendezvous system
2.
Texas Revolution
8.
Juan
3.
4.
Oregon Trail
Gadsden Purchase
5.
Mariposa
I.
Skills
West on
pages 3 7-322. Then study the out1
below and supply the missing main
A. Santa Fe
Trail
B.
Jason Lee
forty-niners
Rendezvous system
2.
6. William Becknell
II.
Settling
A.
Oregon Country
Early settlers
I.
What
social
changes did the Texas Revolution

2.
cause?
B. Political impact
2.
How
3.
war with Mexico?

What were the main reasons non-Indian
journeyed to the Far West?
did Americans' belief
in
manifest destiny lead

I.
to
How
did Native
respond to
Americans
in
the Far
2.
settlers
West
III.
Oregon
Trail
A.
B. Native American assistance
U.S. settlers?
IV. Conflict in
^REVIEWING THEMES
Econonriic
did the U.S.
government respond to farmers' and merchants'
demands
328
for land and trade
CHAPTER
10
in
Oregon
A. African American
Development How
Trail?
Handbook entry on Creating an
Promise of trade
Nepomuceno
Seguin
10.
contribute to the
on the Oregon
Outline on page 999. Refer to the text discussion of
9.
did not

Review the
AND
women
did
survival of settlers
quences of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo?
War
do you think Mexico
after the Texas Revolution?
in
Texas declares independence.
IDENTIFYING PEOPLE
Why
Evaluating
launch a full-scale invasion to reconquer Texas
Assessing Consequences What were the conse-
issues did
U.S. annex-
THINKING CRITICALLY
2.
Texas.
in
to Mexico before the Texas Revolution?
Oregon Country.
Missionaries arrive
4.
the positive and
Santa
2.
What were
ation of Texas?
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo signed.
5.
1830
which
in
next to
first
line
below.
1
^'
California during the gold rush?
Study the time

in
Global Relations What international

Americans consider when debating the
to
Oregon Country.
negative effects of the mingling of cultures
3.
Cultural Diversity
2.
of the chapter.
paper
1825
Number your
Missionaries arrive
in
1820
WRITING A SUMMARY
summary
Mexican government.
eview
write a
seizes control of
Mexico closes
the Texas border.
the Far West?
B.
I
2.
Cayuse
War
settlers
ideas.
Oregon boundary
Battles of
Alamo
Gold discovered in California.

Treaty of Guadalupe
Hidalgo signed.
dispute settled. U.S

Congress declares
and San Jacinto fought.

Texas declares
war on Mexico.
independence.
Polk elected
Purchase
War
Treaty of Fort
begins.
Laramie signed.
president.
Juan Nepomuceno
Cortina begins
rebellion in Texas.
Gadsden
Cay use
I
negotiated.
LINKING HISTORY
Writing to Persuade Imagine you are Juan

Nepomuceno Seguin, mayor of San Antonio in 1842.
Write a letter to Sam Houston, president of the
Study the
Republic of Texas, trying to persuade him to prevent
affected by geography.
map on page
AND GEOGRAPHY
Then write a paragraph

summarizing the general strategy of American forces
in the Mexican War and the way the strategy was
3
3.
Anglo Texans from taking land and property from

Tejano families.
American
L
^
soldier,
1846

Mountain of Gold: The Story of the Chinese in America
(1967), Betty Lee Sung presents the following account
In
of the leader of a Chinese miners' organization
addressing a group of newly arrived Chinese forty-
What
niners.
offer the
44
advice and support does the leader
new
arrivals?
When we
set foot
on these shores,
we were bewildered and lost. We did not

know where to turn for shelter or food.
Mexican
Fortunately, there were enough of us so that
some
set to putting
up these houses while
others looked for food.
One valuable
lesson
we have learned
and which you will soon appreciate is that

we must stick together and help one another,
even though we are not kin. That is why we
have formed
this organization.
among
us.
purchased from the shops on [Chinese]

street. No doubt you will want to send a
EXPANSION
article
Any needed supplies can be

let-
BUILDING YOUR
PORTFOLIO
cooperatively.
here
1839
You will always find food and shelter
soldier,
In
Chapter 7 you wrote an
about U.S. expansionist
that material,
now
policies. Building
on
imagine you are a U.S. govern-
ment representative in
a Mexican government
Texas. Interview a Tejano,

official,
and an Anglo settler
your families know of your

safe arrival. Elder brother Leong is a
learned man, and he will help you write your
to obtain their views about U.S. annexation
letters.
portrayed an immigrant. Building on that material,
ter
home
to let
When you have earned money from

your diggings or from your wages, you will
pay dues into the company fund. This fund
helps us to maintain the company headquarters
and helps us
set
take care of our own.
up an orderly system
to
of Texas.
IMMIGRATION
2.
now
in
In
chapters 8 and 9 you
imagine you are a Chinese immigrant working
the goldfields. Write four diary entries that
describe your reasons for coming to the United

States,
your
life in
a multicultural mining camp, and
your hopes for the future.
99
329
^
U N
^gntencan jO^tters
^he Matutal World
While American politicians argued over the creation of slave and free states
in the
early
9th century, writers
had more philosophical concerns. TransEmerson and poet Emily Dickinson
cendentalist author Ralph Waldo
pondered the meaning of nature.
song from the Tewa (TAY-wuh) Indians
and a Kiowa folktale recounted by Old Lady Horse
a similar
offer
appreciation for the natural world.
From
Emily Dickinson
nature cannot repair Standing on the bare ground
Mature
by Ralph
my head
bathed
Waldo Emerson
become
Crossing a bare
twilight,
common,
under a clouded
sky,
in
snow
puddles, at
without having
in
have enjoyed a perfect exhilaration. ...
In
woods
the
me;
[orderliness] and sanctity
[holiness] reign, a perennial festival
is
sand years.
faith.
no
In
There
disgrace,
how
he should
the woods,
feel that
no
we
tire of
in
a thou-
return to reason and
nothing can
calamity, (leaving
befall
me my
Dover Plain, Dutchess County,

Asher Brown Durand
me
in life
am
and uplifted
vanishes.
nothing;
am
part or parcel of God.
The name
trifle
and a disturbance.
than
am
In
the lover of
the wilderness,
something more dear and connate

in
[essential]
streets or villages. In the tranquil landscape,
and especially
in
the distant
line
of the horizon,
beholds somewhat as beautiful as
848), by
Some Keep
his
own
keep
With
And
it.
the Sabbath
just
And
Our
Home
a Bobolink' for a Chorister-
an Orchard, for a
Some keep
I
the Sabbath going to Church
staying at
Dome
the Sabbath
in
Surplice^
wear my Wings
instead of tolling the Bell, for Church,
little
Sexton^
sings.
God
preaches, a noted Clergyman
And
the sermon
is
never long,
man
nature. J*
Qoing to Church
Some keep
UNIT
all;
of the
by Emily Dickinson
330
see
which
eyes),
New York (
uncontained and immortal beauty.
dressed, and the
them
a transparent eyeball.
then a
find
guest sees not
air
mean egotism
be brothers, to be acquaintances, master or servant,

is
God, a decorum
all
nearest friend sounds then foreign and accidental: to
perpetual [everlasting] youth. Within these planta-
tions of
the blithe [free]
the currents of the Universal Being circulate through
my
thoughts any occurrence of special good fortune,
is
in
into infinite space
So instead of getting to Heaven,

I'm going,
1
all
along.
white
at last
men
built forts in
woolly-headed buffalo soldiers [the Ninth and Tenth

Cavalries,
song bird
made up
fast as
3 robe
coming on, even

who
rings the bell for services
Tewa
dred buffalo
We
bring you the
Then weave
gifts
for us a
you
kill
men
our Father the
Your children are we, and with
2 the
a day.
wagons
Sill.
the plains those
many
as a hun-
Behind them came the skinners
until
their loads to the
love.
being
garment of brightness;
stretched lengthwise on a
Up and down
ranged, shooting sometimes as
built,
they were
new
and then took
full,
railroad stations that
were
to be shipped east to the market.
Sometimes there would be
a pile of
bones
as high as
a man, stretching a mile along the railroad track.
The
buffalo
saw that
their day
was
over.
They
could protect their people no longer. Sadly, the
remnant of the great herd gathered
in
last
council, and
decided what they would do.
The Kiowas were camped on the north

Mount Scott, those of them who were still
camp.
yams
yams
the buffalo.
into the
tired backs
the
at Fort
with their wagons. They piled the hides and bones
Sky,
May the warp' be the white light of morning,

May the weft- be the red light of evening.
May the fringes be the falling rain.
May the border be the standing rainbow.
Thus weave for us a garment of brightness.
That we may walk fittingly where birds sing,
That we may walk fittingly where grass is green,
O our Mother the Earth, O our Father the Sky.
1
cemetery
were not enough to hold them back.

Then the white men hired hunters to do nothing
but
our Mother the Earth,
into the post
Soldiers
Song of the Sky Coom

O
of black troops] shot the buffalo as
they could, but the buffalo kept coming on,
2 singer in a church choir
4 church employee
the Kiowa country, and the
loom
One young woman
got up very early
morning. The dawn mist was
crossing the warp
still
side of
free to
in
the
from
rising
Medicine Creek, and as she looked across the water,

peering through the haze, she saw the
ISuffalo folktale
herd appear
like
last buffalo
a spirit dream.
Mount Scott the leader of the herd

walked. Behind him came the cows and their calves,
and the few young males who had survived. As the
Straight to
by Old Lady Horse (Kiowa)
came from the buffalo,

were made of buffalo hides, so were their
clothes and moccasins. They ate buffalo meat. Their
containers were made of hide, or of bladders or
stomachs. The buffalo were the life of the Kiowas.
Most of all, the buffalo was part of the Kiowa reliEverything the Kiowas had
Their
tipis
A white
gion.
buffalo calf
must be
sacrificed
in
when they
people or when they sang
healed
when
So,
men wantor when
the white
ed to build railroads,
it
ran clear,
chasing the red buds up the inside slopes. Into this
seen again. J*

1.
they wanted to farm or raise catthe buffalo
still
protected the
They
chased the cattle off the ranges.
as the
Kiowas loved them.
buffalo
does Ralph Waldo Emerson "become a transparent eye-
What
relation to nature
and
God does
he achieve
in this
What metaphor does Emily Dickinson use to represent nature?

Explain how this metaphor defines Dickinson's conception
of the natural world.
3.
buffalo loved their people as
There was war between the
How
ball"?
state?
2.
Kiowas. They tore up the railroad

tracks and the gardens.
The
much
as
Mount Scott the world was green and fresh,

when she was a small girl. The rivers
not red. The wild plums were in blossom,
had been
their prayers
to the powers above.
tle,
watched, the face of the mountain opened.
Inside
world of beauty the buffalo walked, never to be
the
Sun Dance. The priests used parts of the buffalo to
make
woman
In
the
this
4.
Tewa
song,
what represents the
natural world?
How
is
world created?
What
does the buffalo represent for the Kiowas?
folktale
How
does the
account for the disappearance of the buffalo?
and the white men. The
AMERICAN LETTERS
33
Sti^citegies for- S^^^c^ss

INTERPRETING
EDITORIAL CARTOONS
Cditorial cartoons
ings that
4.
are draw-
purpose.
in
page 266 of your textbook. Then,
the
speech balloons or caption.
on
Try to determine the cartoon-
answer the following questions.
a separate sheet of paper,
issues, ideas,
usually appear
message.
ist's
people, and events of the day.
They

Study the editorial cartoon on
Identify the points
of view being expressed
present points of
view on the
Consider the cartoonist's
are the central figures
trayed
newsmagazines. Although some
Andrew Jackson was
caricatures?
express a positive outlook, many
subject for editorial cartoonists of
al
sections of newspapers and
are
of a person or policy.
critical
To communicate
their
mes-
his
day
In
crown and
quently use caricature and sym-
scepter
bolism.
caricature
drawing
is
Symbolism
cal features.
of
one thing to stand
the use
is
for
some-
thing else. For instance, cartoonists
often use Uncle
Sam
to repre-
editorial
symbols
How
help
do the labels and the

make the cartoonist's
Judiciary of the U.
Cartoon
clear?
4.
What
is
(a) the cartoonist's
satirizing
Andrew Jackson
strewn
According to
his
Jackson had
abused
his constitu-
tional authority by
his
Most
that
vetoes of
bills
would have
"speech balloons," which may
rechartered the
serve as a sort of punchline.
national bank and
provided for inter-
How to
Interpret
Editorial
1 .
Cartoons
The cartoonist uses

symbols of monar-
Identify each figure
chy to accuse
and object.
distortions or exag-
whether
more
they cast the figure
a posi-
than the president
or negative
in
like a
king
of a republic. This
light.
Identify the synnbols used.
point
Determine what each symbol
by the condition
stands for
and position of the
Read the
title
and
labels.
Read and determine the meaning of any title
332
Jackson of acting
gerations, and decide
tive
3.
improvements.
Identify the caricatures.
Note any
2.
nal
UNIT
and
labels.
is
reinforced
papers and by the

title:
the
"King
First."
title
point of view and message
a club and a "veto" as
cartoon's message?
or other aspects of the picture.

also include captions or
toon contain?
3.
Improvements," and "U.S. Bank"
critics,
cartoons rely
symbols does the car-
and a book tided
underfoot.
Many
or are they
United States," "Internal
and a donkey to stand for
labels to help identify
What
realistically,
point of view and (b) the
phant to symbolize the Republican
on
shown wearing
a royal decree. Tattered
States are
the Democrats.
is
papers labeled "Constitution of the
sent the United States, an ele-
party,
2.
kingly robe, holding a
like
were
if it
a popular
the cartoon on this
page, Jackson
sage, editorial cartoonists fre-
that exaggerates or distorts physi-
in
the cartoon? Are they por-
the editori-
in
Who
Andrew
KiiN(.
AXDRE^ TKE
PER ST.

Outlined below are four

concepts involved.
historical
THE ECONOMY
century. Using the portfolio mate-
The market and
rials
trans-
portation revolutions
brought
significant
economic
8,
and then to various markets.
the period of the great-
Games
rials
you designed
and
10,
in
chapters 7
or ten-
conditions.
illustrate
INDIVIDUAL
RIGHTS
Rapid changes
the
impact of transportation systems,
society
new
led to
economic
technologies, and
policies
strikes,
southern
plantation to a northern factory
should
ement housing
an ethnic
life in
workers'
nativists,
create a
EXPANSION
America. Using the portfolio mate-
the United States. Plays
might describe
The 9th century was

North
in
community, encounters with
ment of cotton from
in
prepare a short one-scene
10,
about an immigrant's experi-
portfolio materials you designed
chapters 7 and
8, 9,
play
and the Middle West. Using the
board game that shows the move-
est U.S. expansion
chapters
in
and
ences
changes to the North, the South,
in
you designed
in
the
new
social
in
U.S.
of the
first half
800s
problems and
threats to individual liberties. Using
on new markets.
conduct a panel discussion
the portfolio materials you
IMMIGRATION
designed
cases the views of Anglo settlers,
Poverty, hunger, and
cuss the different ways political and
Native Americans, Tejanos, and
oppression drove many
social
about U.S. expansion that show-
government
officials
from both
Mexico and the United
States.
In
assigned groups, develop an out-
line
for a video collage of
between 1815 and

images that best
860.
illustrate
America
Choose
the
major topics of the period. Write

a script to
accompany the images.
Assign narrators to different parts

of the script, and present your
video collage to the
class.
chapters
7,
8 and
9, dis-
reforms were carried out by
immigrants from their homelands
presenting your posters, speeches,
to the United States
and pamphlets to the
in
the 19th
Further Reading
Videodisc Review
in
Ehle, John. Trail of Tears.

(
Johannsen, Robert
Doubleday
the
988). History of the Cherokees'
forced removal to Indian
Leonard
The Mexican
Luchetti, Cathy.
E.
W.
To the Halls of
Montezumas. Oxford
War
The Oregon
Under God's
Frontier Evangelists
Trail.
Harcourt (1989). The
work
J.
life
California
The World Rushed
Spell:
lives
and
of frontier evangelists told
through primary sources.
trail.
S.
985).
7 72- 1915.
Holiday House (1990). Firsthand
on the
examined
accounts and photographs of
Holliday,
through primary sources.
Territory.
Fisher,
class.
/n.
The
Gold Rush Experience. S
&
Mellon, James, ed. Bullwhip Days: The

S
Slaves
Remember. Avon Books
Trade (1981). Eyewitness accounts
(1988). Interviews with ex-slaves
of the California Gold Rush.
conducted
in
the 1930s.
REVIEW
333
^*
'Mm
Chapter
THE
CIVIL
1861-1865
SLAVERY'S EXPANSION
1845-1661
12
WAR
Chapter
RECONSTRUCTION AND
THE NEW SOUTH
1865-1900
334
13
UNIT
Vlar and
<s
Reunification
1845-1900
,^>
>X^
a*j|
n the 1840s and 1850s sectional
i
*
issues
particularly slaverydrove the
North and South further apart. For a

political
ft
*
1
time,
compromises kept the Union
together. Ultimately,
compromise failed,
and several southern
states seceded.
For four years, the North and the South

fought a bitter Civil
War until the North 's
superior resources brought
it
victory.
After
the war. Congress's plan to bring the South
back into the Union created long-lasting
bitterness
among southern
whites.
Much
of their anger was vented upon the freed

African Americans.
^
.-^
President Lincoln and General McClellan, Antietam,
862
Chapter
1845-1861
11
SLAVERY'S EXPANSION
UNDERSTANDING
THE MAIN IDEA
The
in
U.S. acquisition
848 reopened
over slavery
in
of Mexican land
the fierce debate
the West. Increasingly
the issue divided the North
and the
South as northerners tried to
limit
the
expansion of slavery and southerners

insisted that
into the
it
be allowed
to
spread
West
CONSTITUTIONAL
HERITAGE How
might
differ-
ent groups use the Constitution

to
justify
deeply held beliefs?
DEMOCRATIC VALUES
Majority rule
is
at the heart of
the democratic system.
Why
is
protection of the rights of those

in
the minority also essential to
the system?
Why
might people
in
different
geographic regions have conflicting
economic and
political
interests?
1845
1854
1850
Texas admitted
Compromise
to the Union.
1850 enacted.
l__
of
Republican
party formed.
1857
186!
Dred Scott
Jefferson Davis
case decided.
elected president
of Confederacy.
The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 prohibited slavery

::
LINK TO THE PAST
Northwest
slave states
slave
and
By the early
Territory.
in
the
1800s, however, several southern
had joined the Union. To maintain the balance between
Compromise
free states. Congress passed the Missouri
1820. But the compromise, which
banned slavery
in
in
much of the
Louisiana Territory, only postponed further conflicts.
,t
midcentury the deepening conflicts between the North, the
South, and the West involved

trade unionism,
main
women's
rights,
issues, including immigration,
and public-education reform. The
issue dividing Americans, however,
William H. Seward of
shadow over
New
now
York warned of
slavery. In
850 Senator
slavery's ever-lengthening
arrived at that stage of our national progress
[the] crisis [of slavery] can
directly before us.
halls,
was
the life of the nation:
WW We are
is
many
be foreseen
shadow
Its
is
question, political,
civil,
we
us.
It
darkens the
home and
ecclesiastical [religious]
brings up slavery.
it.
It
legislative
the hearth. Every
or
to the subject of slavery
but slavery, and
when we must foresee
upon
the temples of worship, and the
when
however
We
can talk of nothing but slavery.
foreign
hear of nothing
**
The issue of slavery indeed

loomed
large
on the nation's poHti-
cal agenda. Slavery troubled
many Americans,
ers could find
no
but their lead-
solution. Failed
compromises, renewed
strife,
and increasingly urgent attempts

to
hold together a divided nation
characterized this period of crisis
on the brink of civil war.
Hauling the Whole Week's Pickings

a detail
842),
Detail
from photograph of
slave leg irons
from one of four pieces by
William Henry
Brown
SLAVERY'S EXPANSION
337
Section
AN UNEASY BALANCE
FOCUS
Why
and new territories create controversy

solutions did Congress propose?
did the admission of Texas
Congress?
in
How
What
did the slavery issue affect the presidential election of 1848?
Why did
both proslavery and antislavery forces oppose passage of the
Compromise
IV
ith
of 1850?
the Missouri
Compromise
in J 820, the
resolved a serious clash over slavery. But

that a
North and the South
many Americans
showdown had merely been postponed. By
and southern members of Congress were

sion of Texas
and California
the 1840s northern
in conflict
to the Union.
realized
over the admis-
Arguments also erupted
over the extension of slavery into the western lands acquired as a

result
of the Mexican War As the conflict over slavery
Congress found forging a compromise more
intensified,
Zachary Taylor campaign
difficult.
without dispute
Xhe debate reopens

did not end the debate
over the spread of slavery. Although Congress
admitted Arkansas and Michigan to the Union
in
1848
pin.
1836 and 1837, trouble arose
when
the Republic of Texas petitioned for annexa-
tion.
Arkansas and Michigan had balanced each
other:
Arkansas allowed slavery, Michigan did
not.
The addition of Texas, which permitted slavery,

would tip the balance of power in Congress toward
the slaveholding states.
1845 Congress settled the dilemma on
In
terms favorable to the South. Congress not only

admitted Texas as a slave
state but
added
that with
the consent of the state's legislature, Texas could
be divided into as
many
as five states. At the
same
time. Congress extended the Missouri
Compromise
line (3630'
slaver>' north
of the
line.
N) westward and barred
(This affected only the northernmost tip
of Texas.)
No
sooner was the Texas question settled than
the issue of slavery again confronted the nation,
sparked
This painting by Donald M. Yena portrays the
ceremony that took place on February IB, 1846,
welcoming Texas Into the Union.
338
::
CHAPTER
II
this
time by the prospect of victory in the
Mexican War. Should slavery be allowed in any

territory acquired from Mexico? Proslavery and
antislavery forces in Congress quickly took sides.
To
PRESIDENTIAL UYbs
quiet the debate. President Polk and
others suggested extending the Missouri
Compromise
Ocean. Senator
line to the Pacific
ZACHARY TAYLOR
Lewis Cass of Michigan and Senator Stephen A.

Douglas of Illinois offered another solution rely
on popular sovereignty
citizens of each
new
to settle the issue:
territory decide
784-/850
the
let
whether
to
in office
permit slavery.
1849-1850
Neither proposal satisfied the hard-liners.
Congressman David Wilmot of Pennsylvania
duced an amendment
banning slavery
intro-
the Wilmot Proviso
in all lands
12 CENTS 12
acquired from Mexico.
Senator John C. Calhoun of South Carolina

responded by introducing a series of resolutions
in
support of slavery. The resolutions argued, in part,

that a
ban on slavery was unconstitutional since the
Constitution protected slaveholders" rights to their
property
including
slaves
in all
U.S. territories.
As
a popular U.S.
Army
"Old Rough
general,
and Ready" Zachary Taylor preferred blue denims to a uniform and led
mon
sense and a
general
was
his
troops with com-
camaraderie. The
spirit of
"perfectly unaffected by his brilliant
successes" on the battlefield, one officer wrote.
Admitting Texas and new

reopened the debate
in
territories
Congress
"[He
ners.
and unassuming
plain
is]
You
feel at
in his
hard-line position.
country as he had led
election
made
his
tried to run the
troops.
the national election of 1848 approached.
Congress
still
had not settled the issue. The
He dressed
decisions relying on his
common
sense. But he needed
more than
common
sense to grapple with the
momentous
issues of slavery and expansion.
As
man-
society."
As president, Taylor
informally and
1848
his kind
once comfortable and easy
over the expansion of slavery. Some

favored compromise; others took a
The
in
The
inexperienced hero of the Mexican

little
success
in
the battles on Capitol
politically
War
had
Hill.
Democrats chose Lewis Cass, who favored popular sovereignty, as their presidential
Whigs nominated
man whose
nominee. The
political views, if
indeed he had any, were unknown. Their choice
Mexican War hero General Zachary Taylor, "Old
Rough and Ready"'
had never even voted
presidential election!
slaves,
The
in a
fact that Taylor held
The Free-Soil party received only some
however, led both northerners and south-
erners to
assume he was sympathetic
to proslav-
291,000 votes out of the nearly 2.9 million
won enough Democrats' votes in key northWhig candidate, Taylor, to

win the election. Free-Soil candidates also won
several seats in the House of Representatives.
More important, the existence of the Free-Soil
ery views.
But
Angered by the reluctance of each party to

address the slavery issue, antislavery Whigs and
em
Democrats formed the Free-Soil party

1848.
The Free-Soilers demanded
that
in
August
Congress
prohibit the expansion of slavery into the territories.
some
Appealing to farmers, land reformers, and

industrial
workers of the North and West, the
Free-Soil platform also supported free western
cast.
it
states to enable the
party
showed
that politicians
could not continue to
ignore the slavery question.
The Free-Soil party, formed by
improvements. Proclaiming "Free Soil, Free

Speech, Free Labor, and Free Men," the party
Democrats and
Whigs, attracted enough votes in
848 to cost the Democrats the
nominated former president Martin Van Buren.
presidency.
homesteads as well as federal funding for internal
antislavery
SLAVERY'S EXPANSION
339

Proviso.
The slavery issue in congress
Some
of the proviso's southern opponents
even demanded
that
Congress adopt a resolution
affirming the right of settlers to hold slaves in the
When
Congress assembled
pers ran so high that
in
New Mexico
December 849, temin the House voted

1
members
Territory. In addition, proslavery
forces called for a tougher fugitive slave law. In
63 times before electing their Speaker. Congress
1842 the Supreme Court had ruled
was
cials did not
particularly divided over issues involving
California and
New Mexico
Mexican Cession,
the
the territories of the
free state,
something southern members
its
state officials to help.
debates over slavery already had

nation's largest religious groups.
into
an area the federal government considered part of
New
now wanted
slaves. Southerners
both inside and outside the halls of Congress. The
of Congress hotly opposed. In addition, Texas was

claiming that
that state offi-
assist federal officials in cap-
All these issues were politically explosive
to enter the
boundary extended westward
runaway
law that forced
the fruits of America's victory in
Mexican War. California wished
Union as a
turing
have to
and Baptist churches
in the
split
two of
the
The Methodist
South broke from
their
from
northern counterparts, forming the separate
members of
denominations of the Methodist Episcopal Church,
Congress were intent on limiting the size of Texas
South (1844) and the Southern Baptist Convention
the
Mexico
Territory. Despite opposition
southern lawmakers, the antislavery
New Mexico
and on barring slavery from the
(1845).
Territory.
Arguments over other questions involving
ULAY'S PROPOSALS
slavery also echoed through the halls of Congress.
Southern congressmen resisted a plan to abolish

the slave trade in the District of
Columbia. They
In January
also continued to block passage of the Wilmot
and February 1850, a weary Henry Clay
again urged northern and southern senators to
Percentage of
Population
More than
I 50 percent
'
40-49 percent
25-39 percent
10-24 percent
Less than
10 percent
Data unavailable
400 Kilometers
200
AJbn Egual-Ared
PTO)ct>on
African American Population, 1850

POPULATION GROWTH
Only some
percent of enslaved Afncans went to Bntish
North America. However, because of relatively low death rates, by
made up some 3S percent
mM
340
PLACE
CHAPTER
In
of
all
people of African descent living
1825 Afncan Amencans

in
the Western Hemisphere.
which states did African Americans make up a majority of the population?
compromise. "All society," he explained,
"is
formed upon the principle of mutual concession."
To
satisfy northern antislavery interests.
proposed admitting California as a
John C. Calhoun defended

worked to protect
the rights of southern states
against what he saw as the
"tyranny of the majority."
slavery and
Clay
free state, abol-
ishing the slave trade (though not slavery itself)

in the District
$10 million
of the
to
of Columbia, and paying Texas
abandon
New Mexico
its
claim to the eastern part
To persuade south-
Territory.
Three days after

Calhoun's speech, the
Whig
erners to accept these terms. Clay further proposed
veteran
New Mexico Territory be organized into

two territories New Mexico and Utah on the
port Clay's
compromise
basis of popular sovereignty. Further, he proposed
measures.
wish
Congress pass a tougher fugitive slave law.

This law would force state and local officials, and
today," Webster began, "not as a
even private
em
that the
that
citizens, to aid federal officials in the
capture and return of escaped slaves.
leader
Daniel Webster rose to sup-
"I
to
speak
Massachusetts man, nor as a north-
man, but as an American. ...
because the climate of the
The Great Debate.
For months Congress
The most
angrily debated Clay's proposals.

attack
came from
C. Calhoun.
bitter
the South's elder statesman.
On March
speak, he sat in silence as his speech
Calhoun warned
past.
that the time for
The nation could avoid
there. Therefore, legally barring slavery
would
endorsed Clay's proposal for a more enforceable
ill
read. In
war only
was unsuitable
growing cotton, slavery could not take root
U.S.
if
fugitive slave law.
Many
to
it
compromise was
civil
North allowed slavery to exist
was
Too
territories
that
anger southerners needlessly. Webster also
4, 1850, visitors to the
carried into the Senate chamber.
He argued
John
Capitol watched intently as Calhoun, near death,
was half
for
speak today for
the preservation of the Union."
the
in the territories:
northern
and Democrats
and
to Clay's
members of Congress, Whigs
alike, objected to
Webster's speech
compromise measures. While angrily
denying that the Constitution protected slavery,

they asserted that people were morally bound to "a
higher law than the Constitution." They opposed
If something
the South
will
decisive
is
not
now done
be forced to choose between
abolition and secession.
The
responsibility
of saving the Union rests on the North, and
not the South.
....
99
and urged
stricter fugitive slave legislation
Congress
to bar slavery
from the
territories.
Many
agreed with Senator Seward's opinion that on an

issue like slavery,
wrong and
compromise was "radically
essentially vicious."
Daniel Webster's con-
troversial speech before
the Senate
in
850
angered many northern
lawmakers. This picture
of the event was drawn
in
I860.
SLAVERY'S EXPANSION
341
PRESIDENTIAL Liyg^
in office
MILLARD FILLMORE
I8S0-I853
1800 '1874
Millard Fillmore
hardworking
As
was born
New
child he
age
into a poor,
York farm
family.
UNITED
was often without
STATES
decent clothes or
vide Fillmore with a trade, his femily
13 CENTS 13
meaning
its
before he
beyond
later
owned any books

few primers. At
Many northern
opposed
Clay's
in
continue the
Democrat,
before entering
fight.
finally
did
not live to see the outcome of the Great Debate,
Union
looked closely
the
led to the
formation of the Free-Soil party, and
many northern
Compromise
abolitionists
EVALUATING Why
CHAPTER
proposals did
how
did the party influence
oppose passage of the Compromise of 1850?
of 1850, and write a speech
did John C.
in
in
1850.
Choose one
of the measures
which you attempt to persuade
it.
Calhoun believe that the
belonged to the North and not the South?
S!
What
848 election?
other senators to vote either for or against
342
whether slavery would be

remained unresolved.
Webster, Millard Fillmore,
4.
5.
voting records, however, saw that
settle the controversy?
did
to
By
Compromise of
Those who
Lewis Cass, Stephen A. Douglas, popular sov-
Taylor, Free-Soil party, Daniel
Why did proslavery southerners oppose the compromise?

WRITING TO PERSUADE Imagine you are a U.S. senator
the
hailed the
REVIEW
MAIN IDEA Why
made up
at
allowed to expand
3.
that
850.
for national unity.
reopened the controversy over the expansion of slavery?
tant, the basic issue
Clay's
outcome of
9.
who opposed
Wilmot Proviso, Zachary

Compromise of 1850.
MAIN IDEA What
was admitted
on September
deep sectional divisions remained. More impor-
ereignty.
Congress consider to
favored them. The
Senator Douglas, the Illinois
as a free state
1850 as a triumph
SECTION
MAIN IDEA What
who
politics.
died from a stomach
compromise proposals, was succeeded by Vice
IDENTIFY and
pushed the compromise mea-
Many Americans
ailment in July 1850. Taylor,
he
became
September 20. the remaining measures had passed.
of 1850. Calhoun
who
whom
he, too,
sures through Congress. California
the territories.
nor did President Taylor,
With
off.
73-year-old Clay, however, was too exhausted to
compromise
The Compromise
President Millard Fillmore,
abolitionists
word and
memory.
teacher, and then a lawyer.
C-^cî^-^^j^
the
be allowed
married
^-
v.
proposals on moral grounds; proslavery southerners rejected any

compromise, insisting that slavery
the
in his
Fillmore's efforts paid
Fillmore was almost an adult
wooden
Each time he passed
the help of his teacher
maker.
2.
placed the dictio-
Fillmore looked up a
by,
fixed
I .
He
milling machines.
ease their economic burden and pro-
apprenticed him at age 14 to a cloth-
7 he bought a dictionary to study
nary on a desk between the
POSTAGE
To
sufficient food.
while he worked.
responsibility for saving the
Union
Sect ion 2
1
'^
COMPROMISE COMES TO AN END
s
r
How
did the Fugitive Slave

slavery?
Why did
Act of 850
1
on
affect northerners* views
the Kansas-Nebraska Act reignite the debate over slavery?
How did passage of the act affect Kansas?

What led to the formation of the Republican
party?
%ghe relative calm produced by the Compromise of 1850
was
brief.
Controversy over the fugitive slave issue continued
and western
North,
in the
settlement soon renewed the
national debate over the expansion of slavery.

fierce competition for control of the
new
On
the frontier,
govern-
territorial
"ill
ment of Kansas erupted
in violent conflict.
^^^^'-.'^ t^^-=f-^
Chances for comFugitive slaves escaping
promise seemed
to
from Maryland
be fading.
opposition to the Fugitive Slave Act, which was
XhE ELECTION OF
passed as part of the Compromise of 1850, refused
1852
to vote for Scott. Pierce
Although many
people were dissatisfied with the
Compromise of 1850, most Americans hoped

it had settled the slavery question. To tap into
optimistic
mood, both major
that
this
won
the election by a
landslide.
In his inaugural address, the
urged national harmony
to avoid further debate over slavery.
1852 convention the Democrats,
At
their
after
49
ballots, united
New
Hampshire lawyer and strong supporter of
behind Franklin Pierce, a
issue that he shared their views.
in
Some
convinced that Pierce could hold the South
yS
all
KjpM^^.'-^'^
j^^<.
Having won the presidency
in
at
Scott.
northern
to a
But
Whig
'
=.-.
IH
IS"^
^.
J^kiB^lk
<
>^,
^fM^Jra^.ii wnWUKBu.HiiHi^ iF?^
tlL^w 91 i^s^
^^^H^B2
h.l'^pH
9^Kr^^'^KÊ9flS^^^4"*^'
'
,'
I'SK^M ^îSn^^^H^^^^
1848 with
General Taylor, the Whigs again turned
Mexican War hero. General Winfield
.:
"
,-^^Rq| r's^'
-~
vi^^^BrL
^k
j*^^^
St^^B
^^^^B
wHp
Bh
*^^^^l
^ k v4^sz'
southern questions."
many southern Whigs, angered
4HI
^4J^
@kI.. ...r>^
^3
Southerners in the meantime generally agreed that
was "sound on
a cabinet
-ii
check, returned to the Democratic party.
Pierce
îi'^
'
the
Free-
.
*i
Compromise of 1850. The likable Pierce persuaded many people on both sides of the slavery
Soilers,
president
political parties
adopted platforms supporting the compromise,
vowing
new
even appointing
/^^^BS^^Bi
'-^^M
^&
1^1
11^
slt"^
was inaugurated as the 4th president of

the United States on March 4, 1853.
Franklin Pierce
SLAVERY'S EXPANSION
343
;^^S\DENTIAL LlVss
broke up black families and made a mockery
No
of Christian morality.
FRANKLIN PIERCE
/
Uncle Tom
804- (869
lion copies.
Some
I853-I8S7
AoV
Cabin, which quickly sold over a mil-
The book convinced many northerners

was morally wrong
and should be abolished immediately.
in office
POSTAGE
's
that the institution of slavery
UNITED
STATES
previous antislavery
publication approached the national impact of
northerners
came
face to face with the
inhumanity of the Fugitive Slave Act. Caroline

rauMLin
Seabury. a teacher from Massachusetts, confided
14 CENTS 14
to her diary the
shock she
witnessed a slave catcher
Two months
which their only child was
WW We saw ... a
in
at a quick pace,
They never
killed.
completely recovered from the
coming
loss.
him while
going from
dis-
was around
Pierce, however, inter-
in office.
preted the loss as punishment for
and religious doubts. At
his
own
his
We wondered
us,
riding
negro
his side a tall
at the
until, as
we saw one
chain
wrists to the saddle, another
his
enough to walk
sins
ankles
room
them were two
giving
following
him
just
large thick-headed fierce-looking dogs.
inauguration Pierce
his
man on horseback
by
steadily along.
they came nearer
had taken their son so that her
husband would have no fatherly duties to

tract
&
perfect uniformity of his steps
Mrs. Pierce went into seclusion. She
God
time she
work:
before his inauguration, Franklin
Pierce and his wife witnessed a train crash
believed
at
felt the first
**
could not bring himself to swear on the Bible

as
was the custom.
right
Instead, he simply raised his
hand and affirmed
the
his loyalty to
Constitution.
and northerners. But
that included both southerners
Pierce proved to be a
weak
leader, unable to con-
trol his
diverse cabinet or to convince northerners
that he
was not caving
Abolitionists labeled
in to
him
southern pressure.
a "northern
man
with
southern principles."
The fugitive slave act

The Compromise of 1850 began crumbling even
before Pierce's election, largely because of the
Fugitive Slave Act.
eral
crime to
assist
The
law.
was
illegal,
it
a fed-
runaway slaves and authorized
the arrest of escaped slaves
slavery
which made
even
in states
where
roused vigorous opposition
in
the North.
Harriet Beecher Stowe's powerful 1852 anti-
slavery novel Uncle
em
opposition to the law.
plight of
344
:i
Tom
CHAPTER
's
Cabin helped
stir
north-
The novel dramatized the
runaway slaves and showed how slavery

I
In 1854 escaped slave Anthony Burns was

returned to his owner under the provisions of the
Fugitive Slave Act. Shown here is a Boston mob
that tried unsuccessfully to rescue him. Outraged
citizens rioted and then eventually paid $1,300 for
Burns's freedom a year later.
As such scenes became more common,
Posters such as
northerners reacted with horror. Abolitionist

Frederick Douglass urged "forcible resistance." A
one from 854

were circulated by
this
antislavery forces
former slave himself. Douglass protested that the

Fugitive Slave Act
made northerners
"the
to protest the
mere
Fugitive Slave Act.
and body-guards of the tyrants of Virginia

and Carolina." People who had supported the
tools
Compromise of 1850 were shocked
at the
govern-
ment's enforcement of the Fugitive Slave Act.

Several northern states defiantly passed "personal
liberty" laws,
which prevented
state officials
from
enforcing the Fugitive Slave Act and guaranteed

captured runaway slaves legal assistance.
Lawrence, a northern Democrat, voiced a
Amos A.
common
The KANSAS-NEBRASKA ACT
sentiment: "'We have submitted to slavery long
enough, and must not stand
it
any longer. ...
am
Early in 1854, Senator Stephen Douglas inflamed
done catching negroes for the South."
Some
York and Massachusetts,
away
passions further by reigniting the debate over the
northerners took direct action. In

angr>'
mobs
New
spread of slavery.
enthusiastic expansionist,
Douglas supported settlement on the western
freed run-
slaves taken into custody and helped
An
them on
prairies
way to freedom in Canada. One observer

"We went to bed one night old fashioned
conservative Compromise Union Whigs and
waked up stark mad Abolitionists."
and the construction of a railroad
to the
their
West Coast. To benefit
wrote,
he wanted the railroad to run from Chicago to the

Pacific Ocean.
Construction of the railroad required

Congress
Enforcement of the Fugitive

Slave Act strengthened antislavery sentiment in the North.
Slave
vs.
his constituents in Illinois,
to organize
Kansas and Nebraska
the
lands of the Louisiana Purchase west of Missouri
and Iowa
into territories. This
the issue of slavery in the West.
meant reopening
Hoping
to quiet
Jree territory, 1850 and 185^
DEFUSING TENSIONS
Passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act convinced
many
northerners that the
South was trying to extend slavery everywhere.
LOCATION
slavery and
Compare the two maps. Which
legislation allowed for the greater extension of
why?
Compromise of 1850
^^H Free state

Free territory
Kansas-AJebraska Act, 185<i
^^H Slave state

;
Slave territory
Popular
sovereignty
Change from free

^^^
territory to popular
^^H
^^" sovereignty
SLAVERY
EXPANSION
345
Changing
Wags
southern EXPANSIONISTS
AND THE FILIBUSTERS
Eager to increase the
public,
Souths
political
and to spread
power
withdrew
slavery,
southern expansionists
sionists
support.
on conquering
had no better
luck acquiring lands
Mexico, Central
Mexico or Central
America, and the West
America.
Indies.
An 1848 New
Orleans publication
Walker and
busters set
New
the deter-
"We
We
have
The
efforts by soldiers of for-
War
veterans, the filibusters partici-
numerous attempts to
Latin
1
One
was Cuba
American lands
848 and
of the
mer
attempt
first
targets
failed,
self as dictator.
official
acts
One
was to
of his
1850.
obtain
Cuba from
$100
Spain fared
million in
848 and a
which had been abolished 30
office
no better Spain refused an offer
million in
854. This greatly frustrated the
hopeful, he
met
Ostend, Belgium,
in
three
dying before a
squad
in
Walkers
Pierce's urging, the U.S.
France, and Spain
made
more
attempts to invade Nicaragua,
firing
At
Honduran
I860.
brief dictatorship
Central America was the
Britain,
in
in
closest any of the filibusters
October
came
to acquiring
new territory
The
1854 to devise a plan for
for the United States.
obtaining Cuba at any cost, even

war When their plan the
Ostend Manifesto
became
dreams of expansionists
in
April
dered and was deported. Ever
finally
ambassadors to Great
In
1857, surrounded by the armies
Pierce administration, which
ority.
were numbered.
of four countries, he surren-
had made acquiring Cuba a
pri-
first
relegalize slav-
years before. But his days
in
Diplomatic efforts to
in less
than a year he had installed him-
captured and executed
but Lopez tried
second offer of $ 30
Landing with only 58 men,
ery,
Lopez
CHAPTER
mount
The
a Nicaraguan
years later
two more times before being
of
Narciso
Spanish general, to
in
two
revolution
Narciso Lopez, a for-
revolution on the island.
860.
1849. Southern
in
efforts of
He was
Undaunted, Walker
joined
Recruited from the
between
Walker
quickly chased out.
the United States.
expansionists supported the
ranks of penniless immigrants,
conquer
in
word
frontiersmen, and Mexican
in
1847 the British magazine Punch
expansionist policies
meaning freebooters, or
pated
In
Sonora. Mexico.
published this satirical cartoon criticizing
tune called "filibusters"
pirates).
an independent
"annexed" neighboring
their
(from a Spanish
Lower
himself president.
expansionists
in
fili-
from San
republic and declaring
have
old Mexico and Cuba!"
were aided
band of
California. After establishing
w\\\
sail
Francisco for
Mexico and
California.
1853 news-
In
summed up
expansionists:
in
paper editor William
mined ambitions of these
346
his
Southern expan-
in
the mid- 800s set their

sights
northerners were
outraged. Pierce quickly
new southern empire
with Walker.
for
died
congressional debate, Douglas introduced the
economic motives. These people argued
Kansas-Nebraska Act. which organized
slavery were allowed to spread
the lands
on the basis of popular sovereignty.
By allowing
territories to
the
new
states
"be received into the Union with or
without slavery, as their constitution

at the
it
formed from the
may
prescribe
would force out while workers.
employers choose
they could use slave labor?
wage
Why would
when
laborers
western newspaper
editor wrote:
time of their admission." the Kansas-
^4
Nebraska Act repealed the Missouri Compromise.

Passage of the act
May
in
1854 renewed southern
is
hopes of expanding slavery. Antislavery northerners
to hire
that if
to the territories,
were outraged. They called Douglas a
the antislavery cause
a misery to the
to slavery not because
the white
capital
in
is
it
downtrodden and
oppressed, but that
traitor to
and accused him of caving
am opposed
it
man whose
his labor.
blights
lot
and mildews
is toil,
and whose
*^
to southern pressure in an effort to gain support for
a presidential bid.
More and more, northerners
viewed the South
as intent
nation.
on dominating the
The New York Times wrote
Nebraska Act was "part of
that the
this great
Many
people supported these arguments, increas-
ing tension over the slavery issue.
Kansas-
scheme
for
extending and perpetuating the supremacy of the

Slave Power."
LEEDING KANSAS"
The Kansas-Nebraska Act
pitted antislavery
and
The Kansas-Nebraska Act
proslavery forces against one another for control of
established popular sovereignty
the
the newly organized territories

and overturned the Missouri
Emigrant Aid Company
in
Compromise.
new
territories.
slavery settlers.
move
lies
To
New
the
Kansas-Nebraska
Act on abolitionist grounds. Some
critics
had
ries.
"We
number of
Englanders formed the

to help antislavery fami-
to migrate to the
are playing for a
new
territo-
mighty stake," warned
Senator David Atchinson of Missouri. "If
we
anti-
to Kansas. Proslavery forces countered
by urging southerners
Not everyone opposed
bolster the
we
win,
carry slavery to the Pacific Ocean."
Proslavery forces took up the challenge in
March
1855.
As Kansas
settlers
prepared to elect
This 1856
photograph shows
a Free-State
artillery battery in
Topeka, Kansas,
preparing to defend the territory
from proslavery
raiders.
SLAVERY'S EXPANSION
i:
347
May
19-20, 1856. Sumner declared the
Kansas-Nebraska Act "a swindle":
now
Slavery
stands erect,
Ill
clanking
its
chains on the territory
of Kansas, surrounded by a code of

death, and trampling
upon
ished liberties. ...
has been
It
cher-
all
for the sake of political power,
done
in
order to bring two new slavehold-
upon
ing senators
In addition.
this floor.
Sumner
99
ridiculed the
proslavery senator Andrew Butler of
A A posse of proslavery men from

way
Missouri are
to plunder and burn Lawrence, Kansas,
and bloody fighting followed the
in
South Carolina. Two days later Congressman Preston Brooks of South
shown here on their

Months of ntense
1856.
raid, giving rise to
Carolina, a relative of Butler, savagely
the phrase
Sumner with a cane until it broke.

The beating was so severe that it took
Sumner years to recover from his injuries.
beat
"Bleeding Kansas."
their first territorial legislature,
some 5,000
proslavery Missouri residents crossed into

Kansas. Casting
illegal votes, they
helped elect a
proslavery legislature, which antislavery settlers
The
refused to accept as their legal government.
antislavery residents formed a Free State party
and elected
two
their
territorial
own
one proslavery,
was
conflict
rival
governments vying for power,
inevitable. Proslavery raiders
Missouri attacked antislavery Kansas
May 856
in
a proslavery
mob
from
settlers,
and
of some 700 burned
in Kansas, "made
who never dreamed they
coupled with the violence

Abolitionists of those
were
drifting into
it."
The republican party

To
carry their message to the nation, antislavery
voters flocked to a
In
1854
new
party growing in the North.
group of antislavery Whigs and
John Brown attacked a proslav-
organized a party firmly opposed to the expansion
led
by
In revenge, a
ery settlement along Pottawatomie (paht-uh-WAHT-
of slavery. At a July 1854 convention
uh-mee) Creek. They dragged five men from

and brutally murdered them. The
Thomas
Pottawatomie Massacre enraged southerners,
Republicans.
shocked northerners, and sparked more violence
party
worked together with
the
Kansas."
dates in the election of 1854.
Back
in
Washington the
echoed the violence
between
his
to defeat
As
in
Kansas.
halls of
Among
senator Charles
most
Sumner of Massachusetts.
In
"Crime Against Kansas" speech, delivered on
CHAPTER
many
By
1856, however,
Know-Nothing
antislavery
powerful force in national
Congress
the
a result,
Democratic candi-
party.
Know-Nothings
joined the Republican party, which was becoming a
outspoken members of Congress was the abolitionist
Know-Nothings
the slavery issue had split the
bitter battle erupted
Jackson,
Jefferson's party, calling themselves
The Republican
in
proslavery and antislavery factions for control of Kansas.
in
Michigan, the delegates revived the name of
what newspapers began calling "Bleeding
:i
wrote, however, that Brooks's shocking attack,
Democrats, together with some Free-Soilers, had
town of Lawrence. Kansas.
their beds
348
showered him
leader David Davis
group
the
abolitionist
district
Whig
the
other antislavery!
With two
Brooks's
in
with replacement canes.
Kansas now had
legislature.
governments
Admiring voters
politics.
Whigs and
Democrats joined with FreeSoilers to form the Republican
party to oppose any expansion
Antislavery
of slavery.
Running
ihe popular west-
This campaign poster appeared

1856 in support of John C.
Fremont's bid for the presidency.
^
ern explorer John C. Fremont

for president in 1856. the
licans
campaigned on
in
Repub-
the slogan
"Free Soil. Free Speech. Free

Men. Fremont, and Victory!" The
Suspecting
convention.
Democrats abandoned Pierce,

nominating James Buchanan of
Pennsylvania. The Democratic
that
proslavery forces would rig the

elections, the antislavery forces
boycotted them. The constitu-
platform praised the KansasNebraska Act "as the only sound
exclusively proslavery delegates,
and safe solution of the slavery
met
question" and portrayed the
constitution that protected the
Republicans as a sectional parly
rights of slaveholders already liv-
tional convention,
at
made up of
Lecompton and drafted
bent on destroying the Union. The
ing in Kansas.
remaining Whigs and the
Constitution gave the voters of
anti-
immigrant. anti-Catholic
Know-
Nothings
former
nominated
Kansas the right
the territory.
tactic of painting the
Senator Stephen Douglas
"CÊMONJ
Republicans as the party of sec-
attacked the
tionalism proved successful for
Kansas should have the right
:_,__
electoral votes to Fremont's 114

8.
Lecompton Consti-
tution, arguing that the voters of
Buchanan, who gathered 174

and Fillmore's
to decide only
whether more slaves could enter
president Millard Fillmore.
The
The Lecompton
to
decide whether any slaves could
Buchanan won support
in
both
much
enter their territory. This stand cost Douglas
Many
slave and free states. Fremont, on the other hand,
support
carried only free states, and Fillmore carried only
Douglas was siding with the Republicans
Maryland.
venting another slave state from entering the
Meanwhile, events
boil.
in
Kansas continued
to
Early in 1857, elections were held to choose
delegates for the upcoming constitutional
among
thought that
in pre-
Union. Despite the admission of Kansas as a free

Douglas's principle of popular sover-
state in 1861.
eignty had been largely discredited.
SECTION
IDENTIFY and
southerners.
REVIEW
explain the significance of the following: Franklin Pierce, Winfield Scott, Fugitive Slave
Act, Harriet Beecher Stowe, Kansas-Nebraska Act, John Brov^n, Pottawatomie Massacre, Charles
Sumner, John C. Fremont, James Buchanan, Lecompton Constitution.
LOCATE
I.
2.
and explain the importance of the following: Nebraska Territory, Kansas Territory.
MAIN IDEA How did the Fugitive Slave Act affect public opinion in the North?
MAIN IDEA Why was the Kansas-Nebraska Act important? What happened after
Congress
passed the act?

3.
LINKING HISTORY
AND GEOGRAPHY Why did
passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act result
in
the repeal of the Missouri Compromise?

4.
WRITING TO CLASSIFY
in
Jackson, Michigan. Write
and
5.
who
it
hopes to
Imagine you are a delegate to the

a letter to a
Republican party's convention
editor, explaining
why your
party was formed
attract.
HYPOTHESIZING What actions

in
newspaper
new
might the federal government have taken to prevent bloodshed
Kansas?
SLAVERY'S EXPANSION
349
Section 3
^^^M
ON THE BRINK OF WAR
FOCUS
What
effect did the
Supreme Court's Dred
Scott decision have
on the national debate over slavery?
How
did the Lincoln-Douglas debates both help and hurt Stephen

Douglas's political career?
Why was John Brown's raid at Harpers Ferry important?

Why did the results of the I860 presidential election cause
crisis?
How
did the South
justify its position?
J rom 1857
to
1861 the slavery issue pushed the United States fur-
ther toward disunion.
On March
6,
James Buchanan took
office, the
Supreme Court issued
decision,
1857, two days after President
Dred Scott
the
which intensified the slavery controversy. The following year
Democrat Stephen Douglas and Republican Abraham Lincoln of

Illinois
debated the issue as they campaigned for the U.S. Senate.
Douglas was
elected, but
two years later Lincoln defeated Douglas
the presidential election.
Faced with a Republican
Lower South made good
its
in
president, the
threat to secede.
Stephen Douglas campaign
doll
had viewed blacks as "beings of an inferior order"
The OREO SCOTT DECISION
man was bound
having "no rights which the white

to respect."
Dred Scott was
the slave of John
army surgeon from Missouri.
Scott
Emerson when he served on army

state
Emerson, an
accompanied
posts in the free
of Illinois and the free territory of Wisconsin.
men
Taney also ruled
if
merit.
Taney based
the Missouri
his decision
Compromise
Scott had a legal
freedom had no
on the view
that
violated the Fifth
Amendment
to the Constitution,
Congress
deny the
freedom, arguing that his residence
"due process of law." Since slaves were legally
of Illinois entitled him to

In
returned to Missouri. In
in the free state
was
which forbids
right to property without
Congress had acted uncon-
stitutionally in barring slavery
from the
territory
north of 36=30'.
The Dred Scott decision outraged
southerners on the Court, wrote the majority opin-
ion against Scott. Taney declared that Scott
to
classified as property.
it.
1857 the case reached the U.S. Supreme
Court. Chief Justice Roger B. Taney, one of five
:i
even
1846. after Emerson's death. Scott sued for his
Eventually the two
350
that
right to bring suit, his claim to
ists
and
all
who
abolition-
feared the extension of slavery.
not a citizen and therefore could not bring suit in
African American leader Robert Purvis, speaking
U.S. courts. The nation's founders. Taney asserted.
at
CHAPTER
a protest rally held
by northern blacks.
BUPRBMB COURT OP
No.
THP.
UNITBD
STATU
T.Oiomtu Tbbh, IBM
l>rf4S(tt.n*fflalr.,
Jatui
A.
SMdAnt.
TANEY
ChMf Jwiic*
Ml.
ThM
hM Imm
earn
Iwtoo
dltTrad ib* pteton of ibo Cmi*i
AfUr iho
OfuvJ
id 10 otbl
cMimvaray mn
at
tinpi>runea,BndiKocunMaiilui< iimo much pfOMod b^

tMMinA ol th (rm It M dM<D*il kdvMabI* ID
wtlni U
Dm-i m re ar|mitMi( on mm* at tht pornu, In ordof UmI v
ii pponuntty of (ivtni lo lh hol mtbfati
pdorMM*
It hM Mconllnftjr bn
h*'" Mmod bf
cwMHlwvd b)r iho court Knd 1 now pnKood lo MitTW ili
Thora kte two iMtdlnf quMttoM pruiiilid bjr ibo raM
I
R*d iho dnuii emn o/ iho UnMod SiMoi lurMktk
^MorailiM ih Moa UivoM UioM nnioif And
D fr H hMl juiMdkikm, it Ik* judrmoai It bM ftnn
net'
Th nUiniiff in ofror, ho wm !> (ho pUkniiff In tbo eowi

wna with hw wlft ond clilMraa hold m riovM by lh doffadMl,
wid ho bn>u(fai thn Mtion m iho eirtoti eovrt
8lie Af yiMOuri;
'
Uniid
tltiiiM for (hot diMrKi, lo mmtI iho iiiJo of

bnnljr lo IVtcdoni.
TIm dccUrmiioit w in ih fbnn uttuUlv ftdopttd tn Ihu Hula
qiiMtoiM of ihH (koenption, itnil con'tiM iha Tormont n
fivo llic rotitt jiiriidiciioni iht h and iha dafaodant u%
diffarwit S'-Mm; ihni ia, ihal lia n ft cllllon of MiMOun, uid (ha
dull ciiiun of Naw Yoffc.
T1>a ilafcndnni plaodod in nbitionitni to Iho junadtciion of Itic
ihnt Iha plolnnrr w** noi a etintn of iliaSlato of Mtvoun,
Wit ileclnrkiion, bojnc
(.a nrcio of Afrtoin doiMOt, whoot
of Ipura ATncan wood, Knd who war* brougtit iow Ihit
nnd Ktid lu alATM.
To
tliN
dwnurrf
piM
The
ths pblnliir (Itmumd, uid iIm doftndsni

j
court ovorrulod Iho plM, tod ftTe judfmnl
dr<ii(l<inl tliould
onawor ovo#.
in tinr, iijion wliicli
mutt wen
jujfiiient were i
hi fnror.
And ht ihorMpon put In nlodrv

Joined; end at the t/le] Ihe verjie
WharoupoQ the plainuff brought
ihi
wilt of error.
Before we epeelt of ihe pleee

tbe
queaiioM whicJi
hftve erfieeo
in
Ur,
it
will
oa the plea
be proper to
io
lit
abuoineu.
The Dred Scott decision struck a blow for slavery and fueled bitter sectional
controversy. Chief Justice Roger Taney (left) and Dred Scott (right) are shown
here with a detail from the Supreme Court's decision.
expressed the angry sentiments of the free black
community:
Illinois
to
Republicans chose Abraham Lincoln
oppose Douglas.
Bom
in
1809
in a log
cabin in
Kentucky, Lincoln was truly a self-made man.
This atrocious decision furnishes
Although Lincoln had
final
confirmation of the already well-known fact

that,
under the Constitution and govern-
ment
of the United States, the colored peo-
ple are nothing
and can be nothing but an
alien, disfranchised,
and degraded
class.
99
Act and the Supreme Court's ruHng

Scott case, there
seemed no way
from spreading into the
to
territories.
in the
Dred
neighbors.
and
1816 Lincoln
moved
Kentucky to
his family
from
keep slavery
the Indiana frontier.
The struggle
According
over slavery, declared Senator William Seward of
the
New
part
York, had become an "irrepressible conflict."
one year of formal
During childhood he read the family Bible

and walked miles to
borrow books from
In
After the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska
less than
education, he was intelligent and ambitious.
move
to Lincoln,
resulted in
from the family's
opposition to slavery
The Dred
fied
Scott decision intensi-
the sectional conflict over
slavery.
and
in part
from a
Lincoln
puted claim to their

land.
When
Illinois.
jCincoln wins a national

reputation
New
Lincoln was 21, his family
The next year he
Salem.
Illinois.
The 1858 U.S. Senate race in Illinois became the

forum for debate over the Dred Scott decision
as well as a rehearsal for
the 1860 presidential campaign. If Senator
left
home and
He worked
at
moved
to
settled in
various jobs,
served in the frontier militia, and for a short time
he and a partner
and the slavery issue
Abraham
dis-
owned
a store. Although the busi-
ness soon failed, Lincoln earned the respect of the
townspeople and was appointed postmaster and

deputy surveyor.
In
1834 he successfully ran for the
shrewd
Illinois
Douglas could win reelection, he stood a good

chance of winning the Democratic party's nomi-
became
nation for president.
began studying law. Few law schools existed, so
legislature.
the
Whig
politician, Lincoln
floor leader. That
soon
same year he
SLAVERY'S EXPANSION
351
Robert Marshall Root's painting shows the fourth debate between Lincoln and
in Charleston, Illinois. Douglas is seated to Lincoln's right.
Douglas, which took place
Lincoln
One
learned law by reading textbooks at home.
who
lawyer
Springfield, Lincoln gave a speech attacking the
most other aspiring attorneys
like
lent
Lincoln books said of him:
act,
which he
said
right." Later that
again in Peoria,
He
raise slavery to a "sacred
Illinois.
was the most uncouth looking
young man
but
would
month, he delivered the speech
ever saw.
to
little
say;
He seemed
seemed to
to have
feel timid,
The lincoln-douglas debates
with a
tinge of sadness visible in the countenance,
but
when he
did talk
this
all
disappeared for
For the next few years, Lincoln continued to speak
the time and he demonstrated that he was
He
both strong and acute.
more and more
at every
out against the expansion of slavery, often in
surprised us
visit.
behalf of other candidates.
99
Shortly after he was admitted to the bar.
moved
to Springfield. Illinois.
There
1839 he began courting Mary Todd "the
in
very
creature of excitement," as one young lawyer

described her
ily.
from
a well-to-do
Kentucky fam-
After an on-again. off-again courtship, the cou-
ple married
on November
4,
was elected
Douglas
seat that
held. Lincoln used a quotation
from the Bible as the foundation

speech
at the party's
convention:
against itself cannot stand."
The
1846
believe this
member of
War and
do not expect the house to
the slave trade in the District of Columbia. After
expect
in the
House, he returned
in
Nebraska Act prompted Lincoln's return
In
half slave
and
do not expect the Union to be
it
will
fall;
half free.
dissolved;
but
cease to be divided.
do
**
to practicing
Whig party affairs.

Conflict over slavery and the Kansas-
life in
divided
government cannot
Congress, Lincoln opposed the Mexican
law but remained active
"A house
nation, he argued,
for long:
endure permanently
one term
for his acceptance
could not remain divided into slave and free states
to the U.S.
in
House of Representatives. While
352
1858 as the party's candidate for the U.S. Senate
842.
successful lawyer and persuasive politi-
cian, Lincoln
rose within the
newly formed Republican party and was selected

in
Lincoln
He
Seeking statewide exposure, Lincoln challenged Douglas to a series of seven debates between
to public
August and October 1858. Douglas accepted the
1854. though not as a candidate for office.
challenge but acknowledged that Lincoln was "the
October
CHAPTER
at the Illinois state
fairgrounds
in
best -Stump speaker in the West."
Throngs of people
turned out in seven Illinois towns to hear the two
men
'OHN BROWN'S RAID
debate the issues of the day.
On
two men presented a

Douglas was quite short and
the platform the
startling contrast.
often called the
"Little
Giant."
When
Lincoln,
at
wore the high stovepipe hat then

fashion, he towered over Douglas. Journalists
nearly 6 1/2 feet,

in
described Lincoln as lank and ungainly but were
The year after the Lincoln-Douglas debates, John

Brown, leader of the Pottawatomie Massacre in
1856, again grabbed national attention. This time
he set out to free slaves
obtained from
New
abolitionists.
impressed by his "earnest truthfulness" and
armed
"kindly sympathy."
On October
During the debates, Lincoln attacked the

Dred Scott decision, which seemed to grant broad
federal arsenal at Harpers Ferry, in
West
constitutional protection to slavery: "I do not
the guns to slaves living nearby
believe
independent state
it
a constitutional right to hold slaves in
is
a territory of the United States.
sion
believe the deci-
was improperly made." Lincoln,
like the
With money
in Virginia.
England
Brown
band of some 20 men. including 5 blacks.

16,
1859, this small force seized the
Virginia. Apparently
what
Brown planned
and
now
is
to give
to establish an
southern Appalachian
in the
Mountains. He hoped to attract both runaway

slaves and free African
Americans
him
to help
lib-
Republican party, viewed slavery as "a moral,

social, and political wrong." Although he was
erate slaves
willing to tolerate slavery in the South, he firmly
sion of the armory and rifleworks. However, no
opposed
slaves
expansion
its
in the territories.
In the debate at Freeport, Illinois. Lincoln
how
challenged Douglas to explain

ereignty
the
had provided
territories
Dred
method
Kansas-Nebraska Act
the
new
wake of
to settle the slavery issue in the
was
Scott.
popular sov-
still
workable
still
came
his followers easily
took posses-
On October 18, federal

command of Colonel Robert E.
to their aid.
troops under the
Lee assaulted Brown's
position, killing half of his
men and capturing the rest.

Brown was convicted
of "murder, criminal
conspiracy, and treason against the
Commonwealth
of Virginia" and was hanged on December
prohibit slavery simply by
Six of his followers were later executed.
that the
refusing to pass the local laws necessary to

a slave
Brown and
their masters.
people of a
Douglas replied
territory could
in the
from
make
2,
1859.
One of
condemned men, African American John
the
system work:
It
matters not what way the Supreme
Court may
decide.
The people have
the lawful means to introduce [slavery] or
exclude
it
as they please, for the reason

^^^0yL^m.^^H
that slavery cannot exist
ported by
unless
local police regulations.
it is
**
^^^1
sup-
JSl^
jjiîEy
This argument, which came to be called the
Freeport Doctrine, helped Douglas narrowly

defeat Lincoln in the U.S. Senate race. But in dis-
tancing himself from the Dred Scott decision.
Douglas further damaged
em
his standing with south-
slaveholders. (His opposition to the
Lecompton
Constitution in Kansas had already enraged

southerners.) This proved to be a serious
Douglas's bid for the presidency
many
blow
in 1860.
The Lincoln-Douglas debates
to
u,T "
-
'^^^*^^^^^^BP
^^^^^^^^^^Ki.,^^^^!
BHr^
**^^
'
i^H
^^
-*-
helped Douglas win the U.S.

Senate race but hurt his chances
of
becoming
president.
A Thomas Hovenden
John Brown
in
painted The Last
884. This scene
led to his place of execution
Moments of
shows Brown being
on December
2,
1859.
SLAVERY'S EXPANSION
353
servitude. ...
HARPERS FERRY
ii,K
and
%%
Reactions to John
Brown's attack on
Harpers Ferry were
all
brothers, say
%s3
'^
mixed, both in the

United States and in
Europe. William Edward
Forster, who became a mem
ber of the British Parliament in 1861, sympathized with the abolitionist cause but was
surprised by how much fear and conflict arose
over Brown's small raid. The extent of the
South's violent reaction only strengthened
Forster's belief that the slave system would
collapse. As Forster said:
imagine that
"No, there
fact
is
whatever John Brown
may have done toward
cause
you
die."
**
Though many people questioned Brown's

sanity, abolitionists saw Brown as a hero. Lydia
Maria Child, a leading
to help
abolitionist writer, offered
Brown while he was
in prison.
Henry
David Thoreau hailed him as "an angel of
light,"
while Ralph Waldo Emerson declared that
Brown
was
"that
new
lows glorious
saint
[who] will make the gal-
like the cross."
In contrast,
many
by the threat of slave
southern whites, alarmed
revolts,
who
viewed Brown as a
got what he deserved.
pleased by the hysteria, believing that
it
helped
their cause. In Congress, tension ran high. Senator
freeing the slaves ... he has exposed the
Virginia
Hammond of South Carolina noted that "the

persons who do not have a revolver and a
James
only
much alarmed by an inroad

of 22 abolitionists and colored men
having been as
[raid]
not
is
Southern secessionists, however, were actually
quite evident, that
utter weakness of the slave system
hear you,
for which we, with less sorrow, could see
bloodthirsty fanatic
K^ne
of you, mother, father, sisters, and
who have two
knife are those
would have been by the landing

of 22,000 French troops on the coast
revolvers."
as England
of Sussex,
Reactions to John Brown's raid

on Harpers Ferry widened the
rift between the North and the
South.
yy
Copeland. wrote his parents to assure them that he

faced death with no regrets:
The
ELECTION OF
Thus divided,
Remember
that
if
must
die
die
in
my poor and
oppressed people from my condition of
trying to liberate a few of
tial
CHAPTER
860. Southern moderates, most of
had been Know-Nothings or Whigs, formed
the Constitutional
The I860 Republican convention nominated Abraham Lincoln of

president and Hannibal Hamlin of Maine for vice president.
354
the nation approached the presiden-
election of
whom
I860
Illinois
Union
for
party.
Nominating John
Bell of Tennessee for president, they
ignored sectional differences and

urged Americans to rally around the
Constitution and save the Union.
The Democratic convention
in
Charleston. South Carolina, broke up
without nominating a candidate. At a
second convention
won
Stephen Douglas
Baltimore.
in
Hamto
the nomination
he so desired. However, he no longer
could count on the backing of southern
who
Democrats,
own
held their
con-
vention and nominated Senator John
A A Lincoln-Hamlin banner and Lincoln medallions

the I860 presidential election.
Breckinridge of Kentucky. Breckinridge, like
many
interpreted the
mean
that
other southerners,
Dred
commemorate
Scott decision to
Congress would have
to protect slavery
Midwest stood
the best chance of winning, the
in the territories.
convention delegates chose Abraham Lincoln.
The Republicans confidently gathered in

Chicago for their nominating convention. Whigs
and Know-Nothings, and even some northern
to attract northern industrialists
Democrats, flocked
Convinced
that a
Republican banner.
to the
moderate candidate from the
The Republican party designed

as well as
midwestem
farmers.
its
platform
and wage earners

It
opposed slavery
in the territories
and called for free homesteads for
western
It
settlers.
also included federal support for

the construction of roads, canals,
and
Election of
and for a
I860
FRAGMENTED UNION
result
a transcontinental railroad
try.
Each seaion voted
its
ported a liberal immigration
and the
interests,
tariff to protect indus-
Moreover, the platform sup-
was secession.
policy
REGION
northern factory owners seeking
How
does the
map show you
that the vote followed
cheap
sedonal hnes?
measure favored by
labor.
The
election results mir-
rored the nation's sectional

divisions. Breckinridge carried
every state of the Lower South.
Three states of the Upper

South
Virginia. Kentucky,
Tennessee
went
for
Douglas, though second
and
Bell.
in the
popular vote,
won
only Missouri
and three of
New
Jersey's elec-
toral votes.
The remaining
New
Jersey votes went to Lincoln,
along with those of the rest of

the northern states. Oregon,
Eleaoral
Popular
%of
Vote
Vote
Pop. Vote
180
1.865.593
39.8
Douglas
12
1.382.713
29.5
Breckinridge
72
848,356
18.1
Lincoln
California. Although Lincoln
L.ncoin
J (Republican)
received only about 40 percent
Douglas
I
I (Northern Democratic)
of the popular vote, his electoral
Breckinridge
J (Southern Democratic)
~j
Bell
39
Bell
*Hew Jeney
tfiree for
592,906
cast four eltctoral votes for
Oougfas.
12.6
and
victory was a landslide: 180

electoral votes to
72 for Breck-
I (Constitutional Union)
inridge. 39 for Bell, and 12
Uncofn and
for Douglas.
SLAVERY'S EXPANSION
355
Constitution resembled the Constitution of the
RECESSION!
United States, with two key exceptions: the

Confederate Constitution guaranteed the right to
The outcome of the election of 1860 mobilized

the Lower South. That a president had been elected
own
slaves, and
it
was
stressed that each state
"sovereign and independent." The delegates chose
without winning a single southern slate confirmed
Jefferson Davis as provisional president of the
the South's deepening sense of political powerless-
Confederacy.
ness. Within days of the election, the South
an election held
Carolina legislature called a convention to consider
As onlookers cheered,
secession.
the delegates
unanimously voted for South Carolina
He won
confirmation as president in
late in 1861.
Mississippi planter,
Davis had formerly served as a U.S. senator and as
war under Franklin
the secretary of
Pierce.
Southern support for secession was far from
to leave the
Many who
Union. Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia,
unanimous.
Louisiana, and Texas soon passed similar acts of
dismayed by Lincoln's election
secession.
bring themselves to secede. Even Alexander
who
Stephens,
Seven southern states decided to

secede when Lincoln won the
supported slavery and were
became
eventually
the Confederacy,
still
could not
vice president of
made an impassioned speech
against secession to the Georgia legislature:
presidency.
Early in 1861, delegates from six of the
seven seceding states met
Alabama, and drafted
at
my judgement,
In
the election of no
man, constitutionally chosen to that high
Montgomery,
office,
a constitution for the
sufficient
is
cause for any state to
separate from the Union.
Confederate States of America. The Confederate
is
to befall this country,
let
it
Whatever
never be
fate
laid
to the charge of the people of the South
we were
that
engagements.
untrue to our national
**
movement gained momentum,

however, dissenters came under increasing presAs
the secession
sure to yield.
CONSTITUTIONAL
ISSUES
months before he left office. President

Buchanan tried to sit on the political fence. As
southern states broke from the Union, he
In the
announced
that
no
state
had the
also agreed that the federal
power
to
Caught
hold a state
in a
in the
right to secede but
government had no
Union against
dilemma. Buchanan decided
its will.
to let the
incoming president deal with the problem.
The southern secessionists
justified their
position with the doctrine of states' rights, assert-
come
together
had the right
to with-
ing that since individual states had

to
form the Union, a
draw from
state
the Union.
Arguments
for secession
refined the doctrine originally set forth by
Jefferson and
The December 22, I860, edition of Harper's

Weekly shows members of the South Carolina delegation who voted to secede from the Union.
356
CHAPTER
James Madison
in the
Thomas
Kentucky and
Virginia Resolutions in 1798 and repeated by John
C. Calhoun during the nullification crisis in 1832

(see chapters 6 and 7).
in office
I8S7-I86I
1791-1868
James Buchanan gave the impression
all,
of being exceptionally courteous and
thereby stay out of the raging con-
attentive to others. Because of his
troversy over slavery. Though
mannerism of
Buchanan detested
forward and sideways
compensate
tion to
head
tilting his
slightly
conversa-
in
for a defect
he hoped to offend no one and
declared
it
he
slavery,
matter for the courts
to decide, while trying to remain
in
one eye, Buchanan appeared to be
publicly
listening intently to the speaker's
As Senator Thomas Hart Benton
every word.
remarked, Buchanan was "never
matters of public debate,
In
Buchanan listened to
man
a leading
in
issue.
any high sense,
but [above
all
By being attentive to
sides.
uncommitted on the
all]
man
of
r:^;3^yyz,:i^ iz^^^^/k^,î>i^<::^<'':^.^ peace.
protect slavery. Southerners feared that restricting
Southern secessionists argued

that since the states had freely
were
joined the Union, they

to leave it.
slavery in the territories
would ensure
that the
Then
slave states remained a minority voting bloc.
free
the northern majority in Congress could not only
prohibit slavery in the territories but also abolish
Northerners countered
this
argument by say-
Northern Republicans, having comfortably
ing that in ratifying the Constitution, the states
had agreed to recognize

the land.
free to
as the
it
it
won
supreme law of
There could be no nation
withdraw any time
if
a state were
of
states.
Abraham
ever.
Also
issue
at
stake
states' rights,
how-
was southern determination
Lincoln, in his message to a special ses-
accept the election results.

fairly
went beyond
and
in the
to
MAIN IDEA What was

relationship
2.
it
Many
South thought otherwise.
REVIEW
Abraham
Lincoln,
John Breckinridge, Jefferson Davis.
Supreme Court's ruling

between the North and the South?
MAIN IDEA How

effect did
3.
Bell,
have
ballots
can be no successful appeal back to bullets."
explain the significance of the following: Dred Scott decision,
Freeport Doctrine, John

1.
"When
constitutionally decided," he said, "there
SECTION
IDENTIFY and
sion of Congress, asserted that the South had to
The Constitution made no provision
for states to secede.
The
was
the election, asserted that majority rule
fundamental principle of republican government.
did not like the
actions of the federal government or of the majority
it
in the South.
the
in
the Dred Scott case?
did John Brown's raid affect public opinion
in
How
did
it
affect the
the North and the South?
What
have on the relationship between the North and the South?
ASSESSING CONSEQUENCES Why
did the Lincoln-Douglas debates have both positive
and
negative consequences for Stephen Douglas?

4.
WRITING TO INFORM
zine.
its
5.
Write an
Imagine you are a
article that explains to
actions after the election of
political
commentator writing
for a southern maga-
your readers the arguments the South has used to
justify
860.
SYNTHESIZING What arguments
did northerners use to counter the principle of secession?
SLAVERY'S EXPANSION
357
Free-Soil party
CHAPTER
11
Texas admitted to
formed. Zachary
Taylor elected
Compromise
the Union.
president.
1850 enacted.
1847
1845
WRITING A SUMMARY
Using the essential points of the chapter as
summary
write a
a guide,
and
paper
to
5.
list
ond next to
2,
REVIEWING THEMES
way
2.
Study the time

in
1849
How
did the South
use constitutional arguments to try to protect
Number your
of the chapter.
the order
first
line
activity
was
principle
3.
below.
its
life?
debate over slavery
the sec-
of
Democratic Values How
did Stephen Douglas
try to use the principle of majority rule to
which
in
next to
above,
of
in
end the
What
the territories?
other
in conflict?
Geographic Diversity How
did geographic dif-
ferences between the North and the South affect
1.
Lincoln-Douglas debates take place.
people's views
2.
Kansas-Nebraska Act passed.
new
3.
Compromise
4.
Dred
5. Jefferson Davis elected president of
neither the
Confederacy.
THINKING CRITICALLY
1. Hypothesizing How might the
American
In
political
history of the
party system have been differ-
a paragraph, provide evidence that
Compromise
Nebraska Act
into the
of 1850 enacted.
Scott case decided.
Synthesizing
on the expansion of slavery
territories?
ent
of 1850 nor the Kansas-
settled the issue of slavery
in
the
the Democrats or
if
Whigs had taken
a strong
stand on the slavery issue?
new
2.
Evaluating
Do
you think antislavery northerners
territories.
were
IDENTIFYING PEOPLE
AND

1
Ostend Manifesto
6.
justified in
disobeying the Fugitive Slave Act
or supporting John Brown? Explain your answer.
IDEAS
John C. Fremont
2.
popular sovereignty
7.
Dred
3.
Wilmot Proviso
8.
Abraham
4.
Free-Soil party
9.
Freeport Doctrine
5.
Harriet Beecher Stowe
0.
lohn
Scott decision
3.
Problem Solving As an aide to Senator Henry

Clay in 1850, write a memorandum outlining two
creative
ways to
between the
settle the differences
North and the South.
Lincoln

Review the
Brown
Strategies for

1.
Why
Success on
did western expansion cause conflict?
did various
members
How
of Congress propose to deal
How
did the
Compromise
of 1850, the Kansas-
Nebraska Act, and the Dred

conflict
3.
Why
4.
Why
Editorial
Cartoons on
with the issue?

2.
Interpreting
Scott decision intensify
Then study the

cartoon on the
over slavery?
did the Lincoln-Douglas debates receive
right,
which
appeared shortly
national attention?
did the presidential election of I860 lead to
southern secession?
page 332.
What
constitutional claims
did southerners offer to justify secession?
arguments did northerners
offer to
What
counter these
after Lincoln
was
elected president.
What
is
the
cartoonists
OLD
ARE'S
UNCOMFORTABLE POSITION
"Oh. K's an well enough to say that

ciignily
of m>- high office
comfortablc sillinE-"
constitutional claims?
358
CHAPTER
message;
musl support (be

it's dajucd aA-
but
by force
Abraham
Lincoln
elected president.
South Carolina
Lincoln-Douglas
debates take place.
Kansas-Nebraska Act
Lawrence, Kansas,
burns. Pottawatomie
Massacre occurs.
John Brown
Jefferson Davis
Franklin Pierce
passed. Republican
James Buchanan
Ored Scott case
raids arsenal at
elected president
elected president.
party formed.
elected president.
decided.
Harpers Ferry.
of Confederacy.
secedes.
i
1853
1859
1857
1855
LINKING HISTORY
Writing to Explain
Webster said that geography would limit slavery because most of the West was unsuitable for
growing cotton. Write a paragraph agreeing or dis-
Frederick Douglass explained
objections to slavery by saying:
his
life,
"I
have held
all
Daniel
my
that the fundamental and everlasting objection to
slavery,
is
not that
a brute, but that
Write
it
it
sinks a
sinks a
Negro
man
a brief essay explaining
AND GEOGRAPHY
to the condition of
agreeing with him.
to that condition."
what Douglass's
state-
ment means to you.

Shortly after James Buchanan v/as elected president
1856,
in
Governor James H. Adams of South Carolina
expressed the fears of many southerners that the

election had not put to rest the conflict over slavery.

Message of November 24, 1856.
believe that further conflict
the South
is
his Governor's
Why
does Adams
between the North and
inevitable?
Cotton
field
Slave fy and Freesoilism can never
be reconciled. Our enemies have been

defeated
not vanquished. A majority of the
BUILDING YOUR
PORTFOLIO
war against the

upon a purely sectional issue, and in
free States have declared

South,
the remainder of them, formidable minorities
under the
fiercely contended for victory
same banner. The triumph of this geographi-

cooperatively.
cal party must dissolve the confederacy,
down into a
of acknowledged inferiority. We will act
unless
state
we
are prepared to sink
wisely to employ the interval of repose
afforded by the late election,
in
earnest
SLAVERY Imagine you are the organizer of

one of the Lincoln-Douglas debates. Create a
1
poster announcing the debate,
the opponents' careers and summarizing their

fering views
preparation for the inevitable
of
listing highlights
on extending slavery
into
dif-
western
territories.
conflict.
The Southern
DEMOCRATIC RIGHTS
Imagine you are a
States have never
2.
demanded more than

equality and security.
lawyer helping Dred Scott sue for
They cannot submit

less,
and remain
of Scott's case, his views on

in the
ruin.
99
Scott.
his
freedom.
Your interview
should include questions about the circumstances
to
Union, without dishonor
and ultimate
Conduct an interview with
how
his rights
have
been violated, and the reasons why he thinks he
Buchanan
campaign button
should be set free.
SLAVERY'S EXPANSION
359
America's
^m
GEOGRAPHY
Evergreen forest
Deciduous forest
^^1
Mixed forest
LheJQorth ISefore the

1
Tallgrass prairie
^H Shrub
Shortgrass prairie
m|g
QMl War
Canals
to 1850
Colleges and
iinivpr<;itip<;
in
1850
Railroads
to 1850
REGIONALISM
#Jy
Desert
the middle of the
19th century, the United

States consisted of three distinct regions,
own unique
culture.
each with
its
character and
Some
people
felt
I he smallest
POPULATION OF THE NORTH

IN
region
the North
was
not only the center of industhatizaVon
I860
in
the United States, but was also the center

Rural
more
74%
loyalty to their region
of higher education. The North housed
63 percent of the
than to the nation as a whole.
country's colleges
and
1850.
universities in
This concept of regionalism
was
particularly evident in the
South. Unlike sectionalism,
the West lêfore the Civil
Wat
regionalism focuses more on

cultural than
on
political dif,
ferences. Since regionalism
Colleges and
universities
in
1850
primarily involves cultural

identification, the regional
identity of
some
states
has
shifted as the state's culture
has changed.
Many
residents
of Missouri, for instance,

identified with the South
before the Civil War. In the

late 19th century,
however,
as transportation, trade,
and
industrialization increased in
the state,
its
culture
became
POPULATION OF
THE WEST IN I860*
wWhile the West was the
of the country
in
1850,
it
Hunt
largest region
had the
land available for settlement, the
closely identified with that
of the Midwest.
small-
est population. Despite the large areas
9%
^^^^^
a higher percentage of urban-dwellers than

did the Sou&i as people flocked to cities
such as San Francisco. Yet
ê
located on the frontier, not
in
first
the
centers of education
cities
in
the
West were
of California. As California attracted
Morman
first
Rural
.^^^^86%
of
the followers of the Oregon Trail established the
UNIT
^^^^^^
/^^^^
West had
miners and other business-minded people, the
360
American &
other races
setders of Utah
and
western Universities.
the South lêfore the Civil
War
POPULATION OF THE SOUTH

IN I860
Other races
<l%
Black
34%
White
66%
The period from
1850-70 marked numerous changes
for the South. In addition to the end of legalized slavery,
the South experienced rapid growth
and education. Education was

400 Kilometers
200
the region, which
in
in
transportation
particularly important for
1870 housed 73.7 percent of the

Most of this illiterate popula-
nation's illiterate people.

tion consisted
of former slaves who had been denied the
opportunity to learn to read.
POPULATION OF THE SOUTH

IN
<l% Jdj
Black
Many
were founded during
this
historically black
period to help educate
1870
ÎPW
I
58 w
Other races -a-
colleges
X^
-^
former
slaves.
Rural
^-87%
-^H
^H
32%
White
'
^^
Urban
13%
Chart information from
Histoncol Stotist/cs of
the United Stmes.
Ihe South After the Civil
War
AMERICAS GEOGRAPHY
361
Chapter
1861-1865
12
THE
CIVIL
WAR
i
FOCUS
UNDERSTANDING
THE MAIN IDEA
The
Civil
War
dragged on far longer
than anyone anticipated
in
1861. The
North was niore populated and more

heavily industrialized tJian the South,
which was mostly
agricultural.
Consequently, the North was better
prepared to
fight
a long war Though
the defensive strategy

military leadership
enabled
it
to win
battles, the
to
and superior
of the South
most
oflJie early
Confederacy was unable
overcome the staying power of
the resourceful Union forces.
How
might geography help or
hinder a war effort?
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT What positive and

negative effects might
on
a nation's
war have
economy?
1862
1861
Fort Sumter
falls.
Peninsula Cannpaign
for North.
fails
1863
Emancipation
Proclamation
goes into effect.
1864
Atlanta
falls.
1865
Lee surrenders
Appomattox.
at
The Missouri Compromise and the Compromise of 1850 had each
LINK TO THE PAST
proved only temporary solutions to the slavery

Slave and Kansas-Nebraska acts and the
decision soon reignited tensions
Fugitive
Supreme Court's Dred Scott
between the North and the South.
Republican Abraham Lincoln's victory

brought the
The
issue.
in
the I860 presidential election
to a head.
crisis
o.
Abraham Lincoln declared
n April 15, 1861, President
the nation faced an
armed
would soon join
war
the
that
Mary Ashton Livermore, who
revolt.
United States
effort as a volunteer for the
Sanitary Commission, recorded the reaction in Boston to the president's call to arms:
Monday
it!
now
For
dawned, April
.
5.
Who that saw that day will

Abraham
there rang out the voice of
Lincoln calling
for seventy-five thousand volunteers for three months.

for the protection of
ment.
This proclamation was
They were
Washington and the property of the govern-
thunder-cloud, clearing the
one man.
ever forget
the
like
murky
air.
first peal
The
of a surcharged
whole North arose
as
formed companies marched to camps of rendezvous, the
Hastily
from gun-barrel and bayonet.
sunlight flashing
Merchants and
from stores, bareheaded, saluting them
clerks rushed out
passed.
Windows were
waving
flags
flung up;
and
women
as they
leaned out into the
rain,
and handkerchiefs. Horse-cars and omnibuses halted for
the passage of the soldiers, and cheer upon cheer leaped

forth from [their] thronged doors and
windows.
I
had never seen anything
this before.
New
had never dreamed that
England
so warlike a
spirit.
This "warlike
could be fired with
**
spirit"
nation in early 1861.

The
Battle
like
pervaded the
Amid
the excite-
of Chattanooga, 1863
ment, few Americans imagined

the
'^
death and destruction that lay ahead.
Union drum with federal

,
eagle insignia
THE CIVIL
WAR
363
Section
^l
^^^^^H
THE UNION DISSOLVES!
l^^^ma
c u s
What were some of the effects of the fall of Fort Sumter?
What military advantages did each side possess at the
beginning of the war?
How did the draft laws affect who fought the war?
How did women contribute to the war effort?
IV,hen President Abraham Lincoln took ojfice in

nation was on the brink of collapse. The situation
head with the fall of Fort Sumter

1861.
As war became
they believed
to the
came
Confederates
inevitable, both sides
would be a short
1861, the
in
to
April
prepared for what
conflict.
The
of '6
Spirit
recruiting poster
expand. Lincoln was willing, however, to support
JLast attempts at compromise
another part of Crittenden's plan

protected where
By Abraham
March
Lincoln's inauguration on
186L seven southern
states
4,
had seceded from the
it
who were
effect
little
caught up
on the
in the excite-
Union: South Carolina, Mississippi. Florida,
ment of creating a new
Alabama. Georgia. Louisiana, and Texas. But the
of the most intense character." wrote one southern
nation. "It
is
a revolution
senator. "It can
border states of the Upper South. The slave states
effort, for the time, than a prairie fire
of Delaware, Missouri. Kentucky, and Maryland
dener's watering pot."
had strong economic
To save
ties to the
The new
North.
the Union. Senator John
J.
Crittenden
Kentucky
proposed the Crittenden

Compromise. The plan called for the
of
North of the
ritories.
would be
illegal;
line,
president
w as determined
when he reminded
sion
Missouri Compromise line to be

drawn west through the remaining ter-
upon
was
its
to preser\'e
every
was firm
unconstitutional:
"No
State
own mere motion
can lawfully
As
president, he
was bound
slavery
state.
to enforce the Constitution in
Lincoln added:
slavery could expand. Lincoln quickly

rejected the plan.
"No
44
spread of slav-
ery" was the principle that held the
Republican party together.
there
::
he had allowed slavery to
if
CHAPTER
be none, unless
shall
forced upon the national
Republicans might have turned against
Lincoln
There needs to be no
bloodshed or violence; and
Many
A John
Crittenden
southerners that seces-
get out of the Union."
south of the line,
by a gar-
the Union. In his inaugural address. Lincoln
but cordial
no more be checked by human
debate over secession was far from settled in the
all
364
be
that slavery
already existed.
Lincoln's gesture had

secessionists,
authority.
it
be
your hands, my
In
countrymen, and not
dissatisfied fellow
mine,
in
is
the
momentous issue of civil war. The government will not assail you. You can have no
without being yourselves the
conflict
**
aggressors.
The fall of
The
"dissatisfied
fort sumter
countrymen" had already demon-
Meeting
strated their intentions.

the
little
resistance,
Confederacy had taken over most federal
mints, and arsenals within
one
its
remained under
Sumter
was
Fort Sumter
marked the
forts,
borders. However,
very important to the South
fort
A The firing on Fort Sumter on April 12, 86

beginning of four long, bloody years of war.
Fort
Showers of
balls
poured into the fort
federal control.
strategically located in the
causing great flakes of
When
in
directions.
needed the
shells, after sailing high in
city. By early March the fort's commanMajor Robert Anderson, had notified
Washington that he was nearly out of supplies.
major port
in a vertical
der.
in
Without reinforcements Sumter would soon
the
shells
masonry to
harbor of Charleston. South Carolina. The South

fort in order to control access to this
and
one incessant stream,

fall in all
immense mortar
the
air,
came down
direction and buried themselves
the parade ground, their explosion shook
the fort
like
an earthquake.
99
fall to
For 34 hours the Confederates bombarded Sumter.
the Confederates.
The North did not want

would be an admission
that
to lose the fort
it
South Carolina was
Finally, with
much
of the fort ablaze and their
ammunition running low. Anderson and
his
men
Union. Yet Lincoln was hesitant to
formally surrendered on April 14. Surprisingly, no
use force, fearing the reaction of the eight slave
one on either side was killed or seriously wounded
truly out of the
states that
were
still
part of the Union.
The
leaders
of several of these states had said that their

too.
would secede
if
Lincoln used force against the
To do nothing, however, would
signify
weak-
ness. Thus. Lincoln decided to resupply Fort

If the
Confederates fired on unarmed sup-
ply ships, they, not the Union,
would be
the
April 15 Lincoln publicly proclaimed the
existence of a rebellion
"too
powerful
to
ordinary course of
judicial proceedings."
He asked
the gover-
nors of the loyal

states to provide
aggressors.
On
On
be suppressed by the
Confederacy.
Sumter.
during the fighting.
states,
April 6 Lincoln sent a messenger to warn
the South Carolina governor.
F.
W. Pickens,
that
supply ships were on their way. The messenger

assured the governor that the ships were carrying
75,000 militiamen
to put
down
The
cruits were
uprising.
only supplies, not troops or arms. Governor
serve
Pickens relayed the message to General P.G.T.
three months.
the
re-
to
for just
Beauregard, local military commander of the

Confederates. General Beauregard responded by
ordering the federal troops to evacuate the
Major Anderson refused
to
obey the
fort.
order.
on April 12 the Confederate
This Union
forces opened fire on Fort Sumter. Abner
army recruitment poster
Doubleday. Anderson's second-in-command,
was
described the scene within the
Philadelphia
At 4:30
.A.M.
fort:
circulated in
in
1862
THE CIVIL
WAR
365
T
people there held few
the (Anion and the Confederacy^, 1861

RIGHT OF SECESSION
Southerners argued that the Constitution, as a compact
slaves and had long
among
resented the rich planter
sovereign
mm
REGICV
What
of the lowlands.
elite
sutes, gave the states the right to secede.
did the seceding southern states have in
common
with Missouri. Kentucky.
Maryland, and Delaware?
up their own
They
set
state
government, and
1863 the state was
in
admitted to the Union

as
West
Virginia.
The people of
the
Upper South remained

iC*
RI
di\ ided
over the issue of
secession.
As
a result,
sections
of
several
southern states raised
Union regiments
ATLANTIC
fellow
OCEAN
Some
to fight
southerners.
were
families
torn apart as
members
fought
different
for
sides in the war.

300
MEXICO
Mbcn Equi-Area ôteciibr
of John Crittenden's
i2(rw
sons became a Union
^^B Union, free

WÛ state
^H
One
600 Kitorieteri
'
Lc^'ece'a'.e state a:
Cc'ecie'ate state
Union, slave
Separated from Virginia in 1861,

admitted to Union in 1863
"ê
^^M
state
Territory
general, and another
became
Capital city
a Confederate
general. Lincoln's wife.
Mar} Todd, a southerner

by
HOOSING SIDES
birth,
had four brothers and three brothers-in-law
fighting in the Confederate armv.
Lincoln's fear of losing more states to the
The
Confederacy quickly became
on war, forcing the border states

to choose sides.
states
a reality.
Virginia, Arkansas. Tennessee,
Carolina
responded
Four
and North
fall
Sumter brought
of Fort
to the president's call for
troops by seceding. Richmond. Virginia,
became
the Confederate capital.
Four other slave
Delaware, Missouri.
remained within the
states
Kentucky, and Maryland
Union. Secession was never a serious threat
in
Delaware, where there were few sla\es: Delaware
sympathized much more with the North than
\\
ith
On
the face of
it.
North
the other hand, were sharply divided over the issue
tion
the governors of both
Missouri and Kentucky supported secession, neither state voted to secede. Lincoln kept
in the
Union by quickly securing the
Mar>land
state
war
that
loomed
after the fall
with more than 22 million people had a
huge advantage
Though
the
of Fort Sumter seemed a complete mismatch. The
the South. Missouri. Kentucky, and Mar\land. on
of secession.
was only
whom some
in population.
slightly
3.5 million
the South had a
much
The South's popula-
more than 9
million, of
were
As
slaves.
a result,
smaller pool of available
soldiers.
with
The North
also enjoyed an
economic advan-
federal troops.
To lose Maryland would have
tage.
meant
Union
percent of the nation's industries and almost
to lose the
capital, since the state sur-
rounded Washington. D.C.. on three
sides.
The mountainous counties of northwestern

Virginia remained loval to the Union as well. The
366
COMPARING NORTH AND SOUTH
CHAPTER
When
known
the
war began,
the North had over 85

all
the
supplies of gold. iron, copper, and other
metals. With such resources the North could pro-
duce war products and replace
lost or
damaged
equipment
faster than the
Southern wealth was largely
were located
in the
Northeast and the
Midwest. Thus, the Union could move troops and
Southern routes, on the other

hand, were roundabout, with few connecting
supplies
lines.
at will.
Furthermore, because the North manufac-
tured most of the nation's railway equipment, the
Confederacy found
the
war
parts
it
overwhelming superior-
Most of the U.S. Navy remained
Number
*
of Factories
Southern population includes 3,500,000
slaves.
Source: American Heritage Piaure History of the

Encyclopedia of American History
VS.
SOUTH
abundant resources gave
loyal to
At the beginning of the
War,
War, the North's
a military advantage over the South.
it
EVALUATING
Civil
Civil
Which resource do you think had
nfluence on the outcome of the
Civil
the greatest
War? Why?
David Farragut and Percival Drayton. Lacking
men and
the expertise of such experienced naval
with no ships or submarines, the South had to build

its
Railroad Mileage
NORTH
also held
the Union, including such southern naval officers
as
Bank Deposits
increasingly difficult during
and equipment.
ity at sea.
Total Population
broken or worn-out railway
to replace
The North
RESOURCES OF THE NORTH AND SOUTH, 1861
land and slaves.
most of the nation's railroad
In addition,
lines
Contederacy could.
in
navy from
The South, however, did have two main

advantages over the North. To win, the
Confederacy had only
protecting
its
to fight a defensive war,
territory until the
Union
tired of the
struggle. The Union, on the other hand, had to

conquer an area almost as large as Western
Europe. The South also had excellent military
THE
CIVIL
Vhe
leadership. In fact, most southern victories

resulted from the battle strategies of skillful
scratch.
Confederate officers.
The North had numerical and

economic advantages
in the war,
but the South had the advantage
of fighting on its own soil with
skilled military leaders.
WAR
nations of Europe had their
own
Russia,
on the
aims and expectations with respect to the
other hand, sup-
American
ported the Union.
Civil
War. Judging that a divided
United States would be
less
of a threat to
Europe, France and England hoped the
South would win.

a
Sir
Edward Bulwer-Lytton,
member of Parliament, remarked
that a
Russia wanted to
keep America united and
strong
France
to
in
help keep Great Britain and
check and thereby maintain a bal-
Confederate victory would "be attended
ance of power
with happy results to the safety of Europe."
minister Prince Gortchakov remarked to a
Believing that
it
was already too
late to save
U.S. diplomat:
in
the world. Russian foreign
"We
are very, very anxious
the Union, Bulwer-Lytton noted that a
that any course should be pursued which will
united America "would have hung over
prevent the division.
Europe
like
kingdom
in
thunder-cloud.
No
single
Europe could have been strong
enough to maintain
itself
against a nation
One
be followed by another; you
fragments. You
Russia!
We
desire,
separation will
will
break into
know the sentiments of

above
all things,
the main-
that had once consolidated the gigantic
tenance of the American Union as one
resources of a quarter of the globe."
visible nation."
indi-
THE CIVIL
WAR
i:
367
AmiMig
poor services may never be needed
the ablest of southern mihtan, leaders
may never be
was Robert tdvsard Lee. who was born
into a lead-
hope
ing Virginia family in 1807. His father
was Henry
sword.
"Light-Horse Harry" Lee,
West
as a student at
in the
Army
and then
in the cavalry. In
young
officer married
1831
Mary
end of 1861, the Union had more than
the
527,000
than 258,000. Most of these soldiers were between
captain under
soldiers, the
young
Confederate conscription, or
the
took part in the capture of
and a Union law
first draft
in
law
March
in
1
at
Harpers Ferry.
Scott's
Lee declined, resigning
his
commis-
Although he opposed slavery and secession,

letter to his
he wrote:
exempted from
863 put the major bur-
service.
In the South,
slaves
anyone owning 20 or more
was exempt. This policy was a response
pressure from the planter class,
who
some
at
slaveholders had to remain
their slaves
from running
also rooted in economics.
my
off.
citizen,
have not been able to
make up my mind to
relatives,
my
raise
children,
my hand against
my home. have
my commission in the
my native
sincere hope that my
therefore resigned
Army, and save

State
in
with the
defense of
Drummer boys not only

provided music for daily calls
and drills, but they also
carried water, sold
food to soldiers,
and assisted
in
burying the dead.
Confederate soldiers practice artillery-loading techniques near Charleston,

South Carolina, in 1863.
368
CHAPTER
to
argued that
home
to
keep
The exemption was
The Confederacy needed
devotion to the Union and
the feeling of loyalty and duty of an
my
draft, act in April
American history
men who were drafted could hire a substitute to

serve for them or pay the government to be
he could not fight against Virginia. In a
American
as
den on poor farmers and working people. Wealthy
in
recommendation.
President Lincoln asked Lee to command the
all
drummer boys
1859, he led
John Brown
With
more
the federal troops that captured
On Winfield
4%
slightly
as 9. All social classes fought, but a
1862
Then
Confederacy
the ages of 18 and 29. with
General Winfield Scott and

Veracruz.
sister,
By
of Martha Washington.
served as
sion.
The ARMIES
Custis, the great-granddaughter
Testing his military skills
forces.
Lee's wish would not be granted.
first
Corps of Engineers
during the Mexican War, Lee
Union
**
on to draw my
Point. After graduating in
1829, he went on to serve
the
called
War
Revolutionary
The young Robert excelled
hero.
food and cloth, but few southerners believed slaves
would work without constant supervision.

The exemptions caused much resentment
MEN
in
Tu-,OJi-ll~l T\.U...Irfll-ll.lll.l--ll.fc.jAkU-B-il-ICrfM
TURKK yRAIW SMVlUt, >ij t>l> I. igiUM " "l- f"^ "^ ** "*'"
.. .^ -: -
r
!! II '1" ' ->-
I
"-^ "< -"-*. -t' "T*^ ""^ "^ tai. 4 1*. koi
ir.w^ o.f ..U~klr *t-U^ -1. -'
of r.lill~ I. IW .MU
m^^
rf
lUmUt.
.1~.
^ , na l>r.l4 I. 4.Ui ul 4i~-.
I*
... i>Tto. b ..t -i |. ti .t lo>R>iki.Ani: FU Mow wd Oar IM*
IflUIrty.ir.wkku>W
..l.<wUnk. W. - . ...k* *. U trr fclh..
"''*
rtk>>W
ir-.lii~<'fcllta.o.rAIU..~Fk."
., k...ar ulo.
Ar_; to IW
both the North and the South. In the North, poor

whites,
many of them
many whites openly
criticized the draft, claim-
proved the conflict was a "rich man's war

and a poor man's fight."
ing
it
But
resisting the
war was not
ri
lllMot aoml, 4tk.
WUn* IkM wm u. an>ai aavu^s

^.U41Uktkb<l(MfMlcr(TTsl 8k.n Uin Ikli Imkvt
W* WIU. BiMl TWaltaraaUnbiifna; Ut>
WhMUIlfctlkolllWrty' W. y UH tar. -..kooj-^w fc * U.
.!..
Ik.i,.n~xlblm.jto|db4.b.l.l!F|rtl. It w, wmU I- rfV*^ I..rsis kan mmit IW vMmUj
addian.
K'
lliii..Jll-r-r-'
THB TOHOUB OF OALUIOIT,
typical of either
Vtlor
Estimates of
pojWl -i l-U: U<.
HOW
tb.
ud H.rolam o brakvi Uftajm) u POkT HUSaOW ud U Ml
jM
.,
how many men fought for the

North var>' because many men enlisted more than
once. The U.S. government places the official
side.
lo
.^.r.
recent immigrants, rioted in
protest. Draft riots did not break out in the South,
but
NOW OR NEVER
OF COLOR. TO ARMS!
rn>a> Ita Ûi(.'|ifao.li-(
h... pran4 l>MillT. Von,
I^VSar
MimlkM.
ft
t -*
JUUlo.
unW lk .
mfl ABB FEB
rf
Ut-j, Uh; k.<
fnn
otntlnt
'
WkluJUklintV>toMHd)..
Outtr: * w.lo.n.ul.wHIlk.k<iolk.U.loiM."o
Ikn,
derra wdl of mr Oai.U;
MEN or UULOKI AU bna of He.<ka lUflbkauMka Irbkmu, tka

ben oltal f mm tbair rUli. lo tnî vm nd Bul; ckuwIOT. by
U im. ka. ! all bbtajt, aaa Ikiir laal Irlat Wa oi
liax
wartime enlistment
Union army
in the
with another 105,963
men
at
2,672,341,
enlisted in the
navy or
.no emlnol ran
TTOITT HAB OOmi

and
ofcar race*,
If
waaia
lower la
Americans (of
whom some
Ikaa
odFATHUtai wbapp:
Of the army's total, the government holds

some 180.000 enlistees were African
marines.
that
Um i<.k<ikiiMUj
wr " iko* U bw.
(or
Ood axl
Haaualtjr,
ilop at no aabUrAlEa
Karoll jour
7,000 were noncommis-
sioned officers and about 100 were commissioned

officers)
and
3,530 were American Indians.
that
Estimates of the number of Confederate

enlistments
stir
even greater debate, but probably
some 750,000 men
enlisted in the Confederate
army. Included in this number are some 5,500
Cherokees. Creeks. Chickasaws. and Choctaws,
many
of them slaveholders lured by the promise of
an all-Indian state following the war. Mexican
Americans from
New Mexico
and Texas fought on
both sides during the war.
Both sides relied on volunteers

and draftees to fight the war.
Most soldiers were poor farmers
and laborers.
A African American soldiers joined

the Union cause in order to "assert
their claim to freedom." Recruitment
posters often were directed specifi-
Americans. The banner of the Third

United States Colored Troops (bottom left) contains the slogan "Rather die Freeman than Live to
be Slaves." (Image of soldier is detailed from the
original photograph.)
cally to African
The
Many more women

group of women
served in medical roles.

to volunteer for
first
duty were Catholic nuns,
medical
who transformed
their
convents into emergency hospitals throughout the
IVOMEN AND THE WAR
North and South. Most of these neutral "nuns of
Women
They
in the
North and
in the
selves into the war effort.

dressed like
bom
men
the battlefield" were Irish or
South threw them-
Some women even
so that they could fight. Cuban-
man and
When she w as
Confederate army.
third time
the South.
Confederate forces.
In the North, Elizabeth Blackwell. America's
first
found out for the
run the U.S. Sanitary Commission. The commis-
few other women also served
as
Rose O'Neal Greenhow was imprisoned by

the North for supplying information to the
spies.
Confederacy. Elizabeth Bowser,
maid
in
Confederate president Jefferson Davis's home, and

Harriet
Tubman
both supplied information to the
Union from behind enemv
lines.
victims of the war. becoming the
enlisted in the
and discharged, she became a spy for
all
only group recognized by both Union and
Loreta Janeta Velazquez (vay-iAHS-kays) dis-
guised herself as
treated
German immigrants.
professionally licensed female doctor, helped
sion
worked
to battle the diseases
that killed twice as
many
Approximately 3.000
army
and infections
soldiers as bullets alone.
women
served in the Union
Some, like Clara Barton, miniswounded on the battlefield. After the

war, Barton founded the American Red Cross,
as nurses.
tered to the
which today serves disaster victims and others

need of assistance
all
in
over the world.
THE CIVIL
WAR
369
^r?^During the war, women, such as these

in medical roles. Shown here
are the Daughters of Charity from New
^
nuns, served
York's Satterlee Hospital, along with doctors and soldiers.
<
II
Elizabeth
Blackwell
SaJly
Women
South also provided medical
in the
aid to soldiers. Sally Louisa

the Confederate
tals
and
clinics.
Tompkins was among
women who founded
Richmond
small hospi-
She was eventually commissioned
as a captain in the Confederate
army so
that her
hospital could qualify as a militar\- hos-
made Tompkins
This
pital.
the only recognized
like
Tompkins experienced
the hor-
Kate Cumming.
of war firsthand.
rors
Countless other
war
the
Confederate nurse from Alabama, wrote
her
in
diary of her experiences at a makeshift hospital:
%%
on
lying
all
over the house
were brought
their blankets, just as they
from the
this
battlefield.
The
mass of human beings
giddy and
but
sick,
foul air
at first
from
money, or making bandages.
it.
have to walk and,
when we
blood and water; but
in
think nothing of
it
at
all.
give the
women schoolteachers to educate former slaves. Many women took over in offices and
factories to replace men who were off fighting the
war. Nearly 450 women worked in the Treasur>
Robert
E.
as clerks
the government's
women
office workers.
worked
in federal factories,
few
first
Some 100.000 women

sewing rooms, and
women
served as spies, but

most aided the war by serving as
nurses, doing volunteer work, and
men
we
99
working
SECTION
IDENTIFY and
North the
hundreds of
We
anything, kneel
In the
military arsenals.
made me
soon got over
both sides helped
ways, such as by organizing
soldiers' aid or hospital relief societies, raising
Department
The men are
women on
effort in vital
American Freedmans Aid Commission provided
female officer in the Confederate services.
Nurses
Tompkins
in offices
and
factories.
REVIEW
explain the significance of the following: Crittenden
Compromise, Robert Anderson.
Lee, conscription, nuns of the battlefield, Elizabeth Blackwell, Clara Barton, Sally Louisa
Tompkins.
LOCATE
1
and explain the importance of the following: Fort Sumter; Richmond,
MAIN IDEA What were
the immediate consequences of the
fall
of Fort
West
Virginia;
Sumter
for the
Virginia.
Union
and for the border states?

2.
MAIN IDEA What were

were the South s
3.
the North's military strengths at the beginning of the Civil
GEOGRAPHY: LOCATION
WRITING TO EXPLAIN
war and
5.
poor man's
Write an essay on why the
CHAPTER
12
Civil
Civil
War
states sided with the
North
can be viewed as "a rich man's
fight"

South during the
370
map on page 366. Which

South during the Civil War?
Refer to the
and which states sided with the

4.
War? What
strengths?
woman in
how you might
Imagine that you are a
War. Write a diary entry describing
North or the
war effort.
either the
help the
Section 2
^^^^^^^
THE NORTH AND SOUTH FACE OFF

c u s
What were the consequences of the First Battle of Bull Run?
How did the military strategies of the North and the South differ?
What were some of the daily hardships faced by soldiers?
Why did some
northerners oppose the war?
dke most people, Lincoln believed that the war would be
mid- July 1861 he sent General Irvin McDowell and
short. In
some 35,000 barely trained troops "Forward

(a
to
Richmond"
popular Union newspaper slogan). Laughing and joking
along the way, the troops were joined by sightseers and
The onlookers hoped
reporters.
tory. Instead,
came
to
view a quick Union
they witnessed a Union defeat.
to realize that victory
began
to
would not come
As both
vic-
sides
easily, they
Original pattern for the Confederate flag that
flew over the
prepare for war more seriously.
Who ey!"
The first battle of bull run
known
The
eerie sound,
McDoweirs
Irvin
On
1861, some 35,000

forces near
McDowelTs
met
Confederates
Manassas (muh-NAS-uhs) Junction, a railroad
Virginia.
July 21,
Virginia
which came
to
be
as the rebel yell, struck fear in the hearts of
the enemy. "There
forces never reached Richmond,
CSS
is
nothing like
the infernal region." said
it
on
one Union
peculiar corkscrew sensation that
it
this side
of
soldier.
"The
sends
down
your backbone under these circumstances can never

be
told.
You have
to feel
it."
crossing about 25 miles outside Washington.
Under
the
command
of General Joseph E.
Johnston, the Confederates dug in on high ground
behind a creek called Bull Run. The North called

the fighting that followed the First Battle of Bull
Run;
(see
the South called
map on page
At
The
left
first
the battle
Had
it
went
broken, the
ended. But General

his
the Battle of
in the
men
Manassas
Union's favor.
flank of the Confederate line
cracking.
and
it
377).
came
close to
war might well have
Thomas "Stonewall" Jackson
stopped the Union assault. Jackson's
troops raced toward the Union line, filling the

air
with a terrifying scream:
"Woh
who ey!
This 1889 painting of the First Battle of Bull Run shows Confederate soldiers on horseback breaking through Union lines.
THE CIVIL
WAR
371
The
L'nion soldiers
back, slowly
fell
Chesnut's friend was
at first,
reacted to the defeat by becoming more deter-
Union colonel Andrew Porter wrote of
mined.
the retreat:
were
Soon
the slopes
The
ran furiously through the flying crowd. All

futile.
The words,
ges-
who
had lost
all
presence of mind, and only longed for
STRATEGIES OF WAR
**
absence of body.
From
Confederates had pursued the Union forces,
goal
the beginning of the war, the North's primary
was
to restore the Union.
To accomplish
they might have captured Washington. But the
goal, Lincoln
Confederates were as disorganized and exhausted
three-part strategy: (1) capture
in victory as the
The
Union troops were
war would
realize that the
months. Each side began
and
tle
in defeat.
to
this
adopted a
Richmond, the
Confederate capital; (2) gain control of the
Mississippi River; and (3) institute a naval block-
ade of the South. The naval blockade was impor-
to train its forces for bat-
Davis named
command
the
Army
George B. McClellan, known
tant
named
to be a gifted orga-
sell its
Much
cotton and to buy supplies.
of the North's strategy depended on
geography. The border of the Confederacy

stretched from Virginia to Texas.
The Appalachian
Mountains divided most of the action
War
head the Union forces.
because the South depended on foreign
markets to
of
Northern Virginia and chose Robert E. Lee as his
The
his military advisers
longer than a few
personal military adviser. President Lincoln
nizer, to
and
Run made everyone
last
to plan strategy. Jefferson
Joseph Johnston
into
in the Civil
two arenas: the eastern theater and
the
most important consequences
western theater. The eastern theater lay east of the
were probably psychological. The defeat shamed
Appalachians, and the western theater lay between
and shocked the North. Horace Greeley, the pub-
the mountains and the Mississippi River. Control
battle's
lisher of the
"If
it is
New
York Tribune, advised Lincoln:
best for the country and for
we make peace
mankind
with the rebels, and on their
that
own
terms, do not shrink even from that." In Congress,
of the Mississippi River would enable the North to
penetrate deep into the South and keep the

Confederacy from resupplying
In contrast, southern
its
western forces.
war planners hoped
to
however, there were many calls to step up the
win by seizing Washington, D.C. and striking
war
northward through the Shenandoah Valley into
effort.
newspaper editorials pro-
In the South,
Maryland and Pennsylvania. This offensive
claimed the superiority of the Confederacy. In her
move, they hoped, would
Mary Boykin Chesnut. the wife of

Confederate officer, fretted
disrupt
diary
over the consequences of such
shatter northern morale,
Union communications, win European

support, and bring the
foreign ally
Great Britain
Trescot
[a friend
of the
family] says this victory will
be our
ruin.
It lulls
fool's paradise of
our superior
And
was
France or
central to a
Confederate victory. Because

the French and British eco-
nomies depended heavily on

was
cotton, the Confederacy
the shameful farce
wake every
CHAPTER
conceit at
to a
valor.
of [the North's]
manhood.
us into a
war
speedy end.
an attitude:
::
Run
and threats of our officers were
tures,
thrown away upon men
If the
Confederates, on the other hand,
proved the war would not be

short. Each side began to train
its troops and to plan strategy.
while riderless horses and artillery teams
further efforts were
Many
lulled into a false sense of security.
were swarming
with our retreating and disorganized forces,
372
The Union army
right.
then more rapidly, and headed for Washington.
flight will
inch of their
**
4 Bales of cotton sit on

Charleston's wharf, waiting for
the end of the Union blockade.

Training and field officers had to contend
confident thai one ot the nations would respond to

the naval blockade by
coming
with a lack of provisions. Food, clothing, and even
to the South's aid.
Several factors worked against the South's

strategy.
For one thing, French and English mill
owners had
Sumter.
sttK'kpiled cotton before the fall of Fort
Once
the reserves ran out, the mill
new
turned to Egypt and India for
more devastating
to the South's
French emperor Napoleon
Ill's
owners
supplies.
Even
hopes was the
preoccupation with
rifies
elite
made
the
Archduke of
Austria,
Maximilian, emperor. Napoleon sent French troops

to
Mexico
down widespread
to put
opposition to
Maximilian. Napoleon failed to aid the Confederacy

in part
the
because he did not want to fight two wars
same
at
time.
in short supply, especially for the
Confederate army. At the beginning of the war,
most troops wore
own
their
clothes from home.
Eventually each side adopted a distinguishing uni-
form
the
many
but
Union blue and the Confederate gray
troops would lack good shoes and
The
lack of provisions, coupled with unsani-
tary conditions in
most
field
camps, led to deadly
problems with disease. Thousands of soldiers died
from illnesses such as typhoid, pneumonia, and

influenza. Doctors and nurses could do
help, since medical provisions
in
most
hospitals.
Some
little
European
to
were sorely lacking
soldiers had to endure
surgery without pain-killing anesthetics.
The North's strategy centered on

dividing the South geographically,
while the South planned to
capture Washington, D.C.,
invade the North, and win
warm
coats throughout the war.
events in Mexico. With Napoleon's blessing,

Mexico's ruling
were often
Many
with seemingly minor injuries died from infected
wounds. In
tion
fact, disease, infection,
and malnutri-
were responsible for more than 65 percent of
troop deaths during the war.
aid.
T
in
In a moment of calm, Union soldiers try to relax

the field by reading or playing cards.
The military experience

While the high-level leaders were planning
strategies, the officers
under them had
troops to fight the war.
The young
battle
to train
recruits in the
Union and Confederate ranks were generally

enthusiastic when they first joined up, but most
were also unfamiliar with military
life.
Confederate soldiers were often required to
supply their
own
kitchen utensils.
Some
lacked
regulation uniforms, such as these soldiers serving

in
Florida
in
1861.
THE CIVIL WAR
i:
373
in office
ABRAHAM LINCOLN
I86I-I86S
1809^1865
Abraham
they like" was
Lincoln suffered from peri-
book.
odic bouts of severe depression.
"I
comment on
his
think you
would have your
you were within
cure for those
joke
if
times he found himself being morbid
hell,"
an annoyed congressman once
Laughter was
his
He used
or superstitious.
"to whistle
friend put
down
told Lincoln. "Yes," the president
laughter
sadness," as a
replied, "that
and homespun stories
Even
flowed from Lincoln. "The Lord

prefers
common-looking people,"
he
"That
said.
many
is
feel like
who
Nowhere were
^^,/YÛlr-CL^^
conditions worse than in the
North and South. One nun
but to be a sick
the boy
who worked
during the war commented,
"It is
prisoner of war
is
personal defeat Lincoln

his
famous
wit. "I
who stumped
his
on losing the 1858
Senate race to Stephen A. Douglas.
like
overcrowded prisoner-of-war camps
cross." In
in
toe," he said
will
this the sort of thi ng
filthy,
about the distance
was able to use
why he makes so
of them." "People
sort of thing
this
is
to the Capitol."
it.
Humor
a mile of
in the
<VX4vC^r^
indeed a heavy
some camps more than 25 percent of
big to cry
too badly hurt to
and
laugh."
believed that the war was proving too costly

terms of
money and human
When
as a nurse
hard to be sick,
am too
the Lincoln administration pushed
through a draft law in 1863, violence broke out
New
York
in
life.
City, a
in
Democratic party stronghold.
the
prisoners died before the end of the war.
Under these
difficult conditions,
many of
the
soldiers suffered from extreme homesickness,

loneliness, and
boredom. Some of the soldiers
reacted by deserting, but most coped by playing

cards, attending prayer meetings, singing, writing
letters
home, or engaging
in
other recreational
activities.
Troops faced many hardships,

including disease, lack of provi-
_ sions, and homesickness. Most

coped through recreational
activities.
yVoRTHERN OPPOSITION
TO THE WAR
As
the soldiers tried to keep their spirits up, others
back home, especially
in the
North, were voicing
displeasure with the war. Not everyone in the
North favored the war.
Some
northerners sympa-
thized with the South and urged peace. Others
374
CHAPTER
This
wood engraving
of anti-draft rioters destroy-
on Lexington Avenue in New York City

was carried in Le%\\e*% Illustrated Newspaper.
ing a house
Democratic newspapers whipped
their readers into
a frenzy b> claiming that the draft
was designed
to
men to fight for the freeAmericans who would then come
force white working-class
dom
of African
north and steal their jobs.
Men
women
and
of them poor Irish immigrants
many
raged through
African American neighborhoods, attacking and

killing people, looting,
also destroyed the
By
the time
and burning buildings. They
propeny of wealthy Republicans.
Union troops brought
the rioting under
more than 100 people were dead.

Northern Democrats who sympathized
with the South were known as Copperheads
the name of a poisonous snake. Few Copperheads
control,
actively interfered with the war effort.
Most
limited their antiwar activities to speeches
and newspaper
m^^^^^^^^
A The serpents in this 1863 cartoon represent the
Copperheads, northern Democrats whose southern sympathies many northerners believed threatened the Union.
One Democratic paper in

poem
the poem, the devil and
articles.
Pennsylvania, for instance, published the
"Abe"s Visitor." In
Lincoln converse;
In an attempt to quiet the
Lincoln suspended some
Copperheads,
civil liberties, including
the ancient legal right of habeas corpus
9 9 How
my Abe?
are you
nearly
Is
the
list
tection against unlawful imprisonment.
a pro-
At one
time or another, thousands of Copperheads and
filled
Of the sick men and dying of

wounded and killed
Of widows and tears, or orphans
other opponents of the

trial.
fied, as
with the draft
ever, people
unfed
In
war were
some cases
without
arrested and held
were
justi-
cases,
how-
the arrests
riots. In
many
were arrested for peacefully stating
their views.
Of poor honest white men

struggling for bread?
"Dear
doing
my
Sympathy
concern
over costs, and fear of unemployment led some northerners to
oppose the war.
quoth Abe, "I'm
devil,"
best
To promote the interest of you and

the rest."
99
SECTION
for the South,
REVIEW
IDENTIFY and explain the significance of the following: Irvin McDowell, Joseph
of Bull Run, Thomas "Stonewall" Jackson, Copperheads.
1.
2.
MAIN IDEA How

MAIN IDEA How
did the First Battle of Bull
Run
did the North's strategy differ
affect
E.Johnston, First Battle
both the North and the South?
from the South 's
at the beginning of the Civil
War?
3.
RECOGNIZING POINTS OF VIEW What

class
4.
reasons did
some northern Democrats and working-
whites have for opposing the war?
WRITING TO DESCRIBE
Imagine you are a soldier
in
either the Union or Confederate
during the war. Write a letter to your mother and father that describes the daily
in
5.
living
army
conditions
your camp.
TAKING A STAND
Write a paragraph that explains why you either approve or disapprove of
Lincoln's actions against the
Copperheads.
375
Section 3
EASTERN CAMPAIGNS AND

THE WAR IN THE WEST
FOCUS
How
did the
How
North and the South
fare in the eastern campaigns?
did the battles of Antietam, Fredericksburg, Chancellorsville,
and
Gettysburg affect northern morale?
How
did the
D, ring
It
J 862
North achieve
goal of controlling the Mississippi River?
won many of
President Lincoln had no luck find-
and 1863
the battles in the East.
its
the Confederacy
ing a general able to defeat Joseph E. Johnston, Robert E.

Lee,
and Stonewall Jackson. The Union's eastern forces
had five
different
commanders
West, however, the
in just
one year In the
Union forces led by Ulysses
S.
Grant
achieved great success.
Union morcar oattery
displeasure. (Lincoln once
The peninsula campaign

Although the South won most of the early
was poorly
it
was not because
battles
the northern
trained. In fact, the
if
his men well, instillthem both pride and discipline. But

McClellan was overly cautious. He hesitated to
commit his men to battle much to the president's
he could borrow the army
McClellan had no use for
it.)
McClellan finally did move
army
Union general
if
1862
launching
in
plan
brilliant
George B. McClellan trained
Richmond. Rather than marching
ing in
city.
frustrated with
McClellan's delays that he threatened to send the

general a letter asking
of the war,
grew so
April
take
to
directly
on the
McClellan transported more than 100,000
men. 300 cannons, and 25.000 animals by water

the peninsula
between the York and James
to
rivers.
McClellan planned to hit

Richmond from the southeast, where there were few
fortifications. The strategy
could have worked the
northern army vastly out-
numbered
forces
the Confederate
but
once again.
McClellan hesitated.
President Lincoln
war strategy
with General McClellan
discusses
in
376
;!
October
1862.
Union and Confederate soldiers met at

Yorktown, Virginia, in the first week of April.
Lincoln urged McClellan to attack, but the general
refused, claiming that there were too
many
Confederate troops. Actually, he faced only some
13.000 Confederates, under the command of

General John B. Magruder. McClellan wired
Lincoln that he could only take Yorktown by siege.
While McClellan waited,

Johnston
moved more
the Confederate general
troops into position.
Johnston and Magruder held on

until the
at
Yorktown
beginning of May. Just as McClellan was
about to overrun the Confederate defenses.
Johnston began
a month-long retreat toward

Richmond. McClellan soon followed. On May 31.
1862, the two sides clashed just east of Richmond
Battle of Seven Pines. The South fared
at the
badly
Confederate colonel John B.
in this battle.
Gordon wrote of the
was
men dropping
.
around me.
rapidly
.
were
all
horse ridden into the
fight,
one
and
wounded.
Fully
...
my own among
my line
half of
my men were dead
half
**
My
dead. Every
them, was dead.

officers
my
alone on horseback, with
left
field officers
fight:
or
Tfte
General Johnston was among the seriously

wounded. Robert E. Lee assumed command of the
Confederate forces and broke off fighting.
Even though
the Confederates
weakened, McClellan again
sat
War in the
MISSED OPPORTUNITIES
and delays meant that the Union
were badly
LOCATION
What two
East,
1861-1863
General George
failed
battles
to capture
B.
McClellan's caution
Richmond.
were fought on Union
soil?
and waited. Lee
did not. In a daring maneuver, Lee ordered a

cavalry unit under the
James
enemy
command
E. B. (Jeb) Stuart to gather information
positions.
Armed
on
with Stuart's informa-
tion, the
combined forces of Lee and Stonewall
Jackson
fell
on the Union army
Days' Campaign (June 25-July
in the
1).
Seven
Union casu-
numbered nearly 16,000. Although the

number of Confederates killed or wounded was
even higher over 20,000 the battle was
alties
considered
McClellan
President Lincoln, furious and frustrated,
of 29-year-old
ordered McClellan back to Washington. General
command
John Pope took
Pope and
the
of the army in the
his
men were
defeated by Lee's forces at
Second Battle of Bull Run. Soon
Pope's
after
McClellan once again found himself
defeat,
command of the
in
eastern forces.
victory for the South because
A NTIETAM
retreated.
Robert E. Lee took the offensive
The
field.
August, while marching on Richmond,
In late
Peninsula
Campaign was a
disappointment for the North

since the evet^cautious McClellan
retreated without taking
Richmond.
in
September
1862. Confederate diplomats believed that Great
Britain
might yet provide support
Confederacy
Union
soil.
if
to
the
Lee could win a major victory on
On September
4,
1862, Lee began
crossing the Potomac into Maryland with
some
THE CIVIL
WAR
i:
377

Fredericksburg and
i,
chancellorsville
new commander. General Ambrose E.
He had little confihis abilities and knew the troops' loyalties
Lincoln's
Burnside, did not want the job.
dence
in
were with McClellan. Nevertheless, he moved

boldly
too
boldly.
On December 11 and 12, 1862, General

Burnside sent some 114,000 men across the
Rappahannock (rap-uh-HAN-uhk) River near
Fredericksburg. Virginia. General Lee and
75,000 soldiers controlled the
Reasoning
Soldiers killed
on September
the Battle of Antietam
in
7,
862, as they
were
lined
were photographed
up for burial.
attack.
that
hills
above the town.
Lee would not expect
a frontal
men
across an
General Burnside ordered his
open plain toward the
December
some
hills
on the morning of
13.
Lee took advantage of Burnside's position55,000 men. (Over the next few days Lee's forces
From
ing.
their high ground, the Confederates
around 50,000 as thousands of hungry,
could easily pick off the Union soldiers as they
by the wayside.) Union
crossed the open fields. As Lee's artillery com-
forces lost track of the Confederate troops for four
Antietam (an-TEET-uhm) Creek. The Battle of
told him. "A chicken could not live on that

when we open [fire] on it." The Union army
suffered more than 12.000 casualties in the Battle
of Fredericksburg, the Confederates some 5,000.
One northerner bitterly referred to the battle as a
"great slaughter pen." A Union soldier, William
Antietam raged
Lusk, wrote home:
dropped
tired,
to
and sick troops
fell
days, until two Union soldiers found a copy of

Lee's battle plans wrapped around a pack of cigars.
Armed
with this information. General
McClellan and some 75.000 troops met Lee
all
day.
bloodiest battles of the war.

fered
more than 13,000
at
becoming one of
the
The Confederates
suf-
casualties; the
Union more
mander
field
Gone
are the proud hopes, the high
bosoms
than 12,000.
aspirations that swelled our
Although Antietam was not a clear-cut

Union victory, Lee's withdrawal to Virginia
raised confidence in the North. A major
days ago.
Confederate offensive had
but the brains, the brains! Have
General Lee,
failed,
whom many
proving that
had thought was
unbeatable, could be beaten. Lee's defeat cost the
few
[The army] has strong limbs to
march and meet the
foe, stout
arms to
strike heavy blows, brave hearts to dare
brains to use the
we no
arms and limbs and eager
hearts with cunning?
**
South any hope of support from the European

countries,
which did not want
to risk
losing side in the war.
Antietam. McClellan permanently
lost his
at
com-
fired the overcautious general for
allowing the Confederates to escape into Virginia.
command
("Fighting Joe") Hooker. Although an effective

general.
Hooker was
378
in
the
also opinionated.
He once
openly criticized President Lincoln, saying
replied:
victory at Antietam
bolstered confidence
Union generals
of the eastern forces to General Joseph
Union needed
The Union
for
whirled on. Lincoln transferred Burnside and gave
Despite the Union army's good showing
mand. Lincoln
The revolving door
backing the
can
set
that the
win the war. Lincoln
a dictator to
"Only those generals who gain successes

up
dictators.
tar\ success,
and
What
now
ask of you
is
mili-
will risk the dictatorship."
North and dashed Confederate

hopes of winning European
forces.
support.
three parts, cut off Lee's supply lines, and attack
CHAPTER
12
Hooker offered
He proposed
a bold plan to crush Lee's
to divide his large
army
into
this spare
warucary
ing, but
would allow Lee
it
Virginia from further fight-
hungry troops as the
his
South
by
lo
rcsupply and feed
Union had done
taking what
in
the
was needed from
the
enemy.
In early
June 1863 Lee crossed into
Pennsylvania with some 75,000 troops.

Lincoln urged General Hooker to attack the
Confederates before they could consolidate

their troops.
Convinced
confidence
of his
Hooker, however, hesitated.
that the
government no longer had
him. Hooker asked to be relieved
in
command. He was replaced by General
George Meade.
A Stonewall Jackson's death in 1863 was a blow to

the South. This photograph shows mourners at his
grave
in
Virginia.
By
the
end of June the Confederates massed
near the town of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania.

scouts reported that there
When
was a supply of shoes
in
the town, the Confederates organized a raiding

the Confederates
from both
The
flanks.
seemed workable, especially
strategy
since Hooker's nearly
134,000 troops outnumbered Lee's some 60,000.
By
Hooker had
April 30. 1863.
tioned in a deep forest
known
his
men
posi-
as the Wilderness,
northwest of Gettysburg.
from the Union army. In
his
most
daring maneuver of the war to date, Lee divided his

troops, sending Stonewall Jackson
and some 30,000
men through the Wilderness to outflank Hooker.

When Hooker discovered the troop movements, he
assumed
were
the Confederates
retreating. Instead,
Lee and Jackson attacked the Union forces from

two
days of fighting. Hooker
fronts. After several
withdrew
meted.
in defeat.
Once
Morale
again, the South
North plum-
in the
seemed unbeatable.
But the South had paid dearly for

at
the Battle of Chancellorsville.
its
victory
Among
that
two Union
As
the Confederate raid-
ing party approached Gettysburg on July
met by Union
On
near Chancellorsville, Virginia. But Lee once again

stole the initiative
But the troops did not know
party.
brigades had positioned themselves on high ground
1, it
was
fire.
the first day of the Battle of Gettysburg,
the Confederates
pushed the Union
line
back
to
Cemetery Ridge. The Confederates held Seminary

Ridge, a lower line of
hills
about a half mile away.
But Lee knew that the fighting was not over as

long as the North held the higher ground.
2,
General Lee attacked the Union
left,
On
July
trying with-
out success to capture a globe-shaped
hill
called
Round Top. The next day he ordered some

15.000 men under the command of George Pickett
Little
to rush the
Union center on Cemetery Ridge. Only
half of the soldiers
made
it
back.
the
wounded was Stonewall Jackson. Riding back to

Confederate lines after dark, Jackson was mistaken
for a
Union cavalryman and shot by
his
own men.
His arm had to be amputated. Eight days
later,
Lee's most valued general died from pneumonia.
Morale plummeted in the North

Union defeats at
Fredericksburg and
after the
Chancellorsville.
GETTYSBURG
A
Following the victory
at
Chancellorsville, Lee
decided to invade the North again. Not only would
The
Battle of Gettysburg began
looking for a
rumored supply
when Confederates,
of shoes, clashed with a
Union
regiment.
THE CIVIL
WAR
379

The
loss of life at
The Union victory at Gettysburg
Gettysburg was staggering.
After three days of fighting. Union casualties
numbered more than

ties
more than 20.000. Although
emerged
victorious,
war while
it
it
once again
in the
close
end the
'Our
disappointed
Army
held the
The war in the west
hand and they would not
hollow of their
From
army
Nevertheless, the battle marked a turning
it."
point in the war.

the
Union army
the
failed to
had the opportunity.
President Lincoln lamented,
war
proved to the North that the

South could be defeated.
Confederate casual-
23.()()();
The Union army had proved
that
November 1863
in the
Ulysses
Confederacy could be beaten.

In
the start the
S.
war went
far better for the
Grant of
Illinois led an
army
Tennessee and captured two important
President Lincoln helped
Union
West. In February 1862 General

into
forts that
dedicate a cemetery at the Gettysburg battlefield.
guarded the Tennessee and Cumberland rivers
Lincoln spoke for only a few minutes, but his
Fort
Gettysburg Address remains a classic statement of
south on the Tennessee River, Grant paused
democratic ideals (see page 1008).
Shiloh Church near the Mississippi state
HISTORY
iBt
Rentembenng
Qettysburg
I first visited Gettysburg during
my junior year in high school.
1
these ceremonies was a meeting

at the Angle, the site of Pickett's
remember standing on
Cemetery Ridge, where Union
field
troops turned back Major
parkin 1895.
General George
charge.
closed
It
much as it looked
became a national military
indeed a sacred
eyes to
1863.
site, a
remembrance where
imagine the battle that raged
place of
the course of history changed.
in
the nearby cemetery
on November
19,
1863, to
deliver the Gettysburg Address.
Lincoln said the living
Gettysburg
sacred.
that
is,
make
Those who died
there,
secrated
it,
far
above our poor
power to add or
detract." Yet
Americans have treated

Gettysburg as
a special place
holding commemorations.
CHAPTER
12
In
these cere-
monies Gettysburg symbolized

courageous
soldiers,
both
northern and southern.
Often neglected
in
these
remembered. What does the
the issue at the heart of the
battle symbolize?
we
learn
What
from
it,
lessons
and
how
we commemorate it?
is how some groups
war
slavery. In his
Gettysburg
Address, Lincoln had reminded

the nation that the death of so
many would
gain
meaning only
of Americans have answered
the country remained "dedi-
these questions. After the war,
cated ... to the unfinished
veterans from both sides began
work which they who fought
taking part
in
patriotic cere-
here have thus
far
so nobly
at Gettysburg. Especially
advanced." Thus for some,
popular were the 50th and 75th
Gettysburg symbolizes the
monies
by
met and
as a sign of the
remembrances, however, was
Here
he declared, had already "con-
crowds looked
on, elderly veterans
But Americans do not always
should
it
large
agree why Gettysburg should be
can
could not further consecrate
As
reborn Union.
is
powerful
there over a century ago and to
stood
charge.
shook hands
Today, Gettysburg
Pickett's
my
picture President Lincoln as he
380
staging vivid reenactments of
the battle, and preserving the

in
anniversaries.
The climax
of
movement
to free the slaves
at
line.
BY EDyNARD LINENTHAL
the
JVlaking
Henry and Fort Donelson. Moving rapidly
if

Grant knew that Confederate generals Albert
Sidney Johnston and P.G.T. Beauregard were
Confederate casualties, including General
nearby
Johnston.
in
Corinth, Mississippi.
ever, expect
them
to attack.
He
did not.
Thus, on April
6,
how-
To achieve
1862,
Grant's soldiers were caught by surprise as thou-
sands of Confederate
.soldiers
rushed
at
13.000 Union casualties and
than
a decisive victory in the West,
however, the Union had
Farragut,
Confederate commanders went to bed confident

that they could finish off Grant's army the next
Union ships entered
moved
commander of
against
all
mouth of
gaining
full
Eternal Light Peace Memorial, a
monument
recently,
ceremonies
about the meaning of the battle

and of war.
few days before
the 125th anniversary
crowd of some
tors paid to watch
0,000 people
in
1988, a
30,000 specta-
more than
each
carefully
ciliation
50 years
earlier.
speeches by African
American
leaders,
and an
Sagan told the audience that the

nations of the world
must heed
the carnage and mass murder"
commercialized event portrayed
of war.
call
These are some of the
the battle as glamorous and
dif-
ways
ferent, even conflicting,
Americans commemorate
Gettysburg and hold
it
sacred.
ing interest in the past. Critics,
Of
on the other hand, argued that
one piece of our
the battle should not be pre-
other places have Americans
sented as sport or adventure,
consecrated and what do they
but only as a tragic event.
symbolize? Think of places asso-
official
anniversary
ceremony, whose theme was

"Peace Eternal
in
World
course, Gettysburg
is
history.
only
What
nation, of the
memorials
in
monuments and
Washington, D.C.,
United," presented a different
of places sacred to American

Indians, of places
The event took
place at the
Gettysburg National Cemetery in

Pennsylvania stands today as a grim
reminder of the tremendous losses of the
Civil
War.
ciated with the origins of the
commemoration
of the battle.
of the
address by scientist Carl Sagan.
reenact parts of the battle. This
The
command
included a concert by an Interracial choir,
for reconciliation "instead of
fought and stimulat-
artillery
The ceremony
Union or Confederate soldier
who
that
by Gettysburg veterans
the Gettysburg veterans'
Reenactors claimed to
knew
dedicated to recon-
dressed to play the role of a
be honoring the courage of
Orleans by the
control of the river meant taking
gave Confederate
bluffs
racial justice.
More
New
city.
Vicksburg, Mississippi. Vicksburg's high river
and an enduring commitment to
have posed nev/ questions
the Mississippi
Despite these successes. Grant
had
subdued the Confederates, and Beauregard gave

the order to retreat. Both sides paid dearly: more
those
Orleans. In late April 1862,

the
end of April.
morning.
the middle of the afternoon. Grant's forces
exciting.
Union naval squadron,
Farragut and his forces took
Early the next day, however. Grant launched
New
and passed the two forts defending the
morning.
By
to gain control of the
Mississippi River. Toward this end. David
them. By
day's end the Confederate forces had pushed

Grant's men back to the Tennessee River. The
an attack. The Battle of Shiloh raged
10.000
where
admired leaders were
assassi-
nated.
As
past generations have
done,
we
continue to conse-
crate the places

crucial to the
we
consider
American
identity
and to debate their meaning.
THE CIVIL WAR
i:
381
(^
Union
tarji.ji
State
UNION STRATEGY
Confecjerate
Control of the Mississippi
^"O Union
^
xcupied
forces
Union
split
to
Marching deep
reach the Lower South.
into
enemy
territory,
up one Confederate force
tled
he bot-
Jackson.
in
Confede'rate
f.
victory
Mississippi, then raced west to trap the other
victory
enemy
150 Miles
75
1863 Grant hatched a
risky but brilliant plan to lake the city.
the Confederacy
and enable northern forces
Confederate
forces
would
Union
May
entire area. In
state
For
Paducah
150 Kilometers
force inside Vicksburg.
men
weeks General Grant and
six
laid siege to the
his
town. Vicksburg's
defenders devoured mules and rats to keep
from starving. Finally,
in late
June the
desperate Confederate soldiers sent a

their
C/>ickamauga
1863
commander, urging him
letter to
to surrender:
,Sept.
you had bet-
AL
than suffer this noble army to disgrace
themselves by desertion.
is,
99
the Union's western armies
On
position to divide the
in
under an oak
Mobile.
der.
FL
Baton
1863. General Grant and
July 3.
Confederate general John Pemberton met
Upper and Lower South.
Rbuqe
can't feed us,
Murfreesboro and Chattanooga,
were
'
you
ter surrender, horrible as the idea
After the Union victories at
yf
If
Birmingham
Ne~v Orleans
if April 1862
tree to discuss
terms of surren-
The Confederates surrendered
the next day.
On
to
Grant
July 8 the Confederate
forces at Port Hudson. Louisiana, also
The Union now controlled
Gulf
River,
of Mexico
fell.
the Mississippi
thereby cutting off Arkansas.
Louisiana, and Texas from the rest of the
The War in the West, 1862-1863

JOINT OPERATIONS
The Union army and navy cooperated
in
Confederacy.
gaining
The North achieved
control of the Mississippi.
its
goal of
controlling the Mississippi

LOCATION
Union victories at Fort Henry and Fort Donelson
River by capturing New

Orleans and Vicksburg.
prevented the Confederates from moving into which Union state?
SECTION
IDENTIFY and
REVIEW
George B. McClellan, John B. Magruder. Battle

Seven Days' Campaign, Second Battle of Bull Run, Ambrose E. Burnslde,
of Seven Pines, Jeb Stuart,
Joseph Hooker, David Farragut.
LOCATE
and explain the importance of the following: Antietam, Fredericksburg, Chancellorsville,
Gettysburg, Shiloh Church. Vicksburg.

I .
MAIN IDEA
Create a chart that
lists
each battle
location. Include a brief description of each battle
in
the eastern campaign, along with
and
its
date and
identify the victor.
MAIN IDEA Why did the battles of Antietam and Gettysburg

morale? Why did those of Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville
have positive effects on northern
have negative effects?
GEOGRAPHY: PLACE Why was Vicksburg essential to the North's strategy in the West?
WRITING TO CLASSIFY Create a time line that lists the events leading up to the North's
successful control of the Mississippi River.
ANALYZING How
382
Si
CHAPTER
12
did McClellan contribute to the North's difficulties in the eastern campaign?
THE FINAL PHASE
FOCUS
How
why
and
did the Union's
war aims
shift?
Why
did the Emancipation Proclamation apply only to slaves living

in areas of rebellion against the United States?
What strategies did Grant and Sherman employ to

What were some of the consequences of the war?
win the war?
J or
the North, the Civil
War began as a
Union. During the first year
battle to save the
and a half offighting, President
Lincoln stated repeatedly that preserving the Union was his only
goal. To retain the support of slaveholders loyal to the Union, he
pledged not
to interfere with the institution
of slavery anywhere.
Early on, however, abolitionists demanded that the North

its
war aims from saving
A SHIFT
the
Union
to
shift
ending slavery.
the
IN
WAR AIMS
abolitionist editor of the
New
criticized Lincoln for not
mak-
Horace Greeley, the
months of warfare dragged on, many north-
erners began to question whether saving the
Union
Was it
so much
ing slavery the central
war
issue.
up
Lincoln replied by
simply restating his war aim: ""My paramount
without ending slavery was worth the price.
object in the struggle
just or sensible, they asked, to sacrifice
not either to save or to destroy slavery."
without exacting a price from the secessionist

slaveholders
rolling
aided the Confederacy. Lincoln signed the acts, but
York Tribune, soon
As
Defeated Confederates
their flag
who had
caused the terrible blood-
is
Privately, however, the president
southern war effort to be
"To
Confederacy depended on slaves
left
haul supplies, build fortifications, and
but a half-hearted business, and paralyzes the
tories.
hands engaged
at
work released
to the
alone.
work
a white
in fac-
man
fight against the Union. Lincoln
in it."
After fierce debate. Republicans pushed two significant acts through Congress
in July 1862.
One
rized African
Americans
autho-
that if slaves
The
to raise food,
against slavery." charged Frederick Douglass, "is
Every slave
is
had already
concluded that slavery was too important
shed? Slavery, they insisted, must be destroyed.

fight against slaveholders, without fighting
Union, and
to save the
to
hoped
heard that the North
was fighting to free them,

they would desert their
masters, thereby weakening the South's economy.
to serve in the military.
The other freed
slaves
held by Confederate sol-
diers or by those
who
4 Members
of the 2nd U.S. Colored
Artillery are
shown loading a cannon.
THE CIVIL
WAR
383
Emancipation Proclamation
the hopes of weakening the

South, the North enlarged its
war aims to include freeing the
In
that
would go
into
effect the first of the year.
Because of constitutional issues

the Emancipation Proclamation
slaves.
applied only to slaves living in

areas of rebellion.
The emancipation
More
proclamation
slavery
Lincoln lacked the constitutional authority to abolish slavery.
But as commander
in chief
he did have
the authority to institute military measures. Thus,

in July
planned
1862 Lincoln informed his cabinet that he

to issue a
new
military order:
As of
a cer-
tain date, all slaves living in areas still rebelling
would be
against the United States
free.
To
quiet
States.
than three years would pass before

was abolished everywhere in the United
However, the institution of slavery was
doomed when January

Confederacy was
I,
still in
1863,
came and
the
rebellion. Lincoln's
proclamation brought a decisive change
in the war.
The mere news of Union troops nearby
inspired
slaves to leave their masters to follow the
Union
army.
constitutional concerns, he assured his cabinet that

this
Emancipation Proclamation would apply
only to states that belonged to the Confederacy, not

to regions
under Union control. Lincoln's assur-
ance also quelled concerns about the status of
/IfRICAN AMERICANS
TAKE UP ARMS
slaves in the border states.
Secretary of State William H. Seward urged
Lincoln to keep the Emancipation Proclamation

secret until the
Union won
when
issue the proclamation
major victory. To
the
war was going
badly for the Union would look like an act of desperation. Lincoln agreed.
at
The needed
Antietam on September
22 Lincoln issued
17, 1862.
victory
came
On September
preliminary draft of the
Both the July 1862
and the Emancipation
act
Proclamation encouraged the enlistment of African
American
soldiers.
The
ments were organized
first official
in
black regi-
August 1862
Carolina. Frederick Douglass,
in
who had been
South
press-
ing for black troops since the beginning of the war,
saw
military service as an important step toward
citizenship for African Americans:
Once
Poster commemorating the Emancipation

Proclamation
let
the black
person the brass

eagle
on
his
get upon his
him get an
button, and a musket on his
shoulder and bullets

is
man
letters, U.S.; let
In his
pocket, and there
no power on earth which can deny that
he has earned the right to citizenship.
African American soldiers
first
99
saw serious
action at Port Hudson, Louisiana, in 1863. Eight
black regiments attacked a Confederate fortress
seven times, suffering heavy losses. Their com-
mander. General Nathaniel Banks, told the New-
"No troops could be more determined

more daring." By war's end nearly 180.000
African American men had served in the Union
army. Some also served in the navy. The 166 allblack regiments fought in 449 engagements,
York Times,
or
including 39 major battles.
Although the Union army accepted African

American volunteers, it did not offer them full
384
:;
"^
Changing
On July
1863. the
18.
men
the COURAGEOUS 54TH
the Union army.
of
the 54th Massachusetts Infantry
camp on Morris
sat in
Island in
And
South Carolina's Charleston
first
Harbor Three quarters of a
black troops had
mile away, guarding the harbor
been assigned a
entrance, the sloping walls of
key role.
Wagner rose above

sands. More than 1.700
up to them to
Fort
the
ready to defend the
fort.
line,
Charles and Lewis Douglass, sons of

Frederick Douglass, both served with the 54th
Massachusetts, shown here charging Fort
and they
Wagner.
edly suffer great
The
losses.
These
white Union soldiers did not.
ers inside.
Captured blacks were treated
of
begun on
as outlaws
seize control
July 10. Eight days
despite a day of Union
remained
As
Confederate hands.
in
shot, hanged, or
many
night
commanding
fell,
Shaw was
one
killed,
casualties of the failed
assault
Union troops continued
sold into slavery.
the siege
the 54th's
officer,
September
until
when Confederate
Colonel
6.
forces,
no
So Brigadier General Truman
Robert Gould Shaw, gave the
longer able to hold out,
Seymour decided to send some
order "Forward!" and the
evacuated the
6,000 Union troops
troops advanced. The quiet
had suffered staggering losses
in
a desper-
evening exploded
ate frontal attack against the
with the 54th
fort at dusk
Regiment
in
gunfire.
storm of
Confederate cannons
around opened
the lead.
in
fire,
in
the prolonged
but some-
clawed their way to the top of
won
some
Fort Wagner's walls. There,
honored place
they began fighting hand to hand
history.
of the
first
African
soldiers recruited for
For much of the war, black soldiers earned
less than half the
pay of white
finally equalized the
pay
soldiers.
(Congress
scale in June 1864. after
agitation by black soldiers and their

officers.) In addition,
com-
white officers com-
4%
his
fight.
Four
for gallantry, and their courage
believed,
the 54th Regiment an

in
U.S. military
or pretended
to believe, and confidently asserted, that

freed slaves would not
that they
would
make good
lack courage,
be subjected to military
soldiers;
and could not
discipline. Facts
shown how groundless were these
manded every black regiment. Only about 100
have
African Americans were commissioned as junior
apprehensions.
1865 Martin Delany became the
men
Many persons
finally
Both armies
received the Gillmore Medal
how
Colonel Shaw and
fort.
survivors of the regiment
all
The 54th was no ordinary

regiment. It was composed of
American
officers. In
against the Confederate defend-
troops also faced a danger that
bombardment. Fort Wagner
manding
of Charleston's defenses had
later,
much
was
would undoubt-
the forts and batteries around
Union campaign to
It
the Confederate
The Confederates held

not only Fort Wagner but all
Charleston, South Carolina.
time that
break through
Confederate soldiers stood
equality.
this battle
represented the
99
first
African American promoted to the rank of major.
Yet the courage and dedication of African
American soldiers impressed many. In 1863

Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton noted:
Stanton was right. Over 20 African American soldiers
sailors won the Congressional Medal of

And more than 32,000 of their black com-
and
Honor.
rades gave their lives for the Union cause.
THE CIVIL WAR
i:
385

Grant swung south yet
again
order to attack
in
Petersburg. Virginia, in mid-
June.
By
capturing this
rail-
road center, he hoped to cut
off
Richmond's supplies.
But Lee held on. After three

days even Grant was
Since
May
suffered
alties.
12 his
some 60.000 casu-
He
called off the
direct assault
down
rattled.
army had
and settled
to besiege Petersburg.
Grant was achieving his
General Ulysses S. Grant, standing next to the tree at the center of the picture,
and his staff were photographed at his headquarters at Cold Harbor in early June
goal, however. Lee"s
1864.
was dwindling, with no
army
reserves available.
In
JLlNCOLN FINDS HIS GENERAL
1864 General Grant began a
war
of attrition
wearing down
the Confederates through conEmancipation provided Lincoln with one key
to
Union success. The president found another key
in
General Ulysses
S. Grant.
This general understood
North had advantages over the South
that the
in
terms of soldiers and supplies. His strategy was to

use these advantages against an
from shortages. Grant
reeling
enemy
He was
suggesting a
of attrition
to continue fighting until the South ran out of
and
supplies,
In
Union
and
his losses,
war
men.
will.
May
forces,
864 Grant, now commander of
moved some 22.000

1
all
in determination
the Tennessee army.
While Grant was working
troops into the
his
way toward
Richmond. Sherman moved some 100.000 troops
two days the northerners hurled themselves at

some 66.000 Confederates, but the rebels held
out of Tennessee toward Atlanta. Georgia, in
their ground. Grant's forces suffered nearly
Sherman entered Atlanta on September
Rather than
bloody mile.
takes
it
"I
rest.
18.000
Grant pushed on. mile by
propose to fight
it
out on this line
if
his
forces 10 miles to the south, forcing Lee to keep
men
in the field.
At Spotsylvania Court
House. Virginia. Union and Confederate forces

clashed several times between
19.
As
May
10 and
May
previous battles. Union losses were
in
heavy. Shocked by the
number of
casualties, a
southern soldier remarked of Grant: "We ha\ e met

a
man
he
is
this time,
who either does not know when

who cares not if he loses his
whipped, or
whole army."
CHAPTER
early
May. The Confederates
fell
back, and
2.
1864.
nearh 13.000.
summer." he wrote. Grant swung
all
his weary
Si
was the Union

general William Tecumseh Sherman. Moody,
ambitious, and brilliant. Sherman had performed
ably at Vicksburg and other battles. Grant
rewarded Sherman by making him commander of
Matching Grant
Wilderness near Chancellorsville. Virginia. For
casualties; the Confederates
386
SHERMAN'S MARCH TO THE SEA
was
that
told Lincoln that he
would march on Richmond, take

press on.
stant attack.
General Sherman, photographed outside of

Atlanta on July 9, 864, shortly before his army
launched its attack
^^^
against the city.
1
By capturing
the city. General
Sherman had
cut
the only Confederate railroad link across the
Appalachians. Sherman ordered the evacuation of

Atlanta and burned a significant portion of
defended his
If [southerners] raise
my barbarity and cruelty,
I
war
is
it.
He
tactic:
howl against
answer that
will
war, and not popularity-seeking.
If
they want peace, they and their relatives
must stop the war.
99
Sherman's troops
left
wake
of destruction behind them,
including torn-up railroad tracks and burned-out factories.
The
fall
of Atlanta gave a significant boost to
Up
Lincoln's reelection campaign.
looked as
ination.
if
until then,
it
he might not even get his party's nom-
Many
Republicans were upset that the war
had dragged on for so long. Sherman's success,

however, gave
many hope
soon be over. As a
tial
victory in
that the conflict
would
won a substanthe election of 1864 against

result.
Lincoln
Democrat General George McClellan.
city of
Georgia. Cut off from their supply
stole
what supplies they could and destroyed
They uprooted
crops, burned farmhouses, slaugh-
up railroad
tered livestock, and tore
tracks, leaving
nearly stripped a swath 60 miles wide and almost
300 miles
long.
Although much of the destruction exceeded
After the burning of Atlanta. Sherman
marched rapidly toward the port
men
anything that might be useful to the Confederates.
line,
Sherman's orders,
it
was
Savannah.
of fighting a total war.
Sherman's
enough
to
wage war
part of the general's tactic
He
believed that
against
enemy
was not
it
To win
troops.
^he Jinal Campaigns, 186^-1865

GRANT'S CAMPAIGN
When
Lee
Although he suffered defeat after defeat. Grant kept on the attack.
he failed to take Petersburg, Grant
laid
abandoned Petersburg and Richmond on
MOVEMENT
average hov^
many
siege to the dty for 9 months. Defeated at Five Forks,
April
2.
A week
later Lee
surrendered to Grant.
Sherman's army took 17 days to march from Savannah to Columbia. On
miles did his
Union
Confederate
state
state
Union
Union
occupied
blocl<ade
Union
Confederate
forces
army need
forces
to cover each day?
-,
'^
<:'?
Union
victory
No
'
Confederate
victory
victor
THE CIVIL
WAR
387
the war. the L nion had lo sinke
at
the
cncmys
economic resources. General Sherman was successful,
but his actions
deep and
left
Seneca-Iroquois leader from
could keep their sidearms, and
On December
10. 1864.
Sherman and
his
keep their horses. "Let
men reached Savannah, where they were resupUnion navy. On December 22
own
beg
will
plied by the
sent President Lincoln a message:
to present you, as a
Christmas
"I
gift, the city
of
General
The terms were simple. Confederate
bitter scars across
the South.
Sherman
New York
Grant drafted the terms of surrender
a horse or
them
work
to
all
mule take
the
the
officers
soldiers could
all
men who claim to

animals home with
their little farms," said Grant. "This
do much toward conciliating [uniting] our
people," replied Lee.
As Lee rode
Union troops
Savannah." In February 1865 Sherman and his

troops turned north to hnk up with Grant and fight
cheer the Union victory, but Grant silenced them.
a final battle.
"The war
is
off.
started to
over." he said: "the rebels are our
countrymen again."
General Sherman believed

fighting a total
war
in
After the surrender. Lee returned lo his
in
defeating
men
and quietly told them:
the enemy both militarily and
economically.
have done for you
my power
duty. Leave the result to
JTILLNESS AT APPOMATTOX
On
that
God.
was
it
all
Go
in
your
to your
homes and resume your occupations. Obey

become as good citizens as
you were soldiers, yj
the laws and
As Sherman's army moved northward through the

Carolinas. Grant's troops hammered at the doors of
Richmond.
all
to do. You have done
April 2, 1865. with Grant close on
The weary Confederates were then fed and
On
his heels, Lee withdrew from Richmond. Within
allowed to depart for home.
hours Union troops poured into the Confederate
General Joseph Johnston surrendered to General
capital.
Sherman under
Lee now commanded an army only half the

size of Grant's.
vive another
make
Knowing
summer
Durham. North
Carolina.
his troops could not sur-
like that of 1864.
Lee
tried to
a run to the west, hoping to join up with
troops.
similar terms at
April 26, 1865.
more
But Grant cut off Lee's escape. With his
Lee surrendered to Grant on

April
9,
1865. Johnston surren-
dered to Sherman on April 26.
once-proud army reduced

to
30.000 men.
many
with-
out shoes. Lee asked for

terms of surrender
Grant and Lee met
in
a house in the tiny village
of Appomattox Court-
house on April
Lee was
1865.
9,
in full dress uni-
form with a jewel-studded
sword
wore
at his side.
Grant
a private's
shirt,
unbuttoned
For
at
the neck.
time the two
talked about their
War
days.
men
Mexican
Then they
turned to the business
at
hand. Aided by his military secretar)'
Lieutenant
Colonel Elv Parker,
388
:!
CHAPTER
12
A Tom Lovell painted this version of Lee's surrender at Appomattox. As

part of the terms of surrender, Grant ordered 25,000 food rations to be
given to the starving Confederate troops.
The consequences
OF WAR
No
CASUALTIES OF THE CIVIL WAR, 1861-1865

400
other war on American soil has
been as tragic as the Civil War

terms of
human
costs.
North
South
in
Some 360,000
Union and 258.000 Confederate
sol-
diers died during the struggle.
than a third of the young
More
men who
served during the war were killed,
Total
wounded, captured, or died of
Killed
disease.
Source: Encyclopedia of American History
COST OF CONFLICT
wars combined.
life
was not
U.S.
the war's
history. Of the
The
Civil
more than 2.6
more than 600,000 died during
only negative consequence, however.
The war
also devastated the southern
War was
economy. Southerners, including some
enslaved
African
Americans who had gained
their free-
dom
million
one of the bloodiest wars
million Union
and Confederate
in
soldiers,
the four-year struggle.
About how many Union deaths
how many Confederate
resulted from non-battle-related causes? About
four
Non-BattleRelated Causes
More Americans were killed in the

Civil War than in all other American
Loss of
Died from
Died from
Causes
Battle
deaths resulted from non-battle-related causes?
as a result of the war, faced an
uncertain future. Nearly
all
of the former slaves
were without homes or jobs. Tens of thousands of
steel,
The war
white Confederate veterans were also homeless
to
expand
after the war.
also finally resolved the long-
debated issue of slavery. Never again would the
and jobless.
For the North, however, the war had many

positive
petroleum, food processing, manufacturing,
and finance continued
economic consequences. Agriculture and
industry had expanded during the
war
to
meet the
needs of the military. The northern enterprises of
United States government sanction the legalized
enslavement of a group of people. In addition
Republican party a dominant
SECTION
IDENTIFY and
to
ending slavery, the North's victory made the

political force.
REVIEW
explain the significance of the following: Emancipation Proclamation, 54th
Massachusetts Infantry, Martin Delany, Ulysses
S.
Grant, war of attrition, William Tecumseh Sherman,
total war.
LOCATE
and explain the importance of the following: Spotsylvania Court House, Atlanta, Savannah,
Appomattox Courthouse.
1.
2.
MAIN IDEA How and why did the North change

MAIN IDEA Why were only those slaves living in
its
war aims during the
Civil
War?
areas of rebellion against the United States
affected by the Emancipation Proclamation?

3.

Tecumseh Sherman
4.
finally
did the military strategies of Ulysses
S.
Grant and William
bring an end to the war?
WRITING TO EVALUATE
Summarize the consequences of the
Civil
War
for the
North and the
South.
5.
ANALYZING
Write
Imagine you are an African American
a letter to President Lincoln that explains
who
why you
has just enlisted
in
a black regiment.
believe that your military service
is
an
important step toward citizenship.
THE CIVIL
WAR
389
..
Campaign
Peninsula
Sumter
falls. Union and

Confederate forces collide
CHAPTER
at First Battle of Bull Run.
i
1862
WRITING A SUMMARY
^REVIEWING THEMES
summary
of the chapter.
2.
Number your
and
list
paper
to
5.
in
2.
the order
first
Geographical Diversity What role did geography play in helping the North win the war?
Economic Development In what ways did the
Civil
Study the time
ond next to
line
both help and hurt the economies of
the North and the South?
the sec-
activity
THINKING CRITICALLY
1. Hypothesizing How might the
Civil
Atlanta
War
which
in
next to
above,
below.
1
for North.
eview
write a
fails
South defeated at Antietam. North

defeated at Second Battle of Bull Run,
Fredericksburg, and Chancellorsville.
Lincoln inaugurated. Fort
falls.
War
have been different
if
outcome of the
European powers
had aided the South?
2.
South defeated at Antietam.
3.
Lee surrenders at Appomattox.
2.
4.
Emancipation Proclamation goes into
5.
Lincoln inaugurated.
How
Hypothesizing
Evaluating
How
did fears of alienating the bor-
der states affect northern strategy during the war?

effect.
3.
Analyzing
plies
might northerners have
received the Emancipation Proclamation
if it
How
did the South, with fewer sup-
and resources, prevent the North from end-
ing the Civil
War
quickly?
had been
issued before the Battle of Antietam, rather than
after?
Review the Strategies for Success on Interpreting the
IDENTIFYING PEOPLE
AND
Visual
IDEAS
below.
Record on page
It
Corinth, Mississippi,
lowing people or terms:
piece of paper,
1
Robert
E.
Lee
6.
Martin Delany
7.
Emancipation
2.
Elizabeth Blackwell
3.
George
4.
Thomas "Stonewall"
8.
war of
Jackson
9.
William
Sherman
10.
Ulysses
S.
Grant
5.
B.
McClellan
Proclamation
Copperheads
attrition

1
How
did the political and military goals of the
North change
2.
Why
was the
as the
sides during the

3.
How
war progressed?
Mississippi River
did early
important to both
war?
Confederate victories
affect north-
ern attitudes toward the war?

4.
5.
What contributions did women make in the war?

What contributions did African Americans make?
What were the effects of the Emancipation
Proclamation?
6.
390
Why
did
some people
CHAPTER
object to the military draft?
98, then study the picture
shows conditions
list
in
May
at a
Confederate camp at
1862. Then,
on
a separate
may
camp life.
clues that suggest the artist
have painted an idealized picture of actual
Emancipation Proclamation goes
Grant named commander of

Union forces. Troops clash at
Spotsylvania and Petersburg.
Atlanta falls. Sherman march-
into effect. Draft riots in North.
South defeated at Gettysburg.

Vicksburg falls. Gettysburg
Address delivered.
Lee surrenders at
Appomattox. War ends.
es to the sea.
1865
1864
Then,
Writing to Evaluate The wisdom
tion
of Sherman's
be practical
in
tactics
tions.
in
the Civil
The South,
may have
War fought
in particular,
General Henry
campaign
in
suffered
difficult
condi-
from short-
your
in
feelings
1862.
Halleck was running a
book
of the
store.
1862 with
in
.
Potomac
Not
until
Union
[the
theater of operations. ... As late as
its
Confederate soldier
describing conditions on a march from
Richmond
both the
in
army] have an accurate map of northern

Virginia,
a letter written by a
Army
1863 did the
ages of food and supplies. Read the following excerpt
from
the western theater
maps he got from
under
unreliable informa-
affected military campaigns
would
every war.

Soldiers
how
a paragraph, explain
North and the South.
total-war tactics has been debated by historians.
Write an essay evaluating whether such
in
Yorktown to
Then write an essay expressing
1864 there was not an

that could
what
about the passage.
or
44 / have never conceived of such trials as
a general organizing a campaign
tell
were under
railroads
how many men
transport.
Washington
office in
military control
and supplies they could
99
we have passed through. We were for days

together without a morsel offood, excepting
occasionally a meal ofparched com.
The army was kept on the march
& night and the roads were

some places waist deep in
mud.
Many of the men
became exhausted and
some were actually stuck
in the mud & had to be
day
in
pulled out.
BUILDING YOUR
PORTFOLIO

cooperatively.
1.
The men on the march

ran through the gardens
SLAVERY
Chapter
you summarized
Lincoln and Douglas's views on slavery. Building on

.
that material,
devouring every particle of

vegetables like the
In
Douglass
army worm
in
now
1862.
imagine you are Frederick
Write
a letter to President
Lincoln urging him to take a strong stand against
leaving nothing at all stand-
slavery by issuing the Emancipation Proclamation.
Whenever a cow or hog

were found it was shot down
ing.
&
soon despatched.
99
2.
Confederate soldier
SECTIONALISM
South to prevent a
knowledge of the terrain was often hampered by

inaccurate maps. Read the following excerpt from
Harry Williams's
mem-
formulate a compromise between the North and

The Civil War was commanded by generals whose
Imagine you are a
ber of a congressional committee attempting to
Lincoln
lists
the
political,
between the two

cles to an
civil
war. Create a chart that
economic, and
sides that
social differences
you think
will
be obsta-
agreement and possible peaceful ways
around these obstacles.
and His Generals (1952).
THE CIVIL
WAR
391
Chapter 13
1865-1900
RECONSTRUCTION
AND THE NEW SOUTH
UNDERSTANDING
THE MAIN IDEA
After the
Civil
War, the nation strug-
gled to restore the southern states to

the Union
and determine the
status of
and
the freed slaves. The Radical
Moderate Republicans, the former

slaves,
and the planter
aristocracy
had
conflicting goals for Reconstruction.
Though the Union was
and equal
restored,
full
citizenship for African
Americans was not achieved.
CONSTITUTIONAL
HERITAGE Why
is it
neces-
sary that a plan of government
be adaptable?
happen
if
What
might
government cannot
adapt to changes
in
society?
DEMOCRATIC VALUES
Why
might a nation's definition
of a democratic society change
over time?
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT How might a region's

dependence on the
single
product
limit
sale of a
the region's
1865
Thirteenth
Amendment
passed.
1867
Reconstruction
Acts passed.
1869
1877
1896
Fifteenth
Reconstruction
Supreme Court
Amendment
ends.
issues ruling in
passed.
P/essy v. Ferguson.
Ever since the nation's founding, slavery had caused political prob:s
LINK TO THE PAST
Though many Americans agreed that slavery was incompatible
lems.
with democratic ideals, the nation had to fight a
civil
war to end the
"peculiar institution." The war, however, did not solve the problem of
how to
include emancipated slaves in free society.
SI
n
864
abolitionist Frederick
American men be granted
r^Tn
It is
In
that African
suffrage:
said that the colored
should not vote.
Douglass demanded
saying this,
man
is
you
lay
ignorant, and therefore he
down
a rule for the black
man
:||
that you apply to

1
'i'::!'-^'
no other
class of
your
citizens. ...
enough to be hanged, he knows enough to vote.
man from
est
voters. ...
rule
a thief,
AIM
ask,
he knows
he knows an hon-
he knows much more than some of our white
however,
you adopt, whether of
voting,
If
If
you should apply
it
in
regards to blacks,
intelligence
is
that whatever
or wealth, as the condition of
equally to the black man.
**
Douglass's appeal struck

at the heart
of one of the most
urgent questions facing the

nation:
What would be
fate of the
lion
some four
the
mil-
newly emancipated
slaves? Before this question could be answered,
however, the federal

government would have
to
confront another
issue:
How
should the
Union be restored?
Cover from
The Conquered Banner song sheet
Freedmen's Bureau schoolroom, 1866
RECONSTRUCTION AND THE NEW SOUTH
393
Section
PRESIDENTIAL RECONSTRUCTION
c u s
How did the Civil War affect southern life?
How did Lincoln and Congress differ In their views
What was Johnson's plan for Reconstruction?
In
what ways were the black codes
like
on Reconstruction?
a continuation of slavery?
A.\mericans faced complex problems after the Civil War

Whites and blacks struggled to define the rights offreed African
Americans. Politicians disagreed about
how
best to restore the
Union. To heal the nation. President Abraham Lincoln offered
generous peace terms to the former Confederate

successor,
former
Andrew Johnson, was even more
rebels.
states.
lenient
His
toward the
Taking advantage of Johnson's lenience, southern
legislatures restricted African
Americans'
Republican campaign poster,
1864
rights.
Despite the obstacles, however, most freed-
The old south
destroyed
people looked eagerly to the future. Like former
Henry Turner, they yearned
slave
As
the
war ended, most of
the
some four milhon
common w ith
"rights in
emancipated slaves found themselves without
form
money
their marriages.
or homes. "It
came
so sudden on "em,"
recalled former slave Parke Johnston:
their
to enjoy their
They hoped
other men."
ow n churches and
schools and to legalize
Many freedpeople looked forward

their own livelihood rather than working
to choosing
With
as servants or as field hands for others.
Just think of
whole
dom
anything seemed
members who had been
had always been kept so
Hawkins Wilson
left
and hardly ever
unknown
way
the plantation
before, turned loose
44
the world, but what they
believing that
"Dear
99
This family record,
showing a prosperous
American family,
was marketed to former
African
slaves after the war.
394
:S
CHAPTE R
Former slave
it
address
would somehow
find
Sister Jane." he wrote:
find
Your
little
brother Hawkins
trying to
is
out where you are and where
his
poor
Let me know and

never forget the
come to see you
old
mother
is
sold away.
sent a letter to his sister
all
at once, with nothing in
had on their backs.
to her.
free-
tmding family
possible, even
droves of people, that
close,
to
bag of biscuits you
send
me some
baby
in
from you.
99
will
shall
made
for me.
of Julia's hair
the cradle
whom
Please
left a
when was torn away

I
its
A After the Civil War, many southern cities lay in ruins. This 1865 photograph shows
the effects of war on a district in Richmond, Virginia.
Above
African Americans hoped, like
all.
free black Garrison Frazier, "to

it
and
till
it
to support
dence; in
by our own
have land, and turn
labor/'
Most wanted land
themselves and to protect their indepen-
many
fact,
believed that
it
was
their due.
*'Our wives, our children, our husbands, has been
sold over and over again to purchase the lands
now
we
The Union army had

the South
General William
T.
Sherman had encouraged
such hopes in January 1865, when he ordered part
railroad lines, blowing
Many
homes, barns, and gardens.

ruins.
up
cities, too, lay in
Columbia. South Carolina,
visitor to
described "a wilderness of
crumbhng
walls,
naked
chimneys, and trees killed by flames."

Disease, the grim companion of hunger and
bad
right to the land."
waste to parts of
bridges and wells, and stripping Confederate
locates upon." argued former slave Bayley
Wyat; "we have a divine
destroying
laid
sanitation,
cities,
swept the South. Illness ravaged the
where families lived
and thousands died
in
makeshift shelters
in the year after the war.
of South Carolina to be divided into 40-acre

parcels and given to freedmen.
that the federal
man "40
Rumors
persisted
government would give each freed-
At the war's end much of the South

lay in ruins. Many southerners, both
blacks and whites, suffered from
acres and a mule."
poverty, hunger, and disease.
After the Civil War,

African Americans were
optimistic about
possibilities for
their
own
/^RESIDENT LINCOLN
new
shaping
AND RECONSTRUCTION
destinies.
President Lincoln had gone to
The
planters
even they found
not to destroy the South but to pre-
had land, but
still
their
world
serve the Union.
"literally
kicked to pieces." Mary Boykin

Chesnut, a Confederate officer's wife,
wrote about the despair she and many

other white southerners
our faces to
is
dead
here
wall.
sometimes brought by
turned with
No
a
mails.
We
to eat out our
man on horseback,
made by
are cut off from the world
own
hearts.
Mary Boykin
Chesnut
letter
traveling through the wilderness
Sherman.
*"
Even before
the
fighting ended, he had
begun plan-
ning for Reconstruction-
for rebuild-
ing the former Confederate states and

National Portrait Gallery
felt:
44 We are shut in
war
reuniting the nation.
To encourage southerners
the Confederacy. Lincoln
to
abandon
had issued the
Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction on
December
amnesty
8,
1863.
a full
The proclamation offered
pardon
to all
southerners
(except high-ranking Confederate leaders and a
few others) who would swear allegiance
to the
395
THE EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATION

In 1861,
two years before President Lincoln issued the
Emancipation Proclamation, Crar Alexander II of Russia

promised more than 20 million Russian serfs freedom and
Though the
land.
czar's
own
land policies eventually failed,
in
1879 he criticized the Proclamation for having sidestepped the

The czar charged that the decree had freed the
American slaves but had left them with no means to support
issue of land.
themselves. Alexander boasted:
J
in
did
more
for the Russian serf
giving him land as well as personal
erty,
lib-
than America did for the Negro slave
set free by the
Lincoln.
am
Proclamation of President
at a loss to understand
how
you Americans could have been so blind as
work out
his salvation.
Without prop-
erty of any kind he cannot educate himself
and
his children.
come when many
must
believe the time

will
question the
manner
of American emancipation of the Negro
99
slaves in 1863.
to leave the Negro slave without tools to
U.S. Constitution and accept federal laws on slav-
white males to take a loyalty oath. Lincoln vetoed
The proclamation also permitted a state to

rejoin the Union when 10 percent of the state's res-
the bill because he
ery.
idents
to the
who had
voted
in
1860 swore
their loyalty
United States.
Many members
rights of
become
of Congress objected to the
They did not
loyal citizens or to protect the
Congress should help shape Reconstruction policy.

laid out its
own
any single plan of restoration." In his
made
4.
clear his underlying goal for
Reconstruction:
Reconstruction
4 With
for
all,
malice toward none, with charity
with firmness
in
the right as
to bind up the nation's
wounds
on
... to
plan in the Wade-Davis Bill, passed in July 1864.
which may achieve and cherish a

lasting peace.
called for the former Confederate states to
God
gives us to see the right, let us strive
The
bill
"be inflexibly
trust
former slaves. Furthermore, they believed
Congress
to
to
Second Inaugural Address, delivered on March

1865. Lincoln
president's "10 Percent Plan."

the rebels to
committed
was not ready
just
do
all
and
**
abolish slavery and for a majority of each state's
Unlike Congress, Lincoln favored

a flexible, lenient policy toward
the former Confederates.
What
course Reconstruction might have taken
under Lincoln's direction will never be known.
On
April 14. 1865. just days after General Robert E.
Lee's surrender, John Wilkes Booth, a half-crazed
Confederate sympathizer, shot the president as he
watched
a play at
Washington's Ford Theatre.
Lincoln died early the follow ing morning.

Lincoln's death
A Mathew
Brady took
photograph of
Abraham Lincoln delivering his Second Inaugural
Address on March 4, 1865.
396
CHAPTER
13
this
nation.
was a
tragic
blow
to the entire
Thousands of Americans stood beside
railroad tracks as the funeral train
from Washington
made
its
the
way
to Lincoln's burial site in Illinois.
n
War
except cx-Confederatc officeholders and the richest

planters.
These he pardoned
stales as well.
DeparCmenl, Washington,
April 20 <865.
freely
on an individual
Johnson's leniency extended to the rebel
basis.
For readmission to the Union, he
required only that they nullify their acts of secession, abolish slavery,
government
PLfinEn
Of our late
beWed
President
Abraham
debts.
and refuse
(The
hurt wealthy southerners
to
pay Confederate
provision
last
who
was meant
to
had financed the
Confederacy.)
Lincoln.
Johnson's plan allowed former Confederate

leaders to take charge of Reconstruction.
^.lQoq reward
wore
their
These men
some proudly
Confederate uniforms! and benefited
dominated the new legislatures
still
ftESDENTIAL LiVg}
After Lincoln's
assassination, the
ANDREW JOHNSON
War Department offered a reward for

the capture of John Wilkes Booth. The pistol
Booth used to murder Lincoln
is
1808-1875
shown here.
in office
1865-1869
/^RESIDENT JOHNSON AND
RECONSTRUCTION
At Lincoln's death Vice President Andrew Johnson
became
president. Johnson
time slaveholder, and a former U.S. senator from
Tennessee
mate
had been chosen
1864 because of
in
his
Johnson was three,

later,
ill-suited to the challenges of
Reconstruction and of defining African Americans'
He
his father died.
few years
mother apprenticed him to
Johnson ran away from
ence as Tennessee's military governor during the
rights.
his
When
a tailor.
to
Despite his support for the Union and experi-
new
a self-made man.
pro-Union sympathies.
northern Democrats and southern Unionists.
was
Andrew Johnson was
as Lincoln's running
Republican leaders had hoped he would appeal
war, Johnson
17 CENTS 17
Democrat, a one-
his
master and eventually
went to Tennessee. He never attended
school,
but he probably learned to read as an apprenLater his wife taught him to write and to
tice.
do simple
arithmetic.
Johnson did well as a
suffered, one contemporary
tailor.
He was
able to
observed, from "almost unconquerable prejudices
buy property but never identified himself with
against the African race." Moreover, he lacked
the planter
Lincoln's tact and pohtical
Johnson refused
The
to
The opinionated
At
first
immedi-
that Jefferson
Davis and
other high-ranking Confederates be hanged as

tors.
This pleased
have
faith in you.
ble
now
Senator
In
face.
in
many
By the
running
Tennessee
Johnson denounced southern
even suggesting
trai-
Republicans. "Johnson,
this
class.
artisans,
an outsider.
compromise.
president's weaknesses were not
ately apparent.
treason,
skill.
and
we
until
politician
were to farmers
he saw himself as
"Andy Johnson," people
said,
"never went back on
in
East
his raisin'."
He continued to make all his own clothes

he went to Washington. Even after he
became
tailor
His loyalties
and as a
president, Johnson often
dropped
into
shops for a chat.
gods, there will be no trou-
government," exclaimed
Ben Wade of Ohio.
May
1865, however, in a startling about-
Johnson issued a blanket pardon
to all rebels
397
from the president's
war have been fought
support for "a white
to gain that
When
one hour."
Above
man's government."
the
all.
they complained
codes
reestablished
of the "painful humilia-
white
control
tion" inflicted by the
black labor. Without
presence
slaves to
black
of
soldiers in the South.
Johnson had the
sweet potatoes on a plantation

South Carolina.
diers removed.
sol-
When
Newly freed
slaves are
Mississippi refused to
ratify
Congress had passed

slavery
Amendment which
the Thirteenth
in
January 1865 to abolish
Johnson recognized
the
.state's
new gov-
lie untilled,"
Hilton Head,
in April 1865. As a
way to make former slaves return to field work,
some local codes forbade blacks to live in towns
unless they were servants. South Carolina and
who
labor contracts. Those
freely granted
pardons
refused could be
arrested and have their labor for the year put
and set lenient conditions for
auction.
readmission to the Union.
states'
lamented
a white Mississippian
Mississippi required freedpeople to sign 12-month
ernment anyway.
Johnson
the work,
"our fields everywhere
shown here planting

in
do
ovei
this
One
up
black veteran demanded: "If you
Freedom, what do you
for
call
call Slaver>'?"
Northerners angrily denounced the black
codes. The Chicago Tribune reprinted the

Mississippi code and proclaimed:
Xhe black codes
The men
Johnson's actions encouraged former Confederates

to
adopt laws limiting the freedom of former slaves.
they
denounced as "a disgrace
foot of
resembled
prewar slave codes. Mississippi simply used
its
North
old
will
dom
pond before
allow such laws to disgrace one
soil in
which the bones of our
diers sleep and over
code, substituting the vôrd freedman for slave.
convert the
will
State of Mississippi into a frog
These black codes, which African Americans

to civilization,"
of the
waves.
**
which the
flag
sol-
of free-
Under these laws African Americans could

not hold meetings unless whites were present,
travel without permits, or
own
guns. Blacks
in
New
It
would be up
to
end the
to
Congress, however, to find a
rule of the
way
"white-washed rebels."
Orleans could not be on the streets after 10 o'clock

at night, just
curfew.
The
one hour
later than the
previous slave
editor of the city's African
newspaper noted: "This additional hour

of our victories in the
field.
American
is
the fruit
Four years of a bloody
SECTION
2.
black codes limited the freedom of African Americans and

tried to force former slaves back
into plantation labor.
REVIEW
IDENTIFY and explain the significance of the following:

Andrew Johnson, Thirteenth Amendment, black codes.
1.
The
Reconstruction, amnesty, John Wilkes Booth,
MAIN IDEA What was southern life like after the Civil War?
MAIN IDEA Under Johnson's Reconstruction plan, how could
states gain readmission to the
Union?
3.
4.
CONTRASTING How did

WRITING TO DESCRIBE
tive in the
5.
398
differ
Imagine you are a newly emancipated
North describing the
EVALUATING Why
CHAPTER
Congress's plan for Reconstruction
effects of the black
would "40 acres and
codes on your
from
slave.
Lincoln's?
Write
a letter to a rela-
life.
a mule" be important to a freed slave?
II
Sect ion 2
IH
1
CONGRESSIONAL RECONSTRUCTION
1
How
u
did
Moderate and Radical Republicans
differ in their
at first
approaches to Reconstruction?
Why did
Moderate Republicans in Congress break with

Johnson and join forces with the Radicals?
How
did the Fourteenth and Fifteenth
expand the
civil
rights of African
f^ resident Johnson
and
's
amendments
Americans?
support of the former Confederates
his failure to protect African
Americans
'
rights
angered even Moderate Republicans, who had hoped

cooperate with the president. As a
result, the
to
Moderates
in
Congress deserted him and joined forces with the

Radicals. Together they took over Reconstruction.
Cartoon mocking Johnson's veto

of the Freedmen's Bureau
Bill
right to vote. For them, the proper goal of
The moderates versus

the radicals
Reconstruction was to create a
to
When Johnson
a united
men would
all
took office in 1865, he did not face
Congress. Even the Republicans were
The Moderates, who made up
the Republican party,
the majority of
viewed Reconstruction
as a
enjoy equal rights. But for
this
goal
be reached, warned Thaddeus Stevens, the out-
spoken Radical from Pennsylvania, "the whole

fabric of southern society
must be changed."
Stevens believed that land reform could
divided over the course Reconstruction should

take.
new South where
change southern
society.
He
agreed with Senator
Charles Sumner of Massachusetts,
who
insisted
must be broken up,
practical matter of restoring the southern states to
that "the great plantations
the Union. Their main concern was keeping

ex-Confederates out
and the freedmen must have the pieces."

According
the former slaves
favored giving African
destroy the political
Americans civil equalwhich included the

ity
and defiant rebels."
right to travel freely
to meet together
and
but
Radical Republicans,
on the other hand,
insisted that
economic independence
would ensure
power of
their
for
freedom and
the "proud, bloated,
Despite the efforts of Stevens and Sumner,
land never won

land reform
particularly
government seizure of
wide support. The
New
York
Times accused land reformers of starting "a war on
not the vote.
A Thaddeus Stevens
to Stevens,
of government. They
African
Americans be given the
property ... to succeed the war on Slavery."
many
ity,
Radicals believed that the ballot,
and free labor were enough
Americans
civil
to give
Even
equal-
African
chance to succeed.
i:
399
The
Freedmen's
Bureau.
Congress had
up the Freedmen'.s
set
Bureau
in
March 1865
to
aid the millions of south-
erners
left
homeless and
hungry by the war. The

bureau distributed food
and clothing, served as an
employment agency,
set
up hospitals, and operated

schools.
SEA ISLANDS
much
General Sherman set aside
of coastal South Carolina
contraband
U.S.
and Georgia
bureau's
were
directed
toward easing the plight of
for African
ex-slaves.
Americans, but President
Major private aid

projects
Congress had
Johnson's policies returned
Freedmen's Bureau
hospitals, orphanages
most of
VOLUNTARY ASSOCIATIONS
this
worked with
colleges
Private aid societies
Headquarters of
Bureau
private aid societies
educate African Americans.
to establish
former owners.
remain
the Freedmen's
some 3.000 schools and
In light of the
hearings, however, most

200 Kilometers
100
Aid for Jreedpeople, 1865-1871
members now favored
leg-
extend the
life
islation to
of the agency. African
The Freedmen's Bureau and private aid societies helped
Americans largely agreed,
and education.
although they thought the
African Americans obtain food, shelter, medical care, legal aid,
Kfl LOCATION
operation for
200 Miles
Albert Equal-Area Projection
FROM SLAVERY TO FREEDOM
in
one year.
100
to
in-
tended for the bureau to
land to the
Freedmen's Bureau
aid
surprisingly,
of the
efforts
the Sea Islands and parts
camps
Not
Freedmen's Bureau too
According to the map, which states of the Confederacy had major private
projects?
often encouraged blacks to
remain on plantations and

sign labor contracts.
At
acknowledged however,
Moderate and Radical

Republicans were divided over
land reform and African
American suffrage.
first,
They
that the bureau's very
presence forced white southerners to recognize

emancipation.
One
cial that "if the
colored
a
word
black told a government offi-
Freedman Bureau was removed,
man would have

in
better sense than to speak
behalf of the colored man's rights, for
fear of his life."
CONGRESS VERSUS JOHNSON

The
was
split
In
between the Moderates and the Radicals
not to
last,
however. In early 1866 Congress
began hearings on conditions

after witness
came before
in the
South. Witness
the Joint
Committee on
agency.
Much
to
Bill to
extend the
African Americans recounted stories of murder
the president.
and of homes, schools, and churches reduced
Rights Act of 1866. The act declared
Civil Rights
bom
death threats. These reports and others like them
rights. (It did not
convinced the Moderates
The
to join forces
with the
slaves.
Work began on
legislation to extend the life
act
Act of 866.
1
Furious with
Congress quickly passed the Civil
"ashes and cinders." Southern Unionists told of
in the
of the
bill.
The
to
life
Congress's surprise. Johnson
promptly vetoed the
Reconstruction with stories of postwar violence.
Radicals to protect the rights and safety of the ex-
400
February 1866 Congress passed the
Freedmen's Bureau
that
United States was a citizen with
everyone
full civil
guarantee voting rights, however.)
was designed
to overturn discriminatory
laws and the Supreme Court's 1857 Dred Scott

ing that blacks were
rul-
not citizens. "If the President
of the Freedmen's Bureau and to guarantee black
vetoes the Civil Rights Bill." wrote one Ohio sena-
civil rights.
tor,
CHAPTER
13
"we
shall
be obliged
to
draw our swords."
The Fourlecnth Amcndmcnl

did not guarantee African
voting rights.
It
American
however,
did,
reduce the number of representatives a state

in
could send to Congress
number of
proportion to the
the
male citizens denied the

Republicans hoped
state's
right to vote.
would give
that southern states
African Americans the right to vote

rather than lose representation in
Congress.
A This
1866 poster
mocks the
Act of 866. As punishment

1
ineffectiveness of the Civil Rights
for crimes,
sold at auction while another
is
one former slave
being
is
Amendment
provided for equal

citizenship for African Americans
and pressured states to grant
black men voting rights.
Johnson did not heed the warning. He

vetoed the
power
arguing that
bill,
in the federal
it
would centralize
government. Johnson's veto
message also underscored

president complained that the
his racism; the
bill
would "operate
against the white race."
Johnson's veto eroded his support
in
Congress and united Moderate and Radical

Republicans against him. Congress overrode
Johnson's veto of the Civil Rights Act. Then
Congress returned
to the matter of the
Bureau, passed a new
bill,
The Fourteenth
being whipped.
Freedmen's
and overrode yet
The RADICALS COME TO POWER

Johnson
tried to
an issue
in the
make
Amendment
elections. He
the Fourteenth
1866 congressional
traveled throughout the Midwest, campaigning in
who opposed
the
amendment
voters were not receptive.
Many were
support of candidates
and calling the Radicals
Most
another veto.
traitors.
deeply troubled by the ongoing violence against

blacks in the South. In
Radical Republicans.
toward the freedmen," one reporter noted,
that a future Democrat-controlled
Fearing
Congress might
repeal the Civil Rights Act, congressional
provisions into the
Republicans wrote its

Fourteenth Amendment, passed in June 1866.
The amendment required states to extend equal citizenship to African Americans and all people
"bom
or naturalized in the United States."
It
denied states the right to deprive anyone of

liberty, or
it
all
With
amendment
rights
1866,
the
demoniac
On
spirit
of the southern whites
July 30 in
New
this vio-
Orleans, more
than 30 blacks and 3 white Radicals were killed in

a riot.
General Philip H.
Sheridan,
military
Johnson's
commander
in
Texas and Louisiana,

called
it
"an absolute
massacre."
also
"life,
property without due process of law,"
promised
the laws."
in
schools and 4 churches. "If anything could reveal
lence would.
The Fourteenth Amendment.
Memphis
white rioters killed 46 blacks and burned 12
and
May
Postwar violence and Johnson's

opposition to the Freedmen's
Bureau Bill and the Civil Rights
Act of 866 united Moderate and
citizens the "equal protection of
its
ratification in July 1868, the
created a national citizenship with
enjoyed equally by
all
that
enforced by the federal government.
were
to
be
^ The August
866 issue
of Harper's Weekly
included this illustration

of the July riot in
New
Orleans.
40
NY
CT
Republican government
[defeated. 1869-1871
I
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
MEXICO
400 Kilometers
200
Alben Equal-Area
Projection
Reconstruction in the South

GOVERNMENT
MILITARY
Republican opponents overrode President Johnson's veto and
and protect the
established military districts to enforce order
Kfl PLACE
Which
state
in
rights of African Americans.
the former Confederacy did not have a military government?
Such violence made Johnson's
call for
leniency toward the South seem absurd. Fearing

they might lose the fruits of their Civil
War
victory,
northerners overwhelmingly elected Republicans

in
1866.
Now
firmly in
command
Republicans, with the Radicals
of Congress, the
at the
helm, seized
control of Reconstruction.
Over Johnson's
Republicans
former Confederacy (with the
exception of already-reconstructed Tennessee)

into five military districts.
were stationed
in
each
Union army troops

district to
-^^^
enforce
To gain readmission to the Union, states

were required to ratify the Fourteenth
Amendment and to submit to Congress new constitutions giving all men the vote.
order.
The attempt to
impeach
the president
The Radicals knew
402
CHAPTER
that the success
of the congres-
depended on enforcement. They were
sional plan
i
protect
its
policies and Republican officeholders.
Congress passed the Tenure of Office Act

It
in 1867.
required Senate approval of a replacement before
the president could
remove an
official earlier
con-
firmed by the Senate.
A ticket of admission
angr\' vetoes.
passed the Reconstruction Acts of 1867. These

acts divided the
equally sure that Johnson would not cooperate. To
was required
to the U.S. Senate galleries
for people wishing to attend the
impeachment
trial
of
President Johnson.
Believing the law unconstitutional. Johnson

put
to the test. In
it
February 186S he ousted
War Edwin Stanton, an ally of the

Radicals. The House responded by voting to
Secretary of
impeach the president. The House charged Johnson

with violating the Tenure of Office Act, making
"scandalous" speeches, and exposing Congress to

ridicule.
Some
senators believed that Johnson, despite
had committed no impeachable offense.
his flaws,
Lyman Trumbull of Illinois, a Johnson

"No future President will be safe
Senator
predicted:
critic,
who happens
to differ with a majority of the
House
and two-thirds of the Senate." Trumbull worried

that an aggressive
Congress undermined the
checks and balances of the Constitution, and some

other senators shared his fear.
May
1868.
16,
fell
The Senate vote on
one short of the two-thirds
majority needed to convict. Johnson's power,
how-
A W.L.
was broken.
ever,
in the South for

1868 to illustrate African American interest
Sheppard sketched Electioneering
Harper's Weekly
in
in voting.
The
was a
experience, but he had an important asset: he
fifteenth
The attempt
to force
amendment
popular war hero.
Grant defeated his Democratic opponent.
Johnson from office cost the
Radical Republicans some popular support.
As
1868 election neared, they sensed trouble. To

retain voters, they
nominated General Ulysses
Grant for president. General Grant lacked
close race.
S.
political
ULYSSES
New
York, in a very
As worried Republican
leaders studied
Governor Horatio Seymour of
the
the election returns, they realized that
new
American voters had given them
narrow win.
in office
GRANT
S.
their
African
1869-1877
1822-1885
Ulysses
S.
U.S. Military
in
Academy
at
West
Point
in
843 with no intentions of making
a career of military service.
tary
life
"A
had no charms for me, and
the army even

ated,
which
if
military career on
missing his family, and amid
of
his
POSTAGE
heavy
seemed to dog
working
in
farming but
^W ''''
War
He
started
failed.
in
When
custom-
house, and collecting rents.
18 ceSts 18
him.
through a series of jobs: ped-
dling firewood,
should be gradu-
the western frontier. But
rumors
Failure
in
did not expect."
from the army
1854.
drifted
After the Mexican War, Grant
pursue
UNITED
STATES
mili-
had not the faintest idea of staying
did
drinking, he resigned
Grant graduated from the
He
tried
the Civil
1861, Grant
was 39
"'
years old and clerking at his family's

leather goods store.
^^ ^^
j^^Z,.g^^\
l^
^>*V
He
returned to
the army and at
success.
followed
last
found
The presidency
in
1869.
403
The ratification of the

Amendment in 1870 was a
Fifteenth
triumph for African Americans and

Radical Republicans. "This wonderful, quiet,
sudden transformation of
four millions of
human
beings from
... the auction-block to the ballot-
box" was unprecedented, rejoiced

abolitionist
William Lloyd Garrison.
But others criticized the amendment. Historian Henry

that
it
Adams
was most remarkable
it
did not do.
noted
for
what
did not guarantee
It
African Americans the right to hold

office.
Nor did
it
prevent states from
limiting voting rights through dis-
A This poster was issued to celebrate passage of the
Fifteenth
criminatory requirements, such as
Amendment.
literacy tests.
Eager
to protect their
power
in the
well as in the South, the Republicans
Fifteenth
North as
drew up
the
Amendment, which Congress passed
February 1869.
It
was
short and to the point:
in
"The
United States to vote shall
not be denied or abridged by the United States or
by any
on account of
state
race, color, or previous
The Fifteenth Amendment

women. Women's
also failed to extend the vote to

rights leaders,
had
that "this
women
hour belongs
to wait for the
is this:
Do you
entirely of males?" Stanton
LOCATE
and others
women were
the
movement.
REVIEW
Thaddeus Stevens, Freedmen's Bureau,
S.
Civil
Grant, Fifteenth
Cady Stanton.
follovîng:
Memphis, Tennessee.
MAIN IDEA What
2.
MAIN IDEA What rights did the Fourteenth and Fifteenth amendments
CONTRASTING How did the Moderate Republicans' attitudes toward
3.
until all
actions of President Johnson served to unite the Republican opposition?
guarantee for blacks?

Reconstruction
differ
from those of the Radical Republicans?

4.
5.
WRITING TO PERSUADE
Imagine you are an African American
::
in
include
position.
did
Andrew Johnson and Congress each
CHAPTER
13
support of
members not
the
use the Constitution's system of
checks and balances to try to assert their plan for Reconstruction?
404
woman working
Amendment. Write a speech to deliver before Congress, urging

women's suffrage in the amendment. Be sure to give reasons for your
the Fifteenth
ANALYZING How
is
for
more than 20 years and alienated many African

American women from
Elizabeth
"My
ment divided the women's suffrage movement
Act of 1866, Fourteenth Amendment, Reconstruction Acts, Ulysses
Amendment,
replied:
believe the African race
given the vote. The bitter debate over the amend-
SECTION
Rights
had urged
to the negro,"
more controversial women's
had opposed ratification
guarantees that the right

to vote cannot be denied
because of race.
IDENTIFY and
abolitionists,
group, arguing
amendment. Elizabeth Cady Stanton
composed
The Fifteenth Amendment
One
suffrage so as not to endanger passage of the
question
condition of servitude."
most of them former
over the amendment.
split
to
Il
RECONSTRUCTION
FOCUS
How
did African
Americans participate
in
THE SOUTH
IN
rebuilding the South?
How did the Ku Klux Klan try to influence Reconstruction?

What factors contributed to the end of Radical Reconstruction?
'hile conflict over black suffrage continued,

IV.
imposed
its
Congress
Reconstruction plan. In 1867, under the provisions
of the Reconstruction Acts, the southern states held conventions to draft
new
conventions,
and blacks as well as whites participated.
constitutions. Republicans
dominated these
many
Unwilling to accept African Americans as equals,

southerners turned to violence.
By Reconstruction
's
end
1877, conservative whites once again firmly held power
white
in
An
African American
addressing Congress
with a place to develop their political
African American political
Literate
members read newspapers
skills.
aloud, and then
mobilization
everyone debated the issues of the day.
With the passage of the Reconstruction Acts,

African Americans saw a new era begin. The advent
as delegates to all the state constitutional conventions. In
of Radical Reconstruction rekindled the former
gates outnumbered whites; in other states they
Most
slaves'
hopes for equal citizenship.
blacks took dramatic actions
from plantations, or attempting

streetcars.
Some
southern
chasing overseers
But many registered
to
to vote
importantly, African
Americans served
Louisiana and South Carolina, black dele-
made up
10 to 40 percent of the delegates.
Although many of the African American delegates
desegregate
were ex-slaves or southern blacks who were
and turned
free, northern blacks participated, too.
bom
Many
African American communities
North
political activity to press for the equality
to
promised
in the
by the Civil Rights Act and the Fourteenth

Amendment. Even
the churches found that "politics
got in our midst" and overtook "our revival or
reli-
gious work," one freedman minister recalled.
African Americans also joined political

clubs, such as the
Union League. Begun
in the
North as a patriotic club, the league brought the

views of the Republican party to the freed slaves
and
to
poor whites.
It
provided blacks in particular
Freedmen are shown

Macon, Georgia,
in this
registering to vote in
1
867 engraving.
405
The Republican alliance created new state

The new state governments abol-
constitutions.
ished property qualifications for jurors and for can-
didates for office and guaranteed white and

African American
went
men
the right to vote. (Rorida
further, extending political rights to the
Seminoles.) Nine states expanded women's rights
by permitting married
women
to
arately from their husbands.

This 1872 print honored the first African
Americans to serve in the U.S. Congress (left to
right): Hiram R. Revels, Benjamin J. Turner,
Robert C. DeLarge, JosiahT. Wells, Jefferson F.
Long, Joseph H. Rainey, and Robert B. Elliott.
watched
most talented teachers, lawyers,
as their
and other professionals went south
to help with
Reconstruction.
Many
African Americans participated in politics to protect their
own property sepOnce Congress
approved the new constitutions,

raised taxes to pay for
new
state legislators
road, bridge, and rail-
road construction and for increased services, such

as free public education.
Reconstruction legislatures,
which included African
Americans, made their state

governments more democratic
and increased services.
Many
rights.
ex-Confederates ridiculed the new
state constitutions
tices.
Some
and pointed out corrupt prac-
southern legislators did use their
offices to enrich themselves. But corruption
/Reconstruction
governments
was
nationwide problem, and the scandals involving

Reconstruction governments paled
with government scandals
Most convention delegates were
either northern
Republicans or white southern Unionists.
Chapter
in
in the
comparison
North (see
16).
Many
white southerners resented the arrival of northern
Republicans
white or black whom they called
carpetbaggers. The newcomers, they jeered, were
"needy adventurers" of "the lowest class" who

could carry everything they
owned
in
one carpet-
(a
cheap suitcase). Some northerners had
moved
south after the war to advance their for-
bag
tunes.
Many, however, were simply eager
to help
the former slaves.
Ex-Confederates heaped even greater scorn
who had backed the Union

now supported Reconstruction. Ex-
on southern whites
cause and
whom they
dubbed scalawags, or scoundrels
"southern
Confederates viewed these whites
as
renegades, betrayers of their race and country."
Groups favoring Reconstruction soon formed

a Republican alliance.
While they disagreed on
such issues as land reform, as Republicans they
saw themselves
lization."
cal
as the "party of progress,
They hoped
power from
to seize
and
economic and
civi-
politi-
the planters and then rebuild the
South and improve conditions for poor white farmers
406
and African Americans
CHAPTER
13
alike.
A The Reconstruction policies of President Grant

are satirized in this 1880 cartoon. The South is
shown chained to two Union soldiers and weighed
down by a chariot shaped like a giant carpetbag.
whites from the South. The tactic
Che ku klux klan
Klansmen
often worked. After
destroyed his crop and murdered
The Reconstruction governments' relorms. the

election of African Americans to office, and
his neighbors,
African Americans' growing political participation
"worked
Robert Fullerlove
gave up the 400 acres he had

and earned."
for
soon stirred a vicious white backlash. Angry white
worthwhile for me
southerners formed secret terrorist groups to keep
explained.
blacks from voting. The best
Ku Klux
groups, the
known
As
of these
Klan, was founded
in the
"it isn't
to stay." he
the violence mounted,
African Americans demanded that
mid- 860s by six ex-Confederates. The Klan
Congress
quickly grew, attracting planters, lawyers and other
exercise the rights of citizens."
professionals, and poor farmers and laborers.
Between
The head of
"'Grand
Klan
the
Wizard"
Nathan Bedford Forrest, a former slave-trader and

Confederate general
that
he intended "to
idle threat.
warned Republicans
bluntly
kill
the radicals." This
The Klan and
was no
similar groups, such as
act to "enable us to
1870
and
A These two members
1871
Ku Klux Klan,
shown In their uniforms,
were captured at
Huntsville, Alabama,
of the
Congress responded by passing

three
Enforcement Acts
one
dealt specifically with the
Klux Klan
in
Ku
during an 1868
an effort to stop
violence against African
Amer-
the Knights of the
White Camelia, were deter-
icans.
mined
Republican party as well as
and declared that they threatened individual free-
to destroy the
to
keep blacks from voting. In Yanceyville, North
Klansmen shot John W. Stephens,
Carolina,
The Democrats
called
them
the Force Acts
acts empowered the federal government

combat terrorism with military force and to
dom. The
to
white Republican state senator. The Klan also mur-
prosecute guilty individuals. In Mississippi alone,
dered Richard Burke, a black Alabama
the federal
The Klan, however, did

politically active white
Klansmen beat and
whom
legislator.
government charged some 700
attacks to
Klansmen. But since most local whites resented
and black Republicans.
federal intervention, convictions proved extremely
not limit
its
killed thousands of blacks
riot.
difficult to win.
they regarded as "uppity" or too successful.
Sarah Song, an ex-slave from Louisiana, recalled
Klansmen
the night
^^
shot
saw them
in
sick.
thirty
killed her husband:
kill
my
violence
and fear tactics to keep African
Americans and white Republi-
husband; ... he was
the head while he was
The Ku Klux Klan used
in
cans from voting.
bed
There were between twenty and
men.
Then one
They came
into the
put the pistol to
shot him three times.
his
room.
y\/0RTHERN ATTITUDES TOWARD
head and
RECONSTRUCTION
Then one of them
kicked him, and another shot him again
when he was down.

after
he
fell.
...
He
For a time the federal government's intervention
never spoke
99
brought a dramatic decline
in
Klan violence. But
as the attention of Republicans,
Seeking to
intimidate African Americans and
discourage them from challenging white rule,
Klansmen
sometimes refused to
let
relatives
bury
the victims of Klan terrorism.
Former slave Millie
Bates told of Klansmen who,
after lynching freed-
man Dan
Black, refused to "let his folks take him
down. ... He
just stayed there,
till
he
fell to
nomic
issues and political corruption in the North,
What
Republicans' commitment to
their interest in Reconstruction lessened.
remained of the
Reconstruction died with the Panic of 1873, which
was
a particularly severe
Faced with
economic downturn.
threats of strikes
and the demands
of hard-hit workers and farmers for
pieces."
In addition,
and of northern
voters in general, focused increasingly on eco-
Klansmen frequently burned
homes and schools and
stole livestock
and land
in
an effort to chase blacks and pro-Reconstruction
relief,
an Ohio
Republican noted that "the overwhelming labor

question has dwarfed
all
other questions."
partnership between northern businesspeople,
The
who
407
formed the heart of the Republican
and the
party,
now
freed slaves had never been a stable one:
Many
dissolved altogether.
held antilabor. probusiness views.

said a former slave, "it
people and the rich
The
is
it
northern Republicans
a fight
"I
suppose,"
between the poor
man ncm."
party also
abandoned
its
commitment
A
to
universal voting rights as thousands of immigrants
joined the Democratic party.
now claimed
Some Republicans
that universal suffrage
Thomas Nast
This
Own
engraving, entitled To Thine
commemorates
True,
Rights
Be
Self
the passage of the Civil
of 1875.
Bill
"cheapened
the ballot," and they called for restricting the vot-
ernment would not slop them, Mississippi
ing rights of immigrants and the urban poor.
Concerned with
their
own problems and
weary of Reconstruction, many northerners began

to accept southern whites" racist
propaganda
that
Democrats used terrorism
The next
elections.
to
Democrats
year.
Louisiana
to
portrayed blacks as unfit for self-government.
"redeem," or win back, their states from the
When
Republicans.
Jacob Cox, former secretary of the
community
part of the
gence and the capital"
mer white
interior,
rulers
that
embodies the
by which he meant
These "Redeemers."
in contrast to the
did not try to hide their identities or their actions.
for-
Senator Ben Tillman of South Carolina later admit-
its
many northern whites nodded
ted:
"We
took the government away.
armed with
By the early 870s conditions

in the North undermined
We
rifles
shot
even cannons kept black
1876 the Redeemers turned
In
which
to the presidential election,
Samuel
the panic of 1873 turned
1874 congressional elections. Democrats

House, giving them a
we have
lar
by promises of
lower taxes and by racist appeals
Tilden of
New
their attention
pitted
Democrat
York against Republican
white
to
to
vowed
wade
in
to
win the election even
"if
blood knee-deep." In the popu-
vote they were successful: Tilden beat Hayes by
250,000 votes. But the electoral vote was
less than
another story.
60-seat majority. In the South the Democrats had

attracted white Republican voters
J.
Reconstruction
voters against the Republican-controlled Congress.
in the
vot-
Rutherford B. Hayes of Ohio. Opponents of
The southern redeemers

In the
stuffed
away from polling places. One black official

remembered the period as "the most violent time
that ever we have seen."
Republicans' commitment to
Reconstruction.
gained dozens of seats
We
them [blacks]." Whites
ers
The discontent caused by
Klan.
intelli-
ballot boxes.
The
election results in Florida, Louisiana.
Oregon, and South Carolina were challenged.

electoral
commission
set
up
to rule
on the
An
validity
of the returns gave Hayes the presidency by one
supremacy.
When Congress
reconvened. Republicans
made one final effort to enforce Reconstruction.

They pushed through the Civil Rights Bill of
electoral vote.
To defuse
em
Democrats
in the
House
protested.
the crisis, leading Republicans and south-
Democrats struck a deal
the
Compromise
of
1875. which prohibited discrimination by busi-
1877.
nesses serving the public, such as hotels and trans-
of dispute.
portation facilities. Yet even white Republicans
Democrats' acceptance of Hayes as president, the
who supported
the
bill
Reconstruction as a political
had begun
liability.
to
see
They agreed
The agreement's exact terms remain

It is
clear,
however, that
Republicans agreed not
a matter
in return for the
to use the military to
enforce Reconstruction legislation and to withdraw
Most
with Congressman James Garfield that their recent
the remaining federal troops.
defeats at the polls reflected "a general apathy
Republican negotiators also pledged federal support
among
for internal
the people concerning ... the negro."
Many
southern white Democrats reached the
same conclusion. Convinced

::
in
state
and South Carolina adopted the same strategy
suggested that the South "be governed through the
408
win the 1875
CHAPTER
13
that the federal
gov-
improvements
likely.
in the South.
Denied federal protection, the last of the

Reconstruction governments fell. Once in power
Redeemers rewrote
the
many
overturned
and
Dixon's book, glorified the Klan and ridiculed
of the Reconstruction govern-
Congress. Unfortunately, most white Americans
state constitutions
ments' reforms. They trimmed spending and cut

services.
Some
accepted these views as
and did away with public education systems.
African Americans' rights.
African Americans never accepted the
Redeemer governments
Harris, a black former
Blacks preserved
as legitimate. Charles
Alabama
We
obey
make them.
support state educational
institutions,
whose doors
.
We
Cardozo. who had been educated
from 1872
in
Great
South Carolina's treasurer
Hiram
to 1876.
R. Revels,
Americans
recruited African
for the
who had
Union army
and had taught school, represented Mississippi
From these and many other oppressions

free.
view of the
that their active participation
Britain, ably served as
are virtually closed against us.
our people long to be
a different
had helped shape Radical Reconstruction. Francis
are taxed without representation.

laws; others
They knew
period.
legislator, protested:
L.
We
and such ideas only
fact,
reinforced white southerners' opposition to
even closed pubHc hospitals
states
in the
99
U.S. Senate. Blanche K. Bruce, a wealthy
black planter from Mississippi, served as sheriff,

tax collector, superintendent of education,
and
U.S. senator. "The Southern Reconstruction
Commentary
Governments," asserted John R. Lynch,
Reconstruction Perspectives
many white
In the late 19th century,
served as the speaker of Mississippi's House
and
as a representative to
Congress, "were
the best governments those States ever had."
southerners
a "frightful experiment" that resulted
These men and countless others left

a positive social legacy. They created
churches, schools, and strong
institutions
that helped sustain black
family networks
communities through the post-Reconstruction
years. Later generations would draw upon
"shocking and unbearable misgovernment."
these institutions in building the civil rights
remembered Reconstruction
were bullied by Union
mer
slaves,
as a time
when they
over by
soldiers, lorded
behind
for-
and exploited by carpetbaggers and
scalawags. Daniel C. Chamberlain, a South Carolina

politician
who had once
later called
in
a black
who
Many
it
supported Reconstruction,
movement.
southerners agreed with his assessment.
Similarly,
many
northerners
came
Reconstruction also
to believe that
Radical Reconstruction was a mistake.
ture.
in
left a legal
legacy.
Although practically ignored for almost a century,
Such views were for many years
American history textbooks and
the Civil Rights
reflected in
Act of 1866 and the Fourteenth
and Fifteenth amendments provided an important
popular cul-
For example, both Thomas Dixon's 1905
legal
framework. They enabled
later civil rights
novel The Clansman and D.W. Griffith's 1915
leaders to win back voting rights for African
film Birth of a Nation, which was based on
Americans and
to
end legal segregation.
SECTION
IDENTIFY and
Civil Rights
I.
Bill
REVIEW
of 1875, Samuel
J.
carpetbaggers, scalawags, Enforcement Acts,
Tilden, Rutherford B. Hayes,
Compromise
of 1877.
MAIN IDEA What role did African Americans play in Reconstruction?

MAIN IDEA How did actions of the Ku Klux Klan affect the progress of Reconstruction?
ASSESSING CONSEQUENCES How and why did northern Republicans' attitudes toward
Reconstruction change during the
WRITING TO INFORM
In
870s?
a paragraph, describe
who
the
Redeemers were, and
explain
how
they helped to bring about the end of Reconstruction.
EVALUATING Why
for African
American
might Reconstruction be seen as a short-term

civil
failure
but long-term victory
rights?
409

Section ^
THE
NEW SOUTH
c u s
What new labor arrangements appeared
in
the South after the
emancipation of the slaves?
How
How
civil
did Reconstruction's
did African
and
end
affect African
Americans?
Americans respond to segregation and to the
loss of
political rights?
D.uring the 1880s white business leaders began to speak

of the "New" South, urging that the region move away from
its
dependence on cotton toward a more varied economy.
Inspired by this dream of a

to build
made
southerners worked
up the region 's manufacturing enterprises. For
years, however,
poverty.
New South,
many
southerners remained
And for blacks
life
harsher
in the South, racial
in rural
discrimination
still.
Tenant farming and

sharecropping
After the Civil War,
their lands
some southern
planters lost
Grant Hamilton's From Darkness to

shows a New South rising
because they could not pay their debts or
Light (1895)
Most of
their taxes.
their lands fell into the
hands of
from the ashes
of the Civil
War.
other planters or northern investors. For instance,

after 1870, northerners
owned
or financed about
half of Louisiana's sugar plantations.
Whether
erners, however, all faced a
shortage of labor.
to
work
or. in
for the
many
Sharecropping appealed
planters were southerners or north-
Few
common
problem: a
ex-slaves or whites wanted
low wages planters were willing
cases, able
to pay.
Some
planters
out having to pay cash. And.
croppers
this
Even more turned
system
work a
to
sharecropping. Under
a sharecropper, or cropper, agreed to
parcel of land in return for a share of the
crop, a cabin, seed, tools, and a mule.
410
CHAPTER
13
at least at first, the
most of whom were ex-slaves were
also pleased. Sharecropping gave

live
and lands
solved their labor problems by renting out their

lands.
to planters for an
obvious reason: they got their lands worked with-
to
The system had

ever.
a serious
Croppers (and most farmers
had no income
them places
work without close
until harvesttime.
to
supervision.
drawback, how-
who
To
rented land)
obtain needed
supplies each year, they promised their crops to

local
merchants
who
sold
them goods on
credit.
'NDUSTRIAL
Some
GROWTH
southerners. like
newspaperman Henry W.
Grady, the editor of the Atlanta Consiiiulion,

thought thai one-crop agriculture kept the South in
poverty and too economically dependent on the

North.
The New South, he argued, should manu-
facture
its
own
goods.
Supporters of the
New
South joined with
northern and British investors to finance factories
and
steel mills.
Southerners themselves raised the
capital to build textile mills
This 1903 photograph shows a sharecropping

family in North Carolina.
and other enterprises.
Southern railroads were rebuilt and integrated into

northern
rail
systems.
Not everyone benefited equally from indus-
Any
debts they could not pay to the merchants
were added
to their bills
the following year. This arrangement
was known
after they sold their crops
(A
as the crop-lien system.
lien
a creditor's
is
and investors profited

paid workers. White
wages
that
however. Factory owners

at the
expense of poorly
industrial workers earned
were some 40 percent below what
made it impossible
to work their way
for
Americans could not find factory work
out
wage.
of poverty. "Until he [the cropper] has paid the
last
goods on
In effect, the system
croppers
white or black
dollar of his indebtedness, he

stant oversight
subject to
con-
and direction," economist Matthew
Hammond noted
is
their
northern counterparts earned, and most African
on the debtor's property.)
legal claim
trialization in the South,
in
Many
industrial
credit
at
any
workers were forced to buy
from the company store and
to live
ramshackle company houses. Like sharecrop-
pers, they
soon found themselves locked
in a cycle
of debt.
at the time:
Every mouthful of food he purchases,
every implement that he requires on the

farm,
who
all
be bought of the merchant
holds the crop
amounts
And
must
not
all
lien,
as the latter
is
and
such
in
willing to allow.
99
merchants were honest. They "didn't
give no itemized statement. No, you just had to

take their word," one sharecropper recalled. If the
cropper argued, "there would be a shooting." In the
judgment of former slave Thomas
was
"little
The
omy
Hall, the system
better than slavery."
crop-lien system kept the southern econ-
tied to one-crop agriculture.
only give credit to farmers
most often cotton. As
Merchants would
who grew
certain crops,
a result, cotton displaced
other crops to such an extent that southerners had

to import
food and animal feed from the North.
Many southern landowners

turned to sharecropping and the
crop-lien system to keep cotton
production up and wages down.
After the Civil War, the South began a slow course of indusphotograph shows a worker at White Oaks
Mills, a factory near Greensboro, North Carolina.
trialization. This
411
Changing
south Carolina sea islanders
Wags
The day remembered
"Gun-
as
Shoot" by the residents of the

Sea Islands began on a cloudless
fall
morning
the early
in
months of the
7,
cannon
from the
fire
1861, distant
marshy
air
over these
islands off
South
Carolina. Fearing a
sion, the
doned
naval
Harbor
battle at Port Royal
cracked the
On
War.
Civil
November
Union
inva-
white population aban-
homes and
their
hastily
fled to the mainland.
This frantic exodus of the
Penn School on
about 1870.
is
shown here
in
a photograph taken
emancipated the
unofficially
thousands of slaves
who worked
the cotton plantations that dotted the islands.
When news
of
the Sea Islands events reached
wrote
her
teachers and mission-
southward, intent
aries sailed
on educating the former
slaves.
One who answered
the
in
to you.
that
Americans along the South
"My heart goes out

shall be glad to do all
Carolina and Georgia coasts.)
Other African
traditions
can to help you."
the Sea Islanders included manners of dress and the settling of
of the northerners,
however, were not prepared for
community disputes by the
what they found on the
advice of elders.
islands.
Because of their geographic
many
Despite the language bar-
iso-
the Sea Islanders retained
rier,
the northerners found the
former
African traditions. For
slaves ready
Two
and eager
granddaughter of African
instance, they spoke Gullah, a
to learn.
American
combination of various African
were already operating on the
abolitionist
Forten.
"Dear
slavery,
but free at
James
children!
last!"
born
in
Forten
languages and English. (Gullah

still
is
islands.
who
spoken by some African
tuted poll taxes
Turning back the clock
voter
black schools
black cabinetmaker
for years had taught secret
fixed taxes imposed on every
supposedly
and literacy tests
tests
intended to limit the vote to those
For African Americans the
much
to look very
like the
New
South was starting
Old South. Tied
to the
land through sharecropping and excluded from most

factory jobs. African
Americans had few economic
opportunities. Moreover. Democrats,
now
firmly in
Fifteenth
Amendment. However,
cation, these laws

literate
accomplished
blacks could "fail" the
were often waived for poor or
CHAPTER
since most black
To
their purpose.
test,
rights, states
rules,
illiterate
further deprive African
Even
since local white
decided who passed. These
their attempts to strip blacks of their rights.
the right to vote, southern state legislatures insti-
could read.
southerners were poor and had been denied an edu-
officials
an effort to deprive African Americans of
who
Technically these measures did not violate the
control of the southern state legislatures, stepped up
In
412
among
Many
lation,
was Charlotte Forten, the
her journal soon after
arrival.
northern newspapers, scores of
call
Helena
and
v/hite residents suddenly
idealistic
St.
however,
whites.
Americans of
their
passed laws designed to enforce
night classes for slaves ran
school.
The
opened
their first school
School
on
one
admiration she
missionaries
St.
Helena
Penn
in
felt
for the Sea
was evident
Islanders
War
"rehearsal for Reconstruction."
As
journal entries:
part of the Sea Islands
"experiment," many of the
1862.
Charlotte Forten taught at the
school during the day. At night
children so eager to
she often tutored adults.
her
in
during the Civil
The
never before saw
learn.
school
Coming
area's plantations
to
slaves. In
a constant
is
T.
delight and recreation to
them. They
come here
other children go to
as
play.
The older ones, during

the summer,
\
fields
until
work
divided
cially
in
the
were
among
1865 General William
Sherman made the
sion
official
Field
reserved the Sea Islands and
much
of the coastal lands
African Americans.
toil in
the hot
anxious to learn as
ever.
St.
come
sun, as bright and
99
from
Charleston, South Carolina, to

the
hard
This order
15.
eleven or twelve
into school, after their
land divi-
by issuing Special
Order No.
from early morning
o'clock, and then
unoffi-
the former
Johns River
To the
in
bitter disappoint-
ment of the former

U.S.
Florida for
government
slaves,
failed
the
to carry
through on Sherman's plan during Reconstruction.

1
As
late as
890, however, 60 percent of
the Sea Islands property was

Historians
have called what
took place on
the Sea Islands
4A
still in
the hands of African
Americans
standing
as a testa-
ment to what Reconstruction

might have been.
schoolteacher is shown reading to two

in this 1866 photograph.
children
segregation, or separation, of the races. The
of these so-called
first
Jim Crow laws, passed by
Tennessee in 1881, required separate railway cars

for blacks
and whites. Florida adopted a similar
law in 1887, and by the 1890s
all
southern states
A An
African American
expelled from a railroad car in Philadelphia

is
after being told to sit

the car reserved for
"colored people."
in
had legally segregated public transportation and

schools. Segregation soon extended to parks,
cemeteries, and other public places.
African Americans sued for equal treatment

under the Civil Rights Act of 1875, but the
Supreme Court refused to overturn the Jim Crow
laws. In the Civil Rights Cases (1883). the Court
413
13 LACK SOUTHERNERS ORGANIZE

Confronted by segregation and denied basic
cal
and
cities.
some African Americans
civil rights,
the South for the
Midwest or moved
Most, however, stayed
their ancestors
improve
politileft
to northern
South, where
in the
had lived for generations. To
their lives, African
Americans formed
mutual aid societies, started businesses, strength-
ened churches, and

Methodist Episcopal
built schools.
(AME)
The African
church, the
AME Zion
church, and black Baptist churches grew rapidly.
The key question facing African American

was how to fight discrimination.
leaders after 1877
Two
influential leaders,
former slave
Booker T. Washington
ruled that the Fourteenth
Institute in 1881,
Amendment
states, not individuals or businesses,
inating against blacks.
facilities
did
He
not
and Ida Wells-Barnett. a teacher
from discrim-
The Supreme Court went
violate
the
v.
Fourteenth
Justice John Marshall Harlan
declared that "our Constitution
color-blind, and neither
among
Washington, a
ruling that "separate but equal"
Amendment. Only
disagreed.
T.
forbade only
further in upholding segregation in Plessy
Ferguson (1896),
Booker
who founded Alabama's Tuskegee
knows nor
is
tolerates classes
citizens."
After Reconstruction, African

Americans were deprived of
their rights and had few
economic opportunities.
Tuskegee Institute was founded in 1881 to teach African Americans trades

and professions. A dressmaking class for women and a printing class for men
are shown here.
414
SI
CHAPTER
13
and journalist, olTcrcd dilTcicnl answers
teacher hcrscll
U) ihc dis-
at
Wells moved
crimination question.
Washington believed
age
1884
14. In
Tennessee,
to
Americans
where she taught while attending
should concentrate on economic ad\ancement. To
Fisk University. She lost her
further blacks"
that African
economic independence
which he
believed was the key to political and social
equality
Washington urged blacks to seek practi-
teaching job, however,
cal training in trades
when
and .segregated schools.
and professions. He also
Ida Wells then turned to
discouraged them from protesting against discrimi-
journalism, becoming part
nation, arguing that
of the
hostility. If
merely increased whites'
it
economic and
social progress
was
she
began protesting discrimination
owner
Memphis Free Speech.
In
1892, after whites lynched three
to be
made, he claimed, blacks would need "the cooper-
friends of hers, she
ation of the Southern whites" because "they con-
a stop to lynching. In a fiery edi-
trol
government and own
the scenes, however,
the property." (Behind
character nor standing avails the
Crow laws and
to protect
racial violence.)
He
his rival."
carried his message of peaceful coexis-
as the Atlanta
that while blacks
and whites could
needed
social worlds, they
nomic progress: "In
we can be
hand
Compromise, he
all
to
want
first statistical
for
New
York,
societies. After
mov-
A Red
study of lynching.
Record, the
Though lynch-
ings decreased only slightly in the early 1900s,
Wells's tireless efforts kept the public's attention
focused on the issue.
arguing instead that blacks should
One such
leader
African Americans built their

own institutions, and they
adopted several approaches to
fighting discrimination.
was Ida
Wells-Barnett (born Ida Bell Wells). Born to a

slave family in 1862, Ida Wells
was educated
in
freedmen's school and became a
SECTION
IDENTIFY and
REVIEW
literacy tests, segregation, Jim

I.
Memphis
left
Barnett in 1895, she published
the all-
African American leaders
protest unfair treatment.
a Mississippi
become
ing to Chicago and marrying lawyer Ferdinand
disagreed with Washington's public position,
he dares
Angry whites destroyed her newspaper
and organized antilynching
powerful business and commercial world."
Some
or
lectured widely in the North and in Great Britain,
limits to the attainments
him enter
if
man
She conducted investigations, wrote exposes,
ing.
mutual progress."
to see
York
where she continued her crusade against lynch-
live in separate
things that are purely social
"no
said,
of the Negro. ...
New
Wells urged African Americans to leave the
as separate as the fingers, yet one as the
There were, he
Negro
himself against the white
South. She herself
told whites
cooperate for eco-
in all things essential to
The Granger CollecDon.
office.
tence to white audiences as well. In an 1895 speech
known
to put
she charged "that neither
torial
Washington secretly provided
support to groups fighting Jim
vowed
MAIN IDEA
Crow
laws, Plessy
v.
sharecropping, crop-lien system, poll taxes,
Ferguson,
After slavery had been abolished,
how
Booker
T.
Washington, Ida Wells-Barnett.
did plantation
owners
deal with the shortage
of labor?
2.
MAIN IDEA
In
what ways
did the
New
South resemble the Old South (before Reconstruction)
for African Americans?

3.
4.
MAIN IDEA What actions did blacks take in response to their loss of rights?
WRITING TO EVALUATE Write an essay evaluating the consequences for a
work
In
a southern factory.
did changes
in
the post-Reconstruction
per of leaving the land to seek

5.
SYNTHESIZING How
New
white sharecrop-
South harm some groups of
people and benefit others?
415
Thirteenth
Amendment
passed.
Freedmen's Bureau established.

Lincoln issues
CHAPTER
Civil Rights
Proclamation
Amnesty and
13
Reconstruction
Acts passed.
of
Reconstruction.
Review
1863
Act
passed. Fourteenth
Amendment passed.
Reconstruction
ends.
Fifteenth
Amendment
-passed.
1870
1865
'-m<^
REVIEWING THEMES
WRITING A SUMMARY
Using the essential points of the chapter as a guide.
write a
summary
and
list
paper
to
in
ond next to
2.
conditions after the Civil
Study the time
5.
the order
above,
2.
2.
which
in
next to
first
line
in
How
activity
Reconstruction Acts passed.
War?
soci-
the U.S. expanded during Reconstruction?

did the expansion prepare for further
changes
3.
in
America's definition of democracy?
cotton continue to affect the
In
what ways
New
did
South?
Freedmen's Bureau established.
Amendment
passed.
3.
Fifteenth
4.
Lincoln issues Proclamation of
Amnesty and
THINKING CRITICALLY
1. Hypothesizing How might conditions
Reconstruction.
5.
did the Thir-
amendments
Democratic Values How was democratic

ety
the sec-
below.
1
How
attempt to adapt the U.S. Constitution to changing
Number your
teenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth
of the chapter
New
Reconstruction ends.
Americans had been given land
Assessing Consequences Choose the two events
most
that you think had the
South have been different
positive
outcome
2.
African Americans, and explain the reasons for your
AND
after the
war?
many southern whites react

made by African Americans
Synthesizing Compare and contrast the views

Booker
of
IDEAS
the
during Reconstruction?
3.
IDENTIFYING PEOPLE
in
African
did
so strongly to gains
for
assessment.
Why
Evaluating
if
T.
Washington and
Ida Wells-Barnett
the place of African Americans
in
on
society.
1.
amnesty
6.
carpetbaggers
2.
Andrew Johnson
7.
Compromise
sharecropping
3.
black codes
8.
4.
Thaddeus Stevens
9. Jim
5.
Reconstruction Acts
Crow
Review the
of 1877
laws
Ida Wells-Barnett
10.
1.
Describe conditions
War, and explain
How
What
political roles did
protest these
How
How
new
did changes
policies of the
5.
How
did the value of cotton
did southern production
compare with
England and Middle Atlantic regions?
1880-1900
how
did
some whites
the
New
Region
New
roles?
in
(In millions
differ?
South reverse the
Reconstruction period?
did conditions for southern farmers
of dollars)
England
1880
1890
1900
143
181
191
Middle Atlantic
29
40
48
Southern
16
41
95
and
Source: The Amencan South
CHAPTER
How
that of the
African Americans play
laborers change from 1865 to 1900?
416
goods pro-
the South change during this period?
did the Reconstruction plans of Lincoln,
during Reconstruction, and
4.
in
VALUE OF COTTON GOODS PRODUCED
Johnson, and the Radical Republicans

3.
duced
people tried to improve
those conditions.
2.
Handbook entry on Reading Charts
the South after the Civil
in
how
chart below.
New
Skills
and Graphs beginning on page 996. Then study the
Ida Wells-Barnett
Supreme
First Jim Crow
law passed in
Tennessee.
Court
publishes
issues
statistical
ruling in Civil
first
Supreme Court
study
issues ruling in
of lynching.
Plessy V. Ferguson.
Rights Cases.
I
1885
1900
1890
We ask
Writing to Express a Viewpoint Imagine you

postwar South. Write
a planter in the
are
a letter to the
This
Reconstruction policies have affected your economic
and social status and why you support the
in
your
with the white
men of
we
ask,
because "all free govern-
ments derive their just powers from the

consent of the governed" ; and we are
of 1877. Be sure to provide specific
examples and reasons
common
us, in
this State.
how
editor of your local newspaper explaining
Compromise
upon
that equal suffrage he conferred
largely in the majority in this State, bearing
letter.
for a long period the burden of onerous taxation, without a just representation. 99

November 1865
group of African Americans from South

Carolina wrote to the U.S. Congress. Then summaletter that a
rize
the letter's main demands and explain the sug-
leges but such as rest
ofjustice.
rights or privi-
upon the strong basis
We ask first,
that the strong
arm of law and order be placed
alike over
the entire people of this State; that
life
and
property be secured, and the laborer free

sell his
tion
to
that a fair
and impartial
instruc-
be given to the pledges of the government
to us
draw based on the dates of
states'
readmission to the Union and the defeat of Radical
BUILDING YOUR
PORTFOLIO
1.
SECTIONALISM
Chapter 12 you served
In
on a committee working on
compromise
concerning the land question.
between the North and the South. Building on that
We ask
experience, imagine you are a southern governor
that the three great agents of
civilized society
press
clusions you can
cooperatively.
labor as the merchant his goods.
We ask
AND GEOGRAPHY
Republican governments.
gested basis for these demands.
%% We would ask for no
LINKING HISTORY
Review the map on page 402. Then explain what con-
the school, the pulpit, the
be as secure
in
South Carolina as
in
opposed to northern
politicians' plans for
a Reconstruction plan that
Massachusetts or Vermont.
the
South during Reconstruction. Create an outline for
would address the
ests of planters, ex-soldiers,

in
2.
your
inter-
state.
DEMOCRATIC RIGHTS
you served
as a lawyer helping
In
Chapter
Dred Scott win
his
freedom. Building on that experience, imagine you

are working on the Plessy
v.
Ferguson case. Prepare
a closing statement arguing that segregation, as
practiced
in
"separate but equal"
facilities
for
blacks and whites, violates the Fourteenth
Amendment.
South Carolina farmer and
child
417
U N
T 4
merican
^he Pain of Slavery and Civil War
The tragedy of slaveiy and the Civil War echoed throughout the literature of
the 1 9th century.
The African American spiritual "Steal Away" and African
American writer Paul Laurence Dunbar poem capture

's
life.
the hardships of slave
American poet Walt Whitman and African American poet Frances Ellen
Harper explore some of the
effects
of the Civil War on the nation.
Walt Whitman
Steal away, steal away, steal
Steal AiA/ay
African American spirrtual

Steal away, steal
I
ain't
away to
away to
Jesus,
away home,
Steal away, steal
got long to stay here. J*
ain't
Jesus,
away home,
Sympathy
got long to stay here.

by Paul Laurence Dunbar
My
He
He calls me,
me by the thunder,
Lord,
calls
The trumpet sounds

I
ain't
within-a
my
know what
When
When
soul,
And
Steal away, steal

I
ain't
away to
Jesus,
bright
is
the wind
the
first
like
feels, alas!
on the upland
stirs soft
the river flows
When
away home,
the caged bird
the sun
slopes;
through the springing grass
a stream of glass;
bird sings
and the
first
bud opes.
And the faint perfume from its chalice steals

know what the caged bird feels!
know why the caged bird beats his wing
Green trees a-bending,
Till its
Po' sinner stands a-trembling
The trumpet sounds

I
ain't
within-a
my
For he must
soul,
When
The
Fisk University Jubilee Singers
concerts of spirituals
in
won fame
the late 1800s.

I
know why
his
his
perch and cling
not
a
the caged bird sings, ah me.
wing
he beats
But
is
bruised and his
his
bosom
sore,
bars and would be free;
a carol of joy
or glee.
prayer that he sends from his heart's deep core.

plea, that
know why
upward to Heaven he
the caged bird sings! t*
the cup-shaped inside of a flower
2 gladly
back to
he fain- would be on the bough a-swing;
It is
UNIT
fly
red on the cruel bars;
for their
But a
418
is
And a pain still throbs in the old, old scars

And they pulse again with a keener sting
know why he beats his wing!
When
When
blood
flings
From
Drums!
fêat! fêat!
by Walt
'
Who
Whitman
Beat! beat!
drums!
blow!
blow!
through doors burst
the solemn church, and scatter the congregation.
where the scholar
Leave not the bridegroom quiet
he have
Nor
now
with
is
And greased the pages of

And hid it in his hat.
his
book.
And
there was Mrs. Turner's Ben,
Who
field
his grain.
so
head.
But nothing to be read.
his bride.
So fierce you whirr and pound you drums
ever seen
his
He'd have thought them greasy papers.
studying;
no happiness must
the peaceful farmer any peace, ploughing his
or gathering
fat
And had his master

The leaves upon
like a
ruthless force,
Into the school
Caldwell,
took pot liquor'
bugles!
Through the windows

Into
remember Uncle
heard the children
spell.
And picked the words right up by

And learned to read 'em well.
heart.
shrill
Well, the Northern folks kept sending
you bugles blow. J*
The Yankee teachers down;

And they stood right up and helped
TAie
From
by Walt
Though the Rebs
Wound-Dresser
And
Whitman
longed to read
did sneer and frown.
my
For precious words
(Aroused and angry,
I'd
thought to beat the alarum,
But when
and urge relentless war.
my
But soon
fingers failed
sit
by the
shook
silently
But
I
Years hence of these scenes, of these furious passions,
these chances.
So
heroes, (was one side so brave? the
other was equally brave.)
it.
their heads.
said there
is
no use
trying,
Oh! Chloe, you're too
watch the dead.)
Of unsurpassed
said;
And
wounded and soothe them, or
Bible,
it
begun to learn
Folks just
me, my face drooped and
resigned myself.
To
us.
was
late;
rising sixty,
had no time to wait.

got a pair of glasses.
And straight to work went.

And never stopped till could read
The hymns and Testament.
I
call to
anns
Then
Learning to Read
And
got a
little
place to
I
felt as
call
cabin.
my own
independent
As the queen upon her throne.
by Frances Ellen Harper
Very soon the Yankee teachers
Came down and set up

But, oh! how the Rebs did
It
Our
was
school;
hate
it,
agin' their rule.
masters always tried to hide
Book
i.
learning
Knowledge
from our
African American spirituals sung by slaves often had hidden
eyes;
meanings.
meant
Twould make
some
little
think "steal away
us
all
In
What
from the book.
And put the words together,

And learn by hook or crook.
is
the tone of the
ond poem, how
of us would try to steal

4.
In
have
Lawrence Dunbar's poem, why does the "caged bird"
Paul
2.
3.
too wise.
home" could
for slaves?
slavery
But
What do you
didn't agree with
did
first
Walt Whitman poem?
Whitman's
feelings
In
sing?
the sec-
about the war change?
Frances Ellen Harper's poem, written during Reconstruction,
what
is
the significance of reading for Chloe?
AMERICAN LETTERS
419
Stirategies for S^
COMPARING POINTS

the Civil War ended,
OF VIEW
When
e
all
Americans seriously disagreed
bring to our
experiences a point
of view, a personal
frame of reference from which
we
Besides such factors as age, sex,

education, and family background,
shape our outlook. Comparing

varied views and voices gives us
It
meant
View
Check whether each
Find out
is
Horace
in
they
the
New
research. Find out
all
you
The
ideas.
contrast the
Note
and differences
in
similarities
laid
down
details. Consider whether
it
relevant facts, by opinions, or
Evaluate the logic of the sup-
porting arguments, and look
many exregain power
Confederates did
Lee's statement that the war's
outcome
has settled the issues
to be the duty of
in
however, that
this
overly optimistic
plistic as well.
been decided.
is
under-
standable for a military officer
Postwar struggles would prove,
arms and the
everyone to unite
The
the
outlook was
and too sim-
Many
politicians
ordinary citizens, on both
and
sides,
did not share Lee's sense of duty;
regional rivalries
down so
were not
laid
easily as guns.
and the reestablishment of
Cen. Robert
September
7,
99
Lee, letter,
865

Read the excerpt of President
Lincoln's
Second Inaugural Address
for any bias.
on page 396, and compare
Evaluate the points of
the views quoted here. Then, on a
view. Apply your

thinking
skills
why people
points of view and to weigh
each view.
UNIT
with
the following questions.
have different
reliability
it
separate sheet of paper, answer
critical
to appreciate
the accuracy and
420
worry seems exaggerat-
ed, but not totally unfounded.
unlikely; nevertheless,
at an end,
peace and harmony.
by a combination of both.
were the
that divided Americans
their
this view,
South made any new uprising
99
restoration of the country
the ideas are supported by
To support
war's massive destruction of the
questions at issue between
believe
Compare supporting
"the gentle-
he refers to the attack on Fort
Greeley's
the iron
1865
war being
states having
ideas being expressed.
calls
actions of only a few southerners.
them and the Northern
the main
fears that those
Lincoln. But these
the Southern states having
Compare and
He
Sumter and the assassination of
York Tribune,
15,
pes-
of the South" will rise again
in rebellion.
Greeley, editorial
November
or situation.
5.
when
1865
attempt the mastery.
an
can about the event, person,
4.
in
they
on Sumter They
throats they will rise and
under discussion.
main
it
when
1861
in
fire
hand from the Rebels'
authority on the subject
3.
it
opened
is
about the prospects for
he sarcastically
men
Abraham Lincoln.
They mean it now. The
about each author or speaker
Do
These gentlemen of the
moment we remove
Note the sources.
Greeley, a northerner,
simistic
restoration.
brain of
How to Compare
2.
the South
sent a bullet through the
roots of historical conflicts.
1.
how
should be treated. Read and com-
meant
helps us
understand, for example, the
Points of
the nation should pro-
South mean to win. They
circumstances also
historical insights.
how
ceed, especially
pare the following points of view.
see or think about things.
historical
over
of
Whose
point of view seems
closer to Lincoln's
Lincoln
Greeley's
or Lee's? Explain why.
4 Abraham
2.
Describe Lincoln's point of view.

plete
tative
Your questions

historical
press conference with a represen-
concepts involved.
from the Union League.

at the
conference
economic, and
political,
interests of the North
social
more than
the South.
should focus on the positive and

negative consequences of the Civil
DEMOCRATIC
War
RIGHTS
for African Americans.
The protection
SLAVERY
The
Civil
War
ended
did not, however,
It
end
rights of different
Differences between
ety
the North and the
system. Using the portfolio mate-
South created a
the institution of slavery.

legal dis-
Civil
of the
SECTIONALISM
War
and
rift
left
Reconstruction
that led to the
deep scars that
failed
to erase.
groups
at the heart of a
is
rials
you designed
and
13,
democratic
chapters
in
courtroom
Americans. Using the portfolio
designed
materials you designed
hold a debate arguing whether
northern
Reconstruction served the
and southern Redeemers.
and
2,
hold a
New
in
chapters
York Tribune
Videodisc Review
In
account of everyday
Emilio, Luis

in
Choose images
that best illustrate the major topics
of the period.
Write
of
col-
lage to the class.
6/ock Regiment
documents written about the
Stiort History
Reconstructior),
Nesbitt, Mark.
35 Days
Stackpole Books
from
to Gettysburg.
992). Events
leading up to the Batde of
Confederate
of
1863-1877.
A Nation on
of the Reconstruction years.
John Hope. Reconstruction:

Civil
A Diary from
War. University of
An account
the South during Reconstruction.

Dixie.
Williams, ed. Harvard
University Press (1980). Firsthand
Meltzer, Milton, ed. Voices from

Civil
soldier.
Stampp, Kenneth M. America
HarperCollins (1990). Overview
Franklin,
Further Reading
Ames
effects
eyes of a Union soldier and a
Eric.
of the Radicals' efforts to legislate
Ben
its
Gettysburg as seen through the
Chicago Press (1961).
B.
war and
chusetts Volunteer Infantry.
After the
Chesnut, Mary
the
abolitionists, ex-slaves,
a script
accompany the images. Assign
script,
A Brave
might include Ida Wells-Barnett,
54th Regiment of the Massa-
Foner,
to
F.
gation of schools. Characters
1861-1865.
Bantam Books (1992). Collection
the years between
1845 and 1900.
the
Confederate South.
America
life in
13,
about the segre-
play

chapters 12 and
prepare a one-scene
crimination against African
in
soci-
in
tlie
War. HarperCollins (1989).
Northern and southern views of
in
the Brink.
990). Analysis of
the
in
1857:
Oxford
one key year
movement toward
Civil
War.
A
Taylor, Susie K.
War Memoirs.
ed.
Talman
Black
Woman's
Patricia
988).
An
Gvil
W. Romero,
African
American woman's account of
camp
life
with the 33rd U.S.
Colored Troops.
REVIEW
421
'tAA
-^rr^
<"
-O
:.^^gH
^^M
^^1
wi^^H^H
KM^^H
W :^
Chapter 1^
THE WESTERN
CROSSROADS 1860-1910
THE TRANSFORMATION
OF AMERICA 1865-1910
'*
UNIT
the Ration
Iransformed
1860-1910
uccessive waves of settlers pushed the
frontier westward during the second half
of the 1800% driving American Indians
from the
land.
During the same period, the
United States experienced a surge of

industrial growth. Cities also
as millions of immigrants
grew rapidly
came
to
America. The late 1800s were also marked

by political scandal.
As
reformers called
for an end to political corruption, others
sought change through labor unions.
Farmers also organized
to protect their
interests.
4
Chapter 16
POLITICS
1865-1910
AND PROTEST
Nat Swan
in
front of his sod house, Nebraska.
886
Chapter 74
1860-1910
THE WESTERN
CROSSROADS
UNDERSTANDING
THE MAIN IDEA
After the
Civil
West
War the
regions of the
the Great Plains, the
Southwest and the Far West

important
roles in U.S.
growth. People
moved
encouraged by the
played
economic
to the West,
U.S. government's
of free land and the promise of
offers
profits
from ranching farming lumber-
ing and mining.

flict
and
In
many
years of con-
treaty negotiations, the U.S.
government forced Native Americans

to give
up much of their
lands.
What
strategies might people
use to survive and prosper

arid
in
or semiarid environments?
CULTURAL DIVERSITY
What problems
might arise
when one group attempts
to
force another group to give up

its
way
of
life?
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT How might a government promote economic development in a new territory?
1862
1869
1876
1879
1896
The Homestead
First transcontinental
Battle of Little
Exodusters
Gold discovered
Act passed.
railroad completed.
Bighorn occurs.
trek west.
Yukon
in
Territory.
The resolution of the Oregon boundary dispute

::
LINK TO THE PAST
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
in
1846 and the
1848 opened up millions of acres of
in
western land for U.S. settlement. Native Americans faced increasing

pressure on their lands and resources as non-Indian settlers
moved
to
the Far West.
ver since the Spanish planted settlements in the present-day
southwestern United States, the West has been a crossroads where

Native American and Asian, African, and European cultures met and
influenced each other. European horses and guns, for example,
changed the culture of the Plains Indians, allowing them
more successfully and
falo
move permanently from
to
The Comanches
to the Plains.
ers of the Plains
used
possibly
the guns
to
hunt buf-
the mountains
the most-skilled horse rais-
and horses
and
to raid settlements
to
dominate other Indian groups on the southern Plains.
The Comanche way of
life,
however, required abundant land
and buffalo. The Comanche freedom
ened
after 1859,
Comanche
When was
I
the
Comanche
living
on
it.
So,
in
roam
the Plains
government stepped up
reservations in present-day
leader,
land
was
its
Washington the Great Father told
efforts to
Oklahoma. Ten
me
that
all
was ours, and that no one should hinder us
live in
threat-
argued against the government's plan:
why do you
and the wind, and
The
the U.S.
Comanches on
settle the
Bears, a
when
to
in
ask us to leave the rivers, and the sun,
houses?
99
federal government's reasons were
overwhelmingly eco-
nomic. As the U.S. government limited Native Americans to reservations,
and
non-Indians rushed to the West to establish farms and ranches
to stake out
Soon
the
mining claims.
West began supply-
ing the United States and the

rest
^^^^^^^^^^^^^
^^^Ê^^^^^^^^^î
of the world with wheat,
lumber, minerals, and cattle

Miners at Auburn Ravine,
California, 1852
and sheep.
American
buffalo
425
Section
NATIVE AMERICAN RESISTANCE
Why did
Why did
federal
How
S
the U.S. government adopt the reservation policy?
so
much
erupt between Native Americans and the

the late 1800s?
conflict
government
in
Winnemucca work
did Sarah
to improve conditions for
Native Americans?
How
did the federal government attempt to "Americanize"

Native Americans? How did the Navajos respond?
.ntil
the 1850s
West settled
ever, settlers
most American
in California,
changed
ventured to the
Oregon, or Texas. By mid-century, how-
military's protection, non-Indians
on the Great Plains and
room for
who
their destinations. With the U.S. government's
encouragement and the

tling
settlers
the settlers, the
in
began
other parts of the West. To
set-
make
government forced Native Americans onto
reservations, provoking nearly a half century of conflict.
Sioux doll
northern Plains. In the Southwest the Apaches
'NDIAN
COUNTRY
ranged throughout
New
Mexico, Arizona, and
northern Mexico, while the Navajos and Hopis
By 1850 nearly
360,000
lived
all
Native Americans
some
lived in farming or ranching communities.
west of the Mississippi River.
West, disease and conflict associ-
In the Far
Indians from the old Northwest and the Southeast
ated with nearly a century of contact with Hispanic
were confined
and other non-Indian
Oklahoma. On
to Indian Territory, in present-day
settlers
had reduced the
Kiowas
Native American population, including the Paiutes
shared the land with the powerful Comanches.

The Sioux. Blackfeet. and Crows dominated the
California alone the Native American population
the southern Plains, the
(PY-oots). Pimas.
Miwoks, and Maidus.
had dropped from an estimated 300.000
some 35.000 by
769
to
1860.
In the 1851 Treaty of Fort
Chapter
in
In
10), the
Laramie (see
U.S. government promised Native
Americans control of the Plains the bulk of

Indian Country. The government, however, soon
went back on
its
promise. Hearing tales (both
Driven out of Montana by the Cheyennes and
Sioux, the Kiowas settled on the southern Plains,

in
426
CHAPTER
an area stretching from Kansas to Mexico.
exaggerated and accurate) about the mineral
Sand Creek. One
wealth and
tions in ihc West
land in the West, thousands of
fertile
non-Indians streamed into the
new
In a series of
government
forced American Indians to give up their lands and
move
to reservations.
manent reservation
plies.
The
went
to the
in
The
promised per-
treaties
money, and yearly sup-
land,
task of administering the reservations
Bureau of Indian
Affairs, established
1824 within the War Department. The bureau
worked closely with
the U.S.
Army. The close
between the army and the bureau

sage: Indians
tions
who
would be
resisted
dealt
.sent
reserva-
force.
government
quietly to
rarely lived
side of the bargain.
Bureau agents
were non-Indians
often
up
to its
most of whom
sold to non-Indians
the supplies intended for Native
land.
demanded more
As Massachusetts newspaper
Bowles noted
editor
Samuel
government's actions
in 1869, the
Colorado Territory.
non-Indian population had been
territory's
growing rapidly since the Colorado gold rush

of 1858. Eager to open more land to U.S.
John Evans, the
American Indians another clear message:

"When the march of our empire demands this
reservation of yours, we will assign you another;
... so long as we choose, this is your home, your
sent
prison, your playground."
settlers,
governor, pressured the
territorial
Cheyennes and Arapahos to sell their hunting

grounds and mo\e to reservations.
In 1861 some Cheyenne and Arapaho leaders
agreed to move their people to a reservation south
of the Arkansas River. Other leaders and their
however, refused
to leave,
Cheyenne and Arapaho
By
grown
tired of fighting.
Lyon
fall
tribes,
and Evans feared a major
summer of
1864,
forces clashed with the local
militia.
Americans.
Furthermore, the government regularly reduced the

size of reservations as settlers
The
in
Indian uprising. Throughout the
Even w hen American Indians went

reservations, the
ties
a clear mes-
confmement on
w ith by
between the military and
American Indians occurred
territory.
treaties, the
of the eariiest confronta-
Black Kettle, a Cheyenne leader, had
He made
his
way
to Fort
to surrender.
When
his
group stopped
Creek, most of the
men
to
camp along Sand
left to hunt. In their
command of
Colonel John Chivington attacked the camp. Some
200 of Black Kettle's group, most of them women
absence,
some 700 troops under
and children, were
the
killed.
The slaughter
horrified U.S. authorities.
Chi\ ington was unrepentant.
But
"Damn any man who
sympathizes with Indians!" he exclaimed. "I have
come
to kill Indians,
and believe
it
is
right
and
honorable to use any means under God's heaven to
The U.S. government attempted
kill
Indians."
to restrict American Indians to

reservations to make room for
across the Plains, prompting raids by the
non-Indian settlers.
Arapahos and Cheyennes. The Sioux, engaged
News
of the
a long-standing
Sand Creek Massacre swept

in
war against the U.S. Army, also
yEARS OF STRUGGLE
Angered by
the government's double-dealings,
several Plains peoples, including independent
groups of Cheyennes. Arapahos. Comanches, and

Sioux, fought back.
buffalo hunting
The
To them
was no
a settled life without
life at all.
Plains peoples faced strong opposition.
Some 20,000 U.S. Army troops, many of them

War veterans, enforced Indian removal.
Some 4,000 were African Americans, often called
"buffalo soldiers." who served in four segregated
Civil
units.
The army
soldiers
by playing on
rivalries
among Native
Americans. For example, many Pawnees, Crows,
and Shoshonis helped U.S. forces battle the

Sioux.
5^
enlisted Indians as scouts or as
Some time between 1875 and 1880, Cheyenneartist No Horse drew this scene, entitled
Women Honoring Warriors.
Arapaho
427
I
FORT LARAMIE TREATIES
1851:
Native Americans promised
control of the Plams.
1868:
move
Sioux agree to
reservaoon
in
Black
to
Hills.
1867 TREATY OF
MEDICINE LODGE
J
Southern Plains Indians agree

to
'
!Walk, 1864
Battle
Treaty
Reservation
site
Indian Territory.
surrenders at Skeleton
Route of Chief Joseph

and Nez Perces, 1877
jOF
to
Apache leader Geronimo
Navajos' Long
Fort
move
in
Canyon
in
1886.
Gulf of
Mexico
1890
MEXICO
Indian Reservations and

AN UNEVEN STRUGGLE
to give
1890
lâttles, to
Fighting against overwhelming odds. Native Americans were forced
up their lands and move to reservations.
LOCATION
When was
the last major Indian battle fought? In
stepped up their efforts. But neither side emerged
To end
victorious.
the fighting. U.S. authorities
what
state?
Tomahawk
with both instruments
at the
same
time.
consequence
smoke
and
there
a great
is
The chief
it
ends."
and the southein Plains leaders signed the Treatj'

of Medicine
treaty,
much
Lodge
in
1867.
the terms of the
southern Plains Indians agreed to give up
of their lands
in
exchange for reserva-
tions in Indian Territory.

in a
By
The following
year,
second Treaty of Fort Laramie, the
Siou.x agreed to
move
to a reservation in
the Black Hills region of South
Custer's last stand.
campaigns against the Sioux
The
treaties did not
settle
our hands holds the
rifle
428
CHAPTER
we
called Sitting Bull by non-
Indians, urged the hunters to def>

the
sovemment
order.
of
of
away
Sitting Bull signed his name to this

880s photograph shortly after it was
and the other

blaze
Bureau of Indian Affairs.
Tatanka lyotake. a Sioux medicine
the peace-pipe, and
near the agencies, the local
offices of the
end the
Army and Navy Journal observed

U.S. treaty-making efforts: "One
Hills to gold
prospectors. U.S. authorities ordered the
Sioux to
man
however. As an editor of the
in 1875. Impatient to
open up the Sioux's sacred Black
Dakota and Wyoming.
fighting,
The U.S. Army waged
taken.
Opposed to reservation life. Sitting Bull

mocked reservation Indians. "You are tools/* he
argued, "to make yourselves slaves to a piece of
fat bacon, some hard-tack
biscuits], and a little
I
sugar and coffee."
Many
agreed, and by the spring
Wounded Knee. A
U.S.
Indian
I'lains
Army wars
plains of South Dakota.
were planted
1889.
in
tragic final chapter of the
The
Wovoka (woh-voH-kuh).
man from Nevada, began
Paiute holy
of 1876. thousands of defiant Sioux and their
Dance
Cheyenne
Native American beliefs.
in
allies
were camped on Rosebud Creek
southern Montana.
victorious battle against the U.S.
Army, several
hundred Native Americans rode off
to
engage the
enemy. Although the Battle of Rosebud
1876 did not result
in
in
which combined Christian and
religion,
strong fighting force.
June
and traditional Indian ways of
return,
revive
if
Dance.
to him:
WW
in their
They proceeded west
to
The rumor got
to return.
stream the Indians called Greasy
The
where food was
for us
By
June the camp contained almost 2.000 men
the
army did not
anticipate
the Indian fighting force.
was
On
to
appealed to me. To think
soon
should see
mother, grandmother, brothers and
sisters again!
**
the
camp from
Wovoka preached
one and
morning of June 25.

General George Armstrong Custer divided his
force to strike the
will
mean happier times
once more!"
my dear
first.
the size of
led by Ta-sunko-witko (Crazy Horse), fought off
attacks.
The white people

will
The
get back their
The Native Americans,
outnumbering the army troops by three
two army
life.
will
That part about the dead returning
fight.
This time the army decided to strike
of
"The dead are
buffalo are to return.
own way
in short supply, joined them.
about:
Dakota [Sioux] people

go away, and that
What
would
life
young Sioux explained why Wovoka's
message appealed
There hundreds of Indians fleeing the agencies,
prepared to
that
Native Americans performed the Ghost
Grass and the army called Little Bighorn River.
late
Wovoka proclaimed
an outright victory for
Native Americans, they gained confidence
Ghost
the
white settlers would vanish, the buffalo would
Inspired by Sitting Bull's prophecy of a
camp near
unfolded on the
seeds of this conflict
three sides. Custer
on reservations
in the
peace.
The Sioux
Dakotas. however, added a
militant tone to the religion by donning
whose
Shirts,"
living
"Ghost
special symbols, they believed,
could stop bullets.
himself led a battalion of over 200 men. After the

final attack,
which
lasted for less than an hour.
Custer and every soldier in his battalion lay dead.
The Battle of the
Little
Bighorn gave
the
Native Americans only a momentary triumph, however.
Over the next several months,
the Indian
forces broke into smaller groups to evade

troops.
Group by group, they were forced
While performing the Ghost Dance, dancers

one or
shuffled back and forth in a circle until
more
of
them
collapsed
in
in
received spiritual visions and then

a trance. This photograph was taken
December
1890.
army
to surren-
der and settle near the agencies. Sitting Bull fled to
Canada but eventually returned

and settled on Standing Rock
Reservation, in Dakota Territory,
where he continued
to
oppose
non-Indian settlement of Sioux

lands.
Some Ghost Dance
perform-
wore Ghost Shirts similar to

this one. They believed that
ers
the symbols of stars, birds, and

animals on the garment
protected
them from harm.
Field
Museum
of Natural History
429
HISTORY
in
BY DR. PAUL
the
HUTTON
JVlaking
the Real Custer

please Stand?
Will
icture a dashing
young soldier
opinion of Custer
eventually
he soon
Philip Sheridan,
destroying the legend and trans-
received an appointment as a
buckskins, a scarlet scarf, and
forming a revered hero into a
lieutenant colonel
shoulder-length, flowing blond
hated
the
of the
hair.
870s sporting fringed
This image of
Armstrong Custer survived

almost 75 years after
in
1876. In the minds of
for
death
his
many
Americans, Custer symbolized

the army's efforts to
West
make the
Custer was out-
going, strikingly
handsome, and
recklessly brave. But he
was not
graduated at the bottom of

1861
West
Point class.
his
Upon
graduation he saw immediate

action
in
young
officer rose rapidly in the
but was
How
image arise and
it
did this heroic
Union ranks through a
how
field
has
it
changed? Journalists, poets, novplaywrights, painters, and
filmmakers
the Civil War.
rather than
have molded the
view of Custer. Artists
histo-
public
at age 23.
later, artists
again reshaped public
in
1863
Newspapers dubbed
him the "Boy General."

After the war Custer was
returned to
first
his regular
rank of captain. But
America's most famously
decades
series of
promotions, earning a
brigadier general's star
created the legend of
unfortunate soldier;
The
as the favorite offi-
^^M
cer of General
Custer posed for

photograph
around 1870,
when he was
this
commander
the Seventh
Cavalry.
of
Seventh Cavalry.
elite
the Cheyennes and Sioux on

the Great Plains.
Custer's military exploits
and news of
his
exploring expe-
ditions into Montana's
Yellowstone country
in
1873
and the Dakota Territory's Black

1874 captivated the
Hills in
nation. Popular magazine articles
and
his
memoir.
the Plains, kept his
My
Ufe on
name before
the public. Thus the nation

reeled
in
shock when word
reached the East that Custer
and every man of
ment had been
his
detach-
killed at
the
Battle of the Little Bighorn
on
June 25, 1876.
Though some Americans
3r-^
questioned Custer's motives at

Little
George Armstrong
charge of
Custer's unit frequently battled
an outstanding student: Custer
safe for U.S. settlers.
the truth?
rians
real
Such was the popular

view of Custer
elists,
villain.
The
George
in
Bighorn,
most held him up

and
as a martyr. Poets, artists,
novelists promptly began to

build the
Custer myth. Just one
day after hearing of the battle.
Walt Whitman submitted
his
poem "A Death-Sonnet for

Custer" to the New York
Tribune.
Poet Henry Wadsworth
Longfellow also published
account of the
poems
battle.
painted Custer
heroic lighL
In
his
Both
in
addition, artists
produced an endless supply of
430
CHAPTER
paintings of the gory battle,
depicting Custer and his
men
as
the victims of bloodthirsty

Indians.
This image of Custer also
appeared
in
the popular play
Custer's Last Charge,
which
toured with Buffalo
Bill's
Wild West Show
the 1880s
in
famous
and 1890s. The play showed
Custer
fearlessly battling savage
forces.
He was
also a favorite
subject of early filmmakers. By
1941 close to 20 Custer movies
Bighorn.
had been made,
Crazy Horse, Rain-in-the-Face, and Sitting
Custer
all
portraying
included himself
in
the center of the picture, alongside

Bull.
settlers.
Nevertheless, as early as
the 1920s, Custer's Image was

beginning to change.
symbol of heroic
From
self-sacrifice
the winning of the West, he
was gradually transformed
in-
to a symbol of white arro-
gance
He
as a self-sacrificing
defender of U.S.
in
Kicking Bear painted this version of the Battle of the Little
as Sitting Bu// (1954), Chief Crazy
America's past that has not
Horse (1955), The Great Sioux
healed." In response,
Massacre
Man
965), and
Little
Big
(1970), courageous Indians
defend their homelands against

a cruel, glory-seeking,
and even
insane Custer
Native American efforts
conqueror of
a brutal
passed legislation
in
Congress
1991 that
name from
monument and
stripped Custer's
the national
authorized the construction of

an Indian
monument
The once
Illustrious
In its
place.
image of
Native Americans. This change
to address their past treatment
George Armstrong Custer was
came about
and present conditions
now
partly as a result
movements
of the reform
early 1900s.
began looking at society

its
myths
of the
As more people
with
and
a critical eye,
enced
this
new
influ-
generation of
Custer movies. Beginning

late
in
the
960s, such best-selling
books
the treatment of Native
Americans
Dee Brown's Bury My Heart at

Wounded Knee ( 97 ) presented
general and the
Custer legend
came under
In
particular
in
the 1930s and 1940s,
tive of
Water
in
Hunter, portrayed Custer as a

vain, often brutal
War
man.
II
In
era, a
wave of Custer movies
the Indian wars.
the
new
re-
opinion had firmly shifted
history.
reformers and Native American

rights
groups forced society
to take another, closer look
of Native Americans. Artists
American view of the
and historians may again
the
Little
magazine
Bighorn.
In
Battle of
a 1971
article, Alvin
Life
M.
of an army that slaughtered
Battlefield National
such films
myth and remade
Twentieth-century social
toward sympathy for the Native
Josephy, Jn, labeled the Custer
In
the process. Later genera-
both at Custer and at the plight
created him as a ruthless leader
Native Americans.
in
civil
By the early 1970s public

Glory-
and
tions of artists destroyed the
several novelists, such as
post-World
969) and
the Native American perspec-
fire.
Frederic Van de
for Your Sins
Early artists, writers,
filmmakers had created Custer's

heroic image, "making history"
as Vine Deloria's Custer
Died
in
thoroughly tarnished.
in
Montana
"a sore
rein-
terpret and revise the Custer

story,
and
this soldier's
death
will
continue to provide
life
and
Monument
Americans with lessons about
from
their past, present, and future.
431
Go\emment
Dance would
agents feared that the Ghost
When
inspire Indian resistance.
the
Ghost Dance religion spread to Standing Rock

Resenation. the military ordered the arrest of
who had
Sitting Bull,
When
joined the religion.
reservation police surrounded Sitting BulKs cabin
on December
15, 1890, a skirmish
was
Sitting Bull
killed.
broke out and
many
Frightened and angry,
Sioux joined the Ghost Shirt fighters farther west.
Government agents
Sioux
leader.
set out to arrest
another
Big Foot Although Big Foot had been
a Ghost Shirt
he decided to join Red Qoud.
fighter,
another Sioux leader, on Pine Ridge Reservation to
end the
fighting.
Army
troops caught up with Big
Foot and s<Hne 350 members of his group. Waiting

to be led to
agency headquarters, the Sioux
up
on Wounded Knee Creek.
their tepees
The next morning
December 29the army
ordered the confiscation of Indian
rifles.
Mounted
by four Hotchkiss guns (which
cavalry, reinforced
fired exploding shells),
surrounded the camp. After
the Indians surrendered only a

diers
set
A Before reaching the Canadian border. Chief

Joseph surrendered to Colonel Nelson A. Miles on
October 5, 1877. Shown here is Chief Joseph Rides
to Surrender by Howard Terpning.
few guns, the
sol-
began to search the tepees. Tensions ran high.
When someone
fired a rifle
scuffle, possibly as a signal
possibly during a
bursts of gunfire
The group eventually numbered from 700 to 800, including some 300 fighting
men. The group^s goal was to escape to Canada. But
followers along the way.
became
as winter approached, travel
harder. Chiel
Joseph surrendered only 30 miles from the

Canadian border.
An
interpreter
w ept
as he relayed
the leader's surrender statement:
erupted between U.S. soldiers and Indians. The

Hotchkiss guns ripped into the tepees, killing some
300 Sioux. About 30 U.S.
Though
soldiers
w ere
killed.
\^Vjunded Knee Massacre
th:-
shocked many Arnerican^, oihcr> grimh insisted

that Custer
the
had been "avenged." The
battle
end of the Indian wars on the Great
marked
kets.
The
death. ...
Irtde children are freezing to
My
heart
where the sun now
more forever
Plains.
Our chiefs are

cdd and we have no blan-
tired of fighting.
is
sick
stands,
and
I
sad.
From
will fight
no
*9
LOW-uh) River Valle> of northeastern Oregon, the
The Nez Perces. however, were not the last

Native American group to surrender to the U.S.
Army. The Apaches of the desert and canyon
lands of New Mexico and Arizona mounted one
of the longest campaigns against government
control. The conflict began in the 1850s. when
Nez Perces
settlers
UQNFLICT
IN
THE FAR WEST
Native Americans west of the Great Plains also

faced forced resettlement. In the Wallowa (wah-
ment
tried to
control.
avoid coming under govern-
Although the Nez Perces had long
began moving into Apache
Raids and attacks by
mate of fear and hatred.
ment and while
ment forced
settlers, the
move
government ordered
to an Idaho reserv aiion in
1877. Chief Joseph, the
Nez Perce
leader, reluc-
tantly agreed. Before his people could leave,
some white
few .Nez Perces
whom
they viewed as intruders. Joseph's group,
killed
settlers,
fearing attack, fled.
Nez Perces journeyed
east
and north through Idaho,
Wyoming, and Montana, picking up
CHAPTER
14
additional
1877 the U.S. govern-
Apaches
to settle
in
Arizona.
Most Apaches complied, but
life
on the
reservation proved harsh. In 1881. amid rumors
of an Indian uprising, army troops

territor).
Pursued by army troops for three months, the
In
the semi nomadic
on San Carlos Resenation. on the Gila River
how-
ever, a
territory.
both sides produced a cli-
maintained good relations with the U.S. govern-
the .Nez Perces to
432
am
killed. ... It Is
into the
Fearing an attack. Geronimo. an Apache
leader, fled the reservation
ers.
moved
w ith about 75
follow^-
Off and on for the next five years.
Geronimo's group raided settlements and evaded
capture. But on September 4, 1886, with his
followers outnumbered. Geronimo gave up.
"Once
moved about
"Now
like the
wind," he told his
book A Century of Dishonor (1881) attacked the

government for its years of broken promises and
corrupt dealings with Native Americans.
His surrender marked the end of armed resistance
Another reformer. Thoc-me-tony (ShellFlower), a Paiute woman known as Sarah
to the reservation system.
Winnemucca. publicized
captors.
surrender to you and that
is all."
American
the plight of
government took away Indian
1844,
Indians. Born in Nevada around
Winnemucca. who spoke English. Spanish, and
several Indian languages, served for a number of
years as an interpreter at U.S. forts. She also
lands.
briefly taught school
The U.S. Army and American

Indians clashed as the U.S.
on the Paiute reservation
in
Oregon.
Although the Paiutes cooper-
VOICES OF PROTEST
By
the 1880s
ated with the government, they

often felt taken advantage of by
American Indians had been forced
to
Bureau of Indian Affairs agents.
surrender more than 450 million acres to the U.S.
Winnemucca
government. Indians had been driven off their land
ernment had authorized two mills
and onto reservations by a number of pressures.
to
The army had defeated many groups.
In addition.
tion, but they
as railroads
structed.
U.S.
settlers,
whose presence increased
learned that the gov-
be built on the Paiute reserva-
were never con-
She wondered:
snaked across the West, had moved onto Indian

lands and killed off most of the buffalo herds. "Kill
^w
every buffalo you can." advised Colonel R.
seen or heard of by
Dodge. "Every buffalo dead

With the
little
is
I.
an Indian gone."
loss of the buffalo. Nati\ e
Americans had
hope of maintaining an independent existence
Troubled by the treatment of American

Indians, a small but active group of reformers
more
won the supof Helen Hunt Jackson, whose intluential
appealed
port
to the
[mills]
were never
my
people, though the printed
report
says twenty-five
thousand dollars was

appropriated to build them.
on the Plains.
humane
The
government
to craft a
Indian policy. Their cause
Where
did [the
...
that the govern-
Is it
ment
is
agents
money] go?
cheated by
who make
reports?
Its
own
these
Sarah Winnemucca
99
The Paiutes" forced removal
to
Yakima
Reservation in Washington Territory in 1878 so

outraged
Winnemucca
that she
began lecturing on
the Paiutes' behalf to non-Indian audiences. In
allow
lands before
1880 she pleaded her cause

to return to their
to
the Paiutes
President
Rutherford B. Hayes. Hayes granted her request,

but the bureau's agents did not carry out the president's order.
Three years
later
Winnemucca reached
the
Though she died before age

Winnemucca helped awaken the nation to
50.
Piutes.
injustices
Although the buffalo population once numbered

In the millions, its ranks dwindled by the 1870s as
hunters were paid from one dollar to three dollars
for every hide sold.
some
An
13 million buffalo
1883 study estimated that

had been slaughtered.
Among
wider audience with her book Life
suffered by American
Sarah
Winnemucca brought
plight of
the
Indians.
the
American Indians to the
nation's attention.
::
433
ASSIMILATING AMERICAN INDIANS
The government's most important assimilahowever, was forcing Indians to give
tion strategy,
up
Many governmenl
and most reformers
officials
tribal
ownership of land
viewed assimilation, or the cultural absorption,
argued, lay
of American Indians into "white America" as the
Western
only long-term
survival.
to
The
way
federal
ensure Native American
government urged Indians
become farmers and
dwellings and live
in
ernment passed laws

to
to
abandon
men
out of their
wooden houses. The govNative Americans
to force
their traditional
dress like "Americans."

Indian
move
to
appearance and to
One law even ordered
to cut off their long hair.
Another out-
lawed Indian religious practices.
To speed
assimilation, the
a system of Indian schools.
government
Some American
set
up
Indian
to leave their families to attend board-
ing schools.
The Carlisle Indian School
Pennsylvania, which admitted
favor of private
at the
heart of Americanization.
and developers wanted American
settlers
Indians to give up tribal ownership of land for
another reason:
Indians could be forced onto
if
small plots of land, settlers and developers could

then buy up surplus reservation land.
The passage of
Allotment Act
ship of
in
the
Dawes General
887 established private owner-
American Indian
The
land.
act required that
Indian lands be surveyed and Indian families claim
an allotment of 160 acres of reservation land for
children attended reservation schools, while others
were forced
in
ownership. Private ownership, the government
its first
in
class in
1879, typified the boarding school system.
The land
that remained would be sold.

The Dawes Act proved to be a disaster for
American Indians. In less than 50 years, they
lost two thirds of their land. Some of the land was
farming.
sold to settlers and developers as surplus
ments were made.
In other cases.
when
allot-
American Indians
sold or were cheated out of their allotments.
Students were forced to speak only English, wear
"proper" clothes, and change their names to
"American" ones. The schooFs founder summed

up
his aim: to "kill the Indian
and save the man."
SS By outlawing Indian customs,

establishing boarding schools,
and enforcing private land ownership, the U.S. government
attempted to assimilate
American Indians.
The navajos; a case study

Despite the government's hopes, few Plains Indians
became farmers. Even before passage of the Dawes

Act, the government had tried to force the Navajos
up
to give
ing and
their reliance
become
on sheep
rais-
settled farmers. This
plan backfired.
To carry out the government's

plan, the U.S.
tary
in
Army waged
mili-
campaigns against the Navajos
northwestern
4 The
New Mexico
and
top photograph shows a group
of Navajos from
New
Mexico arriving
at the Carlisle Indian School during the
1880s. Six months later they posed for

a second photograph, outfitted in
school uniforms.
434
CHAPTER
14
The Navajos learned

the art of weaving from
the Pueblos and soon
produced woolen blankets of exceptional quality.
This photograph of
a Navajo weaver outside
her hogan, or home, was

taken around 1890.
northeastern Arizona in
1863. Soldiers destroyed
Navajo houses, sheep

herds, and corn crops.
Without food or
shelter,
many Navajos
surren-
dered
in early 1864. In
to be known
Long Walk, the Navajos were
what came
as the
on foot
travel
in eastern
to
New
Bosque Redondo,
forced to
a reservation
Mexico. Soldiers stationed
By
the 1880s their
economy had
pros-
pered and their population had begun to increase.
at
nearby Fort Sumner prevented Navajos from

leaving the reservation.
smithing.
After great losses, the Navajos

won their battle to maintain
The U.S. government gave the Navajos
their communities.
seeds and farming tools, but the land proved
unsuitable for farming. Living conditions
Bosque Redondo were
harsh, and
at
Although the Navajos and other American
many Navajos
Indian groups overcame military defeat and
died from malnutrition or disease. Realizing
its
plan was unworkable, the government signed a

treaty with the
tion in
the
Navajos granting them
New Mexico
Navajos rebuilt
trating
and Arizona
their
a reserva-
in 1868.
There
communities, concen-
on sheep raising, weaving, and
silver-
resettlement,
fare
did not.
American Indian population

Indians were
By 1890
war-
commonly
to
fewer than 250,000.
referred to as "vanishing
Americans." Despite suffering great hardships,

though, American Indians did not vanish.
SECTION
IDENTIFY and
many groups
and forced assimilation had reduced the
REVIEW
explain the significance of the following: Bureau of Indian Affairs, buffalo soldiers, Sand
Creek Massacre, Treaty of Medicine Lodge, Sitting Bull, Battle of Rosebud, George Armstrong Custer,
Battle of the Little Bighorn, Wovoka, Wounded Knee Massacre, Chief Joseph, Geronimo, Helen Hunt
Jackson, Sarah
LOCATE
I.
Winnemucca,
assimilation,
Dawes General Allotment
Act, Long Walk.
and explain the importance of the following: San Carlos Reservation.
MAIN IDEA Why did the U.S. government attempt to resettle American
reservations? How did American Indians respond to this attempt?
MAIN IDEA How did Sarah Winnemucca address the problems faced by
Indians
on
the Paiutes?
MAIN IDEA What did the U.S. government do to try to assimilate American Indians?
WRITING TO EXPLAIN Imagine you are a Sioux who took part in the Ghost Dance
Write an essay explaining the meaning of the Ghost Dance and Ghost
5.
ANALYZING Why were
religion.
Shirt.
Navajo communities prosperous by the 1880s?
435
Section 2
WESTERN FARMERS
FOCUS
Why
many
did
What
farmers move to the West
in
the late
800s?
innovations helped farmers cope v/ith the western environments?
Why and
where
did
bonanza farms develop?
A.attracted by the promise offree or cheap land, thousands offarmers

moved to
the West after the Civil
War
In fact, pioneers settled
some 430
million acres between
1870 and 1900. The spread of railroads across
West allowed farmers
to ship crops
and around
the world. Although
and other farm products
new
to the
the
East
technologies helped farmers cope

Windmill on the western
with harsh environments, western farm
life
remained
difficult.
Great
Plains
be free of slavery and populated by independent
tCONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
OF THE WEST
who would develop
farmers
the land.
To
attain
these goals. Republicans passed a series of acts in
1862
to put public lands to productive use.
After the southern states seceded from the Union,

northern Republicans saw a chance to develop the
Land
West along northern lines. The Republicans

wanted the new western states and territories to
increased non-Indian settlement of the Great

Plains.
acts.
Three government land acts
The Homestead Act granted a 160-acre

to any American citizen or
homestead, or farm,
in the
Great
Plains and cultivate the land for five years.
Some
prospective citizen willing to live

-^^-
400.000 families took advantage of

Pacific
Railway Act gave land
this offer.
to railroad
The
compa-
nies to develop a transcontinental railroad

linking the East and
v^
Act gave land grants
West
coasts.
The Morrill
to all the states to help
finance agricultural colleges, which would train

> oung farmers and thus help develop
the West.
Competition for land was

in 1889. for example,
Oklahoma
Daniel
Freeman
filed this
claim
Nebraska, for 160 acres of land
in
in
In
fierce.
a
flood of
Brownsville,
January 1863.
He
received this homestead certificate after certifying

that he had built a "part log & part frame" house
on
436
:i
CHAPTER
his claim.
Although Oklahoma originally was part of Indian Territory, by the late 880s
the government opened some of the land to non-Indian settlers. This photograph
shows an actual land "run" on September 16, 1893.
I
prospective settlers responded to a government

offer of free homesteads. In
March, President
Benjamin Harrison announced
that the
former Creek and Seminole lands

available beginning at
takers.
By
would be
noon on April 22
the appointed day,
acreageto the first
some 50,000
way
across the West (see
federal
another for the land. At exactly noon the stampede

S.
Wicks described
the
they could
sell to settlers to
race was not over
reached the particular
lot
when you
which
pay for the huge cost
Eager
companies
to sell this land, railroad
The compa-
advertised in the East and in Europe.
nies offered to pay the fares of buyers and sell

credit.
Some
newspaper
companies gave
railroad
reporters.
The
reporters in
turn wrote glowing accounts of the land and
you were content
to select for your possession.
land,
also donated land to railroad companies.
free trips to
The
along the
rail line.
One Indiana
towns
editor wrote:
The contest
still was who should drive their stakes first,

who would erect their little tents soonest,
and then, who would quickest build a little
than that part of Kansas passed over by the

Atchison, Topeka
&
Santa Fe road.
wooden
waist high, wheat
in
the shock [stacked],
shanty.
On
the morning of April 23, a city of
oats
never saw finer country
in fine
in
the world
Corn
condition, and vegetables
abundance.
10,000 people, 500 houses, and innumerable

tents existed
The
of laying the tracks. State and local governments
them land on
difficulties involved:
445).
government gave the railroad companies
more than 100 million acres of public
prospective homesteaders gathered to race one
began. Settler Hamilton
map on page
in
99
where twelve hours before was
nothing but a broad expanse of prairie.
99
Railroads also stimulated an important mid-
western and western industry: lumbering. Vast

Subsequent
Oklahoma
"runs'"
usually
Americans. Indians
in
Oklahoma
to
took place
at
lost
in other parts
of
the expense of Native
more than
non-Indian
1 1
million acres
groves of white pine
supplied
wood
the houses and
settlers.
in
Michigan, Wisconsin,
Minnesota, and eventually the Pacific Northwest

for railroad ties, railroad cars,
bams
that sprang
up along the
and
rail-
road routes. But uncontrolled lumbering destroyed
The
railroads.
helped lure
Railroad companies also
settlers to the
West. Between 1869
and 1883 four transcontinental
lines
snaked
their
wildlife habitats, caused erosion,
and had other
important ecological consequences

nized
at the
little
recog-
time.
437
Who moved
to the West? Migration

wcsUsard afici ihe Civil War diftered from earlier
migraiions. The U.S. governmenl now played a
active role in encouraging
The methods of transportation differed
families on the newly built railroads.
as
rides to the
on the overwhelm-
ing job, the federal

1
was no
gave
them
land.
government
The project
soon became a contest of which
Coast to the West Coast. Both
company would
New
York to San Francisco and the

boat
trip
around the
South America could

eral
the
tip
of
West
The
1862.
act
Railway Act
in
awarded con-
tracts to build a transcontinental
railroad to
two companies:
lay
railroad
more
uniforms, also signed on.
Central
work
track.
companies
One
progress "a grand Anvil Chorus

.
playing across the plains and
recruited thousands of workers
mountains,
strokes to the spike; ten spikes
Work
crews
to the
as each other as they blasted,
During the
frigid
rails
crews met
Utah, on
winters
at
May
Railroad
huge snowdrifts and avalanches
Promontory,
10,
1869.
officials, political
dignitaries, infantry soldiers,
Some
proud workers looked on

last railroad tie
ous blasting work. Railway gangs
wood,
also faced attacks by Plains
contest of strength
wilderness
laid
1,500 miles of
over and through
mountains and across steep

ravines.
would
The Central
lay
Pacific
track eastward from
Indians,
Union
Pacific
would work west-
attempted to pre-
made
and
as the
of laurel
symbol of victory
was
in
slipped
into place. Leiand Stanford, the
vent the invasion of their hunting
president of the Central Pacific
grounds by "the wagons which
and former governor of
make
California, then
a noise."
Most of the Union
Sacramento, California, over the
towering Sierra Nevada. The
who
to the
exhausting labor, the railroad
way
across the North American continent.
400
time: three
mile." After seven years of
against nature as well
shoveled, and pickaxed their
rail;
in triple
laborers died doing the danger-
track had to be
observer
sound of the crews'
called the
blocked mountain passes.
some
The
force consisted mostly of
the Union Pacific Railroad.
The
10,000 workers were
Pacific's
immigrants. After the Civil War,
ward from Omaha, Nebraska,
veterans from both sides,
and cross the rugged Rockies.
still
spike to complete the railroad.
The
Irish
many
drove a golden
telegraph built alongside the
tracks flashed the
news from
coast to coast that East and
West were permanendy
wearing remnants of their
linked.
Laborers from different ethbackgrounds helped build the
nic
transcontinental railroad. This
438
CHAPTER
14
train
Pacific's slightly larger
the Central Pacific Railroad and
across
The
and more
safer,
for the backbreaking and often
competed
to settlers, Congress
Pacific
The
perilous work.
last sev-
months. To help open up
passed the
West were quicker,
Chinese laborers.
easy way to get from the East
the overland journey from
later
migrants journeyed by themselves or with their
To encourage the companies to take
the mid- 800s there
traveled
the transcontinental railroad
Ways
In
who
groups by covered wagon, these
in large
westward migra-
more
tion.
Changing
well. Unlike earlier western settlers
1886 photograph shows members of a Northern Pacific

Railroad crew.
tlers
occurred during the
Kansas Fever Exodus of

1879. From 20,000 to 4(),(K)()
African Americans fled the
South, where violence had
broken out during elections

in
1878. Seeking economic
and
political
freedom, these
black settlers,
known
as
Exodusters, trekked west.

With the help of established
black settlers, the poor and
Exodusters
ill-equipped
eventually
settled
some
20,000 acres.
European immigrants
Free black settlers moved west to escape persecution and violence in

the South. The Shores family lived in Custer County, Nebraska, v/hen
this photograph was taken in the late 1880s.
also flocked to the western
United States. "America

Fever" infected thousands of
Norwegians, Swedes, and

comfortable than the journeys on the Oregon
Trail
had been.
homes
Economic motives,
the search for racial tol-
erance, and the promise of a better
main groups of people

Americans from
life
(3)
drew
three
West: (1) white
to the
the East: (2) African
from the South; and
Americans
immigrants from Europe
White newcomers came from more-settled

areas of the United States. Because of the high
cost of transporting supplies,
American West.
In addition,
many
Irish
who had helped
great
number of Germans who had
settled in the
move
to the Plains.
build the railroads and a
Mississippi Valley decided to
These Europeans were joined by Mennonites,

Protestant pacifists
who
fled persecution in Russia.
move
to the West.
steppes, or grasslands,
New
England farmers
was
especially useful on the
Great Plains.
Many
was mainly mid-
it
and businesspeople who could
dle-class farmers
come
of the Chinese immigrants
who had
to California during the gold rush of
had also turned
to
1849
farming by 1880. In California
Civil
alone some 3,200 Chinese raised crops in 1880.
veterans, especially those from the South,
Throughout the West, many Chinese immigrants
went west searching for more-fertile
War
for the
left their
Their experience in farming wheat on the Russian
and Asia.
afford to
Danes. In 1882 alone more than 100,000
soil.
make a new start. The majority of white

settlers, however, moved from states in the
came
to
Mississippi Valley, where populations were growing rapidly.

"I
I
am
can
Nebraska
well satisfied that
settler
I
explained simply:
can do better here than
in Illinois."
For African Americans, moving west had a

special appeal. In the South, blacks faced violence
and persecution
after the
withdrawal of federal
troops at the end of Reconstruction. African
American
settlers
who
ventured onto the Plains in
the 1870s sent letters to their friends
urging them to
were read aloud
move
in
and families,
west. Often these letters
black churches.
Kansas, where John
Brown had
first
fought
against slavery, especially appealed to African
American
settlers.
The biggest rush of black
set-
Shown here
is
a Chinese agricultural
worker tendi ng an
irrigation ditch in a California orchard.
::
439
worked
as tarm laborers, sharecroppers, or produce
Some owned
vendors.
Chinese farmer
in
large farms. In 1870 a
Sacramento County, California,
earned $9,500 from farming
an enormous
profit
established farms that fanned out in thin strips
from water sources so

had access
to water.
that all
The new
community
settlers
had
residents
to adopt
these methods to survive.
The Great
for the time.
Plains also had few water sources.
In addition, trees that could provide fuel or build-
Farmers moved onto the Great
ing materials were scarce.
Plains for a variety of motives,
difficult: bitterly
but the main incentive was
the
cold
The climate was
in the winter,
also
blazing hot in
summer, and windy much of the time.

Plains farmers
readily available land.
some of
wood,
worked out clever solutions
these problems.
To cope with
to
the lack of
for instance, they built houses and
bams of
sod chunks cut from the prairie and stacked like
IViESTERN
ENVIRONMENTS
roof,
Although some 80 million acres of public land

the Great Plains
and 1900, the
in
were homesteaded between 1862
settlers did not
immediately create a
prosperous region. Though the land was free, supplies
and transportation were expensive. In addi-
tion, the
environments of the Southwest, the Far
in
few scarce pieces of wood formed the
topped off with a layer of sod. Building with
sod was
to
it
however. Wrote a Kansas
difficult,
1877: "The sod
4 bricks on a
150
feet,
litter
tell
is
settler
heavy and when you take 3 or
or hand barrow, and carry
you
it
is
it
50
no easy work." Nor was
pleasant to live with the insects that dwelled in
the sod.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture,
West, and the Great Plains posed problems for
created
farmers. In the Southwest and the Far West, the
in
new
ment. Department experts sought out and publicized
settlers
had
to learn irrigation techniques.
To
carve out farms from the Great Plains, the settlers

relied
on
varieties of
wheat suitable for the Great Plains
Plains could not support traditional winter wheat.)
These new wheat crops, along with the weeds
Southwest, Hispanic and
American Indian farmers had developed
effective
irrigation systems that used canals, sloping fields.

to control
water flow. They had also
Between 1830 and 1910 some 90 percent

lived in sod houses.
Shown here
Nebraska home
1889.
is
14
=-x
intro-
duced with the wheat seeds, soon replaced the

grasses that had once covered the Great Plains.
Department of Agriculture agents also taught
dry farming techniques, planting and harvesting
of ail pioneers west of the Missouri River

the Scott family, photographed outside their
CHAPTER
new
environment. (The cold winters of the northern
In parts of the
in
862, helped farmers adapt to the Plains environ-
government sup-
nologies.
and dams
farming practices, and new tech-
their resourcefulness,
port, innovative
440
bricks.
irw^-:sm
Bonanza farms applied the techniques of the factory system to agriculture. By 890 there were some
in the Red River Valley that covered about
,000 acres each. This photograph shows one such
in the San Fernando Valley of California.
I
300 farms
operation
techniques that conserve moisture. For example,
of large-scale operation, the bonanza farm. Most
agents advised farmers to plow deep furrows to
bonanza farms were owned by large companies and
bring moisture to the surface and to break up the
run like factories, with professional managers,
soil after
laborers for different tasks, and machinery. Because
a rainfall to prevent evaporation.
New
technologies aided the Department of
Agriculture's efforts to improve Plains farms.
To
tap water deep underground, farmers adapted
machinery developed by petroleum com-
drilling
new models of windwind-powered water pumps designed to
these large farms required from 500 to 1,000 extra
workers
The
New
farm equipment also helped the Plains
farmers. James Oliver's plow factory in South
first
in
charge of each.
bonanza farms were established
the Red River Valley
Minnesota
withstand the strong winds of the Plains.
their vast enterprises into smaller
with a foreman
units,
panies. Farmers also used
mills
planting and harvesting times, most
at
owners divided
in the
in
in
Dakota Territory and
mid- 1870s after the completion
of the Northern Pacific Railroad. Investors also

organized bonanza farms as far west as California.
Bend. Indiana, produced thousands of plows with
In California's Central Valley
one of the
wheat farms covered more than 66.000
sharp, durable blades that could slice through the
largest
tough sod of the Plains. "Self-binding" harvesters
acres, stretching for 16 miles along the
not only cut wheat but also tied
River. Although California led the country in
The combine
a sort of factory
it
into bundles.
on wheels
cut
wheat, separated the grain from the plant, and

cleaned the grain
all in
one operation.
wheat production
in the 1880s,
Sacramento
by the 1890s most
farmers there had turned to more-profitable
and vegetable crops. Refrigerated
railcars
fruit
allowed
California farmers to ship these crops across the
Government support,
innovative
farming practices, and new technologies helped make farming on

the Plains possible.
country.
The era of bonanza farming soon faded.
When
weather conditions were favorable, bonanza
farms produced large profits because of lower production costs. Since bonanza-farm owners bought
seed and equipment in bulk, suppliers often gave
them
ZÂRGE-SCALE FARMING
special deals.
Family farmers,
new farm machinery and cheap, abundant

enabled some companies to create a new kind
But
in
times of severe drought
or low wheat prices, bonanza-farm profits
money
who had fewer workers
to
fell.
pay and
invested in equipment, could better
Efficient
less
land
handle boom-and-bust cycles. Thus by the 1890s
441
to keep her dry. Soon the rain

ran off the ribs of the parasol
and soaked around the baby so

I
fixed a place for her
cupboard
place
i In
1
shelf
around with
99
Moreover, winter on the Plains

brought blizzards and bone-chilling
cold.
Kansas
The
beast.
settler wrote:
cold
a fierce north
is
will
[At night]
Farmers settled
in
Shown here
areas throughout the Great Plains.
home
is
[and] the tops of the sheets
and
quilts
were frozen
stiff
We
had
us
warm and we
thing
Summer on
most bonanza farms had been broken up into
not bedclothes enough to keep
the
Hendricks, Minnesota.
in
picked off the
ice,
with [our] breath.
Ellefson family outside their
man or
my eyelids
freeze
froze together so
walked
a slicker, a man's
hat and overshoes to keep

dry.
wind which
in
piled
the house.
on every-
**
the Plains could be just as fierce.
Settlers described droughts during
smaller farms.
opened
earth
New
the
the only dry
the house.
in
in
farm machinery, cheap

land, and high wheat prices
allowed bonanza farms to
flourish for a time in Dakota
Territory, Minnesota, and
and two
California.
that
in great
feet deep."
which "the
cracks several inches across
and "the leaves on the trees
shriveled and dried up. and every living thing
Summer
In the
also brought cloudbursts and tornadoes.
870s farmers faced swarms of grasshoppers
devoured everything
in their path.
Farmers
killed thousands of the sreedv insects, but to
:7ARM
LIFE
ON THE
PLAINS
in
for
families on the Plains faced
many problems
which inventors, manufacturers, and agriculhad no ready answers. For example,
tural experts
sod houses, though well insulated, windproof. and

fireproof,
proof.
were also dank,
One woman
dirty,
and
far
from
rain-
described her efforts to keep
herself and her baby dry in their sod house during
a spring rainstorm:
The
house leaked so badly that
rolled the bedding up and tied
rope, and put the
over
it
to keep
top of the
442
:!
CHAPTER
14
roll
it
oil
dry.
cloth
I
it
we
with a
from the
table
put the baby on
and put the parasol over
it
filed
the
is
fields.
Ella Sly,
who
a homestead claim
Kansas
in
1893.
little
many
Plains farmers spent
long hours
Shown here
Farm
was
seeking shelter from the hot rays of the sun."
in

effect.
Moaned one homcsieader: "Two new
grasshoppers arrived
lo attend
each dead one's
funeral."
determined his future. He now
saw through an
good times. Plains farming
in
demanded hard work from everyone in the family.

Men did most of the heavy labor of building
houses, fencing the land, and farming.
Women,
grown
adult's eyes
which he had
the land in
Even
was
up. "Nature
as
beautiful as ever." he
wrote, but
it
could not
in
"conceal the poverty of
addition to household and child-rearing tasks,
these people, ... the grace-
often spent hours in the fields. Writing to her famthe East,
ily in
one
woman
explained thai she had
been her husband's "sole help
lessness of these homes,
and the
mechani-
up and
cal daily routine of
25 tons of hay and oats." She
these lives." Garland
might also have been responsible for tending farm
wrote about his expe-
animals, caring for a garden plot, and preserving
riences to a friend,
stacking
at least
in getting
and vegetables.
who
Children had to do their share, too. They
the
fruits
fetched water, tended gardens, and did such routine
One farmer described
chores as churning butter.
how
in
first
up cows out of the stock
feed the
wood and climb
fields, or
oxen,
com crib and

hogs and go on errands down to his
carry in stove
in the
actual farmer
American
now
tell
fiction
the truth about
it."
Garland's collection of short stories, Main-
his two-year-old son, Baz, could "run all
over, fetch
"You're
replied,
Travelled Roads, published in 1891. stressed the

difficulties
of farm
life
bitterness offended
on the Plains. The book's
many
readers,
grandma's [house]."
farmers as happy
rv^V
Writer Hamlin Garland described
however,
hardships
especially his autobiography,
liLL|J
******
the
of
to Wisconsin,
his father, as
where Garland was born
Garland put
in
860.
To
to
Iowa and
later to
Hating the drudgery of farm work, young

to Boston.
He
got a job as a
teacher and educated himself by reading widely.

it
was
a trip back to the Plains in 1887 that
soil. In later years,
A Son
won admiration
of the Middle
for their straight-
forward honesty.
Difficulties
farmers, forcing
overwhelmed many western
some
to
abandon
their farms.
But
with churches and schools, newspapers and clubs,
and even theaters and concert

vests might be poor one year,
hope for better luck the next
SECTION
IDENTIFY and
Act, Exodusters, U.S.
LOCATE
I.
of the
thousands stayed, forming successful communities,
Territory.
Garland moved east
But
tillers
book and other works of Garland's
Border (1917)
"change was alluring,"
it,
and he moved his family

Dakota
farming.
Plains
moved from Maine
Garland's father had
this
who imagined
Though harthere was always
halls.
year.
REVIEW
Homestead
Act, Pacific Railway Act, Morrill
Department of Agriculture, dry farming, bonanza farm, Hamlin Garland.
and explain the importance of the following: Central
Pacific Railroad,
Union
Pacific Railroad.
MAIN IDEA Why did farmers move to the West in the late 19th century in such great numbers?
MAIN IDEA How were farmers able to adapt to the western environments?
GEOGRAPHY: LOCATION Where did bonanza farmers establish their operations? Why did
these large-scale farms flourish and then fade?
WRITING TO DESCRIBE
1800s.
Write
EVALUATING How
ment and the
member of an Exoduster family in Kansas

why you left the South and came to Kansas.
Imagine you are a
a journal entry describing
might the development of the Great Plains have been different
railroads had not
if
in
the late
the govern-
been involved?
443
Section 3
THE CATTLE BOOM
FOCUS
What
factors led to a cattle
boom
during the
What was ranch life like for cowboys?

What factors brought about the end of the
attle
870s and
cattle
880s?
boom?
ranchers were eager to use western lands that the
government had originally reserved for Native Americans.

Although Mexican
1600s, the
boom
the Civil War,
had been
settlers
raising cattle since the
era for cattle ranching arrived only after
when
railroads linked the West with growing
eastern markets. The two-decade
boom
created cattle
towns and new stresses on the Great Plains environment.

Female broncobuster
major problem was moving the
cattle
from
The rise of the cattle industry
Texas, where most of the earliest ranches were, to
The
roads,
rail lines in
earliest ranchers in the
American West were
who first imported cattle from Spain

By the 1850s English cattle brought
Spaniards,
the 1500s.
Texas by Americans interbred with Spanish
new breed
produce
Although
their
the
meat was tough and
distances on
little
round on grass. Equally important,

longhorns were
immune
to a tick-
born cattle disease called

Texas
Texas
ing
cattle ranch-
grew rapidly
after the
rail-
as 3,000 cattle
on
long drives, overland treks
of miles and could take as long as two to four
cattle to
that
covered hundreds
months. The long drives usually ended
in
Missouri.
But Missouri farmers objected: unlike the longhorn,

their cattle
were not immune
Because of
this opposition, later long drives
to
Texas fever.
avoided Missouri and headed for less-populated
towns
Kansas. Over the years of the long drives,
cowboys herded some four million
cattle
from
trail
boss
Texas to Kansas.
On
fever.
many
in
stringy, long-
water and live year-
as
to
Texas longhorn.
horns were hardy. They could travel long
Missouri and Kansas. To reach the
cowboys herded
a typical
managed
long drive, a
crew of about 10 cowboys.
The cook
in the
chuck wagon, which
Civil War, spreading over
carried food and the cowboys'
the Great Plains as the
bedrolls, rode in front of the herd.
buffalo vanished.
As
east-
ern cities grew, so did the
demand
for beef. In
steer that
in
:!
866 a
would bring about $4
Texas could be sold for $40 or
$50
444
in eastern
CHAPTER
14
markets.
Trail bosses
were responsible
for
the welfare of both cattle and cowboys during the many weeks it usually took to move a herd to a
rail line.
Railtoads and Cattle Oralis, 1870-1893

ROUTES TO THE WEST
The railroads sped passengers and goods across the United States.
Linked to western ranches by the cattle

cattle
the railroads
trails,
made
it
possible for ranchers to ship
to eastern markets.
LOCATION
Which
lines
rail
formed the
Rope and branding
transcontinental route?
first
iron
--y^
Portland
40-
PACIFIC
OCEAN
I
Transcontinental
railroad
120'
On May
10.
1869. Leiand Stanford
drove the golden spike marking

the completion of the
first
trans-
continental railroad.
125 250 Kilometers

Managing
the herd
was
cow-
a tough job. with the
boys setting a brisk pace. Crossing
where
rivers,
drown hundreds of animals,

posed one hazard. But the worst danger was a
swift currents might
coyote's
could panic
stampede. Almost any sound

thunderclap, a sneeze
wail, a
the cattle.
At
tle
the Civil War, when new railroads linked western ranges to

growing eastern markets.
a typical cattle
more than a
town consisted of
lit-
railroad depot, a stockyard, a hotel
or boardinghouse, and a general store. But
if
town attracted enough
grew.
when
men, and cowboys, who were paid
money. Gambling
stores,
As
the
from spring
end of the long drives, were eager
their
it.
activity
it
to
the long drives took place. Cattle bro-
kers, railroad
the
cattle business,
towns bustled with
Cattle
fall,
The cattle boom developed after
first
to
halls, saloons, clothing
and barbershops were just as eager

the cattle
at
spend
to take
towns prospered, they attracted
more businesspeople,
as well as doctors, lawyers,
teachers, and their families.
vTattle
towns
In a cattle town's early years, the scarcity of
labor provided
Every long drive ended
at a
railhead, a town
located along a railroad. Here, brokers
bought
cattle
came to
known were the
Kansas towns of Abilene. Ellsworth, and Dodge
and shipped them
be
known
City. Farther north

in
east.
The
railhead stops
as cattle towns: the best
and west, long drives
later
ended
Cheyenne, Wyoming, and Ogallala. Nebraska.
many
opportunities for both adults
and children. Because of the high demand for
many women took in boarders

opened restaurants. Some children worked as
lodging and food,

or
clerks or bookkeepers in the grow ing businesses.
Once
families arrived, the cattle towns built
schools and hired police forces to keep order.

Reformers,
many
of them
women,
set
out to tame
;:
445
cowboy towns by organizing
the rough
and temperance
Cattle ranching was profitable

because of high beef prices and
access to free grazing land.
poor-relief
societies. Their calls tor prohibi-
success as long as
tion,
however, met with
cattle
town economies depended on gambling
little
halls
Sheep ranching, which was also introduced
and saloons.
by the Spanish, was an important economic activity in
RANCH PROFITS
As
the
government converted more Indian
territory
particularly the
rush began, sheep by the thousands were herded

to California to feed the
New Mexico
hungry miners.
Nebraska, the Dakotas,
Wyoming, and Montana.
Basque shepherds, originally from southwestern France and north-central Spain, immi-
The government allowed
cattle ranchers to use the
grated from South America and ranged flocks of
Access
and Colorado and north into Kansas,
open range, or
to free pasture land
profitable.
sheep
free grazing land.
made
ranching
cattle
The introduction of higher-grade
breeds from the East and from Europe led
in California.
nANCH
LIFE
and sheep ranches demanded intense
compa-
Both
cattle
nies that took advantage of the government's
effort
from ranch
and European
make
it
was mainly
large investment
offer of land. Financed by eastern
In 1883. for
example, some 20 such companies
invested $12 million in
Wyoming
boys on the
trail"
Most ranches covered thousands of

cattle
to
work
to
Texas sheriff
acres.
on the
played an integral role

ranches,
women
much work."
applied to women, who
and "did just
This description also
alone.
Large ranches were essential because
Everyone had
families.
sure the ranch prospered.
explained that ranch owners "got right out with the
companies created huge ranches.
investors, these
10,000 Basques
lived in the West.
even
Although many families established

ranches,
By 1900 some
cattle
to
bigger profits.
as
in daily
ranch
life.
On most
did housework, cooked for
all
the
semiarid Plains needed
hired cowboys, and helped out with fence-mending,
enough
herding, or other chores.
feed.
much grazing land to get

Ranches also needed access to
water; streams, lakes, and rivers determined the

size
and location of ranches. "Wherever there
any water, there
is
a ranch," noted a
is
Colorado
T Women were
responsible for a
Here the Becker
sisters are
Colorado's San Luis Valley
CHAPTER
their
14
number
1894.
cattle
Many women
organized
ranch-related businesses. Ella Bird, for

first
herd of cattle by
ing hand-sewn leather gloves and vests to
exchange for yearlings.
of chores on a ranch.
shown branding
in
own
example, accumulated her
in
cattleman.
::
American Indians,
into public lands, cattle ranching spread west into
public land as
446
the West.
Pueblos and Navajos, raised sheep in New

Mexico and Arizona. After the California gold
on their ranch
in
sell-
cowboys
Because ranches were

took
its toll.
far apart, loneliness
Susan Newcomb.
Texas ranch wife,
described the loneliness of ranch
A man
that
crowd has no
cowhunting with
is
how
idea
the time passes with
man can see

pass time
while
his
from a long
wife at
home.
until
is
at
home and
he returns
and worn out.
trip tired
...
hear the news and
his wife
sees and hears nothing
a lively
long and lonesome
his friends,
.
life:
99
is
Ranch children
young
bilities at a
Many
age. In addition to doing chores
broke horses and herded
Many
cattle.
enjoyed the freedom, though. Ralla Banta.
who
spent her childhood on a Texas ranch,
"When we
often took on adult responsi-
around the house, some children, both boys and

girls,
Vaqueros of California Roping Horses in a Corral

title of this
877 painting by James Walker.
the
rememevening we
of the white cowboys were Confederate
About
veterans of the Civil War.
a third of the
some
35.000 cowboys were African American, Mexican,

or
Mexican American. Some of
the African
American cowboys had been brought west
as slaves
home in the
we had been, to what creek,
up what branch and what we had seen." Others
before the Civil War. With their experience handling
hated the boredom. John Norton, a young cowboy,
war. In an era
bered,
returned
enjoyed telling where
longhoms, they got jobs as ranch hands

cipation.
when most African Americans faced
noted that he and his brother "leaped with joy"
harsh segregation,
tively free of discrimination.
shipped for slaughter.
Ranch
spring and
fall,
cowboys, drove
some
and
centered on the roundup. Each
life
central spot.
from the open range
to
Here cowboys from each ranch
a black
life for
cowboy was
rela-
He worked, bunked,
cowboys and received
ate alongside fellow
same wages they
the
did.
Long before
ranchers, with the help of hired

their cattle
eman-
Other black cowboys moved west after the
when
the cattle they were herding were finally
after
the days of the cattle
boom,
Mexican vaqueros had developed many ranching

most Mexican and Mexican
practices. In the 1880s
"cut out," or separated, the cattle, identified by each
American cowboys worked on South and West
would then be
Texas ranches. They were often sons of ranchers or
ranch's distinctive brand.
The
rounded up for the long drive
cattle
televi-
sion programs romanticized the life of the

boys. Actually, their
hard in
was
difficult:
kinds of weather and
all
The long
life
drives also kept
Most
the range for
cow-
they worked
little
money.
them away from
families for long periods.
cowboys worked
made
owned
farmers, and sometimes
to a railhead.
and radio and
Later, books, movies,
their
their
own
ranches.
Although they were paid higher wages and treated

better than those
who handled
menial ranch jobs,
Mexican cowboys faced discrimination. Many

Anglo ranchers considered them
inferior to
Anglo
cowboys. Mexican cowboys were not allowed
to
supervise non-Mexicans, and they worked and

lived separately
from Anglo cowboys.
only about seven years before

they settled
down
in
towns or
on farms.
Ranch
boys,
was difficult for cowwho worked long hours

life
outdoors
Ex-slave
known
as
Nat Love,
Deadwood
also
Dick,
claimed to have carried the
marks of 14 bullet wounds

on his body, "any one
of which would be
sufficient to
kill
ordinary man."
an
in all
kinds of weather.
The end of the cattle boom

The
cattle
boom
lasted only about 20 years.
Several factors led to
its
early end. First, ranchers
eager to make large profits filled the open range
with too
many
cattle.
This led to overgrazing,
which damaged the grasslands. The vast herds also
447
following year, terrible blizzards struck the north-
When cowboys
ern Plains.
could finally venture
out of their bunkhouses. ihey found the remains of
thousands of starved and frozen
as
90 percent of
cattle.
some
suffered devastating losses,
Ranchers
losing as
much
their herds.
Boom
times for cattle ranchers

came to an end because of over-
open
grazing, fencing of the
range, and bad weather.
By the 890s the open-range cattle boom was

Some of the big corporations went broke.
1
Barbed wire not only helped cattlennen protect their land,

but also kept homesteaders away from valuable sources of
water. This 1885 photograph shows a group of homesteaders
cutting
down wire
fences.
o\er.
\S ith the
end of the open range, ranchers had
buy
own
their
more
to
range land. They also had to invest
in their operations.
Learning from the
bliz-
zards of the mid- 1 880s. they began to raise hay to
down
feed to their cattle during the harsh winters. Sheep
1885. as
ranching expanded, since sheep could sur\ ive on
increased the supply of beef, driving

prices
and
profits. Prices
crashed
in
supply far exceeded demand.
the
Second, open-range ranching declined after

the invention of barbed wire. Joseph Glidden
patented this cheap method of fencing in 1874.
By
weeds
that replaced the native grasses.
The
long drives ended, and the cattle towns settled
down. So did many of the cowboys.

song of the time
ended w ith
popular
these words:
the 1880s farmers and cattle ranchers had
erected miles of spiky netw orks across the open
range to control access to land and water.
Good-by. old
wish you
go on
the farm.
amount of open land available.

Bad weather dealt the final blow. On the
ing limited the
I'll
southern Plains a severe winter in 1885-86 and a
And
sell
my
old saddle and buy
me
a plow;
1886 diminished many herds. The
never, no, never will
another cow.
SECTION
IDENTIFY and
I'm quittin' this business to
access to more pasture lands to sur\ ive. But fenc-
in
boss,
no harm;
.As
overgrazing thinned the grass cover, cattle needed
drought
trail
rope
99
REVIEW
explain the significance of the following: Texas longhorn. long drives, railhead,
open
range. Basques. Joseph Glidden.
LOCATE
and explain the importance of the following: Abilene, Kansas: Dodge
Wyoming;
Ogallala, Nebraska.
1 .
2.
3.
City. Kansas;
Cheyenne.
MAIN IDEA What fectors allowed catde ranching to be so profitable during the boom period?
MAIN IDEA What was cowboy life like?
MAIN IDEA What factors caused the decline of the cattle boom in the West In the late 19th
century?
4.
WRITING TO INFORM
Imagine you grew up on a cattle ranch
narrative about the joys and difficulties of ranch

5.
SYNTHESIZING What
ranching?
448
:i
CHAPTER
14
in
the 1890s. Write a brief
life.
contributions did the Spanish and Basques
make
to cattle and sheep
A MINING BOOM
ii
FOCUS
Where
did important mining discoveries take place in the late
How did
Why did
t v^r
drawn
800s?
camps differ from more-developed mining towns?

mining become big business?
early mining
had flocked
since the forty-niners
of gold
in the Sierra
to the
to California after the discovery
Nevada, miners from
American
over the world had been
all
West. After the richest
California diggings were claimed, hundreds
offorty-niners moved eastward and north-
ward
into the Rockies
and beyond. A few
individuals prospered from

discoveries.
new mineral
But large mining companies
reaped the greatest profits.

Chinese miner
in
Idaho
M/iESTERN MINING
The
first
promising mining discoveries after the
California gold rush were
made
in
Colorado.
Prospectors found gold near Pikes Peak late in

1858.
to
By
early 1859 thousands of people flocked
Colorado.
Many
of them, however,
left in dis-
appointment by midsummer.
Another center of
frantic prospecting in
in
859
to gold, the area contained the
Over 20 years
its
richest
mines yielded more
than $500 million worth of precious metals.
Some miners
turned south into Arizona,
where Hispanics had been mining
silver since the
mid- 1700s. Hispanics introduced mining methods

that
had been developed
in
Mexico and South
America. These included a mill for separating

gold from quartz and the patio process
which
used mercury to extract silver from the ore. The
methods
in the region
made
to
mine the
around Tucson.
strikes in
Idaho
and Montana.
By
present-day
famous Comstock Lode, one of the world's

silver veins.
arrivals used these
Others, trekking northward,
was the Carson River Valley

Nevada. In addition
newer
Comstock Lode and
the late 1850s others
had pushed even
far-
ther north, into the Fraser River Valley of British
Columbia. This movement into Canada had important
consequences for Russia and the United

which at the time owned Alaska,
States. Russia,
feared a territorial dispute with the United States.
To avoid
to the
this, the
Russians offered to
sell
Alaska
Americans. U.S. Secretary of State William
H. Seward negotiated the purchase of Alaska in
1867 for $7,200,000
Many Americans
about two cents an
acre.
considered Alaska worthless,
calling the purchase ''Seward's Folly."
449
the Mining ISoom

BONANZAS!
Some present-day
U.S.
cioes
such as Boulder. Colorado, and Carson
City,
Nevada
started out as mining camps. Other camps, such as Virginia City. Nevada, turned into ghost towns
when mining was no longer
PLACE
In
profitable.
what kind o(
terrain
were most
But Seward's confidence

sesses treasures
or silver strikes
of the
that
Mining equipment
made?
Alaska "pos-
equal to those of any other
JLlFE IN
MINING COMMUNITIES
region of the continent" would prove correct. In
1896. prospectors discovered gold in the
Klondike
district
which bordered
of Canada's Yukon Territory,
.Alaska. This discover)
launched
Klondike Gold Rush. By the summer of

1897. Yukon miners had e.xtracted gold deposits
worth more than a million dollars. From 1897 to
the
Mining camps grew up almost overnight
together.
started out
or farming, prospecting generally
was not a family
enterprise.
Mining camps drew a wide range of
settlers.
Klondike.
In the mining zones of southern California in the
1860s. Mexicans. Californios. Chileans, and
neries,
to seek their fortunes in the
who
later established fish can-
lumber companies, and coal and copper
mining enterprises.
Peruvians formed their
l_l
booms
own
separate settlements.
mining regions, the sometimes uneasy

mixture of prospectors included U.S. citizens from
In other
all
Mining
::
Most mining communities
Gold discoveries in Alaska in 1898 and 1902

attracted settlers,
450
herever
inhabited almost entirely by men. Unlike ranching
1899 almost 100.000 people traveled through

Alaska
\\
news of possible wealth brought prospectors
parts of the countrv. Irish
and Chinese men
who
attracted prospectors to present-day Colorado,

Nevada, Arizona, Idaho, Montana,
drawn by the lure of quick wealth: others were
and Alaska.
fleeing difficult circumstances.
c P
had come
to
work on
the railroads, and miners
firom the Cornwall region of England.
Some were
attracted a host of businesses eager to feed and
clothe the miners. In fact, owners of saloons and
were more apt
stores
to strike
it
rich than miners.
Cooking, cleaning, and providing lodging were
One
especially lucrative.
.
industrious
woman "eamt
nine hundred dollars in nine weeks, clear of
expenses, by washing!" Elizabeth Collins,
became known
was offered
The
lure of gold
drew many men and

the mining camps of the
and
eventually families to
silver
West. This photograph of a mining family in

Colorado was taken in the late 9th century.
as the "cattle
a job as
mining camp. She
cook
per
month
the
and comforts were few.
mining camps was crude

J.
Ross Browne described
the first shelters of Virginia City.
roles.
Frame
men
shanties, pitched together as
They hunted
in the
under sidewalks or panned and scavenged for gold
profitable,
quickly grew tired of eating
one summer selling butter and bacon
mud and
As more
smoky
stone; coyote holes
many
in
the mountain side forcibly seized and held
by men.
ties.
99
Much
however, was selling fresh food to
who
the miners,
if
as
and stray nuggets
canned food. One brother and
hovels of
men
camps had unique
for gold dust
brush, of potato sacks and old shirts, with

for chimneys;
Montana
also craving for the $75
by accident; tents of canvas, of blankets, of
empty whisky-barrels
at a
"Prompted by kind-
dust after the miners were done for the day.
Nevada:
more
promptly accepted the offer"
The few children

first, life in
later wrote:
comfortable as possible
later
queen of Montana."
ness and a desire to see these hardworking
At
for
who
all
families
moved
si^ster
made S800
to the miners.
into the
settlements turned into permanent
camps,
communi-
With prosperity came law and order and the
establishment of schools, hospitals, churches,
newspapers, and even debating societies and

singing clubs. Denver and Boulder. Colorado:
Moreover, the atmosphere in most camps

was one of intense competition. Prospector
Carson
William Parsons remembered
Montana
a mad, furious race for wealth,
which men
toiled and wrestled,
and
home and
ting
steady habits.
life;
started out as
mining camps.
first, mining cannps were

crude and often violent. With
prosperity, however, came
families, community life, and law
and order.
lived a fierce,
riotous, wearing, fearfully excited
all
Nevada: Boise. Idaho: and Helena,
At
in
and
lost their identity almost,
City.
forget-
kindred; abandoning old,
**
Competition sometimes led to violence
in the
mining camps. Conflicts arose between different

ethnic groups. Miners in the Cripple
in
Creek camp
Colorado forcibly excluded eastern and southern
Europeans as well as Hispanics. In other camps,

Cornish miners fought with
Irish.
German, and
Chinese miners. Gamblers and swindlers swarmed

in.
and conflicts over claims
gunfights.
Dakota gained a reputation

town.
An
set off
brawls and
The mining town of Deadwood
in
South
as an especially
rough
Deadwood became the

lawman Wild Bill Hickok.
outlaw's haven,
final resting place of
shot dead as he played cards.
But
camps
stability eventually
as they
A
came
to the
mining
grew into towns. Mining towns
As settlement grew in the West, so did the need for schools.

Blanche Lamont posed with members of her school at Hecia,
Montana, in October 1893.
45
THE WILD WEST

untamed western
Fantastic stories about the
lands of the
United States could be heard far from America's shores in the

late 800s. Fascination with outlaw gangs, shoot-outs, and
man-eating wild animals lured many European travelers to
America to see for themselves. But the "Wild West" rarely
lived up to its reputation. Windham T. Dunraven, a British earl,
wrote about what he did not find in the American West:
t%
never have an adventure
disgust in the breast of the
puma
or moun-
worth a cent; nobody ever scalps me;
tain lion.
don't get 'jumped' by highwaymen.
never
horribly frightened, but generally without
occurs to a bear to hug me, and
appearance
inspires feelings of
It
my
very
It is
true that
any adequate cause.
have often been
99
dismay or
Big mining companies also changed work-
INING AS BIG BUSINESS
ing conditions in the mines.
The big companies
used new machinery and hired armies of laborers
Individual prospectors roaming the
West with
pack horses and hand tools made the

discoveries, or strikes. But the
earliest
their
mining
day of the lone miner
to carry out the dirty,
dangerous work. These
laborers sank the shafts, built the tunnels, drilled,
and processed the
ore. Miners,
no longer spurred
did not last long. Within a few years after a strike,
on by the hope of sudden
most of the easily accessible mineral deposits were
with wages and working conditions.
"worked
to use
out."
To
get at the hidden ore, miners had
one of two methods:
which used water pressure
(1)
to
hydraulic mining.
wash away mountains
In
riches,
Dues paid
to the
unions often helped workers
ilies
tiated with or fought against
shafts to get at ore locked in veins of quartz.
cut wages.
far
beyond
the resources of indi-
vidual prospectors. Thus mining
became
the
of miners killed on the job. Unions also nego-
owners who
Many also fought against the hiring of

who received lower wages. Union
resistance to
ing
boom
wage
cuts proved most effective dur-
times. In the early 1880s. union miners
Comstock Lode successfully maintained
at the
companies
their four-dollar-a-day salaries
relied
on science rather than on
instinct
tried to
Chinese miners,
province of large, well-financed companies. These
or luck. Corps of college-educated engineers
unions.
injured in the dangerous mines or assisted the fam-
hard-rock mining, which involved sinking deep
sums of money
dissatisfied
some communities miners formed
of gravel and expose the minerals underneath; or (2)
Both of these methods required considerable
grew
and eight-hour
workdays.
helped locate the ore and instructed the companies
on how best
to extract the minerals in
eastern factories
The
federal
mineral resources.
zinc. lead, copper,
demand by
and
iron.
government also helped develop

It
sent out several western expe-
ditions in the 1860s. In 1879 the
government orga-
nized the U.S. Geological Survey, which gathered
and coordinated data about new mines.
As mineral deposits became

harder and more expensive to
locate and extract, big business
dominated mining.
452
CHAPTER
14
New
mining techniques removed ore quickly

also eroded entire hillsides.
from the ground, but
When
mining became big business, the land
ranchers or farmers grazed their cattle or sheep had
suffered. In their haste to extract ore. mining
already been settled for centuries by American
companies often ignored the
Indian or Hispanic farmers, ranchers, or hunters.
effects of their prac-
on the environment. Hydraulic mining
tices
eled mountains and often
lev-
barren, eroded hills
left
wake. Hydraulic mining dumped tons of
in its
Mining camps were crowded and noisy
places, and
most were established on or near lands inhabited

by Hispanics or American Indians.
In addition to
earth and rocks into rivers, thus raising riverbeds
European Americans, the mines attracted African
some areas
Americans and immigrants from Asia. South
and causing flooding. Flooding
in
swept away towns and destroyed farmland. Hard-
America, and other
rock mining companies also destroyed forests to
helped
get
wood
for
mine
make
ways of
cultures and
shafts.
far flung places
the federal government.
tlement. TTie
solitary miner, prospecting for gold
remote mountain stream,
is
on a
a well-know n character
books, movies, and television programs. So
cowboy who
is
rides off alone into the sunset.
Almost equally familiar

in its isolated
home on
is
farm or ranch family
the
empty
the vast,
plains. In
director John Ford's classic Stagecoach (1939), the
movie
that
who
settled the
The U.S. Army
opened American Indian land
Western Myths
the
whom
for diverse
West could not have survived without the help of
Commentary
in
of
all
life.
Furthermore. Americans
The
West a meeting place
the
made John Wayne
star,
eight pioneers
trails
army
also maintained forts to guard
and protect settlements. The Department of
the Interior, through
on which
its
Bureau of Indian
Affairs,
Americans and ran the reserva-
resettled Native
tions
forcefully
for non-Indian set-
it
placed them. The General Land
Office disposed of public land
at
low rates.
Congress subsidized the railroad development
timber interests to ship their products to market.
struggle alone across the southwest, dodging
By
Indian arrows
acres of western land to railroad corporations.
all
the way. All these legendary
that
enabled farmers and ranchers as well as mine and
1871 Congress had granted nearly 130 million
The
western figures represent the American ideal of
Department of Agriculture helped Plains farmers,
rugged individuals conquering a
and the Geological Survey aided mining
ited land
and making
it
hostile,
uninhab-
the
Most westerners, including cowboys on

ranches and prospectors in mining camps, worked
for or with others.
And
the large companies, not
the independent ranchers, farmers, or miners, generally
made
Novels, songs, and traveling shows spread
productive. But these
images, while powerful, are inaccurate.
the biggest profits.
The lands where
myth of
the
"Wild West" as a region of out-
laws, lone cowboys, and brave, isolated pioneers.
In reality,
men and women
together in a West shaped as
lived and
much by
worked
technology,
big business, and the federal government as by

individual effort.
SECTION
IDENTIFY and
interests.
REVIEW
Comstock Lode,
patio process, William H.
Seward, Klondike Gold Rush, hydraulic mining, hard-rock mining.
LOCATE
and explain the importance of the following: Pikes Peak; Yukon Territory; Deadwood, South
Dakota.
1.
2.
3.
MAIN IDEA How did later mining camps differ from earlier mining camps?
MAIN IDEA Why did mining become the domain of large companies?
GEOGRAPHY: LOCATION Where did the most important mining discoveries
late 19th
4.
WRITING TO EXPLAIN
West
5.
take place
in
the
century?
with the
lives
Write an essay contrasting the myth of the rugged
of real westerners
EVALUATING How
did
in
individual of the
the late 19th century.
western mining
affect the
environment?
453
Sand Creek
Treaty of Medicine Lodge
Massacre
signed.
occurs.
purchase of Alaska.
Seward negotiates
Act passed.
CHAPTER
ew
14
^
3.
government promote western
of the chapter.
paper
to
above,
line
1.
and
list
in
the order
first
which
in
2,
and so on. Then
next to
the sec-
complete the
Roads have shaped public opinion
1.
Beef prices crash.
2.
Exodusters trek west.
3.
First
4.
Battle of Little Bighorn occurs.
5.
The Homestead Act
2.
and
3.
in
IDENTIFYING PEOPLE
AND
below.
IDEAS
Utah.
1.
Long Walk
6.
long drives
2.
Sitting Bull
7.
Basques
8.
Comstock Lode
Railway Act
9.
William H. Seward
Exodusters
10.
hydraulic mining

What
In
2.
How
ing
3.
In
West
in
the
century?
did farm
life
from
mostly gray
How
and bonanza
^
1 .
late
REVIEWING THEMES
How
did
454
in
our
own
contrast their points
cloth,
which was
color, for dresses.
and other roots,
own
We
With
have colored
were kept busy
in
and doing
knitting,
sewing by hand.
All
**
her toilsome, monotonous days
western farm-
What problems
arose from
my mind
rushed through
in
the night
small her joys, and

toil,
Cultural Diversity
of our
1890s?
ers adapt to the weather and environment?

2.
of gray birds
had the businesses of cattle ranching and
mining changed by the
Compare and
those days carding, spinning,
sites
farms developed?
4.
life.
the early min-
life in
camps?
what areas were key mining
in
the second, author Hamlin Garland describes
We made
all
differ
of her responsibilities on a farm
beautiful fast colors.
caused settlers to travel to the
late 19th
some
mother's
Indigo
View on page 420. Then read the selections

the first selection, Priscilla Merriam Evans
of view.
Winnemucca
5.
In
describes
his
Pacific
did different cultures influ-
the West?

Points of
Sarah
in
Review the Strategies for Success on Comparing
3.
positive and negative conse-
How
Synthesizing
ence one another
4.
Evaluating What
passed.
Cause and
line,
the
1800s?
quences resulted from development of the West?
transcontinental railroad completed.
Identifying
in
activity.
late
on the time
development
land
Hypothesizing How might Helen Hunt Jackson's

A Century of Dishonor or Hamlin Garland's MainTravelled
ond next to
did the U.S.
THINKING CRITICALLY
Study the time
5.

and settlement?
Number your
1870
1865
I860
summary
nental railroad
completed.
signed.
WRITING A SUMMARY
write a
First transconti-
Second Treaty
of Fort Laramie
The Homestead
her tedium.
how
**
with a roar
.
how
like a file
tragically
black her sorrows, her

Writing to Express a Viewpoint Imagine you
prospector
in
a small mining camp.
Write
are a
a speech
the federal government's attempt to assimilate
expressing your views about the growth of big mining
Native Americans?
companies.
CHAPTER
Exodusters trek
west. U.S. Geological
Survey org<mized.
1875
1880

The following excerpt
is
LINKING HISTORY
from "Chief Joseph's
Story," an 1879 account by the
Nez Perce
Own
leader
who
had long been committed to peaceful relations with

non-Indians. Based on the selection below,
Chief Joseph's expectations
differ
from the
how
did
AND GEOGRAPHY
Review the map on page 445.

road
and
1895
1890
1885
lines
how
open to non-Indian
What
areas did
rail-
settlers in this period,
development of
did the railroads foster
these areas?
reality of
toward Native Americans?
U.S. policies
We only ask an even chance to live as

other men live. We asked to be recognized
as men. We ask that the same law shall
work
alike
Let
on
all
men.
me be a free man free
to travel,
free to stop, free to work, free to trade where
my own teachers,
religion of my fathers, free
I choose, free to choose
free to follow the

to think
will
and
talk
and act for myself and I
obey every law, or submit
Whenever
the white
mem
to the penalty.
treats the
Indian as they treat each other, then
have no more wars. We shall be

brothers of one father
we
shall
all alike
and one mother with
one sky above us and one country around
us,
and one government for all. Then the Great

Spirit Chief who ndes above will smile upon
this land, and send rain to wash out the
bloody spots made by
Railroad station,
H
1.
SOCIAL CONFLICT
upon the face of
Dakota
99
BUILDING YOUR
PORTFOLIO
cooperatively.
Sioux
the earth.
1870s
brothers hands
'
c.
living
in
Imagine you are a
on the Pine Ridge Reservation
1895.
Compose
in
South
for your grandchildren
an oral account that describes
how
conflict
between the Sioux and farmers, ranchers, and

miners has affected your
Sioux. Be sure to
2.
work
life
and the
in details
lives
of other
of the conflict.
TECHNOLOGY AND INDUSTRY
Imagine you are a land speculator

establish a small railhead
plan for the
town
that
other public buildings
in
who hopes
to
Nebraska. Prepare a
shows the businesses and
stockyard,
church, school, and so on
you
rail
will
station,
include to
attract residents.
Chief Joseph
455
1865-1910
Chapter 15
THE TRANSFORMATION
OF AMERICA
UNDERSTANDING
THE MAIN IDEA
New
technologies
and new
forn)s
of
business organization helped usher
a second industrial age
in
in
late-l 9Vi-
century America. Millions of immigrants
came
this period,
work. By
to the
United States
900
these developments
had transformed the United

into
in
lured by the prospect of
States
an urban nation and an
industrial
power
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT How might technological
change
affect a nation's
economy?
TECHNOLOGY AND
SOCIETY What
technology play
role might
in social
change?
CULTURAL DIVERSITY
What
challenges might an influx
of people with different ways of

life
present to a community?
1867
1876
1879
1882
W Woolwc
Christopher Sholes
Alexaiider
invents typewriter.
Bell p:itents
founds
teleph one.
chain sto res.
Graham
Frank
fir
St
of his
>rth
1889
Addams
Congress passes
Jane
Chinese Exclusion
establishes Hull
Act.
House.
UM TO
THE PAST
Industrialization
and immigration helped
United States
the
in
first
fuel the
growth of the
half of the 1800s. However, the United
States remained primarily a rural nation whose people continued

to
depend on
agriculture for a living.
S7
n the second half of the
800s, the United States underwent
another wave of industrialization. To

almost a natural outcome of American
nizes as an old
Greek sculptured,
London Times noted
in 1878.
many
life.
this
process seemed
"The American mecha-
as the Venetian painted," the
debate quickly developed, however,
such
wealth were
over whether the negative side effects of industrialization

grinding poverty existing side-by-side with great
ural
outcomes as
the
new
industrial order,
economist Henry George
growing contrast "between the House of Have and the
House of Want." He argued

few could be
that a
nat-
well.
Critical of the
condemned
as
rich.
that the
poor should not have
Yale professor William
to suffer so
Graham Sumner
took the opposite view, claiming that the rich and the poor were just
where nature intended and
harm
posed
society.
Not
that
any change would slow progress and
all industrialists
agreed with Sumner.
that they use part of their wealth to benefit all of society.
social reformer Frederic
Howe
argued that
the well-being of society at heart, they
day
end
Some
if industrialists really
pro-
But
had
"would stop the twelve-hour
increase wages and put an
to the cruel killing
and maim-
ing" of workers. Although this
debate
produced no solid
answers about
how
cile the existence
to recon-
B^^v^^^^^H
^w:'
A>.
of poverty in
the midst of great wealth,
it
did
lead to efforts to reform the worst
abuses of the industrial order.

Immigrants arriving from
Germany
The Edison phonograph
THE TRANSFORMATION OF AMERICA
457
Sect /ow
INDUSTRY'S
11
FOCUS
What
roles did steel, railroads,
and energy play
How did
How did
7mm
GOLDEN AGE
new
the
in
and Innovations
in
communications
industrial order?
businesses increase their profits
in
the late 19th century?
the government attempt to regulate business?
J 865 to
1910 the United States experienced a surge of industrial
growth. These decades witnessed the beginnings of a ''second industrial
revolution. "
ment of cheap
''new industrial order''

steel, the
was created with
completion of a nationwide
the invention of the telephone
and
the develop-
rail
network,
the typewriter, the introduction
of new sources of energy, and the rise of big business.
First
telephone. 1876
production grew from about 15 thousand tons
Technological innovations
America's
first
industrial revolution
1865
that generated
steel
economic growth. But
not steam
the late 1800s.
spanned the
rivers,
rails that
to
enabled trains
The Metropolitan Museum
of
An
products, the bridges that
and the
tall
buildings that dot-
required steel.
was not new.
Steel
tury,
all
was
The heavy machinery used
move people and
ted the cities
rails,
golden age.
that spurred industrialization in
mass-produce goods, the

to
it
building
the heavy machinery,

and beamsfor industry's
blocks
which produced the goods
the factories,
over 28 million tons by 1910.
Steel provided the
was depen-
dent on coal and steam. Coal-fed steam engines
powered
to
Until the
mid-19th cen-
however, the process of converting iron ore
into steel
was expensive.
Bessemer
in
In the 1850s Henry

England and William Kelly in the
United States independently developed a method

of
steel
making
that
burned off the impurities
molten iron with a blast of hot

process, as
more
came
it
steel in a
air.
to be called,
in
The Bessemer
could produce
day than the older techniques could
turn out in a week.
American engineer Alexander

Holley adapted and improved the Bessemer
process.
458
SI
CHAPTER
As
I
a result,
America's annual
steel
Forging the Shaft by John Ferguson
a scene from the

Spring,
West
New York,
Weir
Point Foundry
during the
870s.
in
depicts
Cold
in
Railroads.
Sicol had a
railroad expansion. Steel
which cracked
rails,
more costly than
tremendous impact on
At
easily.
As
iron.
PRODUCTION OF RAW STEEL. 1880-1910
were better than iron
rails
first, steel
steel
30-
was much
production soared,
however, prices dropped dramatically. Steel that

had sold for $100 a ton
late
1873 sold for $12 by the
in
20-
1890s.
The
25-
q
1
1
c
(i
cheaper
a\ailability of
steel
encouraged
1
railroads to lay
thousands of miles of new track.
Tons
In
when Leland Stanford had hammered
1869.
in a
golden spike to complete the country's
first
Short
transcontinental railroad, the United States had less
than 50.000 miles of railroad track.

the century, total mileage
By
end of
the
had skyrocketed
to
\J
some
Source: Historical
Statistics
to the
Pacific coast. Feeder, or branch, lines connected

the trunk lines to surrounding areas. This
Year
200,000. Almost a half-dozen trunk lines, or
major railroads, crossed the Great Plains
1910
1900
1890
1880
huge
GROWTH OF
STEEL
The Bessemer process revolutionized American
industry by allowing large quantities of steel to be
made more cheaply than
railever before.
road grid joined every state and linked remote
towns
to
urban centers.
H
steel

production
rise
By about how many tons did
from 1880 to 1910?
At the same time, technological innovations

helped improve
efficient
loads
rail
it
possible to pull larger
greater speeds. George Westinghouse's
at
compressed
air
brake increased railroad safety by
enabling the locomotive and
the
more
transportation. Bigger,
locomotives made
same time. Granville
Westinghouse's
all
the cars to stop at
Woods improved
T.
tion, the
with stations.
in
of
sets
allowed
roll in
railroads'
demands
for rails, loco-
money
into the steel
network of railroad
Now
lines helped build a
a Pennsylvania steel foundry
could obtain iron ore from the Great Lakes region,

or a Philadelphia furniture
Double
company could
sell its
products in small midwestern towns.
tracks
Railroads also shaped American popular cul-
traffic to
two direc-
ture
and folk music. One ballad immortalized
Casey Jones, the
tions at once. Equally
Granville T.
important, the adoption

in the
The
national market.
track
design also improved

rail service.
industries.
helped develop the meat-packing industry. In addi-
communicate
Changes
of the
industry. Innovations like refrigerated freight cars
developed a telegraph system

that let trains
much
1800s, they also spurred the growth of other
late
motives, and railcars poured
brake and
air
nies the country's major employers for
Woods
Illinois Central
engineer killed in
a spectacular crash with a freight train in 1900.
Other songs celebrated famous trains like the
1880s of a stan-
dard gauge, or width between the
rails,
made
rail
Wabash Cannonball.
transportation faster and cheaper. Passengers and

freight
train
no longer had
to
reached a different
The growth of
be transferred each time a

line.
railroads had far-reaching
consequences. Railroads promoted western
ment by making
travel affordable
roads went,
grew
into
new towns sprang
major
the rail-
up, and older towns
cities.
The economic impact of
strengthened national markets.
settle-
and easy. They
Wherever
also stimulated urban growth.
Railroad expansion spurred the

growth of other industries and
the railroads
was
immeasurable. Not only were the railroad compa-
Communications. An
equally remarkable
transformation in communications accompanied

the revolution in railroad transportation.
The
when Samuel
graph attracted
little
Morse patented
his version in 1837. In time,
ever, people
saw
attention
its
teleF.
B.
how-
business potential. Using
i:
459
This 1892 photograph shows Alexander
making the
Tirst
long-distance
call
from
Graham
New York
Bel
to
Chicago. Businesses across the country soon clamored

for telephone service in their cities.
A In 1866 Milwaukee printer and newspaper editor

Christopher Sholes developed a machine that
numbered book
pages. This machine was the
forerunner of Sholes's first typewriter. Sholes

is shown here with his typewriter.
Morse's dot-and-dash code, a telegraph operator

could send a business order to a distant location in
minutes.
By 1866 Western Union,
the leading tele-
graph company, had over 2,000 telegraph
offices.
The "talking telegraph." or telephone, which

Alexander Graham Bell patented
even greater impact.
gadget
at the
When
1876. had an
in
Bell demonstrated his
America's remarkable transportation and
"perhaps the
it
greatest marvel hitherto achieved by the electric
reporter for the
did not agree, asking
supplies of energy. In the late 1800s businesspeo-
ple and inventors began to tap into

sources of power
oil
and
New
York Tribune
"Of what use
is
such an
The
early
industry.
oil
make
a quick dollar, sold
phone indispensable. By the end of the 1800s.
In the late 1850s.
more than
Benjamin Silliman.
a million telephones had been installed
and homes. The telephones required
in U.S. offices
operators, and
many women rushed
to
fill
these
that oil
communica-
was Christopher Sholes's development of
the
typewriter in 1867. After making a few improve-
ments. Sholes sold the patent
&
Sons.
it
in
1873
to E.
The typewriter improved com-
western
fuel
to
as a miracle cure-all.
oil
had any other uses.
however. American chemist

Jr..
released a report noting
in
lamps
to
produce
The growing demand

in
in
oil for years.
could be refined to make kerosene, which
could be burned
newly created jobs.

Another major achievement
People
Medicine-show hucksters, seeing the chance

But almost no one thought
Remington
two new
electricity.
Pennsylvania had known about
invention?" But businesses quickly found the tele-
tions
commu-
nications developments depended on abundant
Philadelphia Centennial Exposition in
June 1876. the judges pronounced
telegraph."
MEW SOURCES OF ENERGY
light.
for this inexpensive
prompted prospector Edwin
L.
Drake
to drill
for oil near Titusville. Pennsylvania, in 1859. At

first,
oil
people questioned Drake's sanity.
began
to flow at a rate of
some 20
When
the
barrels a day,
however, other prospectors hurried to sink their
munications by producing documents quickly and
own
by making them easy
Pennsylvania. Ohio, and West Virginia, producing
to read.
Carbon paper, also
introduced during this period, allowed users of
wells.
By
the
more than 25 million
1880s, oil wells dotted
barrels of oil in 1880 alone.
typewriters to produce multiple copies.
The telegraph, telephone, and

typewriter aided industrialization
by speeding communication.
460
::
CHAPTER
Harnessing
people
knew
electricity. As
in the case
of oil,
of electricity long before they put
to practical use.
People considered
it
than a puzzling natural phenomenon.
little
Then
it
more
in the
mid- 1800s European and American scientists and
testified in several court cases to
engineers developed the dynamo, or electric gener-
patents.
Driven by steam, water, or other energy

source, the dynamo produced enough electrical
In
ator.
power
to run a factory.
Thomas Alva Edison,
An American
first
Born in
^'* a small Ohio
town in 1847,
Thomas Edison had
only a few months of
The Granger
became
Collection.
New
problem
York
boy and
later
worked
a telegraph operator.
in the late
Chicago, a Westinghouse-Tesla generator pow-
ered the twinkling lights outlining the major buildings.
The
marveled
as
An
electric lights
at the
read
enchanted
"fairyland."
ized a transformation of
ing gaslights.
end of the century,
And
vehicles had given
in
way
To many
American
life.
electric lights
many
visitors,
cities
it
who
symbol-
Indeed, by
were replac-
horse-drawn
to electric streetcars.
in his spare time.
By the end of the
1868 Edison developed an electric vote
In
recorder.
for
this
1880s by developing a trans-
At the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition

in
Edison conducted ex-
w idely
York
over long distances.
the
and
New
offices in only a very small area.
avid amateur scientist.
periments
plants in
former that could transmit a high-voltage current
news-
power
George Westinghouse and Nikola Tesla solved
formal schooling. At age

12 he
central electric
homes and
dynamo
could have wide-ranging applications.
1882 Edison opened one of the world's
City. But the plant could deliver electricity to
inventor.
realized that the
support Edison's
The next
he recei\ ed his
year,
first
800s, kerosene
and electricity powered and Illuminated American homes and
patent,
an improved stock ticker, which telegraphed
stock prices. Other inventions followed, and in 1876
factories.
he went into the "invention business" full-time,
opening a workshop in Menlo Park.
New
Jersey,
where he assembled a team of researchers. Excited,

Edison sent a friend the following invitation:
44
Brand-new laboratory
Park,
Western
Div.,
... at
Menlo
Globe, Planet Earth,
Middlesex County, four miles from Rahway,

the prettiest spot
in
New Jersey,
Penna. Railway, on a High
on the
Hill.
Will
you around, go strawberrying.
^*
show
Edison promised that he
JUMU SkMt
J.
and his fellow researchers
BUBE snMlIEl
Ifo.
would deliver
''a
tion every ten
FOS
Fttected Hir. 21, 1832.
days and a big
months or
He was
as his word.
good
255.212.
1.
LATIMEB.
EUCTUC ItllfS.
L. H.
minor inven-
thing every six

as
TBEQORISO h
so."
He
invented the phonograph in

1877 and the light bulb
By
the
nme
in 1879.
he died in 1931. the
"Wizard of Menlo Park" held
1,093 patents.
at age 70 in this 1919 photo-
Lewis Laumer-who
worked
later
for Edison-also con-
tributed to light bulb design.
was also a
skilled draftsman
He
Lewis Latimer
graph.
Shown
is
pictured
at left
is
his
patent drawing for a globe

supporter for the electric
lamp.
and
an expert in patent law. Latimer
461
buy the shares
The rise of big business
receive
stockholders play
Along with these technological developments

emerged new ideas that revolutionized the business
world. The late l8lK)s was the age ot laissez-faire
capitalism. (Laissez faire
The theory of
is
French tor
"let
it
be.'")
laissez-faire capitalism calls for
no
government regulation of economic matters. Most

business leaders believed that
businesses were
if
freed from government regulation, the
economy
a percentage of the corpo-
form of dividends. But the
ration's profits in the
little
or no part in the corpora-
tion's daily operafions.
corporation has several advantages over a
proprietorship or a partnership. First, a corpora-
enormous sums of
many people. Second,
tion's organizers can raise
money by
selling stock to
unlike proprietors and partners, stockholders enjoy
limited liability
that
is,
they are not responsible
for the corporation"s debt. Third, a corporation
stable organization because
would prosper.
Another theory. Social Darwinism,
rein-
forced the laissez-faire doctrine. Originally
owners.
who owns
Spencer. Social Darwinism
it
is
stability to deal with the
economic climate of
fierce, prices
Some
corporations
society. Social Darwinists
and
profits fluctuated wildly.
people
"fittest"*
would
rise to
positions of wealth and power, while the "unfit""
would
Social Darwinists believed that any
fail.
attempts to help the poor or less capable only
responded by forming
the
was
1800s. Because competition
(or businesses or nations) should and
its
the stock.
late
gressed through competition. The
from
corporation continues to exist no matter
principles of natural selection and evolution to
argued that society pro-
distinct
Corporations needed more than organizational
advanced by English social philosopher Herbert

applied the biological
is
trusts. In a trust, a
companies turn control of their stock over
group of
to a board
of directors. The directors then run the companies as

a single enterprise. If a trust could gain exclusive
control of an industry,
it
could form a monopoly.
slowed social progress: "Nature's cure for most

and
social
political diseases,"
wrote American edu-
cator and philosopher Nicholas
Murray
Butler, "is
Some
was
clergy offered religious support for
Darwinism by suggesting
wealth
that great
a sign of Christian virtue. Baptist minister
"You ought
Russell H. Conwell declared:

rich,
and
money
it
is
your duty
honestly
Bigger
is
to get rich.
to get
... To make
steel.
who immigrated
some of
to the
Andrew Carnegie,
United States
in
1848,
entered the steel business in the early 1870s.

readily admitted that he understood
making
ness.
steel,
Many
but he did
know how
He surrounded himself with
agers and drove them relentlessly.
little
He
about
to run a busi-
skillful
He
man-
fitted his
people did get rich
during this period, particularly industrialists.

Industrialists
were aided
in their
quest for wealth
by new forms of business organization. At the

close of the Civil War, most businesses were
proprietorships
small enterprises owned

or partnerships
individuals or families
prises
owned by two
or
by
enter-
more people. These forms
of business organization were inadequate to man-
age giant new industries
Nor could they
such ventures. As a
to another
poration
like railroads, steel, or oil.
raise the capital

result,
needed
to finance
business leaders turned
form of business organization
which had existed
in
the cor-
one form or another
since colonial times.

In a
corporation organizers raise capital by
selling shares of stock, or certificates of

ship, in the
462
Z!
CHAPTER
15
company. Stockholders
owner-
those who
A At age 3, Andrew Carnegie began his first job

winding thread on bobbins, or spools, for $1.20 a
week. When he retired from the steel industry,
he was worth nearly $500 million.
I
the first monopolies. Carnegie
to preach the gospel."
better.
is
Scot
established
better than man's."
Social
Carnegie and
In
873
Andrew Carnegie
Works,
Steel
built
the largest steel mill
in
the country, the
Pittsburgh. This interior view of a steel mill
in
plants with the
most modern machinery. But he
was also not above using questionable
tactics to
was taken
in
Carnegie's real success, however, lay
in
and increase
profits.
economies of
This principle
is
known
as
that
is,
he acquired
companies
that
upon which
his enterprises depended. For example,
provided materials and services
its
formative years,
inefficient,
integration to
tive,
make
lines,
and
railroads.
An
admirer
company more competi-
his
ries, pipelines, railroad
tanker cars, and oil-storage
But his main method of expansion was
horizontal integration
steamship
that
eventually acquiring oil fields, barrel facto-
which provided the raw materials for

mills,
Arguing
Rockefeller set out
Like Carnegie. Rockefeller used vertical
facilities.
one company's owner-
ship of other companies
involved
explained the great advantage:
small
to gain control of the industry.
Carnegie purchased iron mines and coal mines,

his steel
when many
in fierce competition.
such competition was
scale. Carnegie also used vertical
integration to control costs
similar to
Carnegie's. Rockefeller got into the oil-refining
companies were
in
the founders of
by buying supplies
bulk and producing goods
The business career of oil
one of
followed course
business in
in
oil.
tycoon John D. Rockefeller
reducing production costs. Carnegie realized that
large quantities he could lower production costs
Edgar Thomson
Rockefeller and
Standard Oil
beat out his competitors.
J.
1900.
in the
same
business, in this case,
From
the
moment
these crude
were dug out of the earth

in
a stream of liquid steel
there was never a price,

paid to an outsider.
until
in
the
profit,
What companies Standard Oil

oil refining.
stuffs
they flowed
could not buy,
ladles,
control
or royalty
99
it
tried to
through
the
establishment of the
nation's
Because Carnegie controlled businesses
at
stage of production, he could sell steel at a
each
first trust in
the
early 1880s.
much
lower price than his competitors.

In 1889 Carnegie organized all of his
nies into the Carnegie Steel
nated the steel industry.
company
to
$500 million and
Company, which domi-
When
banking tycoon
J. P.
Carnegie sold his
Morgan
retired in 1901. he
world's richest man.
compa-
for nearly
became
the
^ Eastman Johnson
completed this formal
portrait of John D.
Rockefeller
in
1895.
463
To (Jn\c his competitors out ot business.

made deals with suppliers and trans-
placing high tariffs on imports, the federal govern-
Rockefeller
ment allowed U.S. businesses
porters to receive cheaper supplies and freight
home
rates.
George Rice, a small
oil refiner
business by RcKkefeller's practices,

the U.S. Industrial
Commission
in
driven out of
complained
to
have been driven from
percent more expensive than domestic
years,
in
the absolutely vain endeavor to get
equal and just freight rates with the
Standard Oil Trust,
but which
been utterly unable to do.
have
**
my
few modest steps
Carnegie Steel, Standard Oil. and other large cor-
porations grew
try's
that trusts be outlawed.
responded
in
controlled
some $45
By 1899 the Standard Oil

some 90 percent of the coun-
million.
integration to increase profits.
proved
business.
Industrialists
also had the government's support in
more
profitable.
laissez-faire capitalism
ernment intervention
welcomed
rise
new
making
their
Although supporters of
claimed to frown on gov-
in
business activities, they
the government's role in
of the
monopoly
::
CHAPTER
its
or trust.
inten-
what
Thus the law
The federal government adopted

Sherman
Antitrust Act in an
effort to eliminate monopolies.
the
JVlASS MARKETING
industrial order.
promoting the
For instance, by
knew
that cutting production costs
and reducing competition were not the only ways

to increase profits.
They
ods of marketing to
also developed
sell their
new meth-
products.
Brand names and packaging played important roles in
promoting goods. For example, the
name Standard
Oil
conveyed the idea
that the
com-
pany's product set the industry standard. Other
T Colorful advertisements such as these for processed baby food and flour
flooded newspapers and magazines by the end of the 19th century.
464
monopolies and
While
difficult to enforce.
Industrialists
Government and
enterprises
all
sell out.
Businesses used corporations,

trusts, and vertical and horizontal
Congress
1890 by passing the Sherman
tions appeared clear, the law failed to define
petroleum refining capacity and had annual
profits of
power, many Americans
trusts in restraint of trade illegal.
business
Rice was not alone. Rockefeller forced most
Company
in
demanded
constituted a
of his rivals to
to regulate businesses, despite
Antitrust Act, which declared
have had to
consequently shut down, with

absolutely ruined.
40
growing pressure from the general public. As
to post,
pillar
steel
steel.
At the same time, the government took only
1899:
to another, for twenty
line
dominate the
make imported
increased tariff rates to
from one railway
market.
to
1875, for example. Congress
In
companies used brightly colored packages or
dis-
tinctive logos to set their products apart.
Advertising, loo.
became an important
pro-
motional tool. Newspapers, magazines, and road-
Cheapest Supply House
side billboards carried advertisements urging
people to buy "The Purest" soap and telephones
"warranted
to
work one
A^\^^
mile, unaffected by
f'fRFMrfS
'ÊHl^ZWl"^'^
changes
in the
New
weather."
iitUHi Ukk.
The department
highly promoted goods.

ried a
store car-
such shoes,
appliances under one
wide variety of products
clothing, hardware, and
as
Pioneered by John Wanamaker
roof.
some of these
types of stores sold
in Phil-
adelphia. Marshall Field in Chicago, and R. H.
Macy
in
New York
City, the
bought products
in
offer low prices to
consumers.
department store
bulk and, as a result, could
Department stores became the special

domain of women, both as places to work and
places to shop.
Wanting
welcoming atmosphere
homelike and
to create a
in their stores
(and also
looking for ways to cut labor costs), department-
owners hired young, mainly middle-class

women to work as clerks. In addition, departmentstore
women
store advertisements targeted
as the chief
Mail-order catalogs brought the latest products

and inventions into homes in even the most
remote
rural areas.
buyers of their products.
Like department stores, chain stores

with branches in
large quantities.
to
many
cities
bought goods
They then passed on
in
their savings
customers. Perhaps the most famous chain store
was founded by Frank W. Woolworth

1900 Woolworth had a network of 59
Department stores and chain stores were
stores
in 1879.
By
part of the urban scene. Mail-order
Montgomery Ward and
IDENTIFY and
goods from a catalog, then ordered, paid
I.
MAIN IDEA How
trust,
for,
and
REVIEW
explain the significance of the following: trunk lines, Granville
liability,
like
received the merchandise by mail.
stores.
Bell, laissez-faire capitalism,
dividends, limited
companies
Roebuck, and Co.
catered to the rural market. Customers selected
SECTION
Graham
Sears,
T.
Woods, Alexander
proprietorships, partnerships, corporation, stock, stockholders,
monopoly, economies of
scale, vertical integration, horizontal integration.
did steel, railroads, and innovations
in
communications contribute to American
industry?
2.
MAIN IDEA What

profits in the
3.
late
MAIN IDEA Why
organizational and selling
methods
did businesspeople use to increase their
800s?
did
Congress pass the Sherman Antitrust Act
in
1890?
How
did the act
attempt to regulate business?

4.
WRITING TO INFORM
introduced by
5.
Thomas
Write an essay describing the impact of the technological advances
Edison.
HYPOTHESIZING How do
tices of
you think the theory of
Andrew Carnegie and John
Social
Darwinism shaped the business prac-
D. Rockefeller?
465
Section 2
THE
NEW IMMIGRANTS
FOCUS
How
did immigration change in the late 1800s?
What
Why
institutions helped
did
some
9,'mmigration
States.
is
new immigrants adapt
American
to
native-born Americans object to the
life?
new immigrants?
one of the dynamic forces that has shaped the United
Immigrants fleeing persecution or poverty or seeking a better
had founded
the first colonies,
life
and immigrants had continually added
the country's population.
As
new immigrants came
America's shores
the 19th century
drew
to
close,
to
a wave of
Handbill supporting
to
in
search of opportunity.
States. In less than
XhE LURE OF AMERICA
some
1910.
immigration, 1909
two decades, between 1891 and
12 million immigrants
came
to the
United States. The increase was so great that
From 1800 to 1880 more than 10 million immigrants came to the United States. Often called the
old immigrants, many of them were Protestants
Great
living in the nation's 12 largest cities either
were
foreign-bom or had foreign-bom parents.
Britain. Ireland.
About 70 percent of these new immigrants
the Scandinavian countries. Then, a
were from southern or eastern Europe. They were
from northwestern Europe
Germany, and
by the early 1900s. about 60 percent of the people
new wave of immigrants swept over the United
Italians.
Greeks. Poles. Czechs.
Slovaks.
Hungarians, and Russians. In contrast to the old

immigrants, most
new immigrants were
Catholic.
Jewish, or Greek Orthodox. French Canadians.
Armenians. Arabs. Chinese, and Japanese also

arrived by the thousands.
Immigration soared
in
the late
800s and early 900s. Most new

immigrants were southern or
eastern Europeans.
1
Like the old immigrants,

grants
came
to the
many new immi-
United States to escape poverty
or persecution. Most of the Italian and Slavic
immigrants were male and sought economic
at
466
::
CHAPTER
This immigrant mother and her children arrived

Ellis Island, New York, around 1910.
poorest accommodations, called steerage.
in the
TOTAL IMMIGRATION TO THE

1860-1900
One
U.S..
Italian
immigrant asked:
44 How can
500-1
ber that he
450400350300250200-
1
o
^
^
^^^^^^^^^^^^^
500-
and
in his stuffy,
fetid
being
worms from
food
stinking bunk, or
atmosphere of
where 150 men
when he must
his
sleep?
in
and
the hot
compartment
99
j^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^m
^^^^^^^^^^^^^m
IM
.^^^^^^^^^^^^H
15000 -
2
.2?
eat
^^^^^^^^
human
is
pick the
first
passenger remem-
a steerage
1860
1870
1880
1890
A NEW
LIFE
1900
Year
As with earlier immigrants, the

newcomers did not find paradise
Source: Historkai itatisOcs of the United States
vast majority of
at the
end of the
voyage. Confined to dingy slums, they worked
COMING TO AMERICA
19th century, mainly due to an influx of people
the late
at
menial jobs for low wages. Taken advantage of and
Immigration increased during
harassed by some native-born Americans, new-
from southern and eastern Europe.
comers often expressed disappointment. Reports
average number of immigrants arriving
from 1870
to
What was
the
about America, a Polish immigrant complained,
the United States
in
were
1900?
"all bluster [with! not a
Others, however,
saw
improvement over
opportunities in the United States that were scarce
in their
home
enough money
and bu>
put
Many
land.
down
Most hoped
countries.
in the
to
United States to return
make
home
did just that. Others, however,
roots and stayed.
The
eastern European
word of
the United States as a great
their
home
countries.
Immigrant communities. Many

cities of the
truth."
industrial
Northeast and Midwest became a
patchwork of ethnic neighborhoods as new immigrants settled
among
others from their homelands.
Social reformer Jacob Riis (himself an immigrant
map
immigrants included Hungarian and Polish farmers
from Denmark) suggested
and Jews from many countries. Most of the Jewish
Xe\\ York City, colored according to nationality,
families and
Armenian families
fled their
home-
stripes than
1890s
of
... a zebra, and
more colors than any rainbow."
lands to escape rehgious or political persecution.
Many
"would show more
that an
immigrants learned of the opportuni-
ties available in the
United States from railroad
and steamship companies. In
fact,
convincing for-
eigners that the United States was the land of

opportunity became a major business activity in
the late 1800s.
The agents of steamship companies
The
in this
store signs
1910 photo-
graph of a New York

neighborhood reflect
the ethnic diversity
of the city.
and railroads swarmed o\ er Europe, one observer

noted, "as the locusts covered Egypt!"
painted a tempting
and often
false
They
picture of
America. Some railroad companies exaggerated

the
employment opportunities available
United States.
And
rock-bottom fares to
Most of
hard
sell
Land"
though
the millions
who
yielded to this
to the
"Promised
and dangerous. The ocean voyage,
faster, safer,
the past,
the steamship lines charged

attract passengers.
found the journey
difficult
in the
and more comfortable than
was no pleasure
trip for
in
those traveling
467
Changing
Wags
COMING TO AMERICA
newcomers
many
of
English
Ellis
New
Island in
or Angel Island
Bay was the
in
York Harbor
San Francisco
first sight
America for
about 99 percent
arriving daily
whom
spoke no
processing
at
allowed to
was
Ellis
hurried at best, impersonal and

frightful at
worst.
Amid
new-
officials
905
were
Thousands of Asian newcomers, mostly from China,
on Angel
sometimes misunder-
in
stay.
underwent
the
noise and bustle, overworked
of
millions of
in
similar processing
Island,
which opened
many were not
1910. But
as
the late 1800s and
stood and changed immigrants'
fortunate as their
900s. Both islands served
names: for example, Gardashian
counterparts. Chinese appli-
as immigration stations during
became Arness, and Mastroianni
cants faced strict immigration
this period.
became Mister
laws,
comers
early
in
opened
Island
Ellis
in
Yanni.
1892
Island
Ellis
which limited entrance to
certain groups
such
as stu-
to receive record numbers of
dents, teachers, and mer-
European immigrants. Like many
chants
other immigrants,
Corsi arrived
Edward
Italian
could
of hope:
full
or to
individuals
show they were
new world
of the
Others were detained on the

will
some
even years
as they awaited a
my memory,
when
ing
in
particularly
determination
October mornI
months or
for
island
always remain etched
that hazy
could not meet
the restrictions were deported.
impressions
first
chil-
dren of American-born parents.
Some who
4 My
who
the
first
their cases.
in
Some, while imprisoned there,
saw
Ellis
carved poems into the barracks'

Island. ... All
of us
..
walls recording their despair:
clustered on the foredeck

for fear of separation and
A After
looked with wonder on

this
miraculous land of
all
were crowding
rail.
against
through
physical
the
Ellis
were subjected to
who
had
serious health problems, mental

disorders, or contagious diseases
like
too could see,
exam. Those
lifted
up the babies so that they

off to the
tuberculosis
were deported.
Those who passed the
the Statue of
Liberty.
newcomers who passed
air.
Mothers and fathers
physicals
entered a maze of crowded
99
aisles
For most immigrants,
joy
first feelings
were dampened by the con-
fusion of the examination
process.
468
grounds, relatives, and job

of
With thousands
CHAPTER
15
of
skills.
Those with prison records, or

without means to support themselves
What
a dark, crude.
in
room?
can
do?
Cruel treatment, not one

restful
breath of
air.
Scarcity of food, severe

restrictions
all
unbearable.
Here even
bows
his
proud man
head low.
99
where inspectors ques-
tioned them about their back-
however, these
expected joy to
filthy
a steadily
rising din filled
have
become sorrow:
All
%% Who would
Detained
sation, sharp cries, laughs
left,
West
about
Jabbered conver-
and cheers
Coast.
Passengers
the
opened on January 2
immigration station on the
our dreams.
us
it
1910, Angel island served as an
in
America, were sent
back. But the vast majority
But for most immigrants,

the anxiety they experienced on
the islands soon gave way to a
renewed sense of hope

finally set
as they
foot on their adopted
homeland to begin
new
life.

powerful political parly leaders. Bosses headed
big-city political
machines
party organizations
used patronage, or appointments to govern-
that
ment jobs,
to control elections.
welcomed immigrants
often
at
Machine
politicians
dockside or
at rail-
One
road stations, ready to offer assistance.

observer described a boss's methods:
To
this
one he lends
a dollar; for
another he obtains a railroad ticket without

payment; he has coal distributed
A Jewish
immigrants strived to main-
of winter; ... he
tain their religious heritage after arriv-
ing in the United States.
the depth
at
Christmas time; he buys medicine for a sick
**
By studying
person; he helps bury the dead.
the Torah, boys learned the ancient
wisdom and laws
in
sometimes sends poultry
of Jewish Scripture.
Of
In these close-knit neighborhoods, residents
spoke the same languages and followed the cus-
course, the bosses expected something in
return for their help
the
immigrants' votes.
Getting party candidates elected allowed bosses to
Once
toms of the old country. Neighborhood churches
control local government.
and synagogues helped immigrants maintain a
bosses used any means necessary
sense of identity and belonging.
elections, bribery,
Foreign-language papers, too. eased immigrants" transition. In the early 1900s,
more than
in
power, most
rigging of
even violence keep
Many
the
to
it.
own and
also ransacked city treasuries, lining their

their friends' pockets.
1.000 foreign-language papers were printed in the
United States. The
largest,
with a peak circulation
Ethnic neighborhoods,
language newspapers, benevolent
of 175.000 a day, was the Jewish Daily Forward.
Published in Yiddish
eastern European Jews
German
it
dialect
and political machines

helped immigrants adapt to
societies,
spoken by
primarily served
New
American
York's Jewish community.
Most
had benevolent
cities also
new immigrants
Some
loans to start
businesses. Others set up insurance plans that pro-
vided money for families whose breadwinners

were sick or had
died.
"We
visit
our sick and bury
our dead" was one society's slogan.
Political bosses urged

to
adopt
politicians.
Newly
American
ways.
new immigrants
However,
the
Americanization process often pitted parents

against children.
Many
older immigrants cherished
their ties to the old country. Children,
however,
tended to view their parents' old-world language,

dress,
Aid from
life.
societies, or
support organizations, to aid newcomers.

organizations offered
foreign-
arrived immi-
grants also received help from political bosses
and customs as old-fashioned.
second-
generation Polish immigrant expressed bittersweet

feelings about his parents'
way
of
life.
It
was, he
For immigrant
children, the
Americanization
process began soon
after they arrived in
the United States.
This photograph
shows the children's playground
at
Ellis Island.
::
469

noted, "a >lov\l\ decaying world of aged folks
liv-
economy. Yet many native-born
the vibrant U.S.
Americans
saw immigration
then there would remain only Americans whose
agreed with
Thomas
forebears had once been Poles."
poem "The Unguarded Gates" warned
One day
ing largely in a dream.
il
would pass and
They
as a threat.
Bailey Aldrich.
who
in his
against a
"wild motley throng" bringing "unknown gods and
The immigrant worker.
Whether they
adapted to American ways or remained tied to the
new immigrants had a common work

experience. Many did the country's "dirty work"
old world,
or, as
one obserser put
it.
lished themselves in those lines of work. For

Italian
and Polish men worked
in
European men worked
the building trades. Eastern
all
Others went further, blaming immigrants for
society's
ills.
opposed immigration for eco-
nomic reasons. Many charged
that the immigrants*
willingness to work cheaply robbed native-bom
Americans of jobs and pushed down wages
With the support of labor unions,
nativist
the
most success
in the
Most Greeks and Chinese opened

businesses such as laundries and restaurants,
ated
cially in California.
largely because discrimination closed off other
mounted during
opportunities.
Workingmen's Party of California angrily
ment
industry.
Whatever they
working
life
hard.
most immigrants found
did,
The work
itself
was physically
exhausting, hours were long, and wages low.

Contract laborers
who.
the United States,
worked
virtual prisoners of their

ers,
mostly young
shops of
New
locked
literally
required work.
in return for
passage to
for a set period
were
women
laboring in the sweat-
in until they
had finished the day's
Some immigrants worked
as 15 hours a day to earn a living wage.
best-paid workers
made
little
as
many
E\en
the
more than enough
to
support themselves and their families.
The nativist response

While most immigrant workers enjoyed few of the
rewards of their labor, they helped staff the factories that
were responsible for
Chinese immigrants
formed
their
own com-
munities and businesses

after arriving in the
United States. These two
photographs are of San
Francisco's
Chinatown
district.
CHAPTER
15
most supporters and achieved the

West.
For years Chinese laborers had been
and exploited on
the
toler-
West Coast, espe-
But as unemployment
the Panic of 1873. the
new
cried.
"The Chinese must go." Party leader Dennis

Kearney, who was himself an Irish immigrant,
addressed crowds
into a frenzy.
killing
all
o\er the
state,
working them
White mobs attacked the Chinese,
some and burning
the property of others.
Leaders of California's Chinese community
employers. These work-
York's garment industry, were
all.
began pressing for restrictions on immigration.
They gained
steel mills.
for
workers
French Canadians worked
mines or
in
felt
different ever to
New England textile mills. Many Jewish men

and women and Italian women worked in the gar-
in
470
fit in.
newcomers were just too
Nativists also
mainly because earlier arrivals had estab-
example, many
and speaking "accents of menace." Many
that these
"the shoveling."
Certain ethnic groups gravitated toward certain jobs,
rites"
appealed to the authorities for protection. But help
was not forthcoming.

leaders responded by
tion to forbid
w ork
In fact, the state's political
amending
the state constitu-
Chinese residents to
at certain jobs.
own
property or

Then
in
1882 the U.S. Congress passed the
Chinese Exclusion Act. which denied citizenship

to
people born
in
China and prohibited the immi-
made condi-
gration of Chinese laborers. This act

tions
worse for the Chinese
mob
in
Rock
in
America. In 1885 a
Wyoming
Springs,
Territory,
mur-
dered 28 Chinese and drove away hundreds more.

Neither the act nor the violence kept Chinese
immigrants from coming
some men
After 1906.
the Chinese
entered
to the
United States.
dubbed "paper sons" by
the country
by
falsely claim-
American
ing to be sons of Chinese
citizens.
Immigration authorities could not disprove many

of the claims because the 1906 San Francisco
earthquake and
fire
had destroyed most of the
Chinese community's birth records.
But even with the proper documents, Chinese
were held for months
arriving in the United States
while their cases were investigated.
wrote
this
poem on
The
day
One immigrant
the wall of his cell:
am
This 1870 cartoon appeared
and
in
Harper's Weekly
Chinese immisurrounds the United States that

prevents immigrants from entering the country.
satirizes the nativist reaction to
gration.
A wall
of this prison and
rid
attain success,
I
must remember that

once
All
existed.
this prison
30 years, however. Congress
my compatriots
narrow, and un-American." Over the next
"illiberal,
without success
[fellow citizens]
tried several times
to pass a similar
measure.
Despite efforts to impose restrictions, immi-
please be mindful.
Once you have some small gains,

home [to China] early. 99
gration continued. Contrary to nativists' argu-
return
ments, the new immigrants contributed to
American
Other immigrants faced discrimination as
tion
society.
America's rapid industrializa-
would have been impossible without immi-
organizations took up the anti-immigration banner.
grant workers. Their varied cultures, too. added
The Immigration Restriction League, founded
new dimensions
in
to
American
life.
1894 by a group of well-to-do Bostonians, sought

to
impose
a literacy test
on
immigrants.
all
Prejudice and fear prompted
Congress passed such a measure, but President
nativists to try to restrict
Grover Cleveland vetoed
immigration.
it
in
1897, calling
it
SECTION
IDENTIFY and
explain the significance of the following: old immigrants,
societies, bosses, political machines,

1.
2.
3.
new
immigrants, benevolent
immigrants?
WRITING TO EXPLAIN
a relative explaining
5.
new
Chinese Exclusion Act, paper sons, Immigration Restriction League.
MAIN IDEA What changes occurred in immigration in the late 1800s?

MAIN IDEA What helped ease the new immigrants' adjustment to American life?
ANALYZING Why did nativists oppose the new immigrants? How did nativists demonstrate
their bias against the
4.
REVIEW
how
Imagine you are a Chinese American
paper sons were able to
EVALUATING How were
the
new immigrants
come
citizien in
1906.
Write
a letter to
to the United States.
affected by
new
legislation?
47
Section 3
s
URBAN
LIFE
FOCUS
How did American cities change in the late 1800s?
How did urban life differ for the rich, the middle class, and the
What was the aim of the settlement house and Social Gospel
poor?
movements?
'purred by industrialization and immigration, American cities grew
dramatically during the second half of the century. In 1865 only 14
American
cities
had populations of more than 100,000, and only 20
percent of Americans lived

percent urban and had 29
With growth
in
urban areas. By 1900 the nation was 40
cities with
populations
came other changes, and a
distinct
in
urban culture developed.
the mid- 1 800s
were compact.
Few buildings were taller than two or three stories.

And even in the largest cities, most people lived
less than a
45-minute walk from the
city center,
to
transform
The impact
of technology. Contributing to
were steel, new building tech-
the transformation
niques, and Elisha Otis's
which allowed
ward.
No
cities to
mechanized
elevator, all of
grow upward
as well as out-
longer restricted by the
number of
stairs
people could comfortably climb, architects designed

multistory buildings, or skyscrapers. Construction
workers erected
steel girders
on which they "hung"
walls of stone, brick, or concrete.
Trolley cars were an important part of many

urban mass transit systems. This photograph was
taken in New York City around 1895.
CHAPTER
15
J.
who had worked
Edison, designed one of the
in
the urban landscape.
:i
electrical engineer
tric trolley that
1800s technological innovations
live within
ing distance of their jobs. Frank
But by the
and the great flood of people began
472
because workers no longer had to
where most businesses and industries were located.

late
Chicago's Masonic Temple
Moreover, the development of mass

transit
trolley cars, commuter trains, and subways made it possible for cities to spread out
Xhe changing city

The urban areas of
excess of 100,000.
first
walk-
Sprague, an
with
Thomas
systems, an elec-
began serving Richmond, Virginia,
1887. Other cities quickly adopted Sprague's
growth of Cities, 1880-1900

COMMUTERS
Home
changed
life
America's
in
cities
because mass transit allowed workers to
travel greater distances to their jobs.

*
REGION
Which region had
the greatest
number
of large cities in both
1880 and 1900?
and by 1895 the nation boasted over 10,000
idea,
miles of elective railways.
Mass
of suburbs, mid-
dle-class and wealthy residential areas

city limits.
Some
social reformers
urban development because

live in "light
class
and
air."
it
beyond the
allowed people to
and wealthy Americans could afford
the healthy life of the suburbs,
to
enjoy
many urban
Americans remained trapped by poverty

crowded, and often unhealthy, tenement houses.
in
300,000-
100,000300,000
More than
1,000,000
1,000,000
everyone knew
how
suc-
cessful they were. Social scientist Thorstein Veblen
labeled this behavior conspicuous consumption.
The new
applauded sub-
However, while middle-
stamp of every success." And the new rich spent

their dollars freely so that
transit led to the rise
50,000100,000
rich practiced conspicuous con-
sumption by building houses
that imitated extrava-
gantly decorated Gothic castles or Italian

Renaissance palaces. In the summer they fled their
city
homes
The new
for equally magnificent country estates.
rich thought nothing of paying thousands
of dollars to stage one night's amusement.
One
The skyscraper and mass transit

helped American cities grow
upward and outward.
Uppei^class life. The changing city
also created a new group of wealthy city
dwellers. There had been wealthy peo-
ple in
America since colonial
times,
but the urban upper class of the
new breed. The

made their money in the
late
1800s was a
new
new
rich
industries,
such as railroads,
iron and steel, mining, or publishing.
Their fortunes usually dwarfed
those of the old upper-class merchants
and bankers.
For the new
rich, author
Dean Howells noted

dollar
is
the
William
sarcastically, "the
measure of every value, the
Railroad baron Cornelius Vanderbilt and his wife,
New York City home into a

magnificent palace. Cornelius was named after his
grandfather who founded the family's fortune.
Alice, (left) turned their
^^

wealthy man arranged a lavish
and
unusual
wore riding gear and
party in which the guests
rode their horses into the dining room!
Many Americans
Ward
gances. But
criticized such extrava-
McAllister, a lawyer and
ber of the "Four Hundred"
of
of
New
mem-
wealthiest group
defense
came
the
York's upper class
to the
fashionable people":
44
large
The mistake made by

is
frivolous,
and Indifferent to the welfare of
their fellow creatures.
fashionable
artists;
the world at
that fashionable people are selfish.
its
late 19th century,
women
began
many
native-born,
filling clerical
positions.
nourish and benefit art and
life
distribution;
and they
way
as a
they cause the expenditure of
money and
During the
middle-class
.The elegancies of
to
do good. Some simply used
it
as
another opportunity to display iheir wealth.
really
prevent our people and country from settling
ing
down
into a
humdrum
rut and
Middle-class
becom-
99
lic
welfare.
1800s
modem
corpora-
charitable efforts to promote pub-
with managers, engineers, accountants, clerks, and
endowed
libraries,
universities;
museums, and
and established
new theater groups, opera companies, and symphony orchestras. But. as

out, not all rich
late
tions had swelled the ranks of the middle class
They financed
art galleries;
However, by the
some wealthy people supported
true that
philanthropy
the upper class, a
small-business owners had existed since colonial

times.
It is
As with
middle class of doctors, lawyers, teachers, and
merely a money-making and
money-saving people.
life.
critics
cated success for the
work measured middle-class achievement.

For the old middle class, work outside the
quickly pointed
men and women saw
philanthropy
show of wealth indinew rich, advancement at
salespeople. While a great
home had been
a male realm. Bui the rise of big
THE PRICE OF INDUSTRIALIZATION

In 1871
Austrian diplomat Joseph Alexander, Graf von

Von Hiibner was impressed
Hiibner, visited the United States.
by the opportunities Americans enjoyed

society.
took
its
in an industrializing
But he also saw that fierce competition in business
toll on working people. Von Hiibner said:
i/n
the
to conquer. Life
a race
in
is
New
World man
long campaign, a succession of never-ending
born
is
a perpetual struggle,
the open field across terrible
obstacles, with the prospect of
enormous
rewards for reaching the goal. The
American cannot keep
his
such a militant existence, what

left for
is
the sweetness, the repose
the intimacy of
happy? judging by
home
or
its
his tired, sad,
joys?
Is
he
exhausted,
anxious, and often delicate and unhealthy
embarked he must go on and on
appearance, one would be inclined to
who
CHAPTER
IS
forever;
follow him would
crush him under their feet. His
::
In
place
[rest],
arms folded. He
marches, and countermarches.
must embark on something, and once
for if he stops, those
474
fights,
life is
one
doubt
it.
Such an excess of uninterrupted
labor cannot be good for any man,
99
new range
business created a whole
i)t
jobs, such
and secretary. Business
as stenographer, salesclerk,
owners increasingly hired young, single middleclass
women
to
these positions, paying them
fill
lower wages than men. As a
result,
by 1910 nearly
35 percent of the more than 1.9 million clerical
workers were women.
However, most married middle-class
worked
home. Smaller
at
women
families, greater reliance
on purchased goods, and new household technol-
ogy such as running water, water
and home
closets,
canning changed middle-class women's domestic

work. For example, ready-made clothing lightened
sewing loads of many middle-class women.
the
The advent of hot and cold running water meant

doing laundry no longer required pumping,
that
hauling, and heating the water.
Some
middle-class
families could also afford to hire servants to handle
many household
chores. In such families,
had more free time to take part

ing
number of cultural
events.
women
in the city's
grow-
New York City,
in
lations swelled.
Many women joined

Outside the tenements, raw sewage and piles
reading and social clubs. Others participated in and

led the reform
as these lining Hester

sprang up as urban popu-
Crowded tenements, such
Street
movements of
the late
800s and
early 1900s (see Chapter 17).
of garbage fouled unpaved streets and alleys. Worse

still,
the slums usually adjoined industrial areas
where factories belched pollution. "The stink
How
the poor lived. The
homes and
toiled in middle-class
who
who
servants
the workers
labored in factories lived worlds away from
the comfort of the
middle class or the luxury of
To make ends meet, working-class

often had to rent out parts of their homes
the wealthy.
families
or tiny apartments to boarders.
The
dark, airless
tenement buildings sometimes housed

as 12 families per floor.
as
many
Jacob Riis described a
enough
to
knock you down." one
New
is
York resident
complained. In such an environment, sickness and

death were
common.
In
some
cities respiratory dis-
eases like tuberculosis spread rapidly through

tightly
packed slums,
killing
many
residents.
While the conditions faced by residents of

poor neighborhoods were far from pleasant, those
who experienced
the greatest difficulties
were
African Americans. Because of widespread discrim-
tenement family of "honest, hard-working
ination,
Germans":
jobs. Moreover, African
most of them could get only poor-paying

Americans had
to
pay out-
rageous rents for the most appalling apartments, and
44
two rooms, one about
All nine lived in
preferred the North to the South.
room, and eating room, the other
American journalist explained:
a small
room made into a kitchen. The rent

was
more than a week's wages for the
many
As one African
they frequently faced police harassment. Yet
ten feet square that served as parlor, bed-
hall
husband and
father.
mother had thrown

dow.
New
herself out of the win-
York
said
some
women.**
City, a
magnet
1.6 million
one half of the
is
in
peace at
paid them,
appeal to the courts.
if
night;
what
not they can
They vote without
fear of the shot-gun, and their children
99
for hundreds of thou-
some 43,000 tenement buildings housed
more than
They sleep
go to school.
sands of immigrants and migrants from the countryside,
44
they earn
That day the
She was "discouraged,"
of the other
In
poor people
city's population.
in
1900
nearly
The
rich lived in grand style; the

middle class in respectable comfort. But many city dwellers
faced grinding poverty.

475

Addams
The drive for reform
also
hoped
fulfilling careers for
House would provide

women. She expected that for
that Hull
"young women who had been given over too
Few government programs helped the poor in the

late 1800s. What assistance the poor received was
exclusively to study," Hull House "might restore a
limited to charitable handouts of food and clothing.
from
Some
The volunteers who joined Addams were

mostly young, college-educated women. They set
young Americans realized that

be done. To confront the problem
idealistic
more needed
to
of poverty head-on, they established and lived in
settlement houses
in
community service centers
poor neighborhoods. At the forefront of
effort
this
balance of activity" and help them "learn of

life itself."
up a day nursery and kindergarten
classes.
They offered recreational facilities and

employment agency. And when the city
failed to pick
The settlement houses.
Born
1860
in
to a
Cedarville, Illinois, Jane
well-to-do family
in
Addams grew up
an atmosphere of politics and
philanthropy.
abolitionist,
to
state senator
he had worked
pass social reform legislation. The young
Addams
be a
set out to
doctor, but a
back problem
put an end to her medical

studies.
Unsure about what
up garbage
Addams secured
inspector to
make
Addams and
other settlement workers
much from
their work.
Addams's experiences
make men alike
taught her "that the things which
keep them
are finer and belter than the things that

apart,
and
that these basic likenesses
easily
transcend [surpass] the less essential differences of

race, language, creed,
ence gained
Eventu-
much-
improved services for the poor, but also learned
cided to recuperate and
ally,
poor neighborhoods.
sure the city provided the
career to pursue, she de-
travel in Europe.
in
an appointment as a garbage
needed service.
Her Quaker father was a passionate
and as a
for the children
of working mothers and gave adult education
staffed an
was Jane Addams.
in
life
such as
at
and
tradition."
The experi-
settlement houses provided
Addams and many
women
others with the skills
she decided to dedi-
cate her life to helping the
urban poor.
Addams's
In time.
T As part of urban reform, settlement houses such

House in Chicago improved services for
Immigrants and the poor.
as Hull
work
included
other
She tirelessly
worked for women's sufcauses.
frage and served as presi-
dent
of
Women's
the
International
League
for
Peace and Freedom from

1919 to 1935. Worldwide recognition for her work
came
in
when she won
1931.
the
Nobel Peace
Prize.
Addams began her settlement-house work in

1889. when she and Ellen Gates Starr established a
settlement at Hull House, a run-down mansion in
one of Chicago's immigrant neighborhoods. Hull

House's founding charter explained Addams's cultural
and social-service mission:
To
and
provide a center for a higher
social
life;
civic
to institute and maintain edu-
cational and philanthropic enterprises,
to investigate and
improve the conditions
the industrial districts of Chicago.
476
CHAPTER
IS
and
**
in
and knowledge to make importani conirihiilions

social
reform and
to
politics.
Hull House served as a model tor others
hoping
1890 African American
to aid the poor. In
teacher Janie Porter Barrett founded one of the
African American settlement houses
first
Locust Street Social Settlement
the
Hampton.
Wald started
in
Virginia. Three years later. Lillian
Henry Street Settlement on New York's

Lower East Side. By the end of the century,
the
almost a hundred settlement houses had opened

across the country.
The
movement.
Social Gospel
same time
that the settlement
At the
houses began their
work, a number of Protestant ministers joined the

battle against poverty.
the Social Gospel,
They developed
which called
the idea of
for people to
apply Christian principles to address social problems. Washington Gladden, a Congregational min-
Columbus. Ohio, was an early leader of the
ister in
Social Gospel
had
movement. Arguing
moral duty
to
Gladden led crusades
church
that the
confront social injustice.

to
improve conditions for
industrial workers.
Many
churches attempted to implement the
Social Gospel by providing libraries, classrooms,
job training and counseling, and other social services. Caroline Bartlett's People's
Church
In this early
in
Kalamazoo, Michigan, was one example of such a

church. Bartlett
became
work
1889, the same year she began her
at the
threw open the doors of her church seven
days a week. She established

kindergarten and a
in
gymnasium and
domestic and industrial
a free
public
offered classes
skills. Bartlett
also set
up a meals program for workers and sponsored

creative activities, such as an orchestra and a
liter-
ary society for African Americans.
Other religious groups joined the crusade to

assist the
and needy.
a Unitarian minister in
People's Church. Drawing on Social Gospel ideals,

Bartlett
1900s photograph, nurses from New York's

set out to help the poor
Henry Street Settlement House
urban poor. In 1880 the Salvation Army,
The "Gospel
the Social Gospel and settlement-house

as too radical. Steel
shelter,
opportunities to the poor to help put
and work
them on
path to physical and spiritual salvation.
the
In Carnegie's
''stewards of wealth." Thus, they
had an obligation
common
"The man who dies
rich."
good.
Carnegie argued,
"dies disgraced."
Carnegie, however, was also a firm believer

in Social
Darwinism. He opposed handouts
to the
poor because, he argued, such handouts rewarded

equally both the unworthy beggar and the worthy
fit
Gospel movements fought

poverty and other social
problems.
view the rich had been chosen as
to use their fortunes for the
worker
The settlement-house and Social
movements
baron Andrew Carnegie offered
these people an alternative: the "Gospel of Wealth."
an evangelical group founded in Great Britain,
began offering food, clothing,
of Wealth." Some Americans
were troubled by the plight of the poor but viewed
fallen
on hard times. The best way
the lower class, he said,
to
bene-
was "to place within
its
reach the ladders upon which the aspiring can

rise."
and
Carnegie's "ladders" included universities
libraries.
Carnegie gave some $350 million to
such causes during his lifetime.
i:
477
uRBAN CULTURE
Carnegie's generosity and that
of other philanthropists con-
greatly
tributed
urban
to
cultural lite during the late
1800s. Perhaps the greatest
reform
ever,
in this
was
the
period,
how-
growth of free
public education.
Public education. The

growth of public education
went hand in hand with the
African
American students attended segregated
schools,
where edu-
cational resources or facilities rarely equaled those of white schools.
This photograph shows an African American school around 1910.

growth of the cities. After
1860 more and more states
Daily newspapers in the same city often
passed compulsory school attendance laws and
lengthened the school year from 78 to 144 days.
From 1870
to
1900 the number of students
some
school grew from
more than
7 million to
Many
young women:
in
of these
new
The wildest
in
public.
between Joseph
students were
1900 about 60 percent of high
bat-
each other for a greater share of the reading
million, and high school enrollment increased
almost tenfold.
tled
William
New York World and

Randolph Hearst's New York Journal.
Pulitzer tried to
news
circulation wars took place
Pulitzer's
w in
readers by running sensational
and by adding comic
stories
strips,
advice
women. In addition, more

growing
number of men attendwomen joined the
ing college. As a result, the number of college
columns, and a separate sports page. Hearst com-
graduates climbed from nearly 9,400 in 1870 to
readers by publishing the popular cartoon series
some 29,000
"Yellow Kid" by different
school graduates were
in 1900.
As enrollments increased, educational

reformers proposed that schools do more than
peted with even more-sensational stories under
screaming headlines. The papers also vied for
vided the
name
artists.
The cartoon
for this style of reporting
pro-
yellow
journalism.
One
of the main reformers was philosopher John
Literature.
Dewey. His "Laboratory School"
dwellers read popular fiction
teach reading, writing, and arithmetic by rote.
at the
University
In addition to
newspapers, city
romances, myster-
and westerns. Young boys favored Horatio
of Chicago stressed cooperative "learning by
ies,
doing" and emphasized science,
Alger's success stories about hardworking street
history.
Young, superintendent of schools
Ella Flagg
Chicago, worked with

ideas in her schools.
were slow
and
art,
Dewey
to
Most urban
implement
in
his
schools, however,
up the new methods.
to take
In this period
who
courage
and
ries
luck. Similarly,
huge following among young
segregated by race. Despite the expansion of sup-
Martha Finley's
sto-
Older readers enjoyed

urban
life.
girls.
realistic
books about
For example, Edith Wharton's House of
most schools for African
Americans were poorly equipped, since

governments spent
rose to middle-class respectability by
about the upright Elsie Dinsmore gained a
most public schools remained
port for public schools,
local
urchins
little
state
and
money on them.
Popular journalism.
As
result of
expanded education, by 1900 some 90 percent of
Americans could
ihe
600
this
478
;:
number of
in
1870
growth
CHAPTER
to
read.
some 2.600 by
in literacy.
15
The dramatic increase
daily newspapers
1
from
9
in
almost
0 reflected
A Edith Wharton won

the Pulitzer Prize in
920 for the Age of
1
Innocence.
Mirth (1905) described the contlicts between the
new
rich
and the old
elite.
William Dean Howells's
wove
Rise of Silas Lcipham (1885)
and social ambition. Stephen

Norris depicted everyday
a tale of greed
Crane and Frank

including the grim
life,
side of urban experience.
Readers also favored local-color writers. The

greatest of
known
them was Samuel
Clemens, better
L.
The Adventures of Tom
as Miirk Twain. In
Sawyer (1876) and The Adventures of Huckleberry

Finn ( 884), Twain vividly described rural adoles1
cent life of the mid- 1800s. African

writer Charles
American
A Shown
here
an 866 championship game

Hoboken, New Jersey.
is
Elysian Field, in
at
W. Chesnutt's Conjure Woman
(1899) drew on tales told by freed slaves.
refused to
Leisure time.
widespread racism
let his
team play against teams with
African American players. Anson's action, and the
City dwellers also sought
diversion in sports. For example, croquet and
which enjoyed great vogue

became especially popular
cycling
1890s
in the
activities for
middle-class
women. Men of
all
classes enjoyed
in the baseball leagues, led to
the exclusion of African
league teams, a ban that lasted for 60 years.

African Americans formed their
ever,
playing and watching basketball, boxing, football,
For children,
Bamum &
vided "The Greatest
since the 1840s. but in 1876. with the founding of
especially
it
became
a popular
The New York Times noted

spectators "jumped like colts, clapped their
spectator sport as well.

that
hands, threw their hats into the
companions on the back,
air,
and
families,
all
how-
players.
Bailey's Circus pro-
Show on Earth." Also popular,

among immigrant and working-class
were amusement parks
with
Island
their roller coasters
such
as
Coney
and Ferris wheels.
Vaudeville shows, with roots in working-class variety acts, attracted middle-class as well as working-
enjoyed
class audiences. Similarly, Yiddish theaters served
as a source of nostalgia for Jewish immigrants.
Baseball had become, in one sportswriter's
But not
league,
slapped their
themselves hugely."
words, "the national
own
which produced many outstanding
and baseball. Americans had been playing baseball
the first professional league,
Americans from major
game of
An urban culture with diverse
the United States.*"
Americans were allowed
reading, entertainment, and
to play in the
professional leagues. In 1887 team manager
leisure activities
Adrian "Cap" Anson, a
the late
star player in his day.
SECTION
IDENTIFY and
developed
in
800s.
REVIEW
explain the significance of the following: mass transit, suburbs, conspicuous consumption,
philanthropy, settlement houses, Jane
Addams,
janie Porter Barrett, Social Gospel, Caroline Bartlett,
John Dewey, yellow journalism, Edith Wharton, Samuel
Clemens, Charles Chesnutt.
LOCATE and explain the importance of the following: Hampton, Virginia; Columbus, Ohio.
I.
MAIN IDEA In what ways did American cities change in the late 1800s?
MAIN IDEA Describe urban life for the rich, the middle class, and the poor.
COMPARING How were Jane Addams's work at Hull House and Caroline Bartlett's at the
People's Church similar? How did they differ?
WRITING TO INFORM Imagine you are a journalist from outside the United States. Write
article informing
5.
your
British readers
HYPOTHESIZING What
in
an
about American urban culture.
impact do you think John
Dewey
has had on
modern
public education
the United States?
479
Alexander Graham
Bell patents telephone. Thomas Edison opens workshop in Menio Park, New Jersey.
Thomas
light bulb.
CHAPTER
invents typewriter.
Review
4r
2.
list
paper
to

next to
1.
2.
first
the order
next to
Standard
Oil's profits
Alexander Graham
Addams
reach
line
activity below.
some $45
life in
Analyzing
3.
How
Synthesizing
5.
Congress passes Chinese Exclusion Act.
together?
did social change contribute to
In
what ways
reform?
social
AND
IDEAS
Cause and
Skills
Handbook entry on
Effect
on page 989. Write
tracing the rise of big business
of the
3.
4.
Thomas Edison
new immigrants
5.
bosses
lines
Woods
6.
Chinese Exclusion Act
7.
Jane
Addams
8. Janie
9.
10.
How
did technological advances
promote changes
2.
3.
How
How
in
did urban daily

did the
American
life
HISTORY
Writing to Create
in
Among
steel
cities in
change
monopolies and
WRITING ABOUT
L Clemens
Samuel
in
making
the 1800s?
the late 1800s?
government attempt to
restrict big
the best-selling
books of the
late
9th
century were dime novels,
books with paper covers

that sold for 10 cents.
Dime
business?
4.
novels offered plots with lots
Why
did nativists
oppose immigration, and what
actions did they take to prevent

5.
What
goals
and by reformers involved
in
a 19th-century tycoon,
societies
the settlement-house
and Social Gospel movements?
^
I.
migrant as
novel.
REVIEWING THEMES
late
480
grant, or African
1800s?
CHAPTER
15
immi-
American
main character,
write an outline for a dime
did changes
technology affect the nation's economy
of action and suspense. Using
it?
were shared by benevolent
in
the
in
paragraph
from the development
trusts.
Be sure to
the connections between causes and effects.
Porter Barrett
yellow journalism
Identifying
a
Bessemer process to the eventual government
legislation limiting
show

1.
second indus-
Granville T.
did the
age both separate people and bring them
Review the
2.
immi-
did the establishment of Hull
IDENTIFYING PEOPLE
trunk
in
the growth of department and chain stores?
trial
1.
did increases
Evaluating What was the impact of the new

order on business organization?
Sherman Antitrust Act passed.
House contribute to
How
industrial
2.
million.
establishes Hull House.
How
life?
Cultural Diversity
4.
Evaluating
did inno-
THINKING CRITICALLY
patents telephone.
Bell
what ways
above,
which they
in
the second
2,
3. Jane
in
In
communication and energy change
gration affect social
Study the time
5.
in
American urban
of the chapter.
and
1880
Technology and Society

vations
3.
Number your
Exclusion Act.
W.
of his chain stores.
4r
L
summary
first
1875
WRITING A SUMMARY
write a
Frank
Woolworth founds
Christopher Sholes
15
Congress passes
Chinese
Edison invents
Frank
starts
Sprague
an electric
Jane
J.
Addams
establishes
Hull House. Caroline

Bartlett begins work at
the People's Church.
trolley service.
Standard Oil's profits

reach some $45 million.
Charles W. Chesnutt
publishes The Conjure Woman.
Mark Twain
publishes The
Sherman
Adventures of
Huckleberry Finn.
Janie Porter Barrett founds Locust
Antitrust Act passed.
Wharton
publishes
Street Social Settlement.
111^
^111
^
1
1890
Author Frank Morris's eye for
the harness
detail
novels fascinating records of urban
makes
life in
tants of the street
from shop window

tamale
all the
various inhabi-
were abroad, strolling
his
was only 22 when he wrote his first

McTeague ( 899), a story of a San Francisco
1905
makers
the late
1800s. Morris
III
II
1900
1895
novel,
Edith
House of Mirth.
to
shop window.
idly
The
99
men appeared.
dentist corrupted by city influences. In the following
excerpt, Morris describes McTeague's neighborhood.
Write
paragraph identifying aspects of the
new

Study the
map on page
473.
How
of people to cities lead to urban
urban culture.
9 9 From noon
to
movement
did the
economic growth?
evening the population
of the street was of a mixed character The

street
was
busiest at that time; a vast
prolonged murmur arose
and
BUILDING YOUR
PORTFOLIO
the mingled shuf-
fling offeet, the rattle of wheels, the heavy
trundling of cable cars.
Evening began;
and one by one a multitude of lights, from

the demoniac [devilish] glare of the druggists windows to the dazzling blue whiteness of the electric globes, grew thick from
Complete the following projects independently

or cooperatively.
'
street
corner
to street
comer
cars were loaded with theatre-goers
high hats and young girls

cloaks.
On
the sidewalks
couples the plumbers

girls
lies
'
men
in furred opera
were groups and
apprentices, the
of the ribbon counters, the
1.
The cable
little fami-
the dressmakers, the small doctors.
SOCIAL CONFLICT
were
in
in
a Sioux living
In
Chapter 14 you
on the Pine Ridge Reservation
South Dakota. Building on that experience,
imagine you are an immigrant
who
has just arrived
from southern or eastern Europe. Create a series

of
poems and
you face
in
graphics that illustrate the problems
your new
home and your hopes
for
the future.
2.
Chapter 14 you were a land speculator

to establish a small railhead
on that experience, develop

technologies
and electric
lighting
in
In
who hopes
Mebraska. Building
a plan to use
new
such as the telephone, the dynamo,
and innovations
in
trans-
portation to attract residents and businesses.

3.
REFORM
Imagine you are a female
settlement-house worker. Create a promotional
banner that shows
how
the reform efforts of your
organization serve the needs of the entire urban
community. Banners might include mottos,

symbols, or slogans.
Frank Norris
48!
Conquering Distance Overseas
America's
GEOGRAPHY
it^Mi ISgf
CONQUERING
DISTANCE
VHE
w as
late 19th
century
a period of massive
population shifts for the
United States. Between 1860
IMMIGRATION TO THE
1860-1910
Other 28%
and 1910 some 23 million
Japan
<l%
China
1%
U.S.,
Russia
immigrants crossed the

Atlantic and Pacific oceans
Germany
Scandinavia
to reach
America.
Many
&
Baltics
10%
-Italy
7%
Ireland
W ompared
10%
8%
Great Bntain
12%
the late
Pacific coast, particularly in the
owner began
to recruit
9th century
American West. This
Californians
made
results
came from
the
settled along the
In
1870 a Massachusetts
factory
this practice
caught on, more Chinese
the trek to the east coast Today the thriving
Chinatowns of Boston,
westward migration was
initJally
Chinese laborers from California to take the
place of striking workers. As
the
The
San Francisco area, some eventually
journeyed across the United States.
millions of people settled
to travel twice
vast majority of Chinese immigrants in
province of Guangdong. Although most
migration across country as
European immigrants,
as far to reach the United States.
of
these immigrants joined the
to
immigrants from Asia had
13%
New
York,
and San Francisco are
all
the
of the 19th century journeys from Guangdong.
aided by railroad lines and
improved systems of com-
Jrom Across the Pacific to tite Atlantic Coast
munication. These means of

transportation and
cation linked
em
communi-
numerous west-
CHINA
cities together,
the basis of a
forming
modem
trans-
continental economy.
^^^^CUu),..,^.
'0
^r
CA
NfW YORK
PERCENTAGE OF CALIFORNIA
CHINESE LIVING
IN
San Francisco
45%
24
New York City

^,cmV^
MIL"
3.036
CHINESE AMERICAN
AREAS OF RESIDENCE
SAN FRANCISCO
San Francisco
CITY
Cahfomia
77%
^ ^
California
/-^
^51%
All
Rest of CA
66%
482
UNIT
Rest of CA
1870
1900
55%
nfir
Atlantic
areas
23%
North'^^
rth^r
other
1870
16%
All
other
01
ir
areas
1900
33%
Conquering Distance Across the West
S\s
the railroads
grew
into thriving cities within
tern of
and western population
a few short years.
Omaha, Nebraska. The
many small towns

Many followed the pat-
increased,
small settlement of Omaha, which was
a popular stopping point for settlers headed to Colorado,
became a town
1857. After the
in
Railroad were laid there

in
first
officially
POPULATION OF OMAHA
tracks of the Union Pacific
I860
1865, Omaha's population soared. Located
in
1.833
the heart of cattle country, the city developed a thriving meat-
processing industry
settlers, particularly
in
the
880s. This
new
industry attracted
many
poor immigrants from southern and central Europe.
WESTERN POPULATION GROWTH, 1860-1910

I860
1870
1880
2%
1890
m^
1900
1910
'"^
619,000
'^'
total
991,000
7J'/.
3,134,000
Foreign Dorn
75%
Native born
total
80%
25%
1.801,000 total
75%
10%
Ks ^
total
4,309,000
80%
total
7.082,000
total
hapter 16
1865-1910
POLITICS
AND PROTEST
UNDERSTANDING
THE MAIN IDEA
Rapid industrialization and westward
expansion helped transform the United
States into a prosperous,
nation.
many Americans
However,
believed that they

their fair share
modern
had not received
of prosperity. Ignored
by the major poli^cal parties,
Americans organized
own
interests or
êse
to protect their
became
involved in
the political process to win reform.
DEMOCRATIC VALUES
What actions
might citizens take
to bring about change
in
society?
CULTURAL DIVERSITY
How
might
political
and eco-
nomic conditions unite

groups
in
society?
How
different
might
they divide groups?
1869
Knights of
Labor founded.
1886
1883
Pendleton
Civil
Service Act
passed.
1892
1894
Haymarket
Populist party
Pullman strike
Riot occurs.
founded.
occurs.

IIM
By the
TO THE PAST
promise of jacksonian democracy was
late 1800s the
more than a
hope
distant, vain
appeared that
all political
many Americans. To them
for
power
little
it
hands of a few wealthy
lay in the
people. Winning a share of power and prosperity, they realized,
would take action on
'yt_Z:jtM^^
their part.
* /'" ''-'.
^^nn the
1873 novel The Gilded Age, by Mark Twain and Charles
Dudley Warner,
friend
Washington observer
why Congress
tries to
takes so long to get
explain to a young
down
business each
to
legislative session:
44
The
first
preliminary
it
always starts out on,
itself,
so to speak.
of
members, or maybe four or
its
It
will arraign
[accuse]
two or three dozen
bill
last winter.
of our Congresses can never rest easy until

blemishes.
all
to clean
dozen, for taking bribes
five
to vote for this and that and the other
purified itself of
is
One
has thoroughly
it
99
Astounded, his young friend asks whether Congress ever worries that
ness.
it
will expel so
"Why
replies.
44
many members
did not say Congress
"But good
God we
They appoint
try
the accused
it
purifies
In real
everyone.
in
the
man
just say,
and that com-
investigate,
.
They don't
acquit, they
"Charge not proven."
It
leaves
a kind of a shaky condition before the country,
Congress,
life,
can no longer do busi-
them, don't we!"
committee to
They
it
would expel anybody,"
mittee hears evidence three weeks.

don't condemn.
that
it
satisfies
of course,
it
everybody.
99
did not satisfy
Many Americans were
deeply troubled by the abuses of

wealth and power that seemed to
characterize the era.
Child factot7 laborers
Some
people
called for political reform. Others
such as industrial workers and farmers
took matters into
their
UMW emblem,
own
1890
hands, organizing to protect their interests
POLITICS
AND PROTEST
485
Section
RESTORING HONEST GOVERNMENT

^
'^
FOCUS
Why did many Americans call for civil service reform?
Why did critics believe that the Pendleton Civil Service Act
would accomplish
How
little?
did President Harrison deal with the reform
programs
of President Cleveland?
3few
contemporary- observers had anything good to say about
Henry Adams
the late- 19th-century political scene. Historian
noted that
results.''
''the
period was poor
purpose and barren
in
Many Americans agreed with Adams,
elected representatives as
Infuriated, these
little
better than a
in
viewing their
bunch of crooks.
Americans demanded political reforms.
The aided Age
most
^RAFT AND CORRUPTION
was
notorious
Tammany
Democratic party machine
Hall,
the
that controlled
New
York City government. Tammany Hall's reputation
Mark Twain and Charles Dudley Warner titled

their novel about post-Civil War America The
Gilded Age to make a point. Twain and Warner
for graft
believed that, like the base material that hides
S200 million between 1865 and 1871.
and greed lurked below the
and prosperous luster of late-19th-centur>'
polite
American
society.
The image
struck a chord, and
became known as the Gilded Age.

The authors had ample evidence to support
the era
particularly the area of

and
government made pious speeches about
their
view
in
Politicians of both parties
honor of holding public

showed more
politics.
at ever\' level
interest in taking
It is
doubtful that any of the later bosses ever
exceeded Tweed's
take, but graft
remained one of
the Gilded Age's best roads to riches
one the
bosses vigorously defended. "Everxbody

these days about
graft,"
growin' rich on
nobody thinks of drawin*
between honest
graft
and dishonest
the distincgraft."
advantage of their
44
There's an honest graft, and I'm an
example of how
it
works. ...
My
party's in
positions to plunder the public treasury than in
power
serving the public good.
a lot of public improvements. Well, I'm
Twain and Warner took
as their
less
widespread on
slate
and local
main
levels,
powerful political machines prevailed.
CHAPTER
16
talkin"
complained boss George Washington
Plunkitt, "but
tion
Tammany men
is
the great
office. Yet they often
the national political scene. But corruption
486
of
Marcy Tweed, who along with his cronies the

Tweed Ring robbed the city treasury of some
beneath the glittering gold surface of a gilded picture frame, corruption
and corruption was launched by William
target
tipped
in
new park
where
place and
the
city,
off, say,
was no
Among
the
and
it's
that they're going to lay out a
at a certain place. ...

I
undertake
goin' to
buy up
all
the land
go to that
can
neighborhood. Then the board of
in
this
the
or
section of the transcontinental railroad.
POLITICAL
Credit Mobilier overcharged Union
PATRONAGE
In late-
million.
poclcets of Credit
local politi-
MobiHer's stoclchold-
many of whom were members of
were often the only

champions of the urban
poor or the newly arrived
ers.
immigrant. British writer H. G.

Wells noted this aspect of patronage when he
visited Alderman Kenna, a powerful political
boss in Chicago. Wells wrote:
dal transpired before Grant
cians
Congress, including then-Speaker of

the
president,
them when they are
crowd.
all his
in trouble,
even
this scan-
became
tarnished his administra-
Critics charged that the corruption
He
Grant's administration was in large
Chapter
if it
system (see
Rather than award
7).
civil ser-
vice jobs on the basis of patronage, they
trouble with the police. He helps them fmd

employment when they are down on their luck.
He stands between them and the impacts of an
unsympathetic and altogether too careless social
structure in a sturdy and almost parental way.
I can quite believe what I was told, that in the
is
asked,
why
not
let ability
ing factor? Let applicants

the highest grades
be the decid-
who
received
on competitive exam-
inations, the reformers proposed, get

the jobs.
of many of these rough undesirables he's

almost the only decent influence. He gets
lives
Convinced
that the spoils
system led to
wives well treated, and he has an open heart
corruption,
*9
for children.
it
part the result of the spoils
very kind to
.6 is
helps
House Colfax. Although
tion's image.
in
".
These
excess profits went straight into the
9th-century
America,
more than $20
Pacific by
Americans
political
many
called for
civil
service reform.
that
makes
rush to get
its
my
plan public, and there

land.
Ain't
it
is
Civil service reform
York Tribune
perfectly
honest to charge a good price and make a
on my
profit
investment and foresight?
Well, that's honest graft.
New
1872 presidential
in the
race.
The Liberal Republican party was formed by
99
Republicans shocked over the Grant scandals and

of Reconstruction. The Democrats, hoping to
benefit
JCANDAL IN THE WHITE HOUSE

City bosses were not the only masters
at graft
D.C.. played the same games
and
often for even
higher stakes. This fact was brought
home
from the
split in the
Republican party, threw
their support to Greeley.
corruption, however. Politicians in Washington.
S.
the battle cry of
Horace Greeley, Grant's Liberal
RepubUcan opponent
tired
Ulysses
editor
was
T This New York newspaper cartoon satirized the

corrupt politicians of the times.
during
Grant's years in the White House.
Grant's
first
term
in office
was marred by
several scandals. In 1869 his brother-in-law helped
financier Jay
Gould attempt
to corner the gold
market. The attempt failed, pushing several

investors
Then
in
though not Gould
into financial ruin.
872 an even greater scandal surfaced, one
involving Grant's vice president, Schuyler Colfax.

In 1867, directors of the
Union Pacific Railroad
had formed the Credit Mobilier Company and then
had awarded the company contracts
to build a
WHO sToiETHEptcfirsoiifr?-j)o TaL.NY.TWE!
POLITICS
'TWA5
H>jv).
AND PROTEST
487
Liberal Republicans viewed the Credit

Mobilier scandal as a nail in Grant's political coffin.
pany did not
the election. His
and
President Hayes's efforts
But Grant, playing once again on his image as
a war hero, easily won reelection. Disheartened

and worn out. Greeley died just three weeks after
Hayes, known for his support of
seemed
it
much
longer,
that civil ser\ ice reform, too,
been dealt a death blow.
new
Hou ever,
had
continued expo-
the second Grant administra-
sure of corruption in
tion breathed
last
life
into the
civil service
reform (see Chapter 13 for details on election).
reform soon
at
w rath of his ow n party. The Republicans

had split into two factions nicknamed the
dre\% the
Stalwarts and the Half-breeds
over
the issue of
patronage. The Stalwarts, led by the haughty
New
Senator Roscoe Conkling of
York, strongly
opposed reform. Conkling referred
to the
proposed
merit system for government jobs as "snivel ser-
movement.
The Half-breeds,
vice."
led
by James G. Blaine of
Maine, claimed to support reform, but they also
wanted
The struggle for reform

Hoping
to
campaign
make
the corruption of the Grant years a
issue, the
Democrats nominated New-
York governor Samuel

tial
J.
Tilden as their presiden-
candidate in 1876. Tilden had
won
national
by helping break up the corrupt Tweed
attention
Ring. But the Republicans rode to victory with

their
to control patronage jobs.
Ha\ es chose not
to run for reelection in
880.
At the Republican Convention, the two factions

banled to control the party
won. naming James

dential candidate.
.A.
The Half-breeds
ticket.
Garfield as the party
To appease
"s
presi-
the Stalwarts, they
placed Conkling's political ally Chester A. Arthur
on the
nominee: Ohio sovernor Rutherford B.
nominee.
ticket as the vice presidential
Garfield edged out his Democratic rival.
War veteran General Winfield
Civil
Scott
Hancock, by fewer than 40.000 votes. But
I^tSIDENTIAL LIV^
victory
was
short-lived.
On
his
July 2, 1881.
Charles Guiteau (guh-TOH). a disappointed
and mentally unstable government job seeker.
RUTHERFORD
B.
HAYES
The deranged Guiteau believed
shot Garfield.
1822-1893
that killing Garfield
cause.
would
The shooting had
further the Stalwart
the opposite effect.
WTien
Garfield died in September. Chester A. .Arthur.

in office
though a Stalwart, sympathetically responded to
1877-1881
the calls for reform.

In 1883 President .Arthur helped gain passage
of the Pendleton Civil Service Act. w hich estab-
mmn
lished a Civil Service
ment jobs. The

At the time of
Rutherford
years
B.
his election to
Hayes was
In politics.
He had
city solicitor, as a U.S.
the presidency,
veteran of many
served as Cincinnati's
congressman, and as
governor of Ohio for three terms. But he found

the presidency hard work.
of this
life
he told
"I
am
returned to private
toil,"
After one term he gladly

life.
to administer
reform because
eral
was an important
step toward
enacted into law the idea that fed-
jobs below the policy-making level should be
filled
act
act
it
by
merit. Critics charged, however, that the
was of
limited value because
it
covered only
about 10 percent of federal jobs.
heartily tired
of bondage, responsibility, and
his wife.
Commission
competitive examinations to those seeking govern-
argued that the Civil

Service Act covered too few
federal jobs to be effective.
Critics
Angered by .Arthurs reform
efforts,
many
Stalwarts refused to support his bid for the 1884
Republican presidential nomination. Instead, they

cast their lot with
James Blaine,
the leader of the
Half-breeds. Blaine's nomination angered
488
CHAPTER
16
p^tSlDENTIAL UV^s
JAMES
CHESTER
GARFIELD
A.
ARTHUR
A.
\819-\88b
I83I-I88I
in office
in office
1881
l88i-l88S
21 CENTS 21
James A. Garfield was the
born
in
in
last
president to be
a log cabin. Garfield enjoyed his years
Congress but did not look forward to
the
White House. He
bleak mountain" and forecast that
good-bye to private
happy years which
The following
life
life
in
called the presidency "a

"I
am
bidding
and to a long series of
fear terminate
in
1880."
dead from an
year, Garfield lay
-<_
/<-V
Republican reformers,
date
"wallowed
<-- '
loved
life in
social
paperwork. Arthur
the executive mansion.
"He wanted
the best of everything," an employee recalled,
"and wanted
served
it
the best manner."
in
Tall
and handsome, with impeccable manners,

Arthur was
cal
called
Gentleman Boss by
followers, and
in
his politi-
White House he
the
as the Prince of Hospitality.
r~\^-//?i-<^'
who charged
in spoils like a
Algonquian word for big
Although
that the candi-
rhinoceros in an
Dubbed "mugwumps"
African pool."
side of the presidency to
became known
assassin's bullet.
^/^-^^
Chester A. Arthur much preferred the
(the
chiefs), these reformers
threw their support to the Democratic candidate,
his stand
party leaders, Cleveland

idential
nomination
in
on reform angered some
won
1888.
the Democratic pres-
To oppose him,
Republicans chose Benjamin Harrison of Indiana,

a grandson of the ninth president,
William Henry
Grover Cleveland. Like Tilden, Cleveland had
Harrison. After a dirty campaign, Cleveland
gained national attention when, as governor
the popular election
of
New
Tammany
York, he opposed
Hall.
Mudslinging, rather than a discussion of the

issues,
Hanison came out on top
in electoral votes, thus
The new president and Congress quickly

the reform efforts of Cleveland.
filled practically
A DVANCES AND SETBACKS

Proclaiming that "a public office
list
political
with
The Republicans
every job not on the
members of
their
own
civil service
party.
The 1890
War
became
Republican Congress spent so freely for Civil
a public trust,"
is
Cleveland entered the White House determined to
pensions and other pet projects that
known
it
as the Billion Dollar Congress.
reform and end the days when
government jobs were given only

political favors.
set
out to reward their supporters, thereby weakening
Cleveland won.
promote
won
by some 100,000 votes. But
winning the race.
the campaign. But in the end
marked
the
Toward
this end,
number of federal jobs requiring
in
reward for
he doubled the
civil service
exams.
President Harrison weakened the

reform efforts of President
Cleveland.
POLITICS
AND PROTEST
489
BENJAMIN HARRISON
GROVER CLEVELAND
1837-1908
833-/ 90/
\n office
in office
1
885- 1 889 and
1889-1893
1893-1897
Called Uncle
Jumbo
by his family, Grover
Grandson of
Cleveland was a large and genial man. Because
man, Benjamin Harrison was often compared
he was so insistent about government reform,
to earlier Harrisons,
however,
enemies
his
called
a child
wedlock. Refusing to participate
monopoly of
New
The
paign."
all
the dirt
Henry Harrison,
out of
the mud-
in this
retorted,
cam-
an honest man;
3.
He
He
an honest man;
2.
is
an honest man;
4.
He
He
>i-. ^^
J.
his grandfather.
Pendleton
Civil
Service Act,
am
the
man
merits."
was
unlike
Although Harrison was an
One
House
Iceberg."
up he seemed
dubbed him the "White
official
îy\^<::^^^'?^Â/t^^''^^^t^
REVIEW
Tweed
Ring, Schuyler Colfax,
James A. Garfield, Charles Guiteau, Chester A. Arthur,
mugwumps, Grover
Cleveland, Benjamin Harrison.
MAIN IDEA What led many Americans to call for

MAIN IDEA Why was the Pendleton Civil Service
CONTRASTING How did
own
aloof.
î-'-T.-^
believe that every
is
explain the significance of the following: Gilded Age,
Tilden, Rutherford B. Hayes,
effective public speaker, close
SECTION
Samuel
understood that
it
his
Ben" immediately
is
IDENTIFY and
at a political
Indeed, as president, Harrison
an honest man."
want
should stand on
York World defended
is
"I
"Little
grandson of nobody.
Cleveland, giving four reasons for supporting

the candidate: "I.
to his displeasure.
gathering as the grandson of President William
the
Cleveland replied: "The other side can
slinging,
have
in
in
much
Once when he was introduced
him His Obstinacy.
bachelor, Cleveland was accused
campaign of 1884 of fathering
I.
and son of a congress-
a president
civil
service reform?
Act
criticized?
President Harrison's reform record differ from that of President
Cleveland?
WRITING TO PERSUADE
wrong with the
spoils
IDENTIFYING CAUSE
Why
490
:i
CHAPTER
can
16
it
Imagine you are Horace Greeley. Write an editorial stating what
system and why Grant should be defeated
AND EFFECT Why did
in
the
872
is
election.
Charles Guiteau assassinate President Garfield?
be said that Guiteau's action did not have
its
intended effect?
LABOR STRIVES TO ORGANIZE
FOCUS
What was working
life like
for industrial laborers in the late
19th century?
What weakened support for the labor movement?

How did the government respond to labor disputes
in
the
890s?
reoccupied with political reform, the government overlooked one
of the major trends of the late 1800s
the growing gulf between the
haves and the have-nots. By 1890 close to 75 percent of the nation's

wealth was controlled by just 10 percent of the population. At the
same
time, nearly
below the poverty
50 percent of American
line.
Demanding
industrial workers lived
the right to share in the
country 5 prosperity, some workers organized labor unions.

South Carolina
worker,
from most factory jobs. Almost
The new working class
all
c.
southern textile
workers were white and native-bom. Cigar factories

did rely on African American workers
The demand
trial
new
for labor soared under the
order. Millions of
indus-
workers were needed
staff factories, construct
to
machines, furnish raw
materials,
and transport and
This great
demand was met, in large part, by the

who came to the United States
1800s. By 1900 one third of the coun-
finished goods.
sell
textile mil
1890
cleaned and sorted the leaves,

cigars
but
their
some 7.400 southern blacks held

remained
men made
numbers were few.
Most African Americans,

tied to the land
like
women
the
In 1891, only
industrial jobs.
most southerners,
and impoverished.
flood of immigrants
during the
try's industrial
workers were foreign-bom.
These immigrant workers were joined by hundreds of thousands of rural Americans

to the cities in search of jobs.
who moved
Among
this
group
were thousands of African Americans from the
who came
South
industrial work.
home
to
coal,
and iron
many
North
to the
Though
industries
tedious work.
painful
hope of securing
the postwar South

textiles,
was
tobacco, lumber,
African Americans were barred
Sorting tobacco leaves

ing,
in
in
cigar factories
The strong fumes
was
gruel-
often caused
eye disorders.
POLITICS
AND PROTEST
49!

Southern blacks hoped condilions would be
employment
better in the North. But industrial
remained out of reach tor most. The best jobs
went
still
native-born whiles or to immigrants.
to
African American
men
even those with
skills
generally found themselves confined to the dirtiest
or most dangerous
work or
to
such service-related
jobs as gardening or driving coaches.
women
African American
in
northern cities
competed with poor immigrant women

tic
for
domes-
jobs and unskilled factory work.
women African American

worked because they had
to
Most
or immigrant
work. As a
state offi-
Massachusetts noted, "a family of workers
cial in
can always live well, but the
man
with a family of
small children to support, unless his wife works

also, has a small
ranks of
chance of living properly." The
women workers more
than doubled
between 1870 and 1890 as wives, daughters, and

sisters
labored to put food on the table.
women
force
some
1900,
five million workers.
The number of children

doubled during
By 1890
this
close to 20 percent of
worked for wages.
American children
some
1.5 million in
In the textile mills of
North Carolina, for example, one

workers was a child. The
Massachusetts mills
work force
in the
period for the same reason.
between ages 10 and 15

all
By
accounted for about 15 percent of the labor
ratio
in
every four
was much lower
in
in 20. In other places,
countless boys and girls worked
in
garment
home, making clothing or other
factories or at
items by the piece. Others labored in the nation's
mines, canneries, and shoe factories, or they
roamed
the streets shining shoes, selling
newspa-
pers, collecting scrap, running errands, or
delivering packages.
In
the
870s the Knights of Labor campaigned
for legislation to protect child workers. But chil-
dren continued to experience wretched working

conditions throughout the next few decades.
IV<ORKING CONDITIONS
Children in the labor force faced terrible conditions. In
some
textile mills, for instance, children
worked 12-hour
nies a day. But
shifts
all
often
at
night
for pen-
industrial workers, regardless
of age, sex, or race, labored long hours for
worked
at least
less than
Most unskilled male
laborers
10 hours a day, 6 days a week, for
$10 a week. Many African American,
Mexican American, and Asian American men

worked the same number of hours for even lower
492
::
CHAPTER
16
And employers made few
women
and children, expecting them
same number of hours

little
as
men
allowances for
for
to
work
the
sometimes as
as half the pay.
Such long hours
little
pay. Conditions were especially rough for

unskilled workers.
wages.
left
workers exhausted
at the
end of the day. And fatigue increased the danger
in
already unsafe working surroundings. In 1881

alone,
some 30,000
injured on the job.
railroad workers
Most employers
sibility for work-related deaths
made
little
effort to
were
felt
killed or
no respon-
and injuries and
improve workplace
safety.
Workers who lived
in a
company town,
town where a company owned the housing and
the
businesses, faced special problems. These workers
usually received their wages in scrip
money
that
company
at
could be used only to pay rent to the
or to buy goods at
company
paper
stores
company
were usually much higher than
at
like
food and clothing.
For most industrial laborers,

working life meant long hours of
toil for little pay and few benefits.
remained largely a white male organi-
It
when Terence V. Powderly, an

Catholic machinist and mayor of Scranton.
1879.
zation until
Irish
Pennsylvania, became
its
leader.
workers
other unions.
union's ranks.
number of women, such
Cork, Ireland,
in
organizer for the Knights
1800s, but after 1850, organizing efforts went
place
national.
is
One of the earliest national unions was the

Knights of Labor, founded in 1869 by nine
Philadelphia garment workers led by Uriah
strikes,
of Labor. Declaring that her
was "wherever
there
a fight," she organized
marches,
and
demonstrations. Her activities
earned her the
most dangerous
Powderly is shown here surrounded
by other influential leaders of the Knights of Labor.
1861.
1870s, at the invitation of
Street would have to listen. Workers formed a

number of local unions in the first half of the
T Terence V.
in
she devoted herself to the
Powderly, she became an
New
Harris
six years later,
York's Wall
on
Mary
married George Jones, a union supporter,
labor movement. In the
capitalists
in 1830,
United States as a young child. She
to the
As conditions worsened, workers clamored for

change. They knew that alone they could do little.
and the
Mary
in the
Knights of Labor.
Widowed
they banded together, the factory owners, the
as
Harris Jones, played prominent roles
The knights of labor

if
to
who were often excluded from

He therefore opened the union's
doors to both skilled and unskilled laborers. He
also welcomed thousands of women into the
attract
Bom
But
his leader-
Powderly wanted the Knights of Labor
came
politicians,
Under
membership mushroomed.
ship the Knights"
stores. Prices
regular stores, and workers often spent whole pay-
checks on necessities
Stephens.
title
"the
woman
in
America.'" But because she
looked more motherly than

radical,
most people called
her Mother Jones.
Jones was sentenced to 20 years
in jail for
her part in a 1912 West Virginia strike, but a public

outcry caused the governor of the state to free her.
Mother Jones continued
fighting for the rights of
America's working people
until her death, at
age
100, in 1930.
Powderly also opened the union
By
Americans.
to
African
the mid- 1880s the Knights claimed
some 60.000 black members. At
the Knights' 1886
national convention in Richmond, Virginia,

African American delegate Frank Ferrell told the
crowd:
One
of the objects of our
Order
is
the abolition of these distinctions which are
My expewe have
maintained by creed or color. ...

rience
worked so
[has] taught
me
far successfully
that
toward the extinc-
tion of these regrettable distinctions.
POLITICS
**
AND PROTEST
!:
493
Not
The
agreed with FcrreH's assessment.

Knights of Labor prevent
ment because
am
mason from North

the
however,
Ai'rican Aiiiciican Knights,
all
me from
getting
white
employ-
a colored man." complained a
Carolina, "although
same organization."
Still,
belong to
the Knights did
more
workers more willing

ing conditions being
1
The Knights were

it
came
to
and violent labor confrontations
known
as the
not equality-minded
when
welcomed some European immigrants to the

union, he. like many working-class Americans,
actively opposed Chinese workers, claiming they
work-
the Knights. In
By
that
Great Upheaval,
riding the crest of
immense
would become
were
the Knights
popularity.
1886, American workers were primed
An economic
for action.
everyone, however. Although Powderly
championed by
886, as the nation entered a year of intense strikes
than other early unions to try to meet the needs of
African American workers.
to press for the better
depression
in the early
1880s had led to massive wage cuts. Workers
needed
and demanded
tions with
management
By
direct action.
relief.
failed,
When
negotia-
many workers took
end of 1886. some 1,500
the
more than 400.000 workers,
strikes, involving
from white Americans. At his urging,
had swept the nation. Many of these strikes
West Coast branches of the Knights
turned violent, as angry strikers clashed head-on
of Labor vigorously campaigned for passage of
with their employers and the police. Perhaps the
the Chinese Exclusion Act.
most notorious of these confrontations was the
stole jobs
for instance.
Powderly led the Knights of Labor for

years.
Under
15
Haymarket
Riot.
The seeds
his leadership, the union fought for
for the
Haymarket Riot were sown
equal work, and an end to child labor.
when some 40,000 Chicago workers struck on

May 1, 1886. The strike was launched by the local
union boasted
craft unions, but
temperance, the eight-hour workday, equal pay for
By 1886, the
membership of more than
it
soon
fell
under the leadership of
a group of political radicals and anarchists (people
700,000.
who oppose
all
forms of government).
On May
3 a
confrontation between the police and the strikers

picketing the
The great upheaval

ful strike that the
harvester plant
left
strikers dead. In protest, the strikers called a
The Knights' phenomenal growth was due

to the great railroad strike of '1877
McCormick
and
in part
to a success-
Knights had launched against
road baron Jay Gould in 1884. Both strikes
rail-
made
for the next
day
in
two
meeting
Chicago's Haymarket Square.
Peaceful and sparsely attended, the rally was about

to
break up when nearly 200 police officers
appeared. Suddenly a
bomb exploded
in the
midst
of the police. The police responded with

gunfire.
both English and German, posters asked workingmen to

"appear in full force" at Chicago's Haymarket Square on May 3, 1886,
to protest the killing of two strikers. When an unknown person threw
a bomb, violence quickly erupted.
Printed
in
When
the
smoke
cleared,
than 70 people lay wounded.
more
The day's
rioting also resulted in the deaths of seven
police officers and one civilian.
The police arrested eight wellknown anarchists only one of whom
had attended the meeting

them with incitement
to murder. All eight
*ftmo
CHAPTER
16
A^&
charging
iaun
onr
Cabor strikes, 1890-1900

STRIKES INCREASE
The strike became the chief means for workers to improve wages and
working conditions.
LOCATION
Where
did the majority of railroad-related strikes occur?
1886 HAYMARKET RIOT

Bomb
rally:
kills
up labor
police breaking
public turns against workers.
^^
1875-1876
MOLLY MAGUIRES
Rij
miners accused of murdering
Irish
foreman; 24 convicted,
10 hanged.
1892 HOMESTEAD STRIKE

Skilled
iron
and
Carnegie Steel
steel
workers' stnke at
Company
fails.
Great railroad
1877
strike of
Other railroad
**
strike
Miners' strike
Other
strike
or riot
Counties with strike

activity,
were found
final
guilty; four
day of the
tiial.
went
to the gallows.
On
the
one of the defendants warned;
Americans or others who

unions.
As
felt
1881-1900
abandoned by the
labor suffered repeated defeats and as
the tide of public sentiment turned against workers,
Schaack, and
we
us,
union membership
have told [Chicago Police] Captain
shall
stand by
it,
"if
you cannonade
bombs"; but
let
me
assure you
on the gallows, so confident am

hundreds and thousands to
spoken
will
will
shrank.
Many
dynamite you." You laugh!
Perhaps you think, "you'll throw no more
were
of the workers
in skilled trades.
who remained
Alarmed by
in
unions
the violence of
die happy
1886 and by the response of the employers, these
that the
workers broke ranks with the unskilled and joined
whom
remember my words;
do the bomb throwing!
including the Knights'
have
the
newly formed American Federation of Labor
(AFL). founded by Samuel Gompers
they
**
AFL was
in 1886.
The
a collection of independent skilled craft
unions committed to working together to advance
But worker activism actually decreased by the

close of the year.
Emboldened by
conviction, employers struck back.
blacklists
lists
the
They drew up
of union supporters
that they
shared with one another. Blacklisted workers found

it
almost impossible to get jobs.
also
made job
applicants sign agreements
When
workers struck anyway,
in
the 1886 strikes.
called
promising
these measures failed and
many companies
instituted
lockouts, barring workers from the plant, and

brought
Support for the labor movement

was weakened by the violence of
Many employers
yellow-dog contracts by the workers

not to join unions.
the interests of skilled workers (see Chapter 17).
Haymarket
nonunion strikebreakers, often African
The HOMESTEAD
AND PULLMAN
STRIKES
After a few years of relative peace, industrial
unrest broke out again in 1892. At
POLITICS
Andrew
AND PROTEST
495
4 The
struggle
has developed into a
contest between the producing classes and

the
money povêr
of the country.
We
stand
upon the ground that the workingmen are

entitled to a just proportion of the pro-
ceeds of their labor
The railroad companies came to George

Pullman's rescue by threatening to fire any
worker who refused to handle Pullman cars. In
:<^'^
-^-v^fe^)
response, railroad workers tied up
Pullman strikers in 1894 blocked trains, sabotaged railroad

switches, and drove engineers from railway cars to protest
wage
99
rail traffic
throughout the Midwest. The railroad companies

quickly turned to the federal government for help.
cuts.
By
attaching mail cars to the Pullman cars, the
Carnegie's Homestead steel plant in Pennsylvania,
railroads gave the
manager Henry Clay Frick announced a wage
strike
In
June the workers went on
cut.
strike. Frick
responded by instituting a lockout and hiring some
300 detectives
between
guard the plant.
to
strikers
and the detectives
resulted in 16 deaths.
other plants. Order
violent clash
July
in early
The violence soon spread
was restored only
militiamen were called
On May
11.
in
1894. workers at the Pullman
sleeping-car factor}' in Chicago went on strike.
The
owner. George Pullman, had cut wages while refusing to lower rents or prices at the stores in his
pany town. Eugene
V. Debs,
Urging other union members

Pullman
cars.
venting mail delivery. The government
demanded
IDENTIFY and
the strike.
When Debs and
other .-XRU officials ignored the order, they were

jailed.
Meanwhile. President Cleveland ordered federal troops into
Chicago on July
4.
sparking vio-
wounded and
produced hundreds of thousands of dollars

erty
in
prop-
damage. Within a few days, however, the
troops had restored order. In the process, the
Pullman
strike
had been broken and the
ARU
destroyed.
During the
890s the government sided with business against

the labor unions.
strikers.
to boycott all trains
Debs proclaimed:
SECTION
Terence
.ARU end
that the
head of the American
Railway Union (ARU), backed the Pullman
that included
com-
ay to block the
were pre-
lence that left scores dead or
in.
Labor disputes sparked more violence

1894.
\\
that the strikers
to
after state
government a
on the grounds
REVIEW
company town,
scrip.
'.
...
Knights of Labor,
Powderly, Mary Harris Jones. Great Upheaval. Haymarket Riot, anarchists,
blacklists,
yellow-
dog contracts, lockouts, strikebreakers. American Federation of Labor
LOCATE
and explain the importance of the following: Haymarket Square. Homestead steel
plant.
Pullman sleeping-car factory.

I.
2.
3.
MAIN IDEA Describe working life for most industrial laborers in late- 9th-century America.
MAIN IDEA How did the strikes of 1886 weaken the labor movement?
ASSESSING CONSEQUENCES How did business and the government respond to labor
1
activism
4.
in
the late 1800s?

union
in
management
5.
State
why you
EVALUATING Why
might
CHAPTER
16
in
work
member
rules
of an industrial workers'
and conditions to present to
think these changes should be made.

it
Powderly seem contradictory?
496
Imagine you are a
the late 1800s. Write a proposal for changes
be said that the Knights of Labors recruitment policies under
AND DEPRESSION
FARMERS, POPULISM,
c u s
What problems did American farmers face during the late 800s?
What did the Grange and Alliance movements and the Populist party
1
hope to achieve?
Why did
the Populists
fail in
America's farmers suffered
the 1896 election?
many hardships during
the
late 1800s. Like industrial workers,
farmers organized
their share
to
of prosperity. This drive
in the founding
to
win
organize culminated
of the People's, or Populist, party.
severe
economic depression helped the Populists gain strength

during the early 1890s. However, the party's later focus
on a single issue^ree silver
led to
its
downfall.
Farm
XhE
The development of the new

offered fresh opportunities for
The
In the late
FARMERS' PLIGHT
family, 1881
800s, farmers were

burdened with crushing debt as
the prices of farm products fell
and costs increased.
industrial order
American farmers.
rapidly growing population in the industrial
centers needed feeding.
The farmers responded,

each year raising more crops and animals.
To farmers, the situation seemed terribly

unfair. The merchants who sold farm equipment
Unfortunately for the Americans, farmers in Great
and other supplies were making money. Also pros-
Britain, Russia,
Canada, Argentina, Australia, and
other nations did the same.
Soon
prices tumbled as
pering were the bankers
and the railroads
that
who
lent farmers
money
hauled the farmers' grain and
supply exceeded demand. But railroad freight
livestock to market. All that the farmers had to
charges continued to spiral upward, as did the cost
show
of
new
machinery.
As farm
profits plunged,
many
for long days of backbreaking labor
were
ris-
ing debts. Something had to be done.
farmers bought more land and increased production.
Greater production, however, only pushed
prices even lower.
To make matters worse, almost

lies
had borrowed money
to
pay for
all
their land or to
buy new equipment, generally putting
up as
security.
Many ended up
farmers, paying rent to the

to
their
farms
Those who could not repay the
loans lost their farms.
were forced
farm fami-
become farm
as tenant
new owners. Others
laborers.
The grange movement

In an effort to better their lot. farmers organized.
The
first
major farmers' organization, the Patrons
of Husbandry, or the National Grange, was
founded by Oliver Hudson Kelley

set
in 1867.
Kelley
up the Grange primarily as a social organiza-
tion.
But as membership increased and farmers'
POLITICS
AND PROTEST
497
<^
/f
40- 1
-a
crop*
Sugarcane^''
D:,p'-
Mice
^ -i^v
120
90
W
600 Miles
300
600 Kilometers
300
SOW
Atben Equal-Area Proiection
1900
Agricultural Regions,
AGRICULTURAL ABUNDANCE
States has been able to feed
PLACE
financial
ling
What
its
Due
to
own people and
kind of agriculture
is
its
to
found
size
and
its
varied soils and climates, the United
produce a surplus for export.
the industrial states of the Northeast?
in
problems grew, the Grange began tack-
economic and
To lower
some Grange members
costs,
in
The
1887.
act
prohibited railroads from giving secret rebates, or

refunds, to large shippers or from charging
more
markets and
for short hauls than for long hauls over the
same
bought farm equipment and other goods

quantities at wholesale prices
in large
thereby cutting
But the Grange's main focus was on forcing
costs.
line.
It
also stated that railroad rates had to be "rea-
sonable and just." To monitor railroad activities,
Commission
1870s. responding to pressure from farmers, the
to enforce its rulings.
of
Illinois.
Iowa. Minnesota, and
Wisconsin passed "Granger laws," which

state
commissions
Many
to fix
maximum
railroads challenged the
Supreme Court
in
Munn
v.
up
like railroads
always ruled
Illinois
United
(1877)
that
involved the
The alliance movement

While the Grange was struggling
for railroad legislation, a
organization
Beginning
its
decision. State gov-
ernments, the Court ruled, had no power to regulate traffic that
Only
the federal
CHAPTER
16
moved
across state boundaries.
government had
took railroads to
in the railroads" favor.
Wabash
qualified
it
power
court for violating the law. the courts almost
public interest. But 10 years later the Court, in

v. Illinois,
When
little
Granger laws
declared that state legislatures had the right to regulate businesses
ICC had
(ICC). But the
railroad rates.
in the courts. In a victory for farmers, the
States
set
Commerce
the act created the Interstate
states to regulate railroad freight rates. In the early
state legislatures
::
Commerce Act
formed cooperatives. Cooperative members sold

their products directly to big-city
498
This decision led directly to the passage of

the Interstate
political issues.
that right.
in
the
Texas
to
win the
Farmers' Alliance
in
fight
more powerful farm
arose.
1877. the Alliance move-
ment quickly spread. Debt-ridden farm families

grasped the Alliance message of solidarity and
hope
like a
drowning person clinging
to a log.
By
War: expand the money supply by print-
more greenbacks,
ing
money
the paper
used during the war. The resulting
would benefit farmers by allowing
tion
them
charge more for their farm prod-
to
and by making
ucts
infla-
it
them
easier for
to
repay their bank loans.
Such prospects alarmed eastern

They wanted the money supply
bankers.
tied to the
African American farmers joined the Colored Farmers'

Alliance to protect their interests against monopolies and
unfair freight prices.
Shown here are
Virginia
gold standard. Under
this sys-
tem, each dollar was equal to and
homesteaders
redeemable for a
during the 1890s.
set
amount of gold, and
amount of money
the
limited by the
in circulation was
amount of gold held in
the U.S. Treasury.
1890 the movement claimed some 400.000
mem-
Siding with the bankers, the government
bers in three organizations: the National Farmers*
began withdrawing greenbacks from circulation.
Alliance of the Northwest, the all-white Southern
Farmers responded by demanding
Alliance, and the Colored Farmers* Alliance.
ment back the money supply with
Alliance leaders traveled the country, urging
people to take action.
Among
most effective
the
was Mar) Elizabeth Lease from Kansas. "The
common
great
people of this country are slaves, and
monopoly
the master." she told her audiences:
is
plentiful in the
to pressure.
politicians said
we
suffered from
overproduction. Overproduction,
1
0,000
children, so statistics
little
starve to death every year

States.
We
will
in
the United
stand by our
homes and
stay by
our
fireside by force
we
will
not pay our debts to the loan-
and
shark companies
its
debts to
us.
until
if
necessary,
it
government bought so
supph did not increase
into coins.
buy
in
sil-
But because
little silver,
money
the
noticeably.
Disappointed. Alliance
members
them-
thre\\
selves into the 1890 elections, supporting any candi-
date
who
results
accepted their pro-farmer programs. The
were remarkable. Alliance-backed candidates
won 38
U.S. congressional seats. 4 southern gover-
norships, and
numerous other poUtical
offices.
99
cooperatives to buy equipment and to market farm

It
Sherman Siher Purchase Act
the government pays
Like the Grange, the Alliance organized

products.
Congress passed the Bland-Allison Act
month and mint
ver each
when
tell us,
(which was
890. Both acts required the government to
the
The
silver
West) as well as with gold. Bowing
1878 and the
in
govern-
that the
also offered farmers low-cost insur-
The populist party

Elated. Alliance leaders sought to build
successes by forming a
new
on these
political party.
At a
ance and lobbied for tougher bank regulations,
national convention in St. Louis in Februar\ 1892.
government ownership of the railroads, and a

graduated income tax that taxed higher incomes
a gathering of farmers, labor leaders, and reformers
at
founded the People's
commonly known
a higher rate.
party,
which became more
as the Populist party. Politician
and author Ignatius Donnelly of Minnesota opened
The Grange and Farmers* Alliance

movements sought economic
and
political gains for
farmers.
the convention with a thunderous address:
We meet
in
the midst of a nation
brought to the verge of moral,
political,
and
material ruin. Corruption dominates the ballot-box, the Legislatures, the Congress.
The MONEY QUESTION

The Alliance
ers
also echoed the
demand
We
that farm-
had been makins since the end of the Civil
seek to restore the government of the
Republic to the hands of the "plain

people."
*T
POLITICS
AND PROTEST
499
I^tSDENTIAL LlVBs
The Populists nominated James

Weaver
tion against
WILLIAM McKINLEY
/
Republican Benjamin Harrison,
Cleveland, the
Democrat Grover
former president who had lost to
Harrison
1888 election. Weaver had run for
the
843-/ 90/
B.
1892 presidential elec-
to run in the
incumbent,
in the
and
in office
president
1897-1901
ticket in 1880.
lost
and
on the
Greenback parly
won
the 1892 election.
Cleveland
But the Populist party elected 3 senators,

gressmen, 3 governors, and numerous
And Weaver
tors.
1 1
con-
state legisla-
polled a very respectable one
million popular votes, carrying four western states
and 22 electoral votes.

William McKinley used presidential power so
newspaper con-
effectively that a Republican
cluded:
country
"No
.
executive
the history of the
in
has given a greater exhibition of his
influence over Congress." Even his political ene-
mies respected
his tact
Speaker of the House
tooth and
William
Tom Reed
"My opponents
with envy,
nail,
when
and persuasiveness.
in
McKinley
at
me
but they always apologize to
they are going to
A courteous manner
in
said of him,
Congress go
private
life
as well.
to protecting and caring for
call
him names."
characterized
He was devoted
his
wife
Ida,
who
suffered headaches and seizures that often kept
her from
fulfilling
her role as First Lady.
He
Depression, discontent,
AND GOLD
In
May
companies
If
she fainted, he would tend to her
failed.
The
failure triggered a financial
panic on Wall Street that sent stock prices plunging.
The country quickly
slid into
New
alone. In
York City 20,000 homeless people
sought shelter
in jails. Strikes
and protests swept
the country.
The depression had many
causes, including a
worldwide financial panic. But President

the Sherman
to focus on one
Cleveland chose
and yet carry right on with conversation so as
not to embarrass
her.
Silver Purchase Act, which required the govern-
ment
to
pay for silver purchases with Treasury
notes redeemable in either gold or
.^Câ-^^^CJZ^
an economic
By the end of 1893. some three million

were
people
unemployed 100,000 in Chicago
depression.
stayed close to her during state dinners and

receptions.
1893. only two months after Cleveland
took office, one of the country's leading railroad
silver.
As new
silver finds decreased the value of the metal, peo-
ple rushed to
exchange
their notes for gold. This
action put a terrible strain on the Treasury's gold
To protect the gold standard and to

restore confidence in the economy, Cleveland
called for repeal of the Sherman Silver Purchase
reserves.
The party platform echoed Grange and

Alliance demands: a graduated income tax, bank
telegraph companies, and the free coinage of

ver.
Act. Congress complied in October 1893.
government ownership of railroad and
regulation,
Appealing
to the labor
sil-
and reform votes, the
IhE ELECTION OF
1896
platform also called for immigration restrictions, a

shorter workday, and voting reforms.
Cleveland's actions salvaged the gold standard, but

they did not end the debate on the
Silver
The
Populist party platform
addressed many of the concerns

of farmers, laborers, and political
reformers.
500
::
CHAPTER
became
money
supply.
a central issue in the 1896 election.
The Republicans gave
the presidential nomi-
nation to Ohio governor William
McKinley and
adopted a conservative platform upholding the

gold standard.
deeply
split
Democratic party
1896
Election of
While Bryan
FREE SILVER
traveled 13,000
The Democratic party's spht over the
miles and gave 600

speeches during
the 1896 campaign, McKinley
stayed home and
REGION
on the front porch

of his Ohio home. Ribbons from
McKinley's campaign are shown here.
Which areas
his
gold
\ M
{
WY
3
NE
NV
3
advocate William
UT
fT
10
NtW
ARIZONA
TERRITORY
MEXICO
Jennings Bryan, a two-term congressman
TERRITORY
from Nebraska. The Populists
SD
10
3
rejected President Cleveland, finally nomi-
free-silver
OR
4
VT 4
^.
ND
MT
9*
!:'.i
their free-
up by the Democratic
silver platform taken
threw
backed McKinley and
party
silver
standard platform?
received visitors
nating
issue of free
enabled hcKinley and the Republicans to capture the White House.
their support to Bryan.
Bryan swept the South and much of
made no headway
the West, but he
the urban industrial East or in the

industrial
When
and farm
states of the
the popular votes
Electoral
Popular
%of
Vote
Vote
Popular Vote
McKinley
27!
7.102.246
51.1
Bryan
176*
6.492.559
46.7
315.398
2.3
at all in
mixed
Midwest.
were counted,
Other
McKinley had edged out Bryan by some

500,000 votes. The Populists were in
shock free silver had proved too weak an
*One
elector in California
and one
McKinley
iJ
(Republican)
Bryan
(Democratic)
Kentucky voted for Bryan.
in
issue for a national campaign, and urban workers
and immigrants had found

to
them
in the
The
little
that
had appealed
groundwork
Populist platform laid the
reform (see Chapter
As
17).
for future
Populist leader
Mary
Elizabeth Lease noted in 1914, "The seeds
PopuHsts' agenda.
election defeat and the arrival of better
sowed out
Kansas did not
in
fall
we
on barren ground."
times for farmers essentially ended the power of the
Populist party.
It
nevertheless stands as the
example of a large-scale
group
in the
modem
cal process to
effort
New prosperity among farmers
first
and the decline of the
by a disadvantaged
issue led to the collapse of the
industrial era to use the politi-
advance
its interests.
free-silver
Populist party.
Furthermore, the
SECTION
REVIEW
IDENTIFY and explain the significance of the following: cooperatives, Interstate Commerce Act,
Interstate Commerce Commission, Mary Elizabeth Lease, graduated income tax, gold standard, BlandAllison Act,
Sherman
Silver
Purchase Act, Populist party, James
B.
Weaver, William McKinley, William
Jennings Bryan.
I.
2.
MAIN IDEA What serious problems did

MAIN IDEA What were the main goals
American farmers face

of the
GEOGRAPHY: REGION What

election? In
4.
what areas
why
the Alliance
What
platform?
regions of the nation did William Jennings Bryan win
Imagine you are Mary Elizabeth Lease
movement was necessary and
ANALYZING Why did
political
its
in
the 1896
did he poll the fewest votes?
WRITING TO EXPLAIN
ing
Grange and Farmers' Alliance movements?
did the Populist party try to accomplish through

3.
in
expansion of the
money
in
1914.
Write an essay
explain-
describe the legacy of the Populist party.
supply appeal to farmers but not to eastern bankers?
POLITICS
AND PROTEST
501
..
Mark Twain and

Charles Dudley
Knights of
Labor founded.
Warner
publish
Rutherford
The Gilded Age.
CHAPTER
16
WRITING A SUMMARY
2.
summary
write a
Number
and
list
to
5.
Study the time

in
ond next to
1
2.
3.
Sherman
2.
the order
above,
the secactivity.
2.
Civil
5.
Credit Mobiiier scandal surfaces.
many
strike occurs.
How were
politi-
they divided?
have gained
more ground if the strikes of 1886 had not

become so violent?
Analyzing Why did the Interstate Commerce
Silver
Purchase Act repre-
How
Evaluating
did the focus of reform efforts
the Homestead steel strike
strikes of the period?
IDENTIFYING PEOPLE
groups
change from the 1870s to the 1890s?
Homestead
typical of
3.
Service Act passed.
How was
different
sent only partial victories for reformers?
4.
Synthesizing
conditions?
Act and the Sherman
Purchase Act passed.
National Grange founded.
Pendleton
How were
THINKING CRITICALLY
1. Hypothesizing How might workers
which
in
next to
first
line
Silver
Cultural Diversity
cal
of the chapter.
your paper
president.
of people united by changing economic and
B.
Hayes elected
National Grange
founded.
AND

and Graphs beginning on page 996. Then study the
Review the
Skills
graph below.
IDEAS
change
What
Knights'
in
might account for the dramatic
membership before and
after 1886?
Gilded Age
Tweed Ring
6.
Terence
2.
7.
lockouts
1.
V.
Powderly
3.
Charles Guiteau
8.
cooperatives
4.
Grover Cleveland
9.
Mary
5.
Mary Harris Jones
10.
What problems
Elizabeth Lease
2.
Why
3.
What
did
in
6-
4-
gold standard
American
did
and farmers face
industrial
workers
the late 1800s?
some Americans support
Dc
3
civil
service
reform?
1880
position did the
government take
labor disputes of the late

4.
How
5.
What
THE KNIGHTS OF LABOR,

1880-1890
IN
8n

1
MEMBERSHIP
in
1882
the
1884
1886
1888
1890
Year
800s?
Source;
TTie
Labor Movement
in
the United States
did the Populist party represent the interests
of farmers, laborers, and political reformers?
caused the Populist party to lose the 1896
election?

Writing to Explain Imagine you
REVIEWING THEMES
I .
steps did reformers
take to bring about political and economic change

in
502
American society
CHAPTER
16
in
are
Mary Harris
Jones and have been invited to be the guest speaker at
the late 1800s?
a rally for the Alliance
explaining
how
movement. Write
a speech
the Alliance can use the techniques of
unions such as the Knights of Labor.
James A. Garfield
Grover Cleveland
Sherman
elected president.
elected president.
Purchase Act
Benjamin
Pendleton
Haymarket
Civil Service
"^
Riot occurs
Act passed.
ii
Homestead
occurs. Populist
president.
party founded.
Georgia farmer
in
Read the poem below, written by

1890.
Then
explain
how
it
reflects
the problems that led to the formation of farmers'

groups.
What was
strike
William McKinley
elected president.
4.
I
the late 19th century, farmers faced a variety of
railroad price-fixing.
strike occurs.
Harrison
problems, from unpredictable weather and pests to
Pullman
r passed.
elected

In
Silver
..
BUILDING YOUR
PORTFOLIO
the most severe problem?
cooperatively.
^We worked through
spring and
summer
1.
through winter and through fall;
you explored
But the mortgage worked the hardest
It
It
from the
social conflicts arising
South seeking a job
rural
industrial city.
Write
2.
seemed
in
a northern
In
chapters 14 and 15 you were a land speculator

theft;
watched us eveiy minute and ruled
Nebraska. Building on that
in
experience, imagine that your
and left
The rust and blight was with us
sometimes, and sometimes not;
The dark brown scowling mortgage was
us right
town
is
a reality
and has become a thriving railroad hub

linking cattle ranchers, farmers,
and area manufacturers and
merchants to eastern mar-
forever on the spot.
kets. Local
members
the Grange are up
The weevil and the cut worm, they
of
in
arms over the cost of
went as well they came;
shipping their products by
The mortgage stayed forever, eating
rail.
Prepare a speech to
deliver to the state legisla-
hearty all the same

It
in
a short play that describes the
securing employment.
planning a railhead
It
from westward
competition for urban jobs and the problems you

are facing
it
chapters 14 and 15
experience, imagine you are an African American
went away.
Whatever we kept from
In
expansion and immigration. Building on that
and the steadiest of them all;

worked on night and Sunday, it
worked each holiday;
settled down among us and it never
almost as bad as
SOCIAL CONFLICT
ture supporting passage of a
nailed up every window, stood
series of
gua?'d at every door;
And happiness and sunshine made
their
3.
place with us no more.99
Granger
REFORM
In
laws.
Chapter
trayed a settlement-house
15
you por-
worker
Building
on that
experience, imagine you are a labor leader organizing a union
in
the late 1800s. Create a poster
designed to persuade
Review the map on page 495.
In
and recent immigrants to
most labor
Why
strikes take place?
which region did
do you think
women,
African Americans,
join the union.
this
was so?
POLITICS
AND PROTEST
503
UNITS
merican
jVlark Swain's America
Samuel Lcinghorne Clemens
remains one of America
American character.
's
greatest humorists
to run their keelboats
Mark Twain
The river's earliest commerce

was in great barges keelboats,
broadhorns. They floated and
sailed
from the upper
rivers to
Nev^ Orleans, changed cargoes

there, and
were tediously warped
A voyage
and poled back by hand.
down and back sometimes

pied nine months.
commerce
In
down-
stream, and the steamers did
Mississippi
by
Twain explores
time
occu-
this
increased until
it
gave
all
of
boating prosperity, the river from
end to end was flanked with coalfleets
selling their
boats
in
New
Orleans, and returning
home
as deck-passengers in
and timber-rafts,
By way of
illustrating
The keelboatman became
deckhand, or a mate, or a
the steamer; and
pilot
on
when steamer-
were not open to him, he

berth on a Pittsburgh coal-
drinkers, coarse frolickers
sources of the Mississippi.
or on a pine
raft
constructed
the forests up toward the
now
departed and hardly remem-
bered
which
raft
will
throw
chapter from a book
is
a story
passages
in
which
the
ignorant village boy,
bankrupt at the end of the
braggarts; yet,
in
finery,
trip,
prodigious
the main, honest,
trustworthy, faithful to promises
and duty, and often picturesquely
magnanimous.
By and by the steamboat
intruded. Then, for fifteen or
twenty years, these
504
UNIT
men
continued
life
at.
details
of an
Huck
Finn,
son of the town drunkard. ...
He
has run away from his persecuting

father,
and from a persecuting
good widow who wishes to make
the Natchez-
fond of barbaric
in, in
have been working
The book
some
life,
under-the-hill of that day, heavy
foul-witted,
the keel-
this place, a
death.
in
jolly,
have
then keelboating died a permanent
flat,
profane, prodigal of their money,
boat talk and manners, and that
in
with sailor-like stoicism; heavy
one, elephantinely
number and
in speed that they were able to
absorb the entire commerce; and
boats so increased
brave, suffering terrific hardships
every
whom
been trying to describe.
But after a while the steam-
took
fighters, reckless fellows,
managed
all
by hand, and employing hosts of

the rough characters
the steamers.
and hardy men; rude, uneducated,
sties like
the heyday of the steam-
In
boatmen
berths
in
Mark Twain
the upstream business, the keel-
employment to hordes of rough
moral
life in
the Mississippi River and Washington, D.C.
on the
ife
and chroniclers of the
In the following two selections,
two very different settings
From
Mark Twain to generations of readers
T Mississippi riverboat
a nice, truth telling respectable
boy of
hinn;
and with him a slave
grow corn
in his
wanted
He
of the widow's has also escaped.
They have found
lumber-raft
high
(it is
"You look
fragment of a
water and
dead summer-time), and are

floating
down
the willows by day
hiding
in
bound
for Cairo,
Negro
the
by night, and
river
seek freedom
will
the fog, they have passed Cairo
without knowing
if
There are thousands of these
he
employes, and they have gathered
at the graveyards;
Union and got
through the intercession (com-
in
a Cincinnati
mand
Sent Louis
graveyard, but
in a
graveyard they
grow upwards
hundred foot
high.
of
It's all
on
account of the water the people

laid up.
ming down to
huge
From
TAie Qilded
Mark Twain and

Dudley Warner
by
Age
Charles
Washington almost
by eavesdropping:
ly
along the
raft
till
was most abreast the campfire
the middle, then
and inched along and got
some
shingles
of the
men
among
in
on the weather
side
There was thirteen
fire.
there
in
crawled aboard
they was the watch
on deck of course. And a mighty

rough-looking
too.
lot,
that
you
let a pint
Mississippi
water
and then
was
put
up
the
warn't no
and when the water
down
chief, clear
who
.
alike."
Influence. Unless
member
of
who
doesn't
anything, and does not
want to go
into the bother of
learning something, and has
no
money, and no employment, and
to the maid
scrubs the Department
represents
you are
of your constituents
know
employ-
ment, from the highest bureau
halls
can't earn a living,
you for
Political
you can get the
my
friend,
comes
besieging
"Come,
if your services were
help,
do you
say,
ear of a Senator, or a
valuable you could get employ-
Congressman, or
ment elsewhere don't want you

here?" Oh, no. You take him to a
Department and say, "Here, give
suade him to use

in
your
behalf,
"influence."
Chief of a
his "influence"
you cannot get an
this
person something to pass
The population
of
and the thing

his
at
is
and
a salary"
done. You throw
country.
He
let his
support him. There
is
is
his
country
something
Washington consists pretty much
good and motherly about Wash-
government employes
ington, the grand old benevolent
entirely of
and the people
who
board them.
National Asylum for the Helpless. **
mud on hand
to

1 .
way it ought to be.

The Child of Calamity
was so; he said there was
Toward which group does Mark Twain seem most sympathetic
the
in
certain-
every separate and distinct
individual in the public
and thicken the water up
tiousness
her,
low, keep
in
and
If
country's child,
in
or
without
Congress, (no offence,) and one
useless baggage to you without
Ohio water what

you wanted to do was to keep it
better than
stirred
that.
the City of
you
a half to three-
it
all
him on
said
bottom, according to the stage of

river,
persons
merit, fitness and capability, are
mud
country
citizen of a free
of this yaller
quarters of an inch of
the
good
away the time
settle,
would have about
grandee to back
employment of the most trivial

nature in Washington. Mere
water of the Ohio; he
if
in
Bureau or Department, and per-
The man they called Ed said

the muddy Mississippi water was
wholesomer to drink than the
clear
Washington would be mildly
Every individual you
gathering the needed information
swum down
at three
week
thunderstruck at such a thing as
encounter
political
that "treats
under cover of the darkness, and
employment
get
any
ahead of them, creeping aboard
would
but merely because she was
which
raft
It
be an odd circumstance to see a
soil any."
the distance
in
their respective States.
four dollars a
end the dismal suspense by swimthey have seen
nearer the word) of the
worthy, and competent, and a
persuaded to
is
their berths
Senators and Representatives of
girl
they begin to suspect the truth,
and Huck Finn
is
Cincinnati corpse don't richen a
By and by
it.
there from every corner of the
that tells the tale. Trees won't
drunk before they
in
the heart of the free states. But,

in
stomach
says:
grow worth shucks
eight
whence
[Illinois,]
to.
the
Mississippi
boatmen or the
public servants
in
Washington? Provide evidence to support your answer.

said that
nutri-
the mud, and a
man
2.
Twain and Charles Dudley Warner published The Gilded Age

1873.
What
events
in
in
Washington might have influenced the
tone of the book?
that drunk Mississippi water could
AMERICAN LETTERS
505

INTERPRETING
ECONOMIC DATA
to understand the trends and
changes.
to interpret
ability
between the two
form hypotheses
have spurred mining efforts and
based on your
thus led to an increase
analysis.
economic data broadens

your understanding of
developments, such as
the impact of
new
technologies.

Advances
production,
income, and so on can
economy
prices,
be found
in statistical
charts and
U.S.
The data
is
given chart or
in a
like a
economy or segment
economy.
When
economic
statistics,
on the
of the
interpreting
take into
know
about the overall economy or
that segment of the economy for
consideration what you
the period under study.
sion of the nation's railroad sys-
tem, which helped
this
miles of telegraph wire
in
number
of telephones
saw dramatic expansion
laid
in
and
largest user of copper.
industry,
which
25 years of the century. Both
Study the data
copper for wire. The graph
sheet of paper, answer the follow-
shows that copper mining underwent a similar dramatic expan-
ing questions.
What
sion during the last 30 years of
late
type of information
presented
the 19th century.

fact that
the graph on
in
page 459. Then, on a separate
What
2.
in
trend
is
the graph?
in
the data does
the graph show?
communications
What
3.
possible conclusions can
be drawn from the information
enced rapid expansion during the
Economic Data
1.
power
means of communication
depended heavily on the use of
The
Interpret
electric
was the
the
and copper mining both experi-
How to
western
country, and of the growth of the
use
in
link
mining regions to the rest of the
measured
in
snapshot that
specific angle
As the chart on
historical
picture. Consider, for example,
the late 19th
telephone networks
last
shows one
in
mind the bigger
in
the
the possible roles of the expan-
page indicates, telegraph and
must be analyzed and interpreted.
economy
century.
graphs. But data, to be useful,
graph
the communications
industry helped transform the
great deal of information about
the
in
keep
in
But remember to
available supply.
historical
industries.
Higher demand for copper may
sions and
he
link
Then draw conclu-
800s suggests an economic
presented
in
the graph?
Read the chart or graph.

Identify the type of data
included
in
the chart or graph
and the categories, amounts,

and time intervals
in
which the
data are presented. Determine
the purpose of the chart or

graph. Review,
if
EXPANSION OF
COMMUNICATIONS INDUSTRY.
COPPER MINED
IN THE
1870-1900
1
|
U.S..
1875-1900
necessary,
Reading Charts and Graphs

Miles of
beginning on page 996.

2.
Number
Find significant trends.

Study the actual numbers or
values, noting increases
and
decreases and looking for
Telephones
3.000*
1875
1880
48.000
1885
56,000
228.000
340.000
1
1890
significant trends.
3.
Year
Use the information. Ask

yourself: What do these statis-
1895
1900
of
1,356.000
Telegraph
Wire
179.000
234.000
462.000
679.000
803,000
933,000
me? Compare and
contrast the data
506
UNIT
in
an effort
Source: Historical Statisvcs of the United Stotes
300
ec
250
-5
Q.
200
j"i^
ISO
z.
^-
100
I/)
**
1870
1880
1890
1900
Year
*Datafor 1876
tics tell
o c
Source: Historical StoOsoa of the United Stotes

plete
and explore the
conflicts
consequences of
for society.
the problems that you faced and
positive
cultural diversity
some
of the solutions.
REFORM
TECHNOLOGY
AND INDUSTRY
concepts involved.
historical
the late
In
logical
industry dramatically changed the
political
folio materials
immigration, and indus-
as well as the life-styles
created conflicts
society.
groups
Using the port-
you designed
14, 15,
and
16,
and
14, 15,
opment
16,
prepare a
of your Nebraska
from small railhead to
of Modern
I860 and 1910. Choose images

that best illustrate the major top-
town
thriving
city.
indication of
a script
My
Heart at
Knee. Holt
history of the
West through
(1
all
the groups involved.
Katz, William
The Black
L.
Open Hand
Civil
Andrist, Ralph K. The Long Death: The
Collins (1992).
War to
American
poverty
of the
the
in
the Present Harper-
America.
who
of
West Orion (1982).

women's
West
photographs,
Schlereth,
Native American
An overview
West
987). History of the
African American pioneers
taken from
diaries,
Thomas
J.
and
Life
letters.
Victorian
America: Transformations
Everyday
Further Reading
how
plished with the cooperation of
lives in
970).
eyes.
Plains Indians.
reforms are needed, and
these reforms can be accom-
Luchetti, Cathy, and Carol Olwell.
America's Underclasses from the
Days oftJie
reformers to discuss what social
helped develop the West.
in
Jones, Jacqueline. The Dispossessed:
Last
leaders,
Firsthand accounts of
lage to the class.
between business
labor organizers, and urban
Women
Brown, Dee. Bury
in
hold a meet-
16,
Oxford (1980). Analysis of the

col-
you designed
spread of big-city culture.
Wounded
City Culture
Nineteenth-Century America.
to accompany the images. Assign
script,
and
Barth, Gunther. City People: The Rise
the years between
Write
chapters
problems. Using the port-
chapters 15 and
ing
in
Macmillan (1993). History of the
of the period.
Using the
struggle of the Plains Indians.
ics
citizens.
Be sure to include an
Videodisc Review
in
its
and work
presentation highlighting the devel-
in
develop a
monologues that address these
America
habits of
city
portfolio materials you designed
in
series of dramatic sketches
In
to a host of social, economic, and
appearance of the American
folio materials
chapters
advances and the growth of
at the
end of the 19th century, leading
SOCIAL CONFLICT
different
American
changed rapidly
800s techno-
Westward expansion,
trialization often
between
American society
in
1876-1915.
HarperCollins (1991). Detailed

historical
overview of the
impact of immigration, expansion,
and industrialization on
American
society.
REVIEW
507
w^'-
::'<'-/^'^
5^
::m^^
-wmmmm. the
uP
.^'
^g
wk f^^^^î
^^fa^^^^Mj
^MÛVA^jA
THE PROGRESSIVE
hapter 19
PRESIDENTS 1900-1920
THE AGE OF REFORM

1897-1920
AMERICA AND THE
WORLD
1898-1917
^y the turn of the century, many

Americans had turned
their attention to
economic and social problems, which had
accompanied rapid industrialization and

urban growth. Some reformers fought for
social change, while others
reform
all levels
worked
to
of government. As the
other major powers pursued policies of
economic and political imperialism, the

United States also sought to extend
its
influence abroad. The United States tried

to avoid the conflict that imperialism
and
nationalism caused in Europe, but the

nation was eventually drawn into World
War I. At
worked
^
WORLD WAR
1914-1920
war*s end President Wilson
to negotiate
Liberty Loan poster.
a just peace.
World War
1897-1920
Chapter 17
THE AGE OF REFORM

FOCI>S
UNDERSTANDING
THE MAIN IDEA
A new
reform
mood swept
States during the early
great optimism
efficiency,
and
the United
900s. With
faith in scientific
reformers set out to conquer
the negative effects of industrializaôn
and rapid urbanization: unsafe working conditions, long hours,
and slum
poor wages,
housing.
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT How might state

governments
how
justify regulating
businesses treat workers?
DEMOCRATIC VALUES
How
might reform groups help
extend opportunities to
all
citizens?
CONSTITUTIONAL
HERITAGE How
movements
lay
might reform
the groundwork
for constitutional change?
1900
1904
1909
1912
ILGWU
National Child Labor
NAACP
Massachusetts
established.
Committee formed.
founded.
passes
wage
minimum-
law.
1919
Eighteenth
Amendment
ratified.
While the Gilded Age had promoted industrial development and gen::
LINK TO THE PAST
erated great profits for some,

Populist
it
movement had brought
had
many
also created
to the nation's attention the plight of
farmers and urban workers. Gilded Age reformers
and the men and women involved

worked to improve conditions
problems. The
in
like
jane Addams
the Social Gospel
movement had
for the urban poor.
n 1906 Upton Sinclair published The Jungle, a novel about the
meat-packing industry
what he saw
as the
Chicago. In an effort to
in
alert the public to
consequences of capitalist greed, Sinclair
described industry practices in graphic detail:
There was never the
sausage.
in
what was cut up
There would be meat that had tumbled out on the
the dirt and sawdust.
piles in
least attention paid to
There would be meat stored
in
floor,
great
rooms; and the water from leaky roofs would drip over
and thousands of rats would race about on

nuisances, and the packers
they would die, and then
hoppers together.
Sinclair's
These
rats
were
rats,
bread, and
meat would go
into the
**
physically sick. "I aimed

hit
it,
would put poisoned bread out for them,
images were so vivid
"and by accident
it.
for
it
at the
that they
made some
readers
public's heart." Sinclair remarked,
in the
stomach." In response to The

Jungle. Americans
federal
laws
demanded
prohibiting
unhealthful conditions in
food-processing industries.
The Jungle was part of a

reform movement that swept
the countr\ in the early 20th
century.
Most reformers
rec-
ognized the benefits of Industrialism. but they

Fifth
Avenue
in
New
York,
1913
on correcting
its
were
intent
abuses.
Urban
child collecting
firewood
T"E AGE OF REFORM
511
Section
THE PROGRESSIVE MOVEMENT

c u s
What were some of the goals of progressivisnn?
Why were many women attracted to the Progressive movement?
What roles did muckrakers, writers, and intellectuals play in the
Progressive
9,n spite of
movement?
its
name, the Progressive movement
swept the nation between 1900 and 1920

united behind a single goal. Rather
individuals
and groups dedicated to
Building on Populist efforts and
it
SAMUEL
QOMPERS
the reform effort that
was not a single movement
was a
President
American Federation
of Labor
COURT HOUSE
collection of reform-minded
bettering
life in
the United States.
Thursday, June 3
7;45
the work of 19th-century reformers, the
P.
M.
SUBJECT;
progressives publicized the
ills
of industrial society and sought
to
Shorter
remedy them.
Work Day
Announcement
of an
AFL
meeting, 1897
growth also widened the gap between the rich and
The progressive spirit
the poor and contributed to unsafe

tions
By
the early 1900s industrialization had transformed
the United States.

positive:
Much
of the transformation was
economic growth, new goods and
and an expanding middle
class.
services,
However, economic
and crowded
reform
known
cities.
These
ills
working condiled to a spirit of
as progressivism.
This concern over the effects of industrialization
was by no means new.
In the late
1800s
Populists had protested unfair or corrupt corporate

practices and had pressed for
government
legisla-
tion to stop them. Populism, however, was mainly
a rural
movement. Progressivism, on
the other
hand, focused on urban problems, such as unsafe
working conditions, bad

political
sanitation,
and corrupt
machines.
Progressives carried on the Populists' struggle

to "restore
government
election reforms that
pate
more
fully in
to the people"
by proposing
would enable people
to partici-
running their government (see
^ In the early 900s most major labor unions

excluded women, even though they made up
nearly one fourth of the work force. Seamstresses,
such as these shown here, often formed their own
unions to fight for better working conditions.
1
512
::
CHAPTER
17
4 The
progressive spirit also

new school of
influenced a
artists
Known
during the early 1900s.

as the Ash Can School
and
for the gritty
realistic sub-
jects of their paintings, the
movement
artists as
included such
George Bellows,
Robert Henri, John Sloan,
George Luks, William

Glackens, and Everett Shinn.
Many of their paintings, such
as George Bellows's Lone
Tenement
909),
shown
at
depicted the ugly tene-
left,
ments and tough
living
conditions of poor urban
neighborhoods.
Chapter
18).
Some
progressives believed that the
cure for democracy's
ills
Progressives sought a
was more democracy.
democratic government, a check

on corporate power, and solutions
to social problems.
Progressives also repeated the Populists'
demand
on corporate power. Toward
for a curb
more
this
end, they promoted legislation that prohibited
monopolies and enabled smaller businesses

compete successfully
ters,
in the
Although people from
to
economy.
all
walks of
Like Popuhsts and the Social Gospel minis-
many
progressives were inspired by the spirit of
upper class, and college educated.
social justice.
To cap
the rich, they took
federal graduated
the skyrocketing incomes of
up the Populists' demand
income
tax.
They
women
of the urban middle class
and
social workers,
also supported
lawyers, and small-business owners were particu-
minimum wages,
was deeply infused

with idealism. Theodore Roosevelt, who would
become a leading progressive, aptly reflected this
idealism when he wrote:
spirit
larly attracted to progressivism.
we wish to do good work for our

country, we must be unselfish, disinterIf
This class had
grown from some 750,000 in 1870 to around 10

million by 1910. In the words of Kansas editor
WiUiam Allen White, by the 1900s Populism had

"shaved its whiskers, washed its shirt, put on a
derby, and moved up into the middle class."
Many
middle-class
the Progressive
Men
engineers, writers, teachers, doctors, ministers,
assure safe working conditions, and end child labor.
The progressive
progressives were native born, middle or
for a
the Populists' cry for an eight-hour workday. In

addition, they sought to institute
life partic-
ipated in reform efforts during the Progressive Era,
lier
generations of
efforts:
women were
movement
for the
women had
attracted to
same reason
ear-
assisted reform
reform work provided them with one of the
ested, sincerely desirous of the well-being
of the
commonwealth, and capable of
devoted adherence to a
lofty ideal.
99
This idealism extended to a firm belief in

the
power of science and technology to solve

The progressive philosopher
social problems.
John
Dewey
society's
tation
ills
urged reformers to gather data about

through observation and experimen-
and then
test solutions. Progressives,
assisted by universities, initiated

research projects.
many
social
Shown here
the 1920s.
is
a group of Vassar
women from
THE AGE OF REFORM
513
corruption in politics and business as well as such
WOMEN
AT UNIVERSITIES,
1900-1920
scK'ial
problems as slums and child
The progressive
their assaults
^1 Women
on
labor.
were
journalists
relentless in
Theodore
social evils, leading
"Men
Rtxisevelt to complain:
with a muck-rake are
often indispensable to the well-being of society, but
only
know when
they
if
stop raking the muck."

vivid
image
and the
became known
journalists
as
stuck,
to
The
muckrakers
a name
they accepted with obvi-
ous pride.
McClure's publica1910
1920
Year
young
the
adults attended colleges
number had
risen to
women made up an
some
and
ists
Lincoln Steffens
and Claude Wetmore
universities in
1900. By 1920
4.7 percent Over this period
A McClure's featured
the work of many
prominent authors and
October 1902 marked

the beginning of the
muckraking school of
journalists, including
In
1910. approx-
imately what percentage of university students were
journalism.
Rudyard Kipling and

Ray Stannard Baker.
women?
The
exposed the
machine
article
political
in St.
Louis,
comparing corrupt
society.
in
for influencing politics
Although the number of
women
and
enrolled
colleges increased during the early 1900s.
women's career options were limited. Reform

work provided college-educated women with a
way to apply their knowledge of medicine, psychology, sociology, and other disciplines. Some
women made careers of reform work; others volunteered their time through associations such as
the General Federation of
Women's
Women's Trade Union League, and

Women.
Clubs, the
the National
Association of Colored
Not only
work provide women with a way to influence social change, it was one of
did reform
the few career opportunities

open to college-educated
government there with
many
lish
articles
In
514
to pub-
November
life.
1902. McClure's ran
"Histon.' of the Standard Oil
Company."
Tarbell, the daughter of an independent oil prcxlucer.
was
bom
in
western Pennsylvania in 1857. She
grew up admiring
ear
was attuned
man "whose
and who had the
the independent oil
to Fortune's call,
daring and the energy to risk everything." Tarbell
was deeply angered when John D. Rockefeller's

Standard Oil Company began swallowing up independent oil companies. When her father went
bankrupt and his partner committed suicide.
15-year-old Tarbell
blamed
Rcx;kefeller.
In
1876 Tarbell
Allegheny
male
in a
freshman
40
"hostile or
class of
indifferent"
message. Newly founded mass-circulation maga-
Soon
zines like McClure's, Munsey's, and Cosmopolitan
she
17
went on
the first installment of Ida Tarbell's
"*****
Progressive journalists helped spread the reform
CHAPTER
's
on political and corporate
College, the only fe-
pages with stories that explored
city
York City's govern-
corruption, poor working conditions, and slum
entered
yNSPIRATION FOR REFORM
New
ment under Boss Tweed. McClure
women.
filled their
in
Roughly 2.3 percent of
increasing proportion of college students.
few acceptable avenues
in
Louis" by journal-
St.
Source: Historical Stavstcs of the United States
INCREASING ENROLLMENT
"Tweed Days
tion of
males.
after graduation
moved
to Paris
and began her career
urban
political corruption in
The Shame of the

(1904). Jack London wrote
America
Cities
in
The Iron Heel (1907)
to
warn
bloody revolution might
that
something was not done
result if
to curb capitalism's abuses.
Only
few progressives,
however, concerned themselves
One who
with racial justice.
did
was Ray Stannard Baker. Baker

traveled around the nation in
1904, examining the plight of
He found
African Americans.
Standard
nies
is
swallowing up independent
this editorial cartoon.
Oil's practice of
sharply criticized in
oil
compa-
that African
Americans were
segregated, routinely robbed of

their right to vote,
as a writer.
By
the 1890s she
was writing
a popular
McClure 5.
1900 the magazine's reform-minded
biographical series for

In
discriminated against. Worst of
and otherwise
lynchings
all,
still
took place. In Following the Color Line (1908),
Baker described a lynching
in Springfield,
Ohio:
founder. Scotch-Irish immigrant S. S. McClure,

assigned her to investigate Standard Oil. "Out with
The
you. Look, see, report," he urged. "Don't do
Springfield lynching
warned her
father,
knowing too well
Standard Oil to punish
its
the
it,"
power of
enemies. But she went
ahead, publishing her findings in a series of 18

articles.
Month
month she attacked Standard
after
public.
No
one
itself
that? ...
If
One
of the
most depressing
seemed to
contempt, they are more or

.
There
is
less
no gaming
where men must not
in
the
start
way
fit
loses
all its
Business played
sportsmanlike
only for tricksters.
of
ever there was an example of
on
its
back
example of that
99
working
crowded
slums, and racial
difficult
conditions,
in this
qualities.
It is
injustice.
99
McClure 's readers shared

hailing her as "a
But
it?
What
rate corruption,
fair.
Yet Mr. Rockefeller has systematically played
with loaded dice.
Muckrakers exposed
political and corpo-
openly
table
world where loaded dice are tolerated, no

athletic field
what of
had been lynched.
citizenship lying flat
condition.
care.
methods arousing
that instead of such
admired.
features
this
was the apathy of the
really
Springfield furnished an
is
all in
"nigger" had been hanged:
the law
good
Oil's business practices:
worst feature of
Tarbell's outrage,
modern Joan of Arc" and "the

One reader even called her
tXPLORING SOCIAL
Terror of the Trusts."

series "the
Uncle Tom
's
Cabin of today." Later.
Rockefeller biographer Allan Nevins would call

"the most spectacular success of the
school of journalism, and
its
it
muckraking
most enduring
Meanwhile, muckraking books poured off the
exposed the ways
Like the muckraking journalists,
Octopus (1901) Frank Norris

in
which
railroads
and
intellectuals
industrial order's effect
on
people's behavior and values.
Theodore Dreiser,
in
novels
Slum life was a frequent

target of muckrakers. This
1910 photograph shows a
their
such as Sister Carrie (1900)
Jewish immigrant in the

home he has made in a
document
and The Financier (1912).
coal cellar.
misused
vast power. Lincoln Steffens continued to
novelists
explored the darker side of the
new
achievement."
presses. In The
PROBLEMS
THE AGE OF REFORM
515

^ Jane Addams joined the
settlement-house movement
in order to provide collegeeducated women like herself
an opportunity to "learn of life
from life itself." Her settlement
house in Chicago became a
model for social reforms in
child labor, health care,
urban
renewal, and public education.
depicted workers brutalized by low wages and
44
This
business owners driven by greed.
that
we
[slip
backward] together.
Progressive intellectuals proposed solutions.

In
The Promise of American Life (1909).
theorist
political
Herbert Croly praised Alexander
Hamilton's
call,
over a century
earlier, for a strong,
is
the penalty of a democracy
are
bound to move forward or
None
stand aside; our feet are mired
same
soil,
same
air.
of us can
in
the
and our lungs breathe the
99
government. But instead of promot-
activist central
ing the interests of only the business class, as
Progressive writers and intellec-
Hamilton had favored. Croly held
tuals publicized social
that the
ment should promote the welfare of
governcitizens
all its
by expanding opportunities.
problems
and offered theories on how to
solve them.
Social thinkers urged citizens to take responsibility as well.
immigrants, argued in
Ethics
now well known

work among Chicago's
Democracy and Social
Jane Addams. by
for her settlement-house
1902) that democracy meant more than the
right to vote.
It
demanded
a society that
showed
to
committed
SECTION
change American
to
like
Addams and Croly
society, they
remained
democracy. Most progressives sought
reforms of local government, businesses, and city

life to
ensure that the
became
concern for the well-being of everyone:
IDENTIFY and
Although progressives
wanted
available to
full
promise of democracy
all citizens.
REVIEW
explain the significance of the following: progressivism. John Dewey, muckrakers,
Lincoln Steffens, Ida Tarbeil,
S. S.
McClure, Ray Stannard Baker, Theodore Dreiser, Herbert Croly,
Jane Addams.
I.
2.
3.
MAIN IDEA In what ways did progressives hope to reform society?

MAIN IDEA What types of political and social evils did muckrakers expose through their writings?
RECOGNIZING POINTS OF VIEW Why were middle-class women attracted to the Progressive
movement and reform
activities?
WRITING TO INFORM
century.
Write an
Imagine you are a progressive writer or intellectual
in
the early 20th
article for McClure's
proposing a solution to a social problem of the
what ways were the
goals of Populists and progressives similar?
industrial order.
5.
516
COMPARING
CHAPTER
17
In
new
Section 2
11
.
*:-
JIB
;
.'VK
NEW INDUSTRIAL ORDER
REFORMING THE
-'r*: B!l
11
FOCUS
How
did progressives try to reform the workplace?
How
did the
Supreme Court respond
to social legislation?
Which
How
labor organizations represented workers

did these organizations differ?
^he new
industrial order
turbing ways.
ditions,
changed American society
Many workers felt victimized by
the Progressive Era?
in
deep and dis-
unhealthful working con-
poor wages, and long workdays. At times progressive reformers
and labor organizations joined forces, but more

their
in
own campaigns
to
often they organized
IWW songbook
improve conditions for workers.
week
REFORMING THE WORKPLACE
for about $1.50 a day.
workers were paid even
Women
and children
less.
Social reformers had long argued that the
As
progressives explored working conditions
hand, they saw
men and women
first-
laboring long
hours, often in dangerous jobs. In 1900 the average
laborer
worked nearly 10 hours
Child laborers, such as these
mill, often
worked
in
a day, 6
shown
In
days a
a textile
conditions
women and
children faced in the work-
undermined home and family
place
life.
Progressives and labor-union activists campaigned
and
for laws prohibiting or limiting child labor
improving conditions for women workers.

Florence Kelley was one of the women who
worked tirelessly for this cause, helping to per-
unsafe conditions.
suade the
Illinois legislature in
child labor and to limit the
women
could work. In 1904 she helped organize
the National Child
worked
to
Labor Committee, which
persuade state legislatures to pass laws
against employing
young
committee had helped 39

laws.
1893 to prohibit
number of hours
Some
employment
states
By 1912
states pass child labor
at
hours a day and barred
night or in dangerous occu-
pations. But enforcement of such laws
Many
cess
to
the
even limited older children's
to 8 or 10
them from working
children.
was
lax.
employers, claiming that their business suc-
depended on cheap child
obey the laws and continued
labor,
simply refused
to hire child workers.
Progressives also campaigned for laws that
would force factories
to limit the
employers demanded of
their adult workers,
long hours
men
THE AGE OF REFORM
517
WAGES OF WHITE URBAN WORKERS
would not be until 1938 that the nation

passed a minimum-wage law for all workers.
3.500
place safely. Tragic events
But
it
Progressives also worked to improve work-
March 1911
in
cata-
pulted the need for such reforms onto the front
3,000
pages of the nation's newspapers.

2.500
3 n
Late in the afternoon on Saturday. March 25.
most of them young Jewish

immigrant women were completing
some 500 employees
2.000
or Italian
1.500
1.000
their
workweek
six-day
Shirtwaist
500
at
New York
City's Triangle
Company. Shortly before

from
as they rose
their
quitting time.
crowded worktables and
started to leave, a fire erupted in a rag bin. Within
Female
Male
Male
Female
1900
moments
1920
building
sible
Source: Understanding the Gender Gap
the entire eighth floor of the 10-story
was
there
ablaze. Escape quickly
became impos-
were only two stairways, and most of
the exit doors were Icxrked. Leaping from high win-
WOMEN
women
THE
IN
WORK
workers increased
FORCE
the early
in
Even though the number of
women
1900s,
continued to earn
dows became
the
less
workers took
it
than their male counterparts.
Through
1900. about
In
how much more
way
desperate
last,
out.
Some 60
to their death.
the night,
weeping family members
wandered among the crushed bodies on the
side-
walk, looking for their loved ones. In
more
were white male workers earning than white female workers?
than 140 people perished in the Triangle
all.
fire,
vic-
tims of a thoroughly unsafe workplace. Rose
women
Florence Kelley helped
Schneiderman. a Women's Trade Union League
lobby the Oregon legislature to pass a law limiting
organizer, argued that only a strong working-
women
class
and
alike. In 1903.
laundr\'
workers
Utah had enacted a law

in
to 10 hours a day. Earlier.
dangerous occupations
to 8 hours.
Other
states
like
in
for progressives.
8 million
women
1910. about one third lived in poverty.
In 1912. in response to progressive agitation.
Massachusetts passed the nation's
wage law
setting
movement could
bring real change to the
workplace. She noted:
mining and smelting
passed similar laws.
Wages were another target

Of the some 30 million men and
employed
working days
that limited
first
base wages for
minimum-
women
and
children. Gradually, other states followed suit.
This
burned
is
not the
alive in
the
first
city.
time
Each
girls
have been
week
learn of the untimely death of
must
sis-
ter workers. Every year thousands of us are
maimed. The
life
of
cheap and property
men and women

is
is
so
so sacred. There are
so many of us for one job
it
matters
143 of us are burned to death.
little
*^
Rose Schneiderman's impassioned speech (below) after the
Triangle Shirtwaist Company's
fire (left)
marked the beginning
sweeping reforms that improved factory safety regulations.
518
one of my
of
if

But
it
did matter. The public outcry was so great
that
it
pressured lawmakers to pass protective leg-
islation.
The New York
Josephine Goldmark
'4
legislature responded by
enacting the nation's strictest
tire safely
code.
Progressives sought laws to end

child labor, limit working hours,
raise wages,
and improve
safety.
The couRrs response

As more states passed laws regulating businesses,
owners fought back through the courts
even to the Supreme Court. Owners appealed to
the Fourteenth amendment to the Constitution,
which prohibits states from depriving any
person of
"life, liberty,
or property, without due
Louis Brandeis
On
the grounds of property
and freedom of contract,
process of law." They claimed that laws that
rights
limited their businesses deprived them of their
the Supreme Court struck down

much but not all progressive
"property" unfairly.
The Supreme Court sided with business

owners and declared much of the early social legislation unconstitutional.
some
The Court
by denying them freedom of
contract. In 1905. for example, in Lochner
New
York, the Court overturned the
law limiting bakers" workdays
legislation.
also ruled that
social legislation violated the constitutional
"liberty" of workers
New
v.
York
to 10 hours,
JLabor unions
Progressive reformers were not the only ones
fighting for workers' rights.
Labor unions con-
tinued to battle for better conditions and for the
declaring that the law robbed workers of their

"liberty of contract."
Workers, the Court argued,
should be free to accept any conditions of
employment
that business
LABOR UNION MEMBERSHIP, 1900-1920
owners required
^-.v
"1
1/5
including 14- or 16-hour workdays.
5-
.9
The Court did uphold some
social legislation,
.'"^.
,'"^?l.
however. In 1908.
in Miiller v.
Oregon, an
employer challenged the 10-hour workday law

Florence Kelley had helped push through the
E
c
4-
^-^
Q.
IE
3-
(/)
Oregon
legislature. Kelley
and her co-worker,
Josephine Goldmark, swung into action to convince

the Court to uphold this
hard-won law. Goldmark
gathered data for the brief, or legal argument, to
2-
^
E
defend the law. Kelley recruited Goldmark's
1900
The "Brandeis Brief"
1920
1915
Year
brother-in-law, the brilliant Boston lawyer Louis D.
Brandeis. to argue the case.
1910
1905
Source: The Growth of American Trade Unions, 1880-1923
broke new legal ground. In addition to making
sound legal points, the brief included extensive
GROWTH OF UNIONS
and the
evidence of the bad effects that working long hours
had on women's health and well-being. This social

research not only convinced the Court to uphold
the
Oregon law but became
model
for the
growth
El
efforts
The spread of industrialization
of progressive reformers contributed to the
of labor union
membership
in
the early
five-year period
was the increase
smallest? During which period
was
in
it
1900s.
During which
union membership the

the largest?
defense of other social legislation.
THE AGE OF REFORM
519
' -.
closed shop
a workplace
where the employer
hire> only union
members. Most union members
favored "working
w ithin
the system."
< AFL
seal,
about 1890
They wanted
to change how workers vsere treated, but they did
not want to threaten capitalism's ver\ existence.
Some union members wanted
One AFL union
to replace capitalism
with an economic system that workers controlled.
Many
in this
did try to assist unskilled
workers was the International
group favored socialism, the system
under which the government or worker coopera-
own
tives, not private interests,
factories, utilities.
and transportation and communications systems.
The major labor organization
AFL
the system.
Under Samuel Gompers'
in these
1900
to
about 2 million
in 1914.
excluded most unskilled workers
whom
But the
in
AFL
the majority of
were Eastern European immigrants or
African Americans. This

\\
leadership.
grew from some 500.000
left
most urban workers
ithout organized support.
York
City,
women
it
sought to
mainly Jewish and

employed sewing shops
unionize workers
stood ftrmly for working within
AFL membership
New
Established in 1900 in
Italian
in
Triangle Shirtw aist
years remained the American Federation of Labor
(AFL). The
(ILGWU).
Ladies' Garment Workers Union
grant
The AFL.
that
immi-
like the
Company.
In order to organize workers, union leaders
generally planned a strike to establish the union's
power
to negotiate for vsorkers.
Ladies'
The
International
Garment Workers Union used
November 1909 when
this tactic in
staged the "Uprising of the
it
Thirty Thousand." Thousands of
women garment
workers heeded the union's
and walked off
their jobs to
the
demand
call
companies recognize
that their
ILGWU as their union.

The
strike lasted
through the bitter winter.
Hard-pressed strikers received generous aid from
Women's Trade
Union League, an organization of well-to-do
women who supported the efforts of working
progressive groups such as the
IMMIGRANT
WORKERS
women
form unions.
The
rogressive
reformers
to
won
shorter
and other improve-
ments for many
were mixed. Most
workdays, better worldng

conditions,
strike's results
employers agreed to many of the ILGWU's

demands. The employers, however, were determined to run open shops or nonunion workplaces. Thus, they refused to recognize the
U.S. workers. But such
changes
union
the
were unknown to the immigrants who crossed

the border from Mexico to work the railroads,
WW.
While Gompers and
AFL
his
trade
unions negotiated with business owners for w orker
mines, and fields of the southwestern United

States. These immigrant workers experienced
both poor working conditions and prejudice.
The
ILGWTJ's most important demand.
In
gains, a
new union emerged with
(IWW). founded
1910 the Mexican newspaper Diario del Hogar
capitalism.
wondered what drove "our workingmen,
proclaimed
so
a different
agenda. The Industrial Workers of the World
Its
in
Chicago
in 1905.
leader. "Big Bill"
IWW's
opposed
Haywood,
Referring to the
aim.
attached to the land, to abandon the country
Continental Congress that had declared American
[Mexico], even at the risk of the Yankee con-
independence.
Haywood
asserted:
tempt with which they are treated on the other

side of the Bravo [Rio Grande]." Indeed,
some
Mexican laborers were assaulted or lynched.

Venustiano Carranza, Mexico's president from
1917 to 1920, claimed that
14
Mexicans had
44
Fellow workers, this
congress of the working
into a working-class
its
CHAPTER
class.
We
are here
movement
that shall
purpose the emancipation of
the working class from the slave bondage

of capitalism.
520
the continental
to confederate the workers of this country
have for
been murdered across the border.
is
**
Employers often used armed

guards to remove picketing workers.
This photograph shows local militia-
men
aiming their guns at strikers

Lawrence, Massachusetts.
Haywood denounced
in
the
AFL's cooperation with business

owners and
its
failure to include
unskilled workers.
He vowed
to
organize migrant farm workers,

miners, lumber workers, and textile
workers to overthrow the capi-
system. In addition to
talist
enlisting African
American. His-
panic American, and Asian American workers, the
wage
IWW
month
actively recruited
women
An
wives of male workers.
workers and the
IWW
expressed optimism about the role
newspaper
of union women:
cut.
strike, the mill
The
advent of
women
side by side with
soon develop a
in strikes, will
force that will end capitalism and

rors
in
short order.
movement seeks
quality of
The
fighting
its
hor-
IWW-led
strikes failed miserably.
IWW
fearful of
collapsed and eventually faded
from power. The
to develop the fighting
both sexes.
99
in.
Most
IWW's aims, and the
government cracked down on the union with
increasing force. Disagreements among Wobbly
leaders also weakened IWW's power. Within a few
later
years the
industrial union
owners gave
publicized two-
Success was short-lived, however. Several
Americans grew
men
much
After a bitter and
AFL
trade unions continued to
flourish, but the majority of
American
industrial
workers remained outside the union movement.
The Wobblies,
came
to be called,
members of
as the
the
IWW
The AFL worked
pursued their goals through gen-
eral strikes, boycotts,
Their greatest hour
system and focused on skilled

workers, while the
opposed capitalism and focused
on unskilled workers.
and industrial sabotage.
came
IWW
1912 when they led
in
20.000 workers in a strike against the
textile mills
of Lawrence. Massachusetts, to protest a 30-cent
SECTION
IDENTIFY and
within the
REVIEW
Rose Schneiderman, freedom
explain the significance of the following: Florence Kelley,
of contract, Josephine Goldmark, Louis D. Brandeis, closed shop, socialism, Samuel
Gompers, open
shops, "Big BIN" Haywood.

I.
MAIN IDEA What

MAIN IDEA What
kinds of laws to improve the workplace did progressives seek?
reasons did the Supreme Court use to
justify striking
down some
progressive
legislation?
CONTRASTING How did

WRITING TO DESCRIBE
Company
after the
in
the goals of the
AFL
differ
Imagine you are a worker
March 1911. Write
from those of the

in
New
York
a letter to a friend that describes
IWW?
City's Triangle Shirtwaist
work
conditions before and
fire.
If
you were
a progressive in the early 1900s,
how would
you balance the needs of employers with the needs of employees?
THE AGE OF REFORM
521
Section 3
REFORMING SOCIETY
c u s
What steps did reformers take to try to
What actions did African American and
solve urban problems?
Native American progressives
take to address discrimination?
Why
can
it
be said that the Progressive
movement had mixed
results
for immigrants?
a^wgressive reformers were convinced that as
citizens they
were responsible for the well-being of their communities.

While most white progressives concentrated on improving
and personal
housing, public health,
morality, African
American and Native American progressives organized
to
fight discrimination. Other progressives, motivated by
change immigrants
nativist sentiments, set out to
nEFORMING CITY
'
cultures.
Woman
doing laundry, about 1910
the cities of garbage. Other reform organizations
worked
LIFE
for better housing or to
improve public
education.
By
1920. for the
first
time
in
U.S. history, more
Progressive reformers published articles and
As
books documenting urban problems, even assign-
than 50 percent of Americans lived in
cities.
urban populations soared, the ability of
cities to
ing blame for
them
provide garbage collection, safe and affordable
Lawrence
housing, health care, police and fire protection, and
worker, lashed out
adequate public education was stretched to the
ers
"who
in
some
cases. For example.
Veiller (vYL-uhr). a settlement-house

at
irresponsible tenement
own-
for the sake of a large profit on their
investments sacrifice the health and welfare of
breaking point.
countless thousands."
Cleaning up the
city.
What
some reformers announced, was

keeping." a campaign to make
healthful and livable
community
is
bound
other
needed,
women's
York State Tenement House
"The
banned construction of dark and
the president of Chicago's
member
of
it
is
The Woman's City Club,
clubs, various
to clean
up the
cities.
took the cleanup campaign
522
::
CHAPTER
17
tirelessly for
more
men's clubs, and
reform organizations enlisted the aid of local gov-
ernments
campaigned
the cities a
City Club, and "each
to help the other."
Veiller
Some
literally,
organizations
working
to rid
improved
housing. In 1901 he succeeded in getting the
for all residents.
one great family," explained Louise
DeKoven Bowen.
Woman's
home
cities
"'municipal house-
New
bill
passed.
New
The law
airless tenements.
buildings had to be constructed around an
open courtyard
that
would
let in light
and
air.
The
law also required that new buildings contain one
bathroom
for each apartment or for every three
rooms, rather than one or two for an entire
was
the
common
practice.
other states used the

their
own
New
floor, as
Housing reformers
in
York law as a model for
legislative proposals.
In
another campaign
make
to
more-
the cities
healthful places to live, a
group of physicians and
MA
reform-minded citizens
formed the National
Tuberculosis Association.
The association focused on

education and on lobbying
the
government
fund
to
special hospitals to treat
victims of tuberculosis.
Thanks
effort,
rate
part to this
in
by 1915 the death
from
TB
had dropped
significantly.
Other
campaigned
reformers
for
more
city
Compulsory Attendance Law enacted
parks and playgrounds to

1852-1870
1884-1896
1871-1883
1910-1918
1897-1909
provide safe places for

children to play.
The
ground developed
at
Compulsory tzducation
earlier
Jane Addams's Hull
House
as
play-
the
in
PUBLIC EDUCATION
Chicago served
The growth of compulsory school attendance helped the progressives end
abuses of child labor by keeping children
in
school.
model, and by
REGION
1920. millions of dollars
After
1897, which region of the United States
had not adopted
still
compulsory education?
had been spent establishing playgrounds.
City planning.
cleaned-up
cities
Progressives firmly believed that
would produce
of
this belief
better citizens.
grew the
Out
city-plan-
ning movement. The
first
slums could be halted and
they argued, would
in 1909.
Through wise
planning,
its
members
hoped, the spread of
instill
patriotism
among
the
immigrant population.
National Conference on
City Planning was held
could be beautified.
cities
Beautiful cities and imposing public architecture,
In 1909 Daniel
and
city planner,
Bumham.
a leading architect
produced a magnificent plan
for redesigning Chicago, the first
plan to redesign an American
city.
comprehensive
The centerpiece
of Burnham"s vision for Chicago was a soaring

city hall that
would
residents to be
"Make no
Burnham.
magic
good
little
to stir
inspire all
citizens.
plans," said
''They
have no
men's blood."
City-planning commissions in Washington. D.C.,

Cleveland, and San Francisco
also
engaged Burnham
to
Daniel Burnham's plan for
Chicago included wide
inter-
secting streets similar to the
ones he saw
in Paris.
THE AGE OF REFORM
i:
523
changing
Wags
I
n the late
800s and early
1900s. periodic
swings
THE ORPHAN TRAINS
economic down-
many people unable
left
to provide for their families.
Urban immigrants faced desper-
Many
ate poverty.
broken
children of
or whose par-
families,
ents could not provide for them,
roamed the
streets of
and other eastern
Many
New
York
cities.
of these children
ended up
died; others
in
orphanages. But most found a
way to
survive
on the
They shined shoes,
streets.
sold news-
Children whose parents could no longer care for them often were
Some remained there until they were old enough
to take care of themselves; others were placed in homes or ran away.
sent to orphanages.
papers, or picked pockets by
day and curled up to sleep
in
devised a plan to provide for
doorways, garbage heaps, or
abandoned
outhouses
soned that since farmers needed
at night.
children. Brace rea-
away farmers
who were
looking
no more than cheap labor
for
laborers and street urchins
Others condemned the
reformers pitied the abandoned
needed homes, why not bring
adequate follow-up supervision.
Progressives and other
lack of
children. But they also feared
these adults and children
They argued
that without parents to teach
together? By
guards were necessary to pro-
them
had transported some
from wrong, the
right
chil-
9 4 the Society
on "orphan
6,000
dren posed a danger to society.
children
As the
eastern cities to a very different
Children's Aid Society
warned:
life
on farms
New
in
trains"
from
England, the
South, and the Midwest.
will
as
They
will
vote
they
have the same rights
we
Photojournalist Jacob
Riis,
a supporter of the Society,
ourselves though
described
how
"big-hearted
farmers" came from miles away
rant of moral principle.
to meet the trains and choose
when
the vicious, reckless multi-
tude of
New York
swarming
now
foul alley
and low
come
know
to
power and use
boys,
every
in
street,
their
it!
99
from the
he wrote,
a joyous
over the quiet country
road, the
one of them
life
his
new
friends,
already, with
home
picture, there
Some
that such safe-
from being taken
advantage of economically or
abused
physically.
Still
others
accused the Society of "dump-
New
quents.
York's juvenile delin-
As
a result,
some
states
passed laws restricting the
placement of children
in
foster
homes across state borders.

Whatever the shortcomings of the
a long
how
for
and
program,
fruitful
it
provoked
debate on
the nation could provide
abandoned or orphaned
children. Before the first
orphan
train
child-welfare
departed
in
1854,
workers saw
institutionalization as the only
before him."
Despite
director of
band returning
stranger snugly
little
stowed among
minister Charles Loring Brace,
17
falls,"
home
the Children's Aid Society, the
CHAPTER
troop[s]" of
"upon
and
The founding
"little
children. "Night
tect children
ing"
they have grown up igno-
Let society beware,
524
that the Society failed to turn
this idealized
option. By 1900 "placing out"
were problems.
finding
critics justifiably
charged
homes for children had

become the preferred solution.
de\elop grand schemes tor iheir
His
cities.
plans were never fully realized, but some, such
Above
a success.
his efforts helped people realize that
all,
planning
city
C. were
Washington, D.
as those for
crimes and the mother of sins." Frances Willard,
who
presided over the
described the zeal she
to 1898,
ing in a saloon early in her career:
was
44
a necessary function
of municipal government.
Kneeling on that sawdust
men,
was conscious that perhaps never
my
and city planning.
bed, had
URBAN MORAL REFORM
brilliant
save beside
I
my
this end, they pushed for prohibition
prayed as truly as
did then.
organizer and magnetic public speaker,
made
the
WCTU
a powerful
women.
Drawing on Americans'
spirit
sacrifice, prohibitionists achieved their goal during
and
World War L The Eighteenth Amendment, which
Reformers
saloons would have several
Congress passed
in
1917 and the
states ratified in
1919, barred the manufacture, sale, or importation
of alcoholic beverages. The
amendment proved
These reforms
unpopular and
difficult to enforce,
lessen
was repealed
1933 (see Chapter 22).
would
social
problems by removing
in
motion picture gave urban reformers
two of the chief
another source of danger to worry
causes of unemploy-
and
crime
however, and
The growing popularity of the newly invented
what reformers viewed
ment:
of patriotic
ban on the
believed that prohibition and the elimination of
as
99
the rights of
Toward
manufacture and sale of alcoholic beverages

for the closing of the nation's saloons.
.y/
in
sister Mary's dying
national force for temperance, moral purity, and
they considered to be immoral behavior.
I^^V^P
life,
Willard eventually
Progressives also wanted to "clean up" what
^^^'î
every corner and
unwashed, unkempt, hard-looking drinking
housing standards, public health,
r*^^^^^
filling
extending out into the street, a crowd of
government to include
benefits.
floor, vîth
group of earnest hearts around me,
and behind them,
Progressives sought to clean up

the cities by enlarging the func-
from 1879
as she led a prayer meet-
parks, building codes, sanitation
standards, and zoning
tion of
WCTU
felt
about.
The
first
movie
to tell a story,
The Great Train Robbery, was
the breakup of families.
would
While serving
Such actions
also limit the
powers of brewery
as
president of the WCTU,

Frances Willard also
helped organize the

Prohibition party in 1882.
and liquor
groups
interests,
that
exer-
cised considerable
Movie theaters attracted large

crowds by showing action films
such as The Great Train Robbery.
Early
cowboy
stars gained
worldwide fame from these

movie westerns.
influence over the

government.
The Anti-Saloon League (ASL) and
the
Woman's Christian Temperance Union

(WCTU).
an offshoot of the mid- 19th-century
temperance movement, led the crusade against

alcohol.
states
By 1902
the
ASL
had branches
with 200 paid staff members.
thousands of volunteer speakers,
in
39
It
sent out
many
of them
Protestant ministers, to spread the anti-saloon
mes-
sage in the nation's churches.
Billy Sunday, an ex-ballplayer and a

Presbyterian minister, preached that the saloon
"the
sum
of
all villainies,"
was
and "the parent of
THE AGE OF REFORM
525

produced
in
Americans were attending

In
New
1916 the
the
To
movies each week.
1868
the urban poor a 5- to
lO-cent movie
provided cheap, readily available entertain-
many
ment. But
that
movies
I'i
middle-class Americans believed
especially
the
steamy romances
and movie houses were immoral and sources of

temptation, particularly for the young.
As one
writer of the time reported:
in
The
pictures
Bois graduated from Fisk University, a black
history in
Germany and
1895 he became the
was
where he taught
By
as a brilliant thinker
African American
The darkness
in
has been held a con-
Itself
dition of inexpressible depravity
means of allurement to
evil.
**
and a
Two
years later he
until 1910.
the early 1900s
luminous curtain of the stage have been
it.
In
African American to
Atlanta University, a leading African American
declared extremely corrupting to the
young people lurking
then studied
hired as a professor of history and economics
thrown upon the
the darkness before
He
Harvard University.
at
first
earn a doctorate from Harvard.
at
idle
Du
Great Barrington, Massachusetts.
school in Nashville. Tennessee.
college,
44
of the most influential black
emerge during
this period was

W.E.B. Du Bois (doo boys). Born in
leaders to
York Times could declare that
films were the fitth-largest U.S. industry.
ticket
One
1903. and by 1910. millions of
Du
Bois was recognized
and strong advocate of
civil rights
and culture. He
believed that the opportunity for a college educa-
would best
tion, as well as vocational training,
He
ensure progress for African Americans.
believed that African Americans should be
also
politi-
cally active in the struggle for racial equality.
Declaring that moviegoing "softens the mental fibre
and saps the character," reformers
demanded
that
motion pictures be censored.
Several states and cities set up censorship boards

to
the
ban movies they considered immoral. In 1909
movie industry began
to censor itself.
Reformers sought to Improve

American morals by working
for prohibition and censorship
Throughout
homeland of
the spiritual
tial
blacks. In his influen-
all
eloquently expressed his dual identity as both

African and American:
44 One feels his tvsô-nessan American,

a Negro,
tvs'O souls,
reconciled strivings,
The
two
Negro
soul
in
two
un-
ideals.
American Negro
He would
strife. ...
Africanize America. ...
the
thoughts,
two warring
history of the
the history of this
For nonwhites the Progressive movement

had mixed results. While most progressives
book The Souls of Black Folk (1903), Du Bois
of movies.
The limits of progressivism
Du Bois maintained
his life
passionate interest in Africa, which he regarded as
He would
is
not
not bleach
a flood of white Americanism.
He simply wishes to make it possible for

man to be both a Negro and an American,
...
without being cursed and
spit
**
upon.
were concerned about the plight
of the poor, few white progressives devoted very
energy
the
to
much
problems of
In the 1920s, in an effort to forge
greater unity
Du
blacks and to
African her-
in their
discrimination and prejudice
itage.
against African Americans
of Pan-African congresses, which
and American Indians. Some
attracted black leaders
progressives even expressed
the world.
these groups.
Many
African
Bois organized a series
Du
Bois continued his career as a
Americans and American

Indians, however, drew on
the 1950s he had
progressive ideas to develop
ism
programs appropriate
own communities.
CHAPTER
to their
from around
During the 1930s and 1940s,
openly racist sentiments against
526
among
promote pride
scholar and political activist.
which
embraced
attracted
By
social-
many promi-
nent American intellectuals, both
black and white
for
its
promise
of social justice. In 1961,

the
Communist
party and
he died two years
The
al
Du Bois joined
age 93,
moved
to
end
Du
Bois served as
editor of The
Crisis
from
1910 to 1932. This
later.
fight for racial justice.
effort to
Ghana, where
racial discrimination,
In 1909, in
Du
an
monthly magazine focused

on issues important to
African Americans.
THE CRISIS
A RK(
VJ
ORD OF THE
_ o-
DARKI- R RAC: KS
NOVEMBER
(%.
Bois, along
with leading white progressives such as Jane
Addams. helped found
N..W
IflO
CONTENTS
the National .Association
Advancement of Colored People

(NAACP). Through its magazine. The Crisis,
which Du Bois edited, the NAACP publicized
for the
Tin N. A. A. C. P
a Louisville,
Kentucky,
cases of racial inequality and called for social
law requiring racially seg-
reforms that would ensure equal rights for African
regated housing. As a
Americans.
result, similar
The
to
NAACP
Pt,ILnHED
worked through
also
the courts
end restrictions on voting and on other
rights. In
Giiinn
v.
1915
it
won
its first
United States. In
civil
major victory
this case the
in
Supreme
Court outlawed the "grandfather clause." Southern

states
used
laws were
this clause to
ensure that suffrage
struck
down
across the
MONTHLT BY THE
National Awociatioe for t\u AJvancement ol Coloreil People

NE* VOaa CTTY
AT TES-rT VESEir STaEET
country. Since then the
NAACP
has continued to
fight for blacks" legal rights.
Another important organization
in the strug-
gle for racial justice during this period
was
the
requirements designed to keep blacks from voting
National Urban League. Founded in 1910 by con-
NAACP
cerned blacks and whites, the League worked to
which overturned
improve job opportunities and housing for urban
would not apply

lawyers
to whites.
won Buchanan
v.
Two
years
Warley,
later.
Cunchings, 1889-1918
LYNCH VICTIMS
Some 75 percent
of lynch victims were African American
men.
Most of the other victims were white men, but women, Native Americans, Hispanic
Americans, and Asian Americans were also victims of lynch mobs.
LYNCHINGS OF WHITES
AND AFRICAN AMERICANS
African
REGION
In
which region did most lynchings occur?
Penod
Whites
Americans
1889-1893
261
571
1894-1898
223
549
1899-1903
77
465
1904-1908
25
342
1909-1913
32
308
I9I4-I9I8
TOTALS
Source: Historical
United States
253
2488
Statistics
ofthe
None
51-100
1-5
101-200
6-20
21-50
300
27
645
^^ 201-300
mH 301-386
600 Kilometers
THE AGE OF REFORM
527

One
blacks.
dI
northern
carries
and
Today
cities.
on
to help African
the South adjust to life in
the National
efforts to
its
was
chicM goals
its
American migrants from
end
Urban League
racial discrimination
to aid the disadvantaged.
The NAACP and the National Urban

League made possible some important gains for
black citizens. Nevertheless, most African
Americans
faced discrimination and denial of
still
equal rights. The long struggle to eliminate

racism continued.
Black leaders and organizations

such as the NAACP and the
National Urban League fought
for racial justice. But racism continued to haunt American life.
As a founder
Gertrude
of the Society of
American
Indians,
Bonnin fought to protect Indians in

Oklahoma from exploitation. There, land speculators used every possible tactic to secure oil leases
S.
to valuable Indian property.
American Indian progressives.
Most
Indian rights advocates initially supported the
Dawes Act
of 1887 (see Chapter 14). which
encouraged American Indians to abandon reservation life
and become private landowners. By the
early 20th century, however,
policy had led
many
many
clear that this
Indians to lose their property
and
to land speculators
Thus,
was
it
fall
deeper into poverty.
progressives argued for a more grad-
ual approach: slowing
down
reservations.
to take
such a strong antigovemment stand, and the group's

influence dwindled after 1923. While the Society
did not last long,
it
provided a forum for Indian
leaders and a basis for later attempts to improve

conditions for Indians.
land allotment and
The Society
maintaining the reservation system for a time.
of American Indians
most of them middle-class professional men and
worked to improve the image of

American Indians and to solve
women, formed
the problems they faced.
In 1911 a
to address the
its
group of 50 American Indians,

the Society of
American Indians
problems facing Indians. One of
members. Seneca historian Arthur C. Parker,
urged Indians "to strike out into the duties of
modern
life
and
find every right that had
While some members supported strengthening tribal values, most favored complete
assimilation.
yMMIGRANTS AND ASSIMILATION

For immigrants the Progressive movement also
escaped them before."
The Society publicized
the
accom-
had mixed
ers
results.
On
the one hand,
many
reform-
sympathized with the plight of the newcomers
crowded
into urban factories
and tenements. These
plishments of famous Indians such as Olympic
reformers lobbied for laws to improve immigrants'
gold medalist Jim Thorpe and lobbied against the
lives
use of such derogatory terms as "buck" and
in city slums.
"squaw." They also discussed ways
to
improve
and
to better conditions in the
workplace and
At the same time, progressives criticized
Indian health, education, civil rights, and local
immigrants, accusing them of immoral behavior
government. But the Society's moderate positions
of drinking, gambling, and other vices. They also
on most issues led
to disputes
among members,
thus weakening the organization.
One member.
Dr. Carlos
the
Montezuma,
17
As
a result,
for big-city political
some native-bom Americans
with progressive ideals also favored restricting
criticize
immigration. Madison Grant was a case in point. In
Bureau of Indian Affairs for mismanaging
CHAPTER
denounced immigrant support

machines.
Yavapai-Apache, urged the Society to
528
Most Society members refused
1916 Grant, a prominent
New
Yorker, published
The Passing of the Great Race.
book he expressed
racist
In this
opinions about
African Americans, Jews, and immi-
grants from southern and eastern

Europe. Yet Grant was also a progressive
who
supported urban planning and
other reforms.
Many
progressives believed immi-
grants should be "Americanized" as
quickly as possible. Americanizing,

though, often meant trying to reshape
them
in the
mold of
the native-born
Protestant majority. Russian immigrant
Eugene Lyons described
the effects of
this process in Assignment in Utopia:
We
sensed a disrespect for
the alien traditions
in
our homes
and came unconsciously to resent

and despise those traditions
In 1890 Arnold Genthe photographed

on an outing in San Francisco.
because they seemed [impossible]
all
**
progressives viewed immigrants with
suspicion, however.
welcomed
Some,
like Jane
Addams,
the diverse culture that immigrant
groups were helping to create. The philosopher
Horace Kallen
in his
1924 book on culture and
democracy also envisioned
home
to a
a nation that
number of distinctive
bosses
who
would be
public-health programs.
city political
role.
middle-class progressives
up
New
York
key
State legislative
to investigate factory conditions
won
strong backing from
and the
New
polit-
Immigrants supported progresreformers on practical

health and welfare issues.
when
sive
they fought for
worker protection and
REVIEW
explain the significance of the following: Lawrence Veiller,
Temperance Union, Frances Willard, Eighteenth Amendment, W.E.B. Du

for the Advancement of Colored People, Society of American Indians.
I.
such issues the big-
York City's immigrant-based democratic machine.
SECTION
IDENTIFY and
set
after the Triangle fire
represented them supported
practical reforms such as
For example, a
committee
On
machines sometimes played
cultures.
In addition, the immigrant poor
ical
Chinese immigrant family
between ourselves and
barriers
the adopted land.
Not
this
Woman's
Christian
Bois, National Association
MAIN IDEA What approach did progressives use to clean up American cities?
MAIN IDEA How did reformers attempt to improve American morality?
MAIN IDEA How did African Americans and Native Americans attempt to fight
racism and
discrimination?
WRITING TO EXPLAIN
Imagine you are an immigrant. Write a brief pamphlet for other
immigrants that attempts to explain

5.
ANALYZING Why
why you do or do not support
the Progressive movement.
did progressives support prohibition and the elimination of saloons?
THE AGE OF REFORM
529
hCHAPTER
National
Child Labor
Ray Stannard Baker's
of the Standard Oil
Company"
Committee
and Upton Sinclair's

The jungle published.
Ida Tarbell's "History
begins pub-
Following the Color Line
formed.
lication in McClure's.
IWW founded.
ILGWU
established
eview
~l
Ir
I
WRITING A SUMMARY
^REVIEWING THEMES
1.
summary
write a
to
5.
list
ond next to
line
next to
above,
which
in
I
3.
Amendment
ratified.
help win passage of the Eighteenth
3.
Massachusetts passes minimum-wage
4.
NAACP
5.
National Child Labor
law.
fire
did industrialization influence
How
Hypothesizing
2.
founded.
have been different
Committee formed.
How
Contrasting
3.
have on improving workplace safety?
AND
might the course of reform
the Supreme Court had sup-
if
ported more early social
effect did the Triangle Shirtwaist
IDENTIFYING PEOPLE
differ in their
legislation?
did the
AFL and
labor reform?

progressivism
7.
socialism
2.
Josephine Goldmark
8.
Lawrence
3.
muckrakers
9.
Frances Willard
for
4.
Florence Kelley
10.
Society of American
What
5.
freedom of contract
Indians
about the impact of progressivism?
6.
Daniel
II.
Lincoln Steffens
Burnham
Economic Data on page 506. Study the two graphs

Veiller
below. This information was compiled as an average

all

what ways
did
Why were
goals?
IWW
the
views on the scope and nature of
IDEAS
In
Amendment?
progressive reform efforts?
Evaluating What
Company
How
Analyzing
1.
IWW founded.
1.
Were
THINKING CRITICALLY
Eighteenth
2.
citizens?
all
Why or why not?

How did progressives
these efforts?
in
activity
below.
1
they successful
the sec-
2,
did progressives pro-
pose to extend opportunities to
the order
first
2.
Study the time

in
did states pass
laws to protect workers' rights?
and
Economic Development Why
of the chapter
Number your paper
1900
1897
women work
they so active
the Progressive
in
the period from 1900 to 1910.
AVERAGE
HOURLY WAGE
AVERAGE
DAILY HOURS
for progressive
in
industries
conclusions can you draw from the graph data
lO.O-k
20
movement?
2.
What
roles did muckrakers, writers, and intellec-
tuals play in the

3.
Which
labor issues did reformers hope to
through
4.
What
reform movement?
actions did progressive reformers take to
improve conditions
5.
What
remedy
legislation?
in cities?
steps did African American and Native
American progressives take to address the problems feeing their communities?
530
CHAPTER
8.0
1902
1906
Year
1910
1902
1906
Year
Source: Hisioncal Statistics of the United States
1910
National
First National
Conference on
Society of
Urban
League
American
founded.
formed.
Massachusetts
Indians
passes
wage
City Planning
held.
NAACP
founded.
^ ^ ^
1910
outlaws "grandfather
WW
wins textile
-workers' strike.
Eighteenth
Supreme Court
minimum'
law.
clause"
in
Guinn
Amendment
ratified.
v.
United States.
i
1920
1915
LINKING HISTORY
Writing to Persuade Imagine you
are the young
Boston lawyer Louis D. Brandeis. Write
a closing
AND GEOGRAPHY
Review the map on compulsory education on page 523.
Note
that
most
states
adopted compulsory attendance
argument attempting to convince the Supreme Court
laws for school-aged children during the 19th century,
to uphold laws that guarantee workers' rights. Include
but 19 states did not do so
specific
examples of working conditions to support
most of these
until after
19 states located?
1896.
Where
are
Drawing on what you
previous chapters, what factors might
your arguments.
have learned
timing of passage of compulsory attendance laws for
in
help explain the link
In
1905 W.E.B.
student
Du
who was
Bois
wrote to an African American
between geographic region and the
school-aged children?
discouraged about the career
opportunities that would be available to her. Read the

following excerpt from his letter and write a
summary
of his advice to her.
BUILDING YOUR
PORTFOLIO
44 / have heard that you are a young woman

of some
you are neglecting
ability but that
your school work because you have become

hopeless of trying to do anything in the world.
I
am
veiy sorry for
There are
this.
in the U.S.
thousands of colored girls
happy beyond measure
today tens of
who would be
have the chance of

educating themselves that you are neglecting. If you train
to
yourself as you easily can,
there are wonderful chances of usefulness
before you: you can join the ranks of 15,000
Negro women

cooperatively.
teachers, of hundreds of nurs-
and physicians, of the growing number of

clerks and stenographers.
Ignorance is a
es
1.
reformer
&
open before you as they are flying before

thousands of your fellows.
On
the other
the early I900s. Write an editorial for
magazine that addresses an urban problem
in
government, business, the workplace, or the
community. Be sure that your
editorial suggests
a possible solution to the problem. Editorials
might examine
political
machines, corporate
abuses, poor working conditions, or publichealth concerns.

2.
the doors of opportunity will fly
in
Imagine you are a progressive
McClure's, Cosmopolitan, or another progressive
cure for nothing. Get the very best training

possible
REFORM
DEMOCRATIC RIGHTS
Imagine you are a
promote women's
speech on women's rights to
progressive reformer working to

rights.
Prepare a
deliver at an
Independence Day celebration. Be
hand every time a colored person neglects

an opportunity, it makes it more difficult for
sure that the speech outlines the various problems
others of the race to get such an opportunity.
and indicates
Do you want to
address these problems and concerns.
cut off the chances of the
boys and girls of tomorrow?
and concerns faced by
how
women
in
the early 1900s
progressive reformers intend to
99
THE AGE OF REFORM
53
Chapter 18
1900-1920
IN
THE PROGRESSIVE
PRESIDENTS
UNDERSTANDING
THE MAIN IDEA
Many
their
itself.
progressives souît to extend
reform efforts to government
They wanted
from corrupt
power away
to take
political
machines and
mobilize the power of the government

to improve
national
American
level,
life.
On
the
presidents Theodore
Roosevelt, William
Woodrow Wilson
Howard
Taft,
and
tried in varying
degrees to implement the progressive
reform agenda.
DEMOCRATIC VALUES
What
are
some ways
in
which
government can restore
power
political
to the people?
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT How can government

regulate business practices
without discouraging free

enterprise?
CONSTITUTIONAL
HERITAGE How
might people
use constitutional change to
reform
politics
1901
William McKinley
assassinated.
and society?
1906
Pure Food and
Drug Act passed.
1910
Mann-Elkins Act
passed.
1912
1914
1920
Pro gressive
party formed.
Federal Trade
Commission
Amendment
created.
ratified.
Nineteenth
Various efforts to reform society

::
LINK TO THE PAST
men throughout
had occupied American women and
the 19th century. Reformers had campaigned to end
slavery, to secure
women's
rights,
and
to correct the problems caused
by industrialization and urbanization. Similar
engaged many middle-class Americans early
new
in
efforts at reform
the 20th century.
o.
n the morning of
May
6,
1895, two progressive reporters, Jacob
and Lincoln Steffens, waited eagerly outside
Riis
headquarters.
sion,
The new head of
the city's
Theodore Roosevelt, was due
New
York City police
four-member police commis-
to arrive
any minute. The reporters
eagerly wished to find out Roosevelt's plans for reforming
New
York's
notoriously corrupt police department.

Riis
and Roosevelt were already friends and
political allies.
years before, Riis had gained national attention for his
Other Half Lives,

in
New
ing, "I
York
which he documented
in
City.
grim
How
the
of slum
life
book
reality
Roosevelt wrote to Riis, requesting a meeting, say-
have read your book, and
Now
the
Five
have come
to help."
Roosevelt would have the chance to reform the nation's

he called the two
largest police force. Arriving at police headquarters,
reporters into his office, leaving his fellow commissioners outside.
Motioning Riis and Steffens
we do?" As
to sit
down, he
Steffens later recalled, "It
was
said,
"Now
just as if
we
then, what' 11
three were the
Police Board." Within days Roosevelt had

fired the police chief
and had begun
to clean
up the department. By the end of the summer, fellow commissioner Avery
Andrews
"The whole country
talking
noted,
was
about Theodore Roosevelt."

Six years
later,
Roosevelt was presi-
He
dent of the United States.

the
brought to
White House the same boundless
energy and progressive
spirit
he had
demonstrated as police commissioner.

Suffrage
rally,
1912
Under Roosevelt's leadership progressivism
moved from
state
and local
politics into the national arena.
First edition
of Riis's
cover
book
THE PROGRESSIVE PRESIDENTS
533
Section
REFORMING GOVERNMENT
.f
\.
C [} S
What forms did government corruption take?
What election reforms did progressives support
to
make
government more democratic?
What
reforms were enacted
in city
and state governments
during the Progressive Era?
also tackled the task of curbing the political power of the privi-
leged few and removing the corrupt political machines that
served them. Toward
this end,
electoral process that
would
progressives sought changes in the
restore political power to the people.
from
5OVERNMENT CORRUPTION
New
York
political
boss Charles Murphy
voting, 1916
state legislatures. In return, the
expected generous
gifts,
machines
often in the form of "cam-
paign contributions."
Theodore Roosevelt and other progressive reformers
found corruption
from
city hall to
at all levels
of government,
Washington. D.C. As Lincoln
Shame of
machines demanded
Steffens so graphically reported in The
the Cities, urban political
At the federal
were often put
in
bribes to \ote the
level
some U.S.
power by
way
the progressive writer
state
senators,
who
machines, accepted
corporations wished. In 1906
Da\ id Graham
Phillips
began
bribes from anyone wanting to do business with

city
government.
In Philadelphia, for instance, in order to
secure jobs teachers had to pay the political
machine $120 of the
first
S141 they earned. In
Pittsburgh, public jobs went to contractors
who
Of course, they were allowed to pad

their bills to make up the losses. One Pittsburgh
political boss even opened his own paving firm so
paid bribes.
he could take the lion's share of contracts him-
that
self
at inflated prices.
Government corruption did not stop at the

machines were often linked to
city level. City
Democratic or Republican
state
machines catered
state
ing deals with the railroads, the
anyone
534
:i
else
CHAPTER
machines. The
to "special interests,"
who wanted
lumber
mak-
industrv'.
or
tax breaks or other favors
This
926 cartoon, entitled The National Gesture,

widespread practice of receiving bribes
satirizes the
among government
officials.
how
publishing articles that described

ests influenced
American
special inter-
"The Treason
politics. In
of the Senate," he wrote:
44
The
ests"
is
greatest single hold of "the inter-
the fact that they are the "campaign
contributors."
tion
Who
pays the big elec-
expenses of your congressman, of the
men you send

senators?
Do
those huge
that they
to the legislature to elect
who
you imagine those
bills
are fools? Don't you
make sure of getting
back, with interest?
their
foot
know
money
99
Corrupt political bosses and

machines accepted bribes from
special interests in return for
government
favors.
Progressives reformed the voting process by

With the secret ballot,
eliminating colored ballots.
tLECTION REFORMS
people could cast their vote without revealing their

party preference.
Government corruption outraged reformers. To

demanded. "Give
restore honest government, they
the
government back
government heeded
Only when
to the people!"
the public's voice, they
believed, could the problems of
American
be
life
One way progressives sought

powers of the bosses and the special
reform the election process.
First,
to
break the
interests
was
they wanted
to take the
job of choosing candidates for office
away from
the machines. Therefore, progressives
pushed for the direct primary

election in
its
see
nominating
which voters choose the candidates who
will later run in a general election.
Wisconsin
own
Day
Election
ballot in a distinctive color.
the colored ballots
how people
made
it
On
easy to
voted. Without secrecy, voters
could be pressured to support certain candidates.
To lessen
remedied.
to
printed
this threat,
the secret ballot.

lists all
progressives proposed using
Developed
in Australia, the ballot
candidates on a single sheet of paper and
printed at public expense.
switched to the secret
By 1910 most
states
is
had
ballot.
Finally, progressives urged states to adopt

three other election reforms: initiative, referendum,
and
recall.
initiate,
The
initiative gives voters the
power
to
or introduce, legislation. If a certain per-
adopted the direct primary in 1903, and by 1916
centage of voters in a state (usually 5 to 15 percent)
most other
petition their legislature to enact a measure, the leg-
states
had followed
suit.
Next, progressives proposed to change the
islature has to consider
At the time, the
companion
U.S. Constitution mandated that state legislatures
number of
method of
electing U.S. senators.
elect senators.
To progressives,
this
law made
to pass the
tide
The referendum is a
By securing a specified
signatures on a petition, voters can
pel the legislamre to place a measure
By
The
had grown strong enough
cial
easy for the bosses to control government.
1912 the progressive
it
it.
to the initiative.
recall enables voters to
from
office
on the
remove an elected
by calling for a new
com-
ballot.
offi-
election.
Seventeenth Amendment, w hich was
government, the progressives sought to reform the
Progressives supported the direct

primary, the direct election of
U.S. senators, the secret ballot,
and the initiative, referendum,
voting process. At the time, each political party
and
ratified the next year.
The amendment authorized
voters to elect their senators directly.
As another
step toward
more democratic
recall.
535
/Reforming city
government
government were not
Efforts to reform
motivated solely by a desire for more
democracy. Businesspeople supported

reform because the costs of political
corruption had
become too
Company argued
that
"skilled in business
John
great.
Cash Register
Patterson of the National
individuals
management and
social service" should run "municipal

affairs
on a
As
agreed.
strict
Many
business basis."
a result,
good-government
campaigns put a large number of reform
mayors
into office.
Two
of the most
successful were elected in Ohio: Samuel
M. Jones and Tom Johnson. Both were

self-made
men who had amassed
^ Samuel M. Jones pushed

through so many reforms that his
party refused to renominate him for
mayor in 1899. He ran as an independent, however, and defeated
both of his opponents. The photograph above shows a kindergarten
in Toledo, Ohio, in the early 1900s.
their
fortunes early and then in mid-life had traded
Samuel M. "Golden Rule" Jones got

Rule
his belief in the biblical
"Do unto others
do unto you." Seeking
as
his
Golden
you would have them
to apply this principle to
government, Jones successfully ran for mayor of

Toledo
in 1897.
Over
the next seven years he over-
hauled the police force, improved municipal services, set a
minimum wage
opened kindergartens
During
this
for city workers,
worked
Johnson "the
best
mayor of
the
best governed city in

the United States."
disastrous
hurricane that struck

Galveston, Texas, In
1
900 led to a new
structure of govern-
ment.
536
CHAPTER
cal machines.
Many
in the
the politi-
government of the
typical city
time consisted of a mayor and a city council
made
up of aldermen. Each alderman was the elected

leader of one of the wards into which a city
divided.
Under
its
Galveston, Texas
was
system a political machine
this
could easily elect
own
in
it
people.
was
a hurricane that struck
1900
killing
people and destroying the city

alternative to this system.
and he
change
government could break
The
closely business
to sever those ties. His success led writer
call
structure of city
to believe that only a
former streetcar
tied to political bosses,
Lincoln Steffens to
The
how
came
reformers
Oddly enough,
for children.
magnate, he knew personally
were
and
same period, Tom Johnson
served as Cleveland's mayor.
interests
few charismatic mayors alone, however,
could not conquer entrenched corruption.
business for politics.
nickname from
The
some 6,000
that
produced an
city's
government
could not cope with the emergency, so the state

legislature
named
a five-person city commission to
rebuild the area.
The commissioners were experts
Wisconsin's Republican machine, which railroad
and citizens
and lumber interests dominated. After serving
in their fields, not party loyalists,
praised the
commission
more honest and
as
government. By 1913.
cient than the previous city

city
commissions ran more than 350 U.S.
The
as a county district attorney
effi-
desire for increased
gressman
party boss.
La
These were expert
Cash Register's John Patterson
pushed for a city-manager government

Ohio, after a flood devastated the city
in
managers and
reform program
cities
then prodded the state leg-
islature to increase taxes
elected
reform mayors, formed

commissions, and hired
on
the railroads and the public
city
utilities
city
streetcar
managers to increase govern-
ment
soon
direct primary to Wisconsin.
poor.
He
Many American
most energetic leaders.
reforms often increased the political clout of busi-
power of the
its
progressive
known as the Wisconsin

Idea that became a
model for other states.
First, La Follette brought the
commissions would get

government. In fact, these
ness leaders and reduced the
one of
in the
vigorously backed a
Dayton.
in 1913.
city
politics out of city
as
emerged early
Elected governor in 1900. he
Corporate leaders like Patterson claimed that

city
Follette
movement
administrators hired to run cities as they might run a
business. National
ISOOs. he signaled his break
in the late
with the party machine by refusing a bribe by a
cities.
government efficiency
also gave rise to city managers.
and as a U.S. con-
create
efficiency.
gas. electric,
and
companies and
commissions
companies
late these
to
to regu-
in the public interest.
La
Follette also got laws passed to curb excessive
lobbying and backed labor legislation, the conser-
le EFORMING STATE GOVERNMENT

The
spirit
of reform also affected
many
state
gov-
ernments. In Wisconsin. Governor Robert

"Fighting
Bob" La
vation of Wisconsin's natural resources, and other
1905 the Wisconsin legislature
social legislation. In
M.
elected
La
Follette to the U.S. Senate,
where he
battled for reform until his death in 1925.
Follette instituted reforms that
turned Wisconsin into what Theodore Roosevelt
would
call "the laborator\
pn|
Born
in
of democracy.'"
June 1855
in
La
Wisconsin Idea provided a model for reforming local

and state government and regu-
Primrose,
way
llJjLll
Wisconsin. La Follette worked his
"***"
through college and law school. Although
Follette's
lating big business.
a loyal Republican, he found himself at odds with
SECTION
IDENTIFY and
tive,
1.
2.
3.
explain the significance of the following: direct primary, Seventeenth
referendum,
LOCATE
recall,
Tom Johnson, Robert
initia-
M. La Follette.
MAIN IDEA What measures did progressives suggest to make government more democratic?
MAIN IDEA How did many U.S. cities try to increase government efficiency and lessen corruption?
GEOGRAPHY: HUMAN-ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION How did the Galveston hurricane
new
political
WRITING TO INFORM
political
5.
Samuel M. Jones,
Amendment,
and explain the importance of the following: Wisconsin,
help produce a
4.
REVIEW
corruption at the
ANALYZING What
structure for cities?
Imagine you are David

local, state,
and federal
Graham
Phillips.
reforms made up the Wisconsin Idea?
are examples of the progressive
Write an
article describing
levels.
Why
can
it
be said that these reforms
spirit?
537
Section 2
ROOSEVELT AND THE SQUARE DEAL
FOCUS
What
was the Square Deal?
How did Theodore Roosevelt fight corruption in business?

What steps did Roosevelt take to protect the environment?
Theodore Roosevelt brought progressivism
into the White
House.
Taking office after the assassination of President William McKinley,
Roosevelt was elected in his
own
right in 1904.
During
his
two terms
as president, he promoted the regulation of big business and helped

Assassination of
preserve natural resources for future generations.
President McKinley, 1901
died following childbirth. Deeply saddened, he did
OOSEVELT BECOMES PRESIDENT
not seek reelection. Instead he headed for his ranch
1900 President McKinley ran for reelection with
next two years ranching and writing history books,
Theodore Roosevelt
as his running mate. The

Democrats again nominated William Jennings
including what would become the four-volume
Bryan and made free
however, forced him out of the
in the
In
But
campaign
silver their
1900 most Americans
in
McKinley and Roosevelt
felt
issue.
prosperous, and
sailed to victory.
Then on
1901, anarchist Leon Czolgosz shot
September
6,
McKinley.
A week
later the president died,
and
wealthy
up
New
York family.
bom
in
1858 into a
sickly child, he built
his strength through rigorous exercise.
father,
From
Territory.
his
he acquired a love of the outdoors, a strong
Winning of the West. The harsh winter of
back
to
New
York. In
As
a student
885-86,
cattle business
and
December 1886 he married
In the
local, state,
890s Roosevelt served
in a variety
of
and federal positions. Then, during the

in
1898 (see Chapter
he helped organize a volunteer cavaln,' unit
19),
the
Rough Riders and went off to fight in Cuba. He

returned a war hero that same year and was
elected governor of
New
York.
As governor,
worked
to
Roosevelt
reform government and
Angered
Harvard University, he developed
to regulate big business.
a taste for history and politics.
by the governor's progressive
After graduating, Roosevelt
New
election to the
islature,
1882
York
won
state leg-
where he served from
to 1884.
As
a legislator he
Republican
efforts, conservative
party
leaders
tried
to
ease
Roosevelt out of state office by

having him run as vice president
earned a reputation as a moderate
on the McKinley ticket
but energetic reformer.
Alarmed, the conservative senator
Toward
the
end of
term, Roosevelt's wife,
538
at
childhood friend Edith Kermit Carow.
sense of fair play, and concern for

the less fortunate.
much of the
Roosevelt spent
Spanish-American War
Roosevelt became the nation's chief executive.
Theodore Roosevelt was
Dakota
CHAPTER
18
his third
Ahce Lee,
Mark Hanna warned

would be "only one
in
1900.
that there
life
between
PRESIDENTIAL L/y^
in office
THEODORE ROOSEVELT
1901-1909
1858-1919
Theodore Roosevelt
limelight. As one of
relished the
always
his children
is
remarked, Roosevelt always wanted
example, when
This hero of the Rough Riders
legend
Roosevelt always
"No
own
his
in
lived
life
sador once
much
as
Roosevelt turned to
"What would you
An
now?"
"If
old friend
"You must
<!
c^-eT'-xje
madman and the Presidency." When Roosevelt

moved into the White House a year later, Hanna
in the
that
cow-
White House!"
called,
old. he
brought a new style to the presidency.
TR.
Joumahst William Allen White described him

"rumbhng. roaring
nonsense
style
owners backed down. The

the miners and the
like
to do
and toothy grin made him a favorite
arbitrators
part of
die."
gave both
what they
a landmark: For the
government had intervened
in a strike to protect the interests of the
workers
and the public. Satisfied. Roosevelt pronounced

the
compromise a square
deal.
The Square Deal became Roosevelt's 1904

campaign slogan. He promised
man
every
to "see to
it
that
has a square deal, no less and no more."
This pledge
target of pohtical cartoonists.
down and
lie
mine owners
time, the federal
as a
tornado of a man." His no-
to
wanted. The compromise was

first
as he was now commonly

loved hunting and sports. Only 42 years
Teddy, or
guest and
same with you,
just the
"I'd like
/e^.
this
exclaimed to a colleague. ""My God.
it's
out.
Mr. President," said the ambassador,
c^
V.C
boy
his
asked,
explained Roosevelt's great love

life:
worked
then
have enjoyed
myself," he claimed.
of
White House,
visited the
and
jogged,
hilt.
President has ever enjoyed him-
self as
was legendary. For

the French ambas-
he and the president played tennis,
time.
to the
that the President
six [years old]."
His energy
to be "the bride at every wedding."
became
remember
about
summed up
Roosevelt's belief in bal-
ancing the interests of labor, business, and consumers. Roosevelt's Square Deal called for limiting
Xhe square deal
power of
the
safety,
Unlike the presidents of the Gilded Age.
who
trusts,
promoting public health and
and improving working conditions.
The president was so popular
gen-
\\
ith voters that
government.
no Republican dared challenge him for the 1904
Roosevelt believed that the president should use
nomination. In the election, Roosevelt easily
erally took a hands-off
approach
his office as a "bully pulpit" to
to
speak out on
vital
issues. Roosevelt brought dynamic leadership to
the progressive
Soon
defeated his Democratic opponent. Judge Alton

Parker of New York.
movement.
after
Roosevelt's Square Deal pledged
Roosevelt became president, a
labor dispute helped define his approach to the
fair
1902 some 150.000 Pennsylvania coal
ers,
office. In
treatment for business, workand the public.
miners struck for higher wages and recognition of

the United
owners
Mine Workers union. But
mostly
railroad
companies
the
mine
would not
nEGULATING BUSINESS
negotiate.
Roosevelt urged the two sides

arbitration
pute.
When
accept
One
of Roosevelt's goals during both terms in office
to let a third party settle the dis-
was
to regulate large corporations.
the
mine owners refused,
to
the presi-
dent threatened to take over the mines. The mine
While he consid-
ered big business essential to the nation's growth, he

also
beheved companies should behave responsibly.
539
"We
don'l wish to destroy cor-
he said, "but we do
make them subserve
porations.
wish
"
pubHc good."
the
II
to
Trustbusting.
1902
In
the president put this philoso-
phy
He
into practice.
directed
the attorney general to sue
Northern Securities
Company, which monopothe
lized railroad shipping in the
Northwest.
Supreme Court
monopoly
1904
In
the
^s>
wiunrs eow>MiT Ncwiomi.
ruled that the
violated
the
A The Pure Food and Drug Act tried to prevent drug manufacturers
from making false or exaggerated claims about their products. This
advertisement, for example, promises the user will be spared from
headaches after taking Carter's liver pills.
Sherman Antitrust Act and

therefore ordered the corporation dissolved.
Encouraged
by
Roosevelt's
this victory,
administration went on
"trustbusting" campaign, filing 44 suits against
medicines. ...
deemed "bad." It was not

size that mattered, Roosevelt declared, but
whether a trust was good or bad for the public as
ties of alcohol,
business combinations
As he put
a whole.
it,
"We draw
the line against
The Roosevelt administration
regulatory agency.
The
also
promoted
that turned the Interstate
first,
into a significant
the 1903 Elkins Act,
forbade shippers from accepting rebates (money

secretly given
business).
back
to shippers in return for their
The drug companies' claims
Adams
cer,
amount
of opi-
that their "health ton-
from baldness
to can-
charged, amounted to fraud.
In response to these abuses and those of the
food industry. Roosevelt and Congress enacted two
consumer-protection laws
in
1906. The
Meat
Inspection Act required government inspection of
meat shipped from one
state to another.
Food and Drug Act forbade
The Pure
the manufacture,
com-
required that containers of food and medicines
companies engaged
in interstate
sale, or transportation
of food and patent medicine
carry ingredient labels.
ferries.
Protecting the consumer.
Roosevelt was
also concerned about the food and drug indus-
that
**
containing harmful ingredients. The law also
merce, such as pipelines and
tries.
swallow huge quanti-
The second, the 1906 Hepburn Act.

ICC to set railroad rates and to reg-
authorized the
ulate other
will
an appalling
ates and narcotics.
railroad regulation. At the president's urging.
Commerce Commission (ICC)
It
ics" could cure everything
misconduct, not against wealth."
Congress passed two laws
sue
SC OTHER
By the early 1900s clear evidence existed

some drug companies, meat packers, and
Roosevelt fought corruption in

business by breaking up illegal
and regulating railroads

and the food and drug industries.
trusts
food processors were selling dangerous products.
such as cocaine or morphine. Exposing drug
Protecting the environment. The presimay have achieved his most enduring legacy
in the field of conservation. He recognized that
industry abuses, journalist Samuel Hopkins
America's natural resources were limited and
Adams
the needs of business had always taken precedence
Some drug companies
sold ineffective over-the-
counter medicines that contained dangerous drugs
wrote:
dent
over the environment. "In the past,
Gullible
some
America
will
spend
this
seventy-five millions of dollars
year
in
purchase of patent [over-the-counter]
540
CHAPTER
18
the
we have
that
admit-
ted the right of the individual to injure the future of
the Republic for his
own
charged. "The time has
come
present profit." he
for a change."
Never content with mere
talk.
White House conference on conservation
Roosevelt
withdrew from sale millions of acres of public land
and
set aside
At
reserves.
some 150 million
his urging.
creation of a National Conservation
led to the
Commission
to
study natural resource issues and to the establish-
acres as forest
Congress created national
ment of con.servation agencies
in
41 states.
parks and wildlife sanctuaries and in 1902 passed

the
Newlands Reclamation Act. The
money from the

irrigation
and reclamation
damaged land productive
the process of
industry,
still
1800s government,
late
and most Americans
believed there
making
national parks.
again. Moreover, a 1908
01/1/
In the
Roosevelt saved public lands from

destructive development and created wildlife sanctuaries and
allowed
act
sales of public land to be used for
was no end
NATIONAL PARKS
oversee the country's 10
mining interests counter that
National Park Service manages
the protection of thousands of
some 355
sites
on 80
million
Although the number and
1870s alone, millions of acres of
tremendously since Roosevelt's
even given away to mining,

ging,
log-
and railroad companies
However, an increasing
number
of Americans, including
believed
industry jobs
one problem
wildlife
requires the use
Service
is still
wish
to preserve and expand park
who want
Lawmakers
the middle, hoping
and Park
the
Lawmakers
Park Service remains
who
in
to mention
of the issue.
facing the
unchanged. The agency
land and those
are caught
to use
the parks' resources.
officials
also face
problem of trying to maintain

the parks while containing
costs.
More than 250
people
visit
annually,
million
the national parks
and some
officials
argue that the visitors
the country's lands
and
not
to please voters on both sides
have increased
caught between those
for development.
Theodore Roosevelt,
day,
for
products
of park resources.
acres of land.
size of parks
sold cheaply or
min-
eral
Between the 1850s and the
were
wood and
the
to the nation's natural resources.
public land
demand
national parks and 21 national
monuments. Today, the
were
are
literally
"loving
being recklessly
the parks to death."
destroyed. During
To counteract the
his
years
strain
in office,
on park
President Roosevelt
resources,
fought for programs
have proposed that
to protect public land
visitation
and historic
certain popular parks.
sites.
Many opposed
nomic value of the
The
Yellowstone National Park was established in

1872. Shown here is a detail from Thomas Moran's
painting of the park, Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone
far
all
reserved land out-
weighed the need to conserve

it.
But
in
be limited
1916, largely as a
from
sides
in
future of
the national parks
Roosevelt's efforts,
believing the eco-
officials
settled.
in
is
But
the
debate might well

Conservationists charge
that clear-cutting, strip mining,
consider Teddy Roosevelt's
words: "A nation
result of Roosevelt's efforts,
and overdevelopment are
manage
Congress created the National
destroying wildlife habitats and
greatest
Park Service to maintain and
old-growth forests. Logging and
number over the
its
is
obligated to
resources for the
good of the greatest

long run."
541
Rational Parks and Conservation

NATIONAL PARK SYSTEM
monuments, and national
The park system, which includes the national parks, national
historic parks,
protects the nation's cultural and historic sites as well as
its
natural wonders.
PLACE
Which
state has the greatest land area set aside
in
national parks?
SCO Miles
250
SCO Kilometers
Albcn Equal-Art* Projection
CANADA
//^.
"''""fio
PACIFIC
OCEAN
National forests
and grasslands
ATLANTIC OCEAN
-*
PUERTO
18'N
RICO
^
^
/=
Virgin
Islands
monuments
(NM)
VIRGIN
'^"^^^^
U.S.
100 Miles
50
500 Kilometers
National
CARIBBEAN SEA
250
NP
100 Kilometers 65'
SECTION
REVIEW
IDENTIFY and
Elkins Act,
explain the significance of the following: Theodore Roosevelt, arbitration, Square Deal,
Hepburn Act, Meat Inspection Act, Pure Food and Drug Act, Newlands Reclamation Act,
reclamation.
1.
2.
3.
MAIN IDEA What did Roosevelt pledge to accomplish through the Square Deal?
MAIN IDEA What actions did Roosevelt take against trusts and railroads?
MAIN IDEA How did the Meat Inspection Act and Pure Food and Drug Act try to
protect
consumers?
4.
WRITING TO EXPLAIN
Write
Imagine you are a
member
of the National Conservation Commission.
a report to the president, evaluating the impact that business has had
on
natural resources
and offering a plan of action for protecting those resources.

5.
TAKING A STAND
Roosevelt's handling of the Pennsylvania coal miners' strike represented a
new approach to labor relations. Take a stand either on the side of the miners or
and explain how that group might feel about Roosevelt's solution.
542
:i
CHAPTER
the mine owners
REFORM UNDER TAFT
FOCUS
What
reforms did President Taft carry out?
Why did
Taft lose the progressives' support?
What was
the result of the 1912 election?
A,.Ithough a financial panic and sharp depression

hit the nation in 1907,
President Roosevelt
remained popular The Republican nomination was

his for the asking, but having served almost
terms, he chose not to run again.
fiill
to William
who
election. In
easily
won
Taft carried
the
1908
The
Howard
Republicans then turned
two
Taft,
some ways,
on Roosevelt's reform program.

Taft and
But as
his term
wore
on, progressives
more and more unhappy with
became
Sherman
campaign banner, 1908
his actions.
up an impressive
Xaft takes office
twice the
At the 1908 Republican convention. Roosevelt

supported his secretary of war. William
Taft,
who won
the nomination
on the
Howard
first ballot.
The Democrats again nominated William Jennings

Bryan, whose prolabor platform
won
Democrats
lost the election
by
From
the start
it
was
Roosevelt enjoyed being
was
clear that Taft
would be
of president than Roosevelt.

in the public eye. Taft
just the opposite. "I don't like politics," he
once wrote. "I don't
A
limits
like the limelight."
smart but cautious man, Taft stressed the
on
his
power
as president, rather than his
potential for leadership. Nevertheless, he chalked
more than
number begun under Rooseveh. At
Taft's
Mann-Elkins Act
in
1910, extending the regulatory powers of the

Interstate
Commerce Commission
to telephone
and
telegraph companies.
Taft also
He added
advanced the cause of conservation.
vast areas to the nation's forest reserves.
Taft also supported reforms to aid
With
a wide margin.
a different sort
of accomplishments. His
urging, Congress passed the
the backing
of the American Federation of Labor. Despite

labor's support, the
list
administration filed 90 antitrust suits,
approval.
his
Department of Labor
working people.
Congress created the
to enforce labor laws.
It
also
passed mine-safety laws and established an eight-
hour workday for employees of companies holding

contracts with the federal government.
The
Taft administration
ble, too, for the
partly responsi-
adoption of the Sixteenth
Amendment. Proposed
1913, the
was
amendment
in
1909 and ratified in
authorizes a national tax
543
ÊSDENTm
Liyg}
president and the progressives began in April

19(39 with the passage of a tariff bill.
Both Taft and the progressives favored
WILLIAM
1
tariff
857- 930
reductions to lower the prices of con-
sumer goods. Some members of Congress, how-
wanted high
ever,
in office
low-tariff bill to the Senate,
1909-1913
Rhode
Island turned
American
House sent a
tariffs to protect
They won out when
industry.
it
the
and Nelson Aldrich of
into a high-tariff measure.
Taft could have vetoed the
bill,
now
called
the Payne-Aldrich Tariff, or he could have pres-
sured Aldrich to change the
the
William Taft was an unhappy president
He seemed
heart a judge, not a politician.
at
political
Republicans
in
he signed the
to
But Taft lacked
oppose conservative
Congress. Despite his misgivings,
bill.
To make matters worse, he
pro-
ill
ceeded
suited for public office, dozing off at
skill
rates.
to call
the best tariff ever passed.
it
official din-
Outraged progressives accused Taft of betraying

ners or Cabinet meetings, forgetting names,
the reform cause.
procrastinating, and being tactless at the
moments.
When
worst
Progressives also attacked Taft for sabotag-
White House, he
leaving the
welcomed incoming President Woodrow

Wilson by
saying, "I'm glad to
the lonesomest place
What
U.S.
Taft really
Supreme Court.
legal career,
in
be going. This
is
the world."
wanted was
Taft
had had
ing Roosevelt's conservation program.
revolved around Taft's secretary of the

Richard Ballinger.
who
on the
a distinguished
serving as U.S. solicitor general, as a
interior.
believed that the Roosevelt
administration had exceeded
a seat
The dispute
its
authority
when
it
stopped the sale of public land. Ballinger approved

the sale of a vast tract of coal-rich Alaska timberland.
The head of
the U.S. Forest Ser\ ice. Gifford
American Bar
Pinchot (PiN-shoh). an ardent conservationist and
Association, and as a law professor at Yale
Roosevelt's friend, attacked Ballinger for favoring
federal judge, as a president of the
University. In
192! Taft got his wish
he was
appointed chief justice of the Supreme Court.

"Presidents
come and
go," a
happy Taft
said,
"but
the Court goes on forever."
private interests over conservation. Taft
warned
When
Pinchot
Pinchot to stop criticizing Ballinger.

did not stop. Taft fired him.
For progressives the Ballinger-Pinchot
affair
signaled Taft's weakness on conservation.
T This cartoon
Tribune
in
appeared in the Tacoma News

909 and satirizes Taft's awkward posi-
tion in the Ballinger-Pinchot affair.
based on individual income. Progressives had long

supported such a tax as a
ernment programs
way
in a fair
to
fund needed gov-
manner.
administration supported
the Mann-Elkins Act, conservation programs, labor reforms,
and the Sixteenth Amendment.
Taft's
Taft angers the
progressives
Despite these reforms. Taft lost the support of
V/.'^^.
^.S
progressive Republicans. The
544
::
CHAPTER
18
split
between the
*%C\.'<#^
Although
his administration
later restored the
the episode hurt the Republicans
1910 congressional elec

For the
tions.
first
time
Progressive, or Bull Moose,
its convention in Chicago

on August 5, 1912. Delegates paraded
through the aisles, singing "Onward
Christian Soldiers," and unanimously
nominated Theodore Roosevelt for
president. Souvenirs from the Bull
Moose campaign are shown here.
Alaska land
to the federal forest reserve,
in the
The
party held
in 16
years, the Republicans lost
House of
control of the
Representatives.
Cannon,
Taft lost progres-
was one of Washington's most

powerful politicians. As Speaker he ruled the
House with an iron hand, appointing all House
committees and naming their chairmen. As head of
conservationist Gifford Pinchot.

Taft
made one
particularly dangerous
Theodore Roosevelt, who broke with
Taft
over the Pinchot controversy. In the congressional

elections of 1910. Roosevelt
gressive Republicans
73-year-old
tobacco-chewing poker player,
support when he signed the

Payne-Aldrich Tariff and fired
sive
enemy
campaigned
who opposed
for pro-
which determined
the powerful Rules Committee,
the order of business in the House,
vented
House
Taft and the
bills
Cannon
pre-
he opposed from even reaching the
floor for debate.
Cannon used
Progressives charged that
his
party's conservative wing. In a speech at
great
Osawatomie (oh-suh-wAHT-uh-mee), Kansas,
cent for scenery." he had growled in dismissing a
Roosevelt offered his
program of
New
Nationalism
social legislation calling for
He
a bold
tough laws
and regu-
to protect workers, ensure public health,

late business.
power
call for
block reform legislation. ("Not one
to
environmental protection.) In March 1910
Congressman George Norris of Nebraska,

gressive,
began an
Norris proposed that in the future.
declared:
Committee and
elect the Rules
The true
conservative,
shall
he
who
insists that
The
passed.
year
mighty commercial forces which they have
Throughout
99
said,
activist federal
major progressive victory.
this bitter dispute, Taft
more
divided. Theodore Roosevelt, by
more
at
New
Nationalism
odds with
idency.
Taft.
Borrowing
claimed:
"My
now
completely
decided to run again for the pres-
hat
a prizefighting term, he pro-
is in
the ring." Roosevelt
won
almost every Republican state primary, including
as a revival of the progressive spirit.
the
one
in Taft's
own
state,
Ohio.
At the convention the Taft
The republican
refused to take
By 1912 the conservative and the progressive

wings of the Republican party were deeply
had taken as president.
Delighted, reformers hailed the
far
call for
government represented a
liberal position than he
also stripped the
sides, further alienating progressives.
must become the
"steward of the pubhc welfare." His
House
Speaker of the power to appoint members of the
citizens of the
other committees
Government, Roosevelt
the
later,
United States must effectively control the
themselves called into being.
Speaker be
After a heated debate, Norris's motion
property
be the servant and not the master of
the commonwealth.
House members
that the
excluded from membership.
friend of property, the true

is
a pro-
break Cannon's power.
effort to
forces, firmly in
control of the party machinery, refused to seat
party divides
Not long before Roosevelt's speech, a
bitter dis-
many
of Roosevelt's delegates.
When
Taft
won
the
nomination, Roosevelt's supporters angrily walked
and held their own convention, adopting a
pute in Congress had further deepened the gulf
out,
between Taft and the progressives. In the spring of
platform based on the
1910, progressive Republicans in Congress
nating Roosevelt as their presidential candidate.
launched a major attack on Speaker of the House
Thus was
Joseph ("Uncle Joe") Cannon of
as the Bull
vative Republican.
Illinois, a
conser-
that
he
bom
New
Nationalism and nomi-
the Progressive party, also
Moose
felt "fit as
known
party after Roosevelt declared
a bull
moose"
to run.
i:
545
A DEMOCRATIC VICTORY
IN 1912
Although Roosevelt's campaign continued
up steam, the division
in the
to pick
Republican party
Democratic victory.
Roosevelt and Taft were likely to split the
assured
practically
Republican vote, while Democrats united behind
one candidate. Their choice was Governor

Woodrow Wilson of New Jersey, who ran on a
platform calling for tariff reduction, banking
wage earners and
reform, laws benefiting
and stronger
fanners,
antitrust legislation.
Wilson, a native of Virginia and a political
newcomer, had long nurtured dreams of high
office.
made calling cards proclaiming

"Thomas Woodrow Wilson, Senator from Virginia."
He eventually became a professor at Princeton
he had
In college
University
Part of the speech
Theodore Roosevelt delivered on October

1912,
made
Jersey and later served as
its
elected governor in 1910. In his
short time as governor, he fought the state's
14,
and the eyeglass case he carried are shown
here. Notice the bullet holes
New
in
He was
president.
Democratic party bosses and pushed through laws
during the
As an outspoken reformer and

eloquent speaker, Wilson was the presidential
regulating business.
attempted assassination.
choice of progressives in the Democratic party.
Roosevelt's candidacy, however, almost

ended on October
him
shot
14, 1912,
in the chest
when
a deranged
man
during a campaign stop.
In the
1912 campaign. Wilson
brilliantly
captured the nation's reform mood. His program,
New Freedom,
the
called for a revival of small
Roosevelt finished his planned speech, despite the
business and a return to an America where people
bullet lodged in his body. This reckless display of
were free from the control of big business and
courage reinforced his image as a larger-than-life
government. Wilson asserted:
hero.
44
When
Roosevelt failed to win

the 1912 Republican presidential
nomination, he formed the
Progressive party.
RISE OF
Number
Election Year
1900
Presidential
87.814
Congressional
8,021
that
by keeping
is
there
new blood
politic.
**
will
that
.
government
is
kept
channels open, so
constantly be coming
into the veins of the
body
THE SOCIALIST PARTY
of Socialist Votes,
1904
Gubernatorial
The only way
pure
1908
1900-1920
1912
1916
1920
585,113
919.799
402.283
420.793
900,672
73.914
13,694
386,828
125,907
113.450
,599,420
770,230
138.201
Sources: Congressional Quarterly's Guide
to U.S. Elections (for gubernatorial
and
230.907
1
28.200
congressional),
Historical Statistics of the United States (for presidential)
THE SOCIALIST CHALLENGE

reform-minded
Dramatic
546
::
CHAPTER
18
social
changes at the turn of the century spurred the popularity of the prolabor,
Socialist party.
In
which year did Sodalist candidates obtain the largest number of overall votes?
Election of 1912
Although Wilson shared the progressive belief in
government
WILSON'S STRENGTH
as an agent of
won
reform, he believed that making government
he
too strong could
Ea
He
stitle
Wilson's strength was
the South. Although he
in
the electoral vote by a landslide, the only states outside the old Confederacy
individual freedom.
at least half the
LOCATION
won
where
popular vote were Kentucky, Maryland and Oklahoma.
Which
state split
electoral vote?
its
believed that the goal of reform should
be to
rid the
system of corruption so
that free
competition could flourish, without signifi-
cantly altering the system
itself.
MT
ND
SD
regard he differed from Roosevelt and espe-
WY
3
cially
from another candidate
Eugene Debs of
15
"P CO
The
KS
reforms, including public ownership of
45]
Mil!
NE
economic
Socialist party supported radical
lA
for president.
the Socialist party.
J^
uM
4
1
-i
MN
~~
In this
18
10
all
AZ
major industries. The party had done very

LA;
well in the 1910 elections.
In
Debs, Wilson, and Roosevelt.
American voters had
choice of three
Even
strong reform-minded candidates.
Taft
supported some reform programs, although
Electoral
Popular
Vote
Vote
435*
6,296,547
he appeared to represent a more conservaWilson
of
Pop. Vote
Wilson
(Democratic)
41.9%
tive viewpoint.
T.
As expected, Wilson won
Roosevelt and 8 for Taft. Debs
Taft
won
Out of more than 15 million votes
Debs
over
Roosevelt
Other parties
*Two
3,486,720
23.2
900,672
6.0
235,025
1.6
Taft
(Republican)
electors in California voted for Wilson.
cast, the
some
three reform candidates received
27.4
(Progressive)
900.000 popular votes but no electoral votes.
Some
4,118,571
the election,
receiving 435 electoral votes to 88 for
million.
88
Roosevelt
T.
11
1.200 Socialist candidates,
including 79 mayors, were elected to offices across
The
new
Although Wilson won
split in
the Republican vote
the country, reflecting the desire for
approaches to government.
and the public support for reform
Woodrow Wilson
just six million popular votes, he took office with a
enabled
strong mandate for reform.
the 1912 presidential election.
SECTION
to win
REVIEW
IDENTIFY and
explain the significance of the following: William Howard Taft, Mann-Elkins Act,
Amendment, Nelson Aldrich, Richard Ballinger, Gifford Pinchot, New Nationalism, Joseph
Cannon, George Norris, Woodrow Wilson, New Freedom, Eugene Debs.
Sixteenth
I.
MAIN IDEA What contributions did the Taft administration make to reform?
MAIN IDEA What actions caused Taft to lose the support of progressives?
MAIN IDEA How
did the Progressive party help determine the
outcome
of the 1912 presidential
election?

explaining your plan of action and
Imagine you are Teddy Roosevelt. Write a speech
why you formed
DISTINGUISHING FACT FROM OPINION

Taft had not lived
up to the progressive
reform record to Roosevelt's, was
the Progressive party.
Supporters of the Progressive party believed that
ideals of the
this a fair
Roosevelt administration. Comparing
assessment?
Why
or
why
Taft's
not?
547
Section ^
'
WILSON'S "NEW FREEDOM"
E
c u
What did
s
the Wilson administration achieve In the areas of tariff
and banking reforms and business regulation?
How did women win the right to vote?

What was the major success of progressivism?
""PRESIDENr
opportunity in American
tariffs,
wage
in office,
Wilson
restore
YOU 00
FOR
moved
to
lower
reform banking, regulate corporations, and aid farmers and
earners.
As Wilson began
sives could claim

life.
Once
life.
*^"-L
Woodrow Wilson pledged to
uring the 1912 campaign,
Yet
to clean
his
some success
much remained
second term
in office,
in their efforts to
improve American
be done. Progressives had barely begun
to
up government and regulate business, women
have the right
to vote,
progres-
and
still
did not
the pledge of equal opportunity for all
Americans remained unfulfdled.
Suffragist
the
nEFORM ON MANY FRONTS
month
tive agenda.
later.
It
demonstrating
in
front of
White House, about 1916
Wilson presented
his legisla-
included tariff and banking
reforms and stronger antitrust laws. Opposed by
On March
1913, President Wilson gave his
4,
inaugural address in which he eloquently
up the
first
summed
of the progressive reform movement:
spirit
business groups and lobbyists, Wilson used

skill to rally
but
we
have not
count the
and
physical
lower
first priority
tariffs,
long a goal
that big business

.
tariff
spiritual
whom
triumph;
tion.
This
it is
is
presidency. Wilson mounted a

chil-
public campaign to undermine

the
not
the business lobby and overit all
has
come Senate
day of
opposition. His
a day of dedica-
forces of party, but the forces
CHAPTER
reduction during Taft's
cost to
Here muster, not the
of humanity.
had blocked
fearful
weight and burden of

fallen.
ern agrarian wing. Well aware
stopped
men and women and
dren upon
:!
to
of the Democratic party's southindustrial achievements,
... to
548
was
been proud of
our
the
his
Congress and among the American people.
Wilson's
9% We have
all
support for his program, both in
**
>^^fi^M^^:
>&N-JS
4 Woodrow Wilson
delivering his
first
address on March
is
shown
inaugural
4, 1913.
pfÊSlDENTIAL
Liy^
in office
WOODROW WILSON
I9I3-I92I
displays of
humorous behav-
1856-1924
Woodrow
Wilson had
sudden
reputation
for being very serious and often
He
inflexible.
hated
mise and at times would oppose

lation
he originally proposed
amended by someone
else.
told a political associate,
"I
if
riding in
agent, they passed a small boy on
was
the road. "Did you see what that
it
He once
am sorry
who
disagree with me.
Because
know
they are wrong."
boy did?" Wilson
said to the agent,
very seriously "He
made
a face at
me." Then the president asked, "Did
you see what
Yet, despite his public
the agent.
image, Wilson often surprised

his close associates
Once when Wilson was
the country with a Secret Service
legis-
for those
I
ior.
compro-
political
Wilson
^^^^^^^____
with
did?"
"No,
With
Sir,"
said
a boyish grin,
replied,
"I
made
face right back!"
strategy worked. In 1913 Congress passed the
Underwood
Tariff Act. which reduced
their lowest levels in

lost
revenue, the
tax, taxing
bill
50
years.
imposed
a graduated
people with high incomes
rate than those with
tariffs to
To make up
at
income
a higher
low incomes.
was no
borrow from
to
central fund that
banks could
prevent collapse during financial
when many people withdrew their

the same time, banks commonly failed.
panics. Thus,
deposits at
Reform was
agreed on
Americans
clearly necessary, but
how
to
dis-
change the banking system.
Conservative business groups wanted to give the

nation's large private banks
trast,
many Democrats and
wanted the government
more
AND
BIG BUSINESS
Having achieved important
control. In con-
progressive Republicans
to limit the
and banking
viewed as a
He
power of monopohes, which he
threat to small business.
Toward
this
end. he backed passage of the Clayton Antitrust
Act of 1914. This

1
act clarified
and extended the
890 Sherman Antitrust Act by clearly
stating
what
corporations could not do. For example, companies
could not
sell
goods below^ cost
out of business.
They
to drive
also could not
competitors
buy competing
companies' stock to create a monopoly.
The Wilson administration

creation of the Federal
also
backed the
Trade Commission (FTC).
The FTC. which Congress
to run the system.
tariff
reforms, Wilson turned to business regulation.
wanted
Next on Wilson's agenda was banking. At the

time, there
IViILSON
for the
established in 1914,
was
The Federal Reserve Act of 1913. which

Wilson helped pass, combined these two views.
It
created a three-level banking system. At the top
was
the Federal Reserve Board, a group appointed
by the president and charged with running the system. At the second level were 12 Federal Reserve
banks, under mixed public and private control.
These "bankers' banks" served other banks rather

than individuals. At the third level were private
banks, which could borrow from the Federal

Reserve banks
at interest rates set
by the Board.
M This 1913 cartoon

portrays Wilson's use of
antitrust legislation to
Wilson worked
of the
to secure passage
Underwood
Tariff
the Federal Reserve Act.
Act and
protect small businesses
from the unfair competition of monopolies and

other large corporations.
549
Changing
the 9
1
Wags
Regiment Armory
armory show
in
New
York
a Staircase, they described
"a lot of disused golf clubs and
influenced art as well as eco-
both European and American
shingle factory."
nomic
artists.
The
progressive reform spirit
policies in the early
bags" and "an explosion
raved about the show, calling
progressive artists tackled the
"an event not to be missed."
it
critics'
came
wildest dreams. People
American
primarily to gape.
"I
remember one
woman becoming
determining which
so
paintings and sculp-
hysterical with laugh-
tures the public saw.
ter,"
Resistant to
an artist
recalled, "that she
change, the main-
actually rolled
stream art community
on the floor
in
America was
over
also
remember [AAPS
hostile
to the "radical" ideas
president] Arthur B.
and techniques of the
Davies taking Teddy
growing modern art
Roosevelt through
movement
the
Europe.
in
Van Gogh,
Matisse, and
style,
through the Galleries

pointing at pictures
art
which blurred
and saying That's not
the lines between reality
and
his
arms and stomped
Cezanne
new
offered a
show
Roosevelt waved
Modernists such as
Picasso,
art!'
That's not art!'"
Even
fantasy.
if it
failed
to enchant
Amer-
introduce the
icans with
modern
American
art,
Resolved to
modern
the Armory
Show was a huge
public to
art, a small
group of independent
artists
success
formed the
in
terms of
attendance and pub-
Association of
licity.
American Painters and
show moved
Sculptors (AAPS)
1912.
in
The Armory Show introduced contemporary
ored
studios
galleries
in
On
Paris,
17,
dis-
1913, the
Art
critics
They
were not so
blasted Van
"unskilled" and
Gogh
Cezanne
as
for
in
the 69th
speeches were made;
raised;
diners sang and danced.
Modern Art opened
hon-
the press
as
"absolutely without talent."
in
kind.
International Exhibition of
CHAPTER
AAPS
"friends and
ner Glasses were
Munich, Berlin,
February
to
with a beefsteak din-
and
and the Hague for works to

play.
its
enemies"
tional exhibition,
combing
Before the
Chicago,
European artists and works of art, such as Marcel

Duchamp's Nude Descending a Staircase, to a curious, but often puzzled, American public.
The group
planned an interna-
::
which exceeded the organizers'
museums' monopoly
in
in
remarks boosted attendance,
ers attacked business trusts,
leading
the
Ironically,
Newspaper reporters
1900s. Just as industry reform-
550
as
it
The Armory Show presented some 1,300 works by

City.
critic
As
Duchamp's Nude Descending
summed up
mood:
"It
don't do
was
it
One
the general
good show, but
again."
authorized to investigate corporations and issue

"cease and desist orders" to those engaged
in
unfair
or fraudulent practices and to use the courts to

enforce
ruHngs.
its
Among
the abuses the
FTC
The struggle for

women's suffrage
tar-
geted were mislabeled products and false claims.
Another
paign for women's suffrage
Wilson backed
agenda
part of the progressive
cam-
the
faced strong opposiwomen would
passage of the
Clayton Antitrust Act and creation of the Federal Trade
tion. Liquor interests feared that
Commission.
wages and working conditions. When one
vote for prohibition. Businesses feared that the
vote would
empower women
demand
to
better
state
senator expressed the widely held belief that the

vote would rob
IViILSON
AND WORKERS
The Wilson administration
also supported legisla-
working people. The Federal
tion to aid
Loan Act provided low-interest loans

The Clayton Antitrust Act included
Farm
to farmers.
a provision
that affirmed labor's right to strike so long as prop-
erty
women
of their beauty and charm,
a suffragist retorted:
%4 We have women working in the

foundries.
stand for
Women
in
or 14 hours
the laundries
steam and heat with their hands

starch. Surely these
women
the terrible
In
hot
in
won't lose any
was not irreparably damaged. The Adamson
Act reduced the workday for railroad workers from

10 to 8 hours, with no cut in pay. This law not only
WOMEN'S SUFFRAGE
won applause from reformers but avoided a threatened railroad strike. With Wilson's support.
In
Workmen's
Congress also passed the Federal
Compensation Act, which provided

federal workers injured
ful
benefits to
1902 the
The Wilson administration was less successin the campaign against child labor. For years
Woman
International
Suffrage Conference
was held
on the job.
first
D.C.
in
Washington,
The United
States
was among the nations repre-
women
progressives had wanted to get young children
sented that had not yet granted
out of the mills, factories, and mines (see Chapter
national suffrage. Swedish delegate
17).
As labor organizer Mother Jones
later
recalled:
had voted on some
Every day
little
children
came
into
Union Headquarters, some with their hands

off,
Evald remarked that
some
knuckle.
round shouldered and
skinny.
not over ten years of age.
little
things,
Many were
99
rising protests against child labor
from the National Consumers' League and other

groups. Congress passed the
in 1916.
This
Keating-Owen Child
act,
which had Wilson's
backing, outlawed the interstate sale of products
produced by child
labor. In 1918,
Supreme Court declared
however, the
the law unconstitutional
commerce instead of directly

outlawing child labor. Another law. passed in
because
it
restricted
1919. met the
level since
736.
women
She then
went on to point out the contradictions

American situation:
^ôu
the
in
same
fate.
Not
until the
1930s would
can not trust the ballot into the
hands of women teachers

but you give
Labor Act
Emmy
her homeland
with their fingers off at the
They were stooped
Faced with
in
it
to
in
the public schools
men who can
not read or write.
women who
You can not trust the ballot to

controlling millions of [dollars]
port the country but you give
it
are
and helping supto loafers
and
vagabonds who know nothing, have nothing and

represent nothing. You can not trust the ballot
the hands of
women who
are the wives
daughters of your heroes but you give
who
you
are willing to
trust
it
in
sell it
and
it
to those
for a glass of beer
the hands of anarchists.
in
and
99
the United States outlaw child labor.
55
more
of their beauty and
ballot in a ballot
are
likely
laundries
to lose standing
all
charm by putting
box once
year.
formed another organization, the Congressional
Union
a year than they

in
the National
foundries or
**
passing an
One leading force in the suffrage

movement was ihc National American
Woman Suffrage Association, or

NAWSA. founded in 1890. Its first
Woman's
more
the British suffragists'
Thus when Wilson and
the Democratic party failed
woman suffrage in the

Woman's party campaigned
more on
War
to press for voting rights
women
as well as for African

result,
they took a
Paul also favored using the attention-getting

protest tactics
example,
the
in
employed by
British suffragists. For
January 1917. with Wilson reelected,
Woman's
party began round-the-clock picket-
House
nonpartisan, local approach, trying
ing of the White
to get state legislatures to grant
Wilson
women
held banners asking, "Mr. President.
the vote.
They achieved
few
in their first
years of lobbying, however.

In 1913 Alice Paul, a mili-
young Quaker suffragist,

broke away from NAWSA and
tant
The National American
women
an effort to pressure
in
to support a suffrage
the leadership of the highly skilled organizer
Chapman
voting
Woman
Suffrage Association
Woman's
worked
to
party campaigned
amendment.
section of the United States took the lead in granting the vote to
women
Catt. contin-
follow traditional
to
political
the vote, while the National
amendment. They
What Will
You Do for Woman Suffrage?" and "How Long
Must Women Wait for Liberty?" Many were
arrested. Some went on hunger strikes in pri.son.
Meanwhile, the NAWSA, energized by
Women's Suffrage, 1920
Which
against them.
the election.)
ued
Kfl REGION
1916 election,
trusted parly politics because of
Carrie
for a constitutional
England, favored
political approach.
support
to
guaran-
the
few successes
FIGHTING FOR THE VOTE
party focused on
to the Constitution
Wilson won, but narrowly. (See Chapter 20 for
for
convince state legislatures to grant
The
parly.
amendment
became
Stanton and Susan B. Anthony, dis-
Americans. As a
Paul
two presidents. Elizabeth Cady
Civil
A Alice
Suffrage, which in 19 6
teeing women the right to vote.

Paul, who had studied in
Republican leaders' failure after the
Woman
tor
means
attain
Launching
rights.
what came
to
to be called her
"Winning Plan"
in
NAWSA
won
1916, the
string of
successes for suffrage

state level. After the
in 1917. leaders
along
of American
United
World War
States entered
ment
the
at
of the move-
with millions
women
lent
strong support to the war

effort.
Their patriotism help-
ed weaken opposition to
women's
suffrage.
states
thirty
women
full
By 1919
had granted
or partial voting
rights. Finally, in 1919. the
U.S. Congress passed the

|n 1869 womjn
nghl to ol
in
wtre grjnud
Kmtonal
itie
Nineteenth Amendment.
eleaioni
granting
rights.
Full
'
f9^g
I
women's suffrage before
1920,
with date enfranchised

Partial
women's suffrage before 1920
No women's
suffrage until ratification

of Nineteenth Amendment
It
CHAPTER
18
was
Carrie
full
voting
ratified in 1920.
Chapman
Catt
cautioned, however, that the
vote was only an "entering
wedge."
552
women
Women
still
had
to
force their
ical
way through
the ""locked door" of polit-
decision making.
and
the initiative, referendum,

ily
on broad questions of national public
In
were primar-
recall
used on the local level and thus had
1920, with ratification of the
One
little
impact
policy.
of progressivism's most successful ele-
Nineteenth Amendment, American
ments, the settlement-house movement, improved
women won
opportunities for
their long battle for the
right to vote.
However, most settlement-house workers
neglected to address the problems of African
Commentary
Americans, many of
from the
The Progressive Legacy
how
left
a lasting legacy, they often disagree
to define that legacy.
whom
were new migrants
rural South.
The progressive presidents showed
Although scholars agree that the progressive
movement
great urban
reform, and eased the plight of European immigrants.
over
women, brought
Many
scholars have
interest in racial issues. President

least
little
Wilson was the
sympathetic to African American concerns.
During
numerous
his administration
bills
designed
were submitted
noted that progressivism was primarily supported
to
by fairly conservative, middle-class, white
Congress. Although none passed, Wilson issued an
Americans trying
cal
to
maintain some level of
Many
and economic power.
politi-
of the successes
and shortcomings of the movement can be tied to

its
areas;
made
great strides in
however, some of the economic and
reforms of the
radical
movement
many
executive order segregating eating and restroom

facilities for federal
employees. Wilson justified
this policy by arguing that
Americans denounced
it
prevented friction
changes anticipated. Such policies as the
System and imple-
it
as racist.
Despite these shortcomings, however, progres-
political
failed to bring about the
creation of the Federal Reserve
to
between white and black workers, but African
origins in the white middle class.
Progressivism
institute segregation
sives took real strides

industrial society
to
end child
toward making the new
more just and
labor, to protect
orderly. Their efforts
workers and consumers,
mentation of a federal income tax did improve the
and
government's ability to regulate the economy and
the nation. Their greatest legacy, however,
pay for new programs. Yet, many regulations on
demonstrating that America's democratic system
businesses
fell
short of reforming the capitalist sys-
tem; corporations were eventually able

regulations to their
also benefitted
On
to operate in the
environment
promote conservation profoundly influenced
more
that regulation
the political front, reforms such as
could respond and adapt to changes in American
in
life.
Although progressivism fell short

of some of its goals and failed to
address racism, it made industrial
society more just and humane.
SECTION
IDENTIFY and
was
to use the
advantage. Corporations
by being able
orderly, predictable
provided.
own
to
REVIEW
Underwood
Tariff Act, Federal
Reserve Act,
Adamson Act, Federal

Paul, Carrie Chapman Catt,
Clayton Antitrust Act, Federal Trade Commission, Federal Farm Loan Act,
Workmen's Compensation
Nineteenth Amendment.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Act, Keating-Owen Child Labor Act, Alice
MAIN IDEA How did Wilson hope to reduce tariffs and reform the banking system?
MAIN IDEA How did the Wilson administration attempt to regulate business?
MAIN IDEA What did the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment accomplish?
WRITING TO EVALUATE From a current perspective, write a paragraph evaluating the
legacy of progressivism.
5.
ANALYZING How
railroad
successful
was Wilson
and federal workers, and
in enlisting
the "forces of humanity" to help farmers,
child laborers?
553
.
.
Pennsylvania
coal miners
strike.
CHAPTER
Newlands
assassinated.
Reclamation Act
passed.
Act passed,
vte
1900
Elkins
Inspection Act, and
Roosevelt
Pure Food and Drug

Act passed.
MW
Theodore Roosevelt
becomes president.
18
Hepburn Act, Meat
Theodore
William McKinley
elected
president.
WRITING A SUMMARY
^REVIEWING THEMES
1.
write a
summary

curb
of the chapter.
political
more democratic
Number your
and
list
paper
to
5.
Study the time

in
ond next to
2.
the order
first
line
the sec-
2,
Progressive party formed.
Amendment
Nineteenth
3.
Pennsylvania coal miners strike.
How
have used the Nineteenth
activity
of accomplishing reform
2.
Federal Trade
in politics
THINKING CRITICALLY
1. Synthesizing How did Roosevelt
ratified.
Commission
William
Howard
Taft elected president.

2.
Analyzing How did the Sixteenth and Seventeenth

amendments promote reform?
IDENTIFYING PEOPLE
AND
3.
1.
initiative
6.
New
Samuel M. Jones
7.
Joseph Cannon
3.
Hepburn Act
8.
Federal Reserve Act
4.
reclamation
9.
Adamson Act
5.
Richard Ballinger
efficiency
2.
How
Alice Paul
10.
commissions
3.
Wisconsin Idea
Howard
Hypothesizing
Why
5.
What were
did the controversy over tariffs
defeat
the 1912 election?
in
How
might
if
life
have been
Handbook entry on Reading a

on page 991. Then study the time-line
Review the
Time
Line
Skills
entries below, which focus
What
on the years from 1908
cause-and-effect relationship
gested by the sequence of events listed?
effective at achieving
differ-
Wilson had pursued a
is
How
sug-
did
the events of 1910 relate to those of 1912?
lay
the foundation for
1908
1
909
Taft similar in their
approaches to
William
Howard
Taft elected president.
Payne-Aldrich Tariff passed. Taft
fires
Gifford
Pinchot.
1910
reform?
4.
Taft's
Analyzing What interests worked against the

campaign for women's suffrage in the early 20th
what ways were Theodore Roosevelt and
William
How
Evaluating
to 1912.
further reforms?
In
at the
government?
in city
did the
bring dynamic
movement
different racial policy?
Nationalism

city
and business?
levels?
ent for African Americans
2.
were
means
century?
4.
Why
and national
contribute to
IDEAS
as a
created.
city, state,
5.
might reformers
Amendment
leadership to the progressive

4.
did President
discouraging free enterprise?

3.
below.
1
the early 20th century?
in
Roosevelt attempt to regulate business without
above,
which
in
next to
did reformers seek to
corruption and to make government
Republicans lose control of House of

Representatives.
did Roosevelt challenge Taft
in
1912?
the effects of the Clayton Antitrust
1912
Roosevelt forms Progressive party.
Woodrow
Wilson elected president.
Act and the creation of the Federal Trade

6.
554
Commission on the regulation of business?

What was the progressive movement's greatest
legacy?
progressives' record
CHAPTER

on
essay evaluating the
racial issues.
William Howard Taft
Sixteenth and
Seventeenth amend-
elected president.
ments
Progressive
party formed.
Underwood
Mann-Elkins
Woodrow Wilson Act
Act passed.
elected president.
ratified,
Tariff
conditions
in
and unsanitary
industrial practices
and processing of canned goods
in
map on page
AND GEOGRAPHY
552.
What
might explain the
between geographic
region and the granting of
following excerpt, which describes the manufacture
in a
I
1920
Study the
link
the Chicago stockyards. Read the
(Chicago). Then,
ratified.
reelected president.
LINKING HISTORY
1906 Upton Sinclair published The Jungle, a biting
on the
Woodrow Wilson
1915

attack
Amendnnent
Nineteenth
Commission created.
and Federal
Reserve Act passed.
1910
In
Clayton Antitrust Act

passed. Federal Trade
women's
suffrage?
"Packingtown"
how
paragraph, explain
book might have influenced the

the Meat Inspection Act.
publication of this
passage of
44 "Deviled ham"
was made out of the
waste ends of smoked beef that were too
.
small to be sliced by the machines: and also

tripe,
dyed with chemicals so
that
it
would
Sample
not show white, and trimmings of hams and
corned beef and potatoes, skins and
all.
ballot,
1892
was ground up
and flavored with spices to make it taste like
something. Anybody who could invent a new
imitation had been sure of a fortune,
but
it was hard to think of anything new in a
place where
men welcomed tuberculosis
All this ingenious mixture
in the cattle
they were feeding, because
made them fatten more
quickly;
it
it
in
rechumed
it
with skim milk,
bricks in the cities!
99

cooperatively.
and where
they bought up all the old rancid [stale] butter ..
BUILDING YOUR
PORTFOLIO
and sold
1.
REFORM
In
Chapter
7 you portrayed a
progressive reformer addressing a problem

city.
Building
in
your
on that experience, write a platform
for the Progressive party that translates the
problems of
political
machines, women's suffrage,
business regulation, and

specific
2.
worker protection
reforms your party hopes to
DEMOCRATIC RIGHTS
In
into
institute.
Chapter 17
you portrayed a progressive reformer preparing a

speech on women's rights to deliver at an
Independence Day celebration. Building on that

experience, imagine you are the editor of a labor
union newspaper. Write an editorial indicating
why
you believe that progressives are not adequately

addressing the needs of working-class
women.
Chicago stockyards, 1919
555
ehapter 19
1898-1917
AMERICA AND
THE WORLD
UNDERSTANDING
THE MAIN IDEA
/n the
waning years of the 19th
century, the United States established

itself as
a world power by defeating
Spain and acquiring Spain's

colonies in the
last
Western Hennisphere.
The progressive presidents asserted a

strong foreign policy, acting to promote
U.S.
economic and security
interests in
the Pacific, the Caribbean, Asia,
and
Latin America.

might a country acquire overseas
colonies?
resist
Why
might a country
becoming
a colony?
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT How might foreign

investors influence a country's
economy? What problems might

arise
from these investments?
DEMOCRATIC VALUES
Does the
acquisition of colonies
conflict with
ples?
democratic
Why or why
princi-
not?
1
1898
1899
1904
.^^m I
1
Spanish-
U.S. annexes
Russo-Japanese
The Mexican
American
Philippines.
War begins.
Revolution starts.
War begins.
1915
1910
Wilson sends
marines into
Haiti.
President James
::
LINK TO THE PAST
Monroe
issued the
Monroe Doctrine
in
1823 as
a warning to European powers to keep out of the Americas. But for
much of the
19th century, the United States was too involved
in
domestic affairs to enforce the doctrine.
awn was
just breaking as the
steamed across lovely Manila Bay,
May
morning,
1,
1898
^just
declared war on Spain.
11
American
fleet, its flags flying,
in the Philippines.
was
It
early
days after the United States had
Commodore George Dewey
stood on the
bridge of his flagship, Olympia, his eyes trained on the Spanish guns
aimed
at his ships
anchored
from the shore and from the small Spanish
fleet
in the harbor.
Sighting the Americans, the Spanish opened
5:30 A.M.,
Commodore Dewey gave
"You may
fire
when you
fire.
Shortly after
an order to his flagship captain:
are ready, Gridley."
The boom and
flash of
naval guns exploded through the bay. Shells crashed into several
Spanish vessels, and they erupted into flames.
The
Battle of
Manila Bay had begun, the
Spanish-American War.
stage at the end of the
It
1
first battle
marked America's emergence on
of the
the world
9th century. Throughout most of the century,
Americans had followed George Washington's advice and remained
aloof from foreign entanglements. Indeed, as late as 1889,
Congressman Henry Cabot
Lodge of Massachusetts
wrote:
"Our
relations with
foreign nations today
fill
but a slight place in
American
this
politics."
But
would soon change
as the
United States
became deeply involved

in
Battle of Manila Bay
events abroad, from
nearby Cuba and Mexico to distant China.
U.S. soldiers question Filipino
women,
1899.
557
Section
^_ M
WAR WITH SPAIN
c u s
What fueled
Why
the quest for overseas territory?
did the United States declare
What was
war on Spain?
of the Spanish-American
Spain?
and
for the United States
'/?
9,,
the
outcome
the late 1800s the United States
world's leading industrial producer
War
emerged as the
and agricultural
exporter This economic success encouraged the nation to establish
overseas colonies, just as the European powers were doing. The
United States hoped colonization would provide

its
new markets for
goods and new sources of raw materials. U.S. involvement
Samoa and a
American
short
war with Spain
role in the Pacific
and
in
1898 increased
in
the
the Caribbean.
Recruiter, 1898
Western Samoa. But before a shot could be
The
impulse for imperialism
typhoon struck, destroying
What brought
In
March 1889 seven warships
one
faced off
British, three
German, and three American
South Pacific harbor of Apia,
in
in the
all
fired, a
but the British ship.
these three powerful nations to the
brink of war? Imperialism: the quest for colonial

empires.
present-day
Between 1876 and 1915.

Asia, and Latin
America
vast areas of Africa.
under the control of a
fell
handful of industrialized nations locked in a race to

acquire overseas colonies. Great Britain, the lead-
ing imperialist power, had colonies flung so far

across the globe that the British could boast.
"The
sun never sets on the British Empire."
What
The
but
lay behind this
power and
desire for
it
was also
a matter of economics. Industrial
w orkers. aided by
capital,
produced
consumed
at
wave of imperialism?
prestige played a role,
efficient
far
home.
machines and abundant
more goods than could be

In response, industrialists
turned to Africa. Asia, and Latin America for new
Samoan
such as
558
:!
CHAPTER
19
this
families lived in grass-thatched huts,
one
in
Pago Pago.
customers and new sources of rau materials. The
made even the

To protect these
telegraph, steamship, and railroad
remotest areas potential markets.
new markets from competition, industrialized

nations launched a
campaign of colonization.
and U.S. military might, Samoans surrendered
government. The United States

Eastern Samoa, and
Germany was
remains a U.S. territory (see
their
control over
granted control
over Western Samoa. Today Western Samoa
pendent, while Eastern (or
Although American enthusiasm for overseas
won
inde-
is
American) Samoa
map on page
564).
expansion never matched that of the Europeans,

support grew during the late 1800s.
Mahan
Alfred Thayer
ers, like
Some
support-
of the U.S. Naval
College, argued that overseas territories would
make
the United States
sites for
naval bases and steamship fueling stations
from which
conduct trade. Others claimed that
to
the United States
had a duty
to spread
political
its
system and the Christian religion to other parts of

the world. This belief often
went hand-in-hand
with feelings of racial superiority. In his widely

read book
Our Count ly
(1885), Josiah Strong, a
Protestant minister and social reformer, proclaimed
Anglo-Saxons (people of English ancestry)
that
CONFLICT
IN
CUBA
more powerful and provide
had a special mission:
The Caribbean
island of
God, with
come
sure to
Then
infinite
wisdom and
with unrest. Along with

Puerto Rico,
in
the world's future.
this race
spread
itself
over the earth.
The quest
was
it
To put down the rebellion, the Spanish

government exiled many leaders of the
independence movement. Foremost among
rule.
who was
From
Cuban poet Jose
forced out of
his exile in
Cuba
in
New
York.
promoting Cuban indepen-
articles
He
dence.
will
99
to
empire was fueled

economic, and cul-
for
Cuban
also urged
exiles
Jose Marti
mount an invasion of Cuba:

Let us rise up at once
with a
burst of heartfelt energy.
final
Let
us rise up for the true republic, those of us
who, with our passion for

habit of hard
was
Caribbean neighbor
its
the last of the Spanish colonies
Marti wrote poems and newspaper
by strategic,
tural motives.
It
Cuba simmered
a series of unsuccessful revolts against Spanish
us hope, of the largest liberty, the purest
let
ground for
1871 and again in 1879.
the representative,
Christianity, the highest civilization
90 miles from
Americas. Since 1868, Cubans had launched
in the
Marti,
skill, is
Anglo-Saxon race for an hour
just
U.S. imperialism. In the late 1800s
these exiles was the
training the
Cuba,
the Florida Keys, provided a testing
**
the desire for naval bases and fueling
serve
work,
will
right
and our
know how
to pre-
it.
stations, rather than cultural or religious concerns,
that led the
Germany
Samoans
United States, Great Britain, and
to square off in
Samoa
in 1889.
realized that this competition put
The
them
in
grave danger In 1898 Te'o Tuvale, a government

official,
warned
his fellow Samoans:
When Cubans
became
was
Be kind and don't
Samoa, because
[Britain,
will
if
start a
war
in
States]
take over the conduct of the country
and your orators and Chiefs and things that
you have been accustomed to

further use.
will
**
month
Cuban independence when he
be of no
to put
896 Spain sent General Valeriano Weyler
down
the uprising. Within days
imprisoned thousands of farmers
camps
Over
to prevent
the next
in
Weyler had
concentration
them from supplying
two
years, starvation
the rebels.
and disease
claimed the lives of perhaps 200,000 Cubans.
The American press branded Weyler
"the
Butcher" William Randolph Hearst's Journal and
Joseph Pulitzer's World, two

Te'o Tuvale's prophecy was
with Spanish
later in a battle
soldiers.
you do the Three Powers
Germany, and the United
a martyr for
killed a
In
4^
launched another revolt in February
1895, Marti and other exiles joined them. Marti
fulfilled the next
year when, in the face of overwhelming European
New York
newspapers, outdid each other
in
City
publicizing
Spanish atrocities. In 1897 Hearst sent
artist
::
559
Cuba to send back drawvividly documented Spanish cruelty.
Frederic Remington to
ings that
Hearst hoped to
hoped
sell
more newspapers,
Americans
to horrify
hut he also
war
into agitating for
mined
that a fire in a coal bin
the explosion,
"Remember
became
the
had probably caused
many Americans blamed Spain.

Maine! And to hell with Spain!"
a familiar chant.
Spain tried to calm tensions by agreeing to a
against Spain.
Finding nothing to drau. Remington reportedly cabled Hearst: "t\ erything
is
qliet.
there
is
U.S.-proposed peace plan. But

April
President McKinley
II
was too
it
bowed
late.
to public
NO TROUBLE HERE. THERE WILL BE NO WAR. W ISH TO

RETL'R.\." Hearst was said to have replied: "please
REMAIN. VOL FLRNISH THE PICTLRES AND TlL FLR-
pressure and asked Congress to inter\'ene in
NISH THE WAR."
interests."
In addition to U.S. horror at
many
that the
United States
rebels. In the face of
mounting war
fever. President
William McKinley, himself a veteran of the Civil

War. struggled to remain neutral and to
mitting .American troops. "I
resist
have been through one
have seen the dead piled up. and
war.
want
to see another." he explained.
But early
in 1898.
com-
do not
to the
The
On
April 20 Congress recognized
Cuban
independence and voted to use U.S. military force
Cuba
to help
Teller
attain
it.
Congress also adopted the
.Amendment, which
stated that the United
States claimed no "sovereignty, jurisdiction, or

control" over Cuba.
Once Cuba won
its
indepen-
dence from Spain, the amendment promised, the

United Stales would "leave the government and
its
people."
two shattering events
letter written
by Spain's minister
United States. Enrique Dupuy de Lome.
which had been intercepted by a Cuban
letter,
and
tion,
control of the Island to
forced his hand. First, on February 9 Hearst's
Journal printed a
Cuba
name of humanity, in the name of civilizain behalf of endangered American
"in the
Spanish atroci-
Cuba convinced
should aid the Cuban
ties, threats to U.S. investments in
On
To protect U.S. investments and

to help Cuba overthrow Spanish
rule, the United States declared
war on Spain
in
April
898.
spy and sold to Hearst, ridiculed President
McKinley
as "weak, and a bidder for the admira-
tion of the
crowd."
Americans were outraged
at the
Spaniard's
remarks, which the Journal called "the worst

insult to the
United States
in its history."
Maine
February 15 the American battleship

to
Havana. Cuba,
ertyblew
to protect U.S. lives
up. killing
260
sailors.
Then on
sent
and prop-
"DESTRUC-
WAR SHIP MAINE WAS THE

WORK OF AN ENEMY!" screamed the
TION OF THE
Journal's headline.
Though
it
was
later deter-
WAR WITH
SPAIN
The first battles of the Spanish-.American War

were not fought in nearby Cuba, but halfway
around the world,
in the
Spanish-held Philippine
Weeks before war was declared. Assistant

Secretary of the Navy Theodore Roosevelt had.
Islands.
without authorization, cabled
Dewey, commander of
fleet
anchored
Dewe\
at
Commodore George
the U.S.
Navy's Asiatic
Hong Kong. Roosevelt ordered
to prepare his ships for offensive action in
the Philippines.
^^^
orlD.
INE
EXPLOSION CAUSED BY BOMB OR TORPEfi)?
and ConsiiOyieral Lee .Ve in Dotbt-The World

Has Sei* ^
bpeaal Tug. With Siixnarine DKers. to HaNaia to hnd
Out-Lee \skj'
for an fcnmetiate Com o( fciqiM>-260
Men Dead
wmaj peia
TO Iff $riii
jBtnoT. IK ariu an iM MBttn ns UK TORE
.e.Cfioi**nAl^>rcdh)mrt.mSy,HeOertrtT*rh^
Cat Be Siowt-CkMnlo Be So* Oo*n
./
IT
The United States found
to *1afcc
CnU evaraaicn.
Lptie9w>-^
maintain its neutrality

in the Cuban-Spanish conflict amid the public outrage triggered by sensationalized news reports. This headline appeared
in Joseph Pulitzer's WoHd.
560
CHAPTER
it
difficult to
1898. less than two weeks after

fleet easily
defeated
the small Spanish fleet guarding the Philippine

city of Manila. In order to capture the city itself,
Dewey
obtained the support of a rebel army of
Filipino patriots led by Emilio Aguinaldo (ahg-
ee-NAHL-doh). Filipinos had been fighting for
tVamte eport and Cyp hperto Report lo Ilg WaM tial fte Vtrttl >Ha> y<
Va**<-*a**l(m 0io* Reach far Mgoroa Vm 5pi*i Resporefcilv
/jfcgfa. ic
1.
war was declared. Deweys
U*,^^*^
f
On May
independence from Spain for two years. Now.

along with U.S. soldiers, they attacked and captured Manila. Cut off by
Commodore Dewey's
warships and surrounded by Aguinaldo's forces.

Spanish forces
Au2ust
in the Philippines
14. 1898.
surrendered on
Spanish-American War, 1898

WAR
fleets
AT SEA
War was
The Spanish-American
The Spanish
primarily decided at sea.
protecting Cuba and the Phihppines were no match for the well-prepared U.S. Navy.
Both Spanish
were destroyed, while the Americans suffered minimal
fleets
ARCTIC OaAH
casualties.
EUROPE
Kfl
MOVEMENT
Where
did
Commodore George Dewey
destroy the Spanish fleet?
[Joe
UNITED
STATES
Gulf Of
Mexico
CHINA
OCEAN
ATLANTIC
Hong Kong
\ (British)
^ BAHAMAS
(British)
^^
25-
,,,
Maine
1898^ "^
Sinking of
Feb.
OCCAN
Lambert Conformal Conk Projtttion
FLORIDA
ATLANTIC
300 Kilometers
150
^'"''^
KeyNwest
iOUTH
AMERICA
300 Miles
150
PACIFIC
Tropic of Cancer
OCEAN
^'iHavana
CienfuegosV^
CUBA
San Juan HilU
(Spanish)
July
>^
,-
SOUTH
Caney
July
1
,
Santiago,
PHILIPPINES
CHINA SEA
20'
^Manil^ Bay; (Spanish)
Daiquiri
May
(^
'
''MINDORO
Dewey
\\v=:^
Kingston
Tel^tishf
\X^^
Pon'^s^^
fanto
defeats
SAMAR
'
Spanish
LEYTE
Doming^pJ^R^
RICO
(Spanish)
85"W
CARIBBEAN
75"
SEA
15"
Spanish
J possession
_^ Spanish
forces
~\
U.S. forces
if
Battle
i4
Victory in
ily as
it
had
of only
Cuba would
in the Philippines.
some 28,000
quite as eas-
Department was unprepared
for land battles.
With a regular army
Thousands of volunteers raced
to enlist, but
not
come
soldiers, the U.S.
War
how
could they be trained and equipped overnight?
With
little
training
and outfitted
in
heavy wool uni-
forms (the only ones that army storehouses could
f f p f f
Cuba
supply), U.S. troops sailed for tropical
mid-June. For rations, the
men were
corned beef that was supposed
keep
to
weather. "Well," reported one soldier,
menced
to explode.
We
had
to
in
issued canned
throw
board." Another soldier described
it
in
any
"it
com-
all
over-
once the
life
troops arrived in Cuba:
Heavy
for cover,
rains pouring
.
standing
in
down, no tents
trenches
of water and mud, day and night.
Ration issue consisting of a

belly,
.
Emilio Aguinaldo,
this
photograph with
shown wearing a
his advisers in
vest, sat for
896.
hardtack, and
Then came the
underwear
in
some
slice of
in a
.
sow
grains of coffee.
issue of fleece-lined
a 132 [degree] climate.
Then came on
foot
malaria.
99
i:
561
Since their horses had not been shipped, the
Rough Riders had to charge on foot under intense

Spanish fire. The African American 9lh and 10th
cavalries cleared the way for the final surge. By
above
nightfall U.S. troops controlled the ridge
Then on July
Santiago.
Spanish
3, the
crushed, two weeks

troops in
Navy sank
the
of Cuba, resulting
fleet off the coast
more than 400 Spanish
U.S.
casualties.
With
on July
later,
their
17.
in
navy
Spanish
Cuba surrendered. Meanwhile. U.S.
troops also defeated Spanish troops in Puerto Rico.
The war proved

terms of the peace
American 9th and 0th cavalries are

shown here during the Battle of Las Guasimas on June 24,
898. This victory paved the way for American forces to
Soldiers of the African
costly for Spain.
treaty.
By
Spain granted Cuba
the
its
independence and ceded Puerto Rico and the

Pacific island of
Guam
(see
map on page
564) to
the United States. Spain also gave
capture Santiago.
up control of the
Philippines in return for a U.S. payment of S20
The major American land actions in Cuba

began on July
as U.S. troops mounted an assault
million.
on the Spanish stronghold of Santiago. Their aim
the United States secured
By
was
to capture the heights
Caney and San Juan

their
sion
Hill
above Santiago
so
El
could aim
that they
guns down on Spanish troops. One U.S. divi-
overcame Spanish forces
at
alist
what would become the war's most

battle. Lieutenant Colonel Teddy
Roosevelt (who had resigned his naval post) led a
cavalrv unit of some 1.000 men toward the garrison on San Juan Hill. Composed largely of athletes
In
Rough
troubled by
heavy human
toll for
the war.
in battle
Some
and the
from dysenter). typhoid, malaria, yellow
fever,
or food poisoning.
The United
States gained most

of Spain's overseas territory
through victory in the Spanish-
American War.
Riders.
SECTION
IDENTIFY and
many Americans were
5,400 soldiers died, nearly 400

rest
from eastern colleges, miners, cowboys. Native
as the
position as an imperi-
the quest for empire. Furthermore, the United
Americans, ranchers, and would-be adventurers,
was known
its
and world power. Expansionists expressed
delight, but
States paid a
El Caney.
famous
the unit
gaining control of overseas territories,
REVIEW
explain the significance of the following: imperialism, Te'o Tuvale, Jose Marti, Valeriano
Weyler, William Randolph Hearst, William McKinley. Enrique
Dupuy de Lome,
Teller
Amendment,
Spanish-American War, George Dewey, Emilio Aguinaldo.
LOCATE
and explain the importance of the following: American Samoa; Santiago. Cuba; Manila.
Philippines;
1.
2.
Puerto Rico; Guam.
MAIN IDEA What led the

United States and other industrial powers to turn to imperialism?

caused the United States to become involved
in
the Spanish-American
War?
3.
4.
GEOGRAPHY: PLACE What territories did the United States gain as a result of the SpanishAmerican War? How did the war affect Spain?
WRITING TO CREATE Imagine you are Cuban revolutionary Jose Marti. Write a poem supporting
5.
Cuban independence from
EVALUATING How
Spain.
did publishers William
United States to declare war on Spain
562
::
CHAPTER
19
in
Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer influence the
1898?
Section 2
EXPANSION
c u s
How did the
Why did the
What
What
IN
THE
United States deal with Filipino

U.S.
PACIFIC
calls for
independence?
government annex Hawaii?
role did the United States play in China?
kind of relationship developed between Japan and the United

States in the late 800s and early 900s?
1
/i,merica
's
war with Spain began over Cuba.
tion to establishing
war extended
a U.S. presence
in the
the U.S. presence in Asia
But, in addi-
Caribbean, the
and
the Pacific. After
the war, the United States established political control over
and added Hawaii
the Philippines
to its colonial holdings.
The
United States also became ftirther involved in affairs in China

Hawaiian coin
and took a new
interest in Japan.
People questioned whether
uPROAR OVER THE PHILIPPINES
for the United States to
and
When Dewey's
fleet
steamed into Manila Bay
that before
annex any foreign
government and
its
territory
people.
in
Expansionists argued forcefully in favor of
annexation. In addition to making a case for
McKinley confessed
annexation for commercial and naval reasons,
knew where
he consulted a globe, he could not
locate the islands "within
its
was proper or wise
the
1898. few Americans even

Philippines were. President
rule
it
two thousand miles."
some beheved
democracy
that the
United States would bring
to the Philippines. Others held that the
cover some
United States had to rule the Philippines to keep
100,000 square miles in the Pacific Ocean, south-
out European powers. Charles
The Philippines
east of the
a group of islands
Chinese coast.
Now
that the Philippines
Denby, a former American
were "flung into [U.S.] arms by Dewey's guns,"

Americans faced an urgent question: Should
Filipinos be forced to accept U.S. rule?
The debate over annexation.
The debate
over whether the United States should annex,

or take control of, the Philippines
was
rooted in the larger controversy over

imperialism raging across the country.
Filipino women are shown winnowing,

or separating, rice on Palawan Island.
563
foreign minister to China, warned opponents of
or color, are entided to
annexation that limes had changed;
pursuit of happiness.
We
subjugation of any people
sentiment
in
accordance with
tinctive principles of
Washington's Farewell Address, which
circumstances are changed.
have a great
commerce
Commerce, not
in
to take care of
We
We
February
1899.
6.
denying
violate
its
its
to 27. barely
reaching the two-thirds majority required.
politics,
is
king.
*"
Conquest and early

re-
by annexing the Philippines and
independence, the United States would
own
The vote was 57
far-distant markets.
Opponents of American imperialism

that,
99
our Government.
approved the treaty annexing the Philippines on
ever, did not
sponded
"criminal
After a fierce debate, the Senate narrowly
have to compete with the commercial

nations of the world
the
is
against the acquisition of foreign territory;
but
is
and the
insist that
aggression" and open disloyalty to the dis-
recognize the existence of a national
liberty,
life,
ideals expressed in the Declaration
another
lose
it
want
to
rule.
Filipinos,
how-
exchange one master for
gaining independence from Spain only
to the
to
United States. Emilio Aguinaldo had
already set up a provisional Filipino government
and proclaimed himself president of the Philippine
Now
of Independence. In June 1898. opponents of U.S.
Republic.
imperialism formed the Anti-Imperialist League,
to
which proclaimed:
possession.
war
if
he warned that Filipinos would go
"American troops attempt
Upon
their
to take forcible
heads will be
all
the blcxxi
which may be shed."
We
sary
regret that
it
become neces-
has
For the next three years. Filipino indepen-
the land of Washington and Lincoln
in
to reaffirm that
all
dence fighters and U.S. soldiers fought for control
men, of whatever race
of the Philippines. U.S. forces captured Aguinaldo

in
March 1901. When
Filipino resistance con-
tinued, however, U.S.
forces implemented a
concentration
icy as
in
Beijing r
c^-
Yokohama
MIDWAY
CI
^hangha
San Diego'
Tropic of
.
VTCVjuarigzhou
J PHILIPPINES
Manila
cost in Filipino lives
1867
TAIWAN
Honolulu
1896
Cancer^^CXlCO'
was horrendous,
HAWAII
mated
PACIFIC
aL^^'-'^CAGAYAN
18S7
I.
1857
1,250
%1899
Pago
Pago
Tropic of Capricorn
Scale varies vnthlatilude.
IMBtef Cylindrkal Proiectioo
United States
I
NEW
and possessions
4ors
Date of
acquisition
s
in
The building of a
an increased interest
mM
LOCATION
in
modem
Which U.S.-daimed
number
known as
Organic Act. The
Act. also
the
act
decreed that the Philippines would be ruled

house legislature. The
navy and the seardi for overseas markets resulted
the Pacific and the acquisition of a
In 1902 the U.S.

Congress passed the
Philippine Government
by a governor and a two-
U.S. <Ietntones in the Pacific

WORLD POWER
lost
their lives.
2,500 Kilometers
AMERICAN SAMOA
ZEALAND
hundreds of
4.000 U.S. soldiers
1.250
JAKVIS
in the
thousands. More than
OCEAN
189
I.
esti-
1898
'GUAM
BAXe/l
Weyler had done
Cuba. By the time
rebellion in 1902. the
San Francisco*
CHINA X
pol-
U.S. forces crushed the
40'
^ladiJstok
camp
of islands.
United
States
would
appoint the governor and

the legislature's upper
islands
lie
well to the south of the equator?
house. After peace was
564
CHAPTER
19
independence
on July
lo ihc Philippines
nearly half a century after
4,
1946,
American and Spanish
naval guns had shattered the early morning silence
of Manila Bay.
Despite Filipino calls for independence, the United States

annexed the Philippines and
delayed independence until 1946.
/Acquiring Hawaii
Renewed
To suppress the
United
States sent approximately 70,000 troops to the
Philippines in 1899. This cartoon shows Emilio
Aguinaldo's government crushed by American
Filipino uprising, the
interest in
American War
led to
expansion after the Spanish-
demands
for U.S. annexation
of the Hawaiian Islands, nearly 4,000 miles east of

the Philippines.
military might.
The United
Hawaii for
interested in
its
States had long been
strategic location along
trade routes to China and for

restored. Filipino voters
would be allowed
to elect
enriched
from
the legislature's lower house.
Judge William Howard Taft became the
first
vert
soil. In the
New
lava-
1820s Protestant missionaries
England traveled
Hawaiians
its fertile
to the islands to con-
The missionaries'
to Christianity.
American governor of the Philippines. Taft autho-
descendants remained, becoming major landhold-
rized the construction of public schools, roads, and
ers.
railroads and
tion.
As
removed
improved medical care and
sanita-
the United States reduced and then

tariffs
Americans
lacked the independence for
When
the
in 1886,
League. Their aim was
have to wait
until
houses of
Congress declared
in
to
In
planters,
overthrow the monarchy
and persuade the United States
that "a stable
American influence
Hawaii formed the secret Hawaiian
1916 ga\ e Filipinos the
independence would
restrict
some 400 American businessmen,
and traders
right to elect both
Hawaii con-
Hawaiian king, Kalakaua (kah-LAH-
which they had fought so long. The Jones Act of
their legislature but stated that
living in
and trade and exercised growing
KAH-ooh-ah), sought to
with the Philippines flourished.

still
the 1870s
influence over the Hawaiian government.
on Filipino products, U.S. trade
But Filipinos
By
trolled land
to
annex Hawaii.
887 the League forced Kalakaua to sign a
government" had been established. The wait would
new
be a long one. The United States finally granted
only a figurehead and limited native Hawaiians'
constitution that
made
the
Hawaiian monarch
After 1900, pineapples began to rival sugarcane as Hawaii's most important crop. Many of
the laborers on Hawaiian plantations were from China, Japan, Korea, and the Philippines.
565
own countn. Hauaiians

what they called the "Bayonet
The U.S. government never reinstated
right to hold office in their
criticized
Constitution." That
succeeded
same
year, the United States
Kalakaua
in getting
to grant rights to
use Pearl Harbor for a U.S. naval base.
Hawaiian resentment intensified as American
Washington
interests continued to lobby
Hawaii. Then
him was
annex
to
1891 Kalakaua died. Succeeding
in
his sister,
Liliuokalani.
1838.
in
native
that
Hawaiians overwhelmingly opposed annexation,
it
did not annex Hawaii until 1898. Liliuokalani lived
out the rest of her
life in
reminder of Hawaii's
past.
Honolulu,
She died
severe stroke and was buried
proud
1917 after a
in
in the
Royal
Mausoleum.
American
who
response to
reforms and
a renewed Interest in overseas
colonies led to the U.S. annexa-
Queen
pledged to regain "Hawaii for Hawaiians."

Liliuokalani
recognizing
Liliuokalani (li-lee-uh-woh-kuh-
LAHN-ee). champion of Hawaiian nationalism,
family
But
was bom
As
into a
young
Hawaiian ruling
she saw the
girl
monarchy reclaim Hawaiian independence after a
settlers'
Liliuokalani's
tion of Hawaii.
She would never forget the
brief British takeover.
pride she felt as the Hawaiian
was again
tlag
raised over her
native land.
Early in her reign.
Queen
/Imerican involvement
IN CHINA
Liliuokalani began working to

overturn the Bayonet Constitution
and replace
power
return
In
with one that would
it
Hawaiians.
to native
893 she announced her plans
to publish a
new
constitution.
The
announcement caused the annexationists to
Forming
set
Committee of
ment.
trade. This trade
it
was
the
had begun
become
gateway
interested
to the
China
1784 when a U.S.
in
trading ship, the Empress of China, sailed for

the port of
officially
Guangzhou (Canton).
opened
1843 China
In
five ports to trading ships
from
the United States and Europe.
For the next 50 years, China's rulers struggled to balance American and European interests
the
end of the monarchy,
up a provisional government of
their
own.
Hawaii recognized the provisional govern-
A deeply
States had originally
Hawaii because
Safety,
U.S. Marines stood by as the American foreign minister to
in
they forcibly occupied govern-
ment buildings, declared

and
swing into action.
The United
saddened Queen Liliuokalani signed
a paper giving up her throne:
to
keep them from overrunning the country. In
1895, however, the Chinese
run from
go\emment was
over-
another direction. Japan attacked and
defeated China, winning from
Taiwan (Formosa),
territory
it
the large island of
on China's Liaotung
Peninsula, and control of Korea.
European powers quickly took advantage of
I,
Liliuokalani,
and
acts
all
done
constitutional
kingdom.
armed forces and perhaps the
of
life.
loss
undo the action of
its
States shall
representatives
99
Ivory vases and brightly colored fans were

of the many items sold through the
some
lucrative China trade. The fan shows the

seaport town of Huang-pu, where American
ships took aboard Chinese goods.
:!
CHAPTER
19
ports or regions
ticular country
spheres of
where a par-
would have exclusive
rights over trade, mines,
my
authority until such time as the gov-
ernment of the United
the Chinese govern-
to car\e the countrv' into separate
influence
-
do, under this protest, and
and reinstate me.
ment
to avoid any collision
impelled by said forces, yield
566
Germany, and Russia pressured
government of the Hawaiian
Now,
of
China's weakened position. Great Britain. France.
protest against any
against myself and the
and
railroads.
The United Stales feared
would be
it
squeezed out of the China trade. In 1899 Seeretary
Hay responded by
of State John
Open Door
which called
policy,
An EMERGING JAPAN
inaugurating: an
for
nations to
all
ha\e equal access to trade and investment
in
Japan's 1894 invasion of China marked Japan's
emergence
China. Senator Henry Cabot Lodge concluded:
earlier
'We
tion
we
ask no fa\ors;
we
only ask that
shall
be
admitted to that great market upon the same terms
September 1899 Hay began sending a

of Open Door notes to the European powers
In
and Japan. The notes asked them to agree to three

principles:
open
keep
1) to
and
ports in their spheres
all
to all nations; (2) to
to collect all tariffs
allow Chinese officials
and
duties;
(3) to guarantee
equal railroad, harbor, and tariff rates in their

spheres to
all
When
nations trading in China.
European nations and Japan did not

ciples outright.
Hay announced
the
reject the prin-
that the
to grow,
however.
when
Chinese secret society
erupted in the spring of 1900,
the "Fists of
launched rebellion
a
to
drive the "foreign devils" out of the country.
ern China, kiUing about 300. Supported by

officials, the
"Boxers"
name Westerners gave them because of

in their
Chinese name
They
some
Beijing (Peking). For eight
the
the "Fists"
laid siege to the large
walled-in foreign settlement in the capital
ued
weeks
1853,
when Commodore Matthew Perry of
in
the
United States sailed his squadron of black-hulled
Edo (Tokyo)
warships, bristling with guns, into
Bay. President Millard Fillmore had ordered Perry

to
persuade Japan to open
its
doors to trade with
the rapidly industrializing West.
The
gifts Perry
presented to Japan's rulers symbolized the industrial
age: a telegraph transmitter and a
model
train.
Perry's warships and industrial wonders
demands
for trade. But they also convinced Japanese rulers

that they
its
must modernize
military might and
its
their country
build up
industry. If they did not,
they reasoned, foreigners might gain control of

their nation.
Japan rapidly transformed

industrial
power and
built
up
its
an
itself into
army and navy.
Within four decades Japan had become a winner
in
the struggle for empire rather than a victim of
as
its
war with China, and
later
it,
with Russia, proved.
Japan and Russia were rivals for Chinese
at
the siege contin-
August, an international force
until finally, in
of the world. From 1639 to the
Japan's foreign policy had suddenly changed
attacked Western missionaries and traders in north-
Chinese government
mere 41 years
forced the Japanese to yield to Western
Chinese resentment of foreigners continued
Righteous Harmony"
rest
almost complete isola-
1850s Japanese rulers had allowed only one Dutch
Open Door
policy had been accepted.
It
from the
its
trading ship a year to enter the country. However,
with the rest of the world."
series
as an imperial power.
Japan had ended
ritories
soil
especially
for
Korea and
ter-
for the fertile
and mineral riches of Manchuria
in northern
rescued the foreigners.
The Boxer Rebellion ended, but

John Hay feared that Japan and other
nations
seize
series
would use
more Chinese
of
it
as an excuse to
second
territory. In a
Open Door
notes, he pressured
powers
observe open trade
the foreign
to
throughout China and

China's right to rule
China retained
its
its
to
preserve
own
territory.
had
territory but
pay foreign powers $333 million
in
to
dam-
ages for losses sustained during the
Boxer Rebellion.
The United States

worked to maintain Its
trading rights in China
through the
policy.
Open Door
A Almost a year after Perry presented gifts to the Japanese, U.S.

were allowed to trade in the ports of Hakodate and Shimoda.
ships
567
U.S.
By May 1905 the Japanese

had won a series of crucial battles,
IMPERIALISM
U.S. Involvement
Interim Status
Current Status
Agreement divides
islands between U.S.
German Samoa
American
Samoa under
and they asked Roosevelt
peace with Russia. Roosevelt
ate
Samoa
and Germany (1899)
achieves independence (1962)
Ceded
Philippine
to negoti-
brought representatives of the two

II
countries together
U.S. control
at
Portsmouth,
New Hampshire, where

Philippines
to U.S.
Independent
republic (1 946)
Govern-
ment Act defines

government (1902)
898)
Declared a commonwealth (1935)
Cuba
American forces
occupy Cuba (1898)
Piatt
pounded out a
treaty.
ther side
wanted and
and
Amendment
Independent
republic (1934)
authorizes U.S.
intervention (1902)
Puerto
Ceded
(1898)
lishes
(
Hawaii
U.S. annexation
(
924)
New
that
Japan might now
expansionist eye toward the
its
painted a dazzling white, on
U.S.
economic and security
interests
extended into Asia,
Japanese port of Yokohama, where
the Pacific, the Caribbean, and Latin America at the turn of the century.
it
case study, trace U.S. involvement and
its
underscored Roosevelt's
Using one of the countries on the chart as a
boast that
consequences for the country's current status.
now
later
"the Pacific was as
much our home waters
as the
Atlantic."
China. In February 1904, Japanese troops attacked
Russian forces
in
The United
watched the war closely.
If
Japan won,
it
might grow dangerously strong.
If
Russia won,
it
States
Pacific.
might cut off U.S. trade with Manchuria.
REVIEW
SECTION
IDENTIFY and
came
to see
Japan, newly emergent as a modern world power, as a rival for
influence in China and the
Manchuria, starting the
Russo-Japanese War. President Theodore Roosevelt
explain the significance of the following: annex, Philippine
Government
Act, William
Hov^/ard Taft, Jones Act of 1916, Kalakaua, Liliuokalani, spheres of influence, John Hay, Boxer Rebellion,
Matthevy^ Perry, Russo-Japanese War.
LOCATE
and explain the importance of the following: Hawaii; Taiwan; Korea;
Beijing,
China;
Yokohama, Japan.
I.
MAIN IDEA How did the

MAIN IDEA What events
MAIN IDEA What
United States respond to

led to the U.S.
did the
WRITING TO EXPLAIN
Open Door
TAKING A STAND Do
why
CHAPTER
19
demands
for independence?
annexation of Hawaii?
policy attempt to accomplish

in
Japan
in
in
is
ever
China?
905. Write a report to
the United States should reevaluate
you think the United States
tory? Give reasons for your answer.
:i
Filipino
Imagine you are a U.S. diplomat
President Roosevelt, explaining
568
46.000-mile world cruise. The
Geographical Diaionary
"Great White Fleet" sailed into the
AMERICAN EXPANSIONISM
F*rize for
4 destroyers and 16 battleships,
50th state
(1959)
statehood (1937)
Sources: An Encyclopedia of World History, Webster's
Nobel Peace
might. In late 1907 he sent a fleet of
Application for
898)
both
demonstrate American military
Application for
statehood
left
did end the war.
Philippines, Roosevelt decided to
(1952)
900)
it
Pacific, including the U.S. -held
commonwealth
government
the
Aware
Declared a
Foraker Act estab-
to U.S.
won
it
it
But
they
granted nei-
Roosevelt.
turn
Rico
all
dissatisfied.
It
justified in
its
relationship with Japan.
annexing a foreign
terri-
EXPANSION
AMERICA
IN LATIN
FOCUS
How
did the United States deal with Cuba and Puerto Rico after the
Spanish-American War?
What events cleared the way for construction of the Panama Canal?
How did presidents Roosevelt, Taft, and Wilson enforce the Monroe
Doctrine?
af mm 1898 onward,
U.S. role in Latin
as American
power grew
America expanded as
U.S. control, while Puerto
well.
in the Pacific, the
Cuba came under
Rico became an out-and-out American
possession. The United States built a canal across the Isthmus of
Panama
in these years,
and
the U.S. presence
was felt throughout

Theodore Roosevelt
Panama Canal site
President
Latin America.
at
(feen-LY), a
Governing cuba
and puerto rico
built, the
system
Wood
Both Cuba and Puerto Rico hoped

treaty
Cuban
that the
ending the Spanish-American
peace
War would
their
to
would allow Cubans
Cuba
that
to control
government. But Cubans and Puerto Ricans
were disappointed. Wanting
to restore
order
mos-
Once
but eliminated the disease.
The
U.S. Congress agreed to remove American troops
Cuba made
constitution.
Amendment had pledged
that
right.
constitution that hmited Cuba's independence.
only
all,
all
He was
new
speedy departure of American troops. After
the United States
had theorized
also presided over the writing of a
bring independence from Spain followed by the
the Teller
doctor,
quitoes spread yellow fever.
if
The
Piatt
Cuba's freedom to make

tries; (2)
Cuban
Cuba
Amendment part of its

Amendment (1) limited
the Piatt
treaties
with other coun-
authorized the United States to intervene in
affairs as
it
saw necessary; and
to sell or lease land to the
(3) required
United States for
quickly in both countries and thus
naval and fueling stations. This last
protect U.S. investments. President
clause eventually led to the establish-
McKinley
ment of the U.S. Navy base at

Guantanamo Bay (see map on page
ments
set
up military govern-
to rule the islands.
McKinley appointed General

Leonard Wood governor of Cuba in
1899.
Wood
Army
protectorate: America promised to
and a sanitation sysdoctors Walter
protect
Reed
Â
and William Gorgas had called for
<ii
the sanitation system to reduce the
mosquito population. Carlos Finlay
Amend-
ment made Cuba an American
authorized the construc-
tion of schools
tem. U.S.
578). In effect, the Piatt
Carlos Finlay
Cuba from
other nations but
reserved the right to intervene in

Cuba's
affairs.
In 1902, after
Cuba
reluctantly
accepted the Piatt Amendment. U.S.
i:
569
iroops
in
Bui a U.S. presence remained
Icti.
naval base
Over
1903.
at
Guantanamo Bay. which was
at
The Panama
the
leased
the next three decades, the United
Canal was built by

the United States
between 904 and
1914. Shown here
I
Slates intervened in
sured
Cuba
several times.
It
pres-
into accepting policies favorable to
Cuba
when it decided
Cuban government could not keep order.
The Plait Amendment remained in force until
U.S. investors and sent in troops
that the
1934.
vene
when America renounced

in
its
are laborers who

helped construct
the canal.
right to inter-
Cuba. Even then, however, U.S. influence
over Cuban
affairs
remained
Rico became a self-governing commonwealth of
great.
For Puerto Rico. U.S. policy followed a

ferent course.
No
Teller
dif-
Amendment guaranteed
the United States,
which
retains ties of citizenship
and trade with the mainland.
independence for Puerto Rico, so the United States

ruled the island as a territory like
Philippines in the Pacific. But just
were
territories
to be
legal question for the
After the Spanish-American War,

the United States retained a
strong influence in Cuba, and
Puerto Rico became a U.S.
Samoa or the
how these new
governed raised a thorny
United States. Were the peo-
ple of these territories entitled to
all
the rights of
territory.
U.S. citizens?
No, ruled the Supreme Court
Court argued
that the
new
in
territories
1901.
The
were not
fully part of the United States. Therefore,
Congress could choose which rights
to
extend
The PANAMA CANAL
them. The Court affirmed the Foraker Act of
With such
1900. which called for Puerto Rico's governor
the Pacific, the United States looked for a
and upper house of the legislature
by the United States and
to be
appointed
lower house to be
elected by Puerto Ricans.
The Jones Act of 1917 made Puerto Ricans

American
citizens
and gave them the right to elect
both houses of their legislature. In 1952 Puerto
vital interests in
between the
the travel time
both the Caribbean and
seas.
ardous voyage around Cape Horn
way
to cut
The long and
haz-
southern
at the
tip
of South America took several weeks. In response

the United States proposed digging a canal through
a narrow neck of land in Central America to allow

the U.S.
Navy
to police both seas.
Early steps toward a canal. The
idea for
such a canal was not new. As far back as 1517.
Vasco Nufiez de Balboa had proposed
that a canal
be dug across the 50-mile-wide Isthmus of Panama.

In
1850 the United States and Great Britain had
drawn up
the
Ciayton-Bulwer Treaty, proposing an
equal partnership to build and run a Central
American
1
canal, but they never acted on
it.
In the
880s a French company actually worked on a canal
across the Isthmus. But after less than 10 years and

the loss of
some 20,000
million, the French
lives
and more than $280
abandoned the
effort.
tropical diseases, repeated landslides,
Deadly
and bank-
ruptcy killed the project.
Finally,
in
1901
President Theodore
Roosevelt decided that "after four centuries of
became a U.S. territory, the

new public schools such as the
After Puerto Rico
government built
one shown here.
570
:i
CHAPTER
conversation" by other countries,

the United States to act.
He
it
was time
for
instructed Secretary
of State John Hay to negotiate with Great Britain
Changing
August
'n
1914, the SS
15,
Ancon completed the

sage through the
first
pas-
Panama Canal,
a 5 -mile-long ribbon of
1
Pacific
lions of tons of dirt
standing
oil.
By
prompted
906
eliminated. Malaria
difficulty
new
and rock
design
an
elevated waterway using locks.
One group
was under
of workers dredged
an approach channel and built a
control by 1913.
dam and
com-
age marked the

pletion of
but the
swamps drained and
yellow fever had almost been
Ocean. The voy-
of moving mil-
yellow fever and malaria, he had
water coated with
waters
connecting the Caribbean Sea
and the
a PATH BETWEEN THE SEAS
what
on the
locks
Another
Atlantic side.
Theodore Roosevelt
group dredged
called "the greatest
sage from the Pacific
task of
its
own
a pas-
through the Bay of
kind
that has ever been
Panama and con-
performed
structed
world
in
the
two smaller
The
sets of locks.
at all!"
Americans
hardest job
fell
to
another group, which
began working on
Pedro Miguel
the canal
in
1904.
had to blast an eight-
Locks
/
Miraflores/
Roosevelt was eager

"to
in
make the
mile-long path
9N
Locks
Balboa,
through the moun-
Panama
dirt fly"
vvoental
fort
PANAMA
Panama, but harsh
Amador
tainous Continental
working conditions
Divide. Geologic
PACIFIC
OCEAN
and shortages ham-
in late
start.
904
hit.
a serious
naval vessel
By early
Oregon 66 days
around Cape Horn
to Key
War, pressure increased
Because
to sail
it
took the
LOCATION
To put the pro-
If
you travel to
exit
from San Francisco
F.
to dynamite the proyou enter the Panama Canal from
on the
tective dike at the
Pacific
south end of the
Ocean?
Stevens as
finale,
Canal construction soon
More than 60
Stevens tackled the technical
resumed
problems, while army colonel
giant steam shovels bit into the
on improving
Gorgas,
Cuba
who
Gorgas worked
living
conditions.
had helped
rid
of tropical diseases, had
drinking water purified and

buildings screened.
Then, to
destroy the breeding places of

the mosquitoes that transmit
in
force.
land, digging
dramatic
out nearly
60
85
sides rushed together
feet
above sea
The human and economic
died and about
of
whom were
West
Originally, the canal
$366
million
was
designed to be built at sea
level,
was
spent. But the seemingly impossible
had become a
reality.
the world
The
and the of
now had "Path
United States
Indies.
were
some 6,000 workers
staggering:
many
level.
costs of building the canal
Workers numbered more than

recruited from the British
water from the
two
trainloads of earth each day.
43,000,
10,
1913, President
canal. In a
chief engineer and architect.
Dr. William C.
on October
Wilson signaled crews
build a U.S.-controlled canal
Roosevelt appointed
John
avalanches. But
finally,
the Caribbean Sea on the Atlantic side, which direction m\\
back on track,
caused
U.S.
through Central America.
at a near standstill.
and
rains,
shifting earth
West during the Spanish-American
to
heavy
frequent and often

fatal
STRATEGIC INTERESTS
1905 the project was
ject
Cx)jr9-30'W
Panama Canal Zone
Then
outbreak of yellow
fever
10 Kilometers
Lambert Conformal Conic Projeaion
pered U.S. efforts
from the
faults,
Between the
rest
Seas."
571
to
end the partnership
Bulwer
set
up by the Claylon-
Hay-Pauncefote
Treaty. In the resulting
Treaty. Britain agreed that the United States

could build the canal by
sive
and have "exclu-
itself
management and policing of
it."
In return,
the United States promised to keep the canal

to all the world's vessels in
open
wartime as well as
in
peacetime.
Hay then began negotiations with
the
Republic of Colombia
of which Panama was then
a part. In l^M).^ the
Hay-Herran Treaty was
drafted. In return for a 99-year lease
on a six-mile
strip of land across
Isthmus,
the
the
United States agreed

to
pay Colombia $10
million and a yearly
This 1903 cartoon shows Roosevelt digging the
Panama Canal and throwing
dirt in the direction of
Colombia, the country that had refused to
ratify
an
earlier canal treaty.
rental of S250.000.
holding
But
terms,
better
for
out
adjourned without
gave the United States complete and unending sov-
rat-
Did the United States engineer the

Panamanian revolution? The facts remain
Colombians of black-
obscure, but President Theodore Roosevelt later
mail and swore that
boasted, "I took the Canal Zone and
President
must not be
allowed "to bar one of
the future
^
Hay served as secretary
of
John L,
from 898 until his death in 905.
,
state
highways
j
<.
of civilization."
ereignty over a 10-mile- wide Canal Zone.
Roosevelt accused the
they
canal treaty with Panama's special envoy,
Bunau-Varilla. The Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty
furious
new
Colombia's senate
ifying the treaty.
Republic of Panama, and Hay began negotiating a
gress debate."
It is
let
Con-
clear that U.S. aid to the
Panamanian rebels and America's immediate

Panama as an independent nation
served American interests and made the Panama
recognition of
Canal possible. American trade and naval power
Panama.
Revolution
in
soon turned
Roose\elt*s favor.
leaders
in
who wanted
in Panama
Key Panamanian
Events
the canal built began plotting
grew stronger because of

States to extend
ests in Latin
its
it.
allowing the United
economic and
political inter-
America.
revolution against the Colombian government.
Helping them was Philippe Bunau-Varilla (boonoh-vah-ree-yah), the former chief engineer for the
French canal-building attempt.

Bunau-Varilla traveled to Washington to get
American support
9,
for the revolution.
On October
The Panamanian revolution and a

favorable treaty cleared the way
for the United States to build
and retain control of the Panama

Canal.
1903. he met privately with President
Roosevelt. Exactly what was said
at the
meeting
remains unknown, but on November 2 the U.S.

gunboat Nashville arrived
in
Panama. The follow-
ing day. Panamanians began their rebellion. U.S.
/Applying the monroe
doctrine
Marines prevented Colombian forces from reaching the rebels.
On November
set
up
4. 1903, the victorious rebels
new government and declared Panama an
independent nation. Acting with lightning speed,

the United States
572
:i
CHAPTER
two days
later
recognized the
The American interventions in Cuba. Puerto

Rico, and Panama were only three instances in a
long history of U.S. involvement in Latin
America. As far back as 1823, the Monroe
Doctrine had cast the United States as protector
'
the hemisphere. Bui tor
o{'
was
the doctrine
the century
iiiiich ol
more than an
little
idle threat.
YANKEE IMPERIALISM
This changed lollovving the Spanish-American

War, as presidents Theodore Roosevelt, William
Woodrou Wilson
H. Taft. and
Monroe Doctrine
the
an elTort to protect U.S.
in
America
interests in Latin
(see
A,.Ithough much
actively enforced
map on page
578).
of Latin America had at

first
favored the
Monroe
Doctrine, support for the
The Roosevelt
ica,
with
Corollary.
consumers, attracted
*
American
Latin
a flood
of European and
Much
capital during the late 1800s.
was
this capital
Amer-
wealth of raw materials and potential
its
of
form of high-interest bank
in the
Although many Latin American countries
loans.
welcomed
early 1900s. As Peruvian diplomat Francisco
Garcia Calderon noted, the
took "an aggressive form with Mr. [Theodore]

Roosevelt, the politician of the 'big stick.'"
Writing
example. Great Britain, Germany, and Italy

blockaded and attacked Venezuelan ships and
when
the nation failed to repay
its
Monroe Doctrine
in
1913, Garcia Calderon chronicled the
them
the loans, difficulty in repaying
often resulted in foreign intervention. In 1902, for
ports
policy began to dwindle by the
loans.
of recent U.S. interventions
list
in
Panama,
Cuba, the Dominican Republic, and Venezuela.

As a result of this "Yankee imperialism," he
claimed, "everywhere the Americans of the
President Roosevelt quickly warned the three
North are feared" and
European powers not
Anglo-Saxon invaders assumes the character of
any Venezuelan
to seize
land and convinced them to settle the issue

through arbitration.
"hostility against the
crusade." In the view of Mexican scholar
Luis Quintanilla, the Roosevelt Corollary
Roosevelt's actions sent a clear signal that he
intended to enforce the

Roosevelt underscored
Monroe Doctrine.
1904 when the
this point in
Dominican Republic proved unable
repay
to
its
twisted the
America
vs.
Monroe Doctrine "from
vs.
had
a case of
Europe" to one of "United States
America."
European lenders. Fearing that the Europeans

would use force to collect the loans, he issued the
Roosevelt Corollary
to the
Monroe
Doctrine:
foreign creditors. In 1916,
If
a nation
obligations,
It
keeps order and pays
States.
tantly, ...
government sent
Chronic wrongdo-
the Western Hemisphere
in
force the United States,
however
lished a greater U.S. role in Latin
America.
applied in practice the West
African proverb he loved to quote: "Speak softly
and carry a big
stick;
you
will
go
to accept U.S. assistance.
States pledged to use
stop
Dominican
territory. In
government agreed
all
Dominican customs
to
from seizing
exchange, the Dominican
to let the
Latin American countries objected to
Roosevelt's policy.
They argued
should maintain control over
its
that every country
own
affairs.
Some
Latin American countries issued a declaration

ing that debts
owed
to other countries
stat-
could not be
American
protests, intervention continued.
The United
American armed forces
any European country
Some
collected by force. But despite Latin
far."
Next, Roosevelt convinced the Dominican
government
They did not leave
The Roosevelt Corollary estab-
99
He had
in marines.
may
reluc-
Without seeking approval from any Latin

American nation, Roosevelt assumed the role of
"international police officer" in the Western
Hemisphere.
civil disturbances
until eight years later, in 1924.
to the exercise of an International
police power.
when
racked the Dominican Republic, the United States
its
need fear no interference
from the United

ing ..
United States collect
duties and turn half over to
Dollar diplomacy.
Roosevelt's successor as
president, William H. Taft, further extended U.S.
influence in Latin America. Taft favored "substituting dollars for bullets"
military force
as a
economic influence
for
means of protecting U.S.
i:
573
the chances of
U.S.
TRADE AND TERRITORIAL EXPANSION
European intervention. By 1914
U.S. capital in Latin America had
$1.6 billion, mainly invested
grown
over
to
in railroads,
mines,
and banana and sugar plantations.

Nicaragua was one of the places
dollar diplomacy to the
that Taft put
At the invitation of the
test.
Nicaraguan president. American bankers made

loans totaling $1.5 million to Nicaragua in 1911.
The following
year. Taft sent
more than 2.000
marines to crush a revolt and to protect the U.S.

investments that had poured
Taft's successor.
in.
Woodrow
President
Wilson, believed that democratic governments,

0-^
I
1900
1895
1890
1885
would keep European powers

out of Latin America. To keep Germany from taknot U.S. dollars,
1910
1905
1915
Year
ing control of strategic Caribbean territory,

Source: Histoncal Staxistcs of the United States
FOREIGN TRADE
U.S.
power,
it
Wilson sent marines
As the United States emerged as a world
began to acquire overseas colonies. One consequence
territonal expansion
was the rapid increase of
U.S. exports
shook
Haiti,
Caribbean coun-
Wilson sent
when
revolution
in marines. Haiti
was
forced to accept a treaty giving the United States
value of U.S. exports and imports by
to several
rebellions and establish consti-
tutional governments. In 1915.
of this
and imports to
and from these new overseas markets.
down
put
tries to
What was
the difference
in
powers
the
I9IS?
in
running the Haitian government, and
Some
the marines stayed until 1934.
1.500
Haitians died resisting U.S. control.

interests in Latin
To implement
America
this policy,
(see
map on page
which came
to
578).
Taft's dollar
be called
diplomacy and
European loans with American ones. Increasing
Wilson's military interventions

increased U.S. political and eco-
U.S. economic power, Tail argued, would reduce
nomic influence
dollar diplomacy. Taft suggested replacing
SECTION
IDENTIFY and
Amendment,
Treaty,
Latin America.
REVIEW
explain the significance of the following: Leonard
Wood.
Carlos
Finlay, Piatt
protectorate, Foraker Act. Jones Act of 1917, Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, Hay-Pauncefote
Hay-Herran
LOCATE
in
Treaty, Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty, Roosevelt Corollary, dollar diplomacy.
and explain the importance of the following: Guantanamo
Bay,
Panama Canal. Colombia,
Venezuela, Dominican Republic, Nicaragua, Haiti.

1.
MAIN IDEA How
did the U.S. relationship with
Cuba and Puerto Rico change
after the Spanish-
American War?
2.
MAIN IDEA Why
did the United States support the
Panamanian rebels and recognize the
Republic of Panama?
3.
CONTRASTING How did

Latin
4.
presidents Roosevelt. Taft, and Wilson apply the
Monroe Doctrine
WRITING TO PERSUADE
this period.
Write
Imagine you are a
political
leader
a speech seeking to persuade the U.S.
in a
Latin
American country during
government not to
interfere
in
the
affairs
of your country.
HYPOTHESIZING How
might U.S. policy toward Puerto Rico have been different
Amendment had been extended

574
::
CHAPTER
in
America?
19
to apply to that territory?
if
the Teller
CONFLICT WITH MEXICO
FOCUS
How
did the Mexican Revolution affect relations between the United

States and Mexico?
Why
Why
did the United States intervene in Mexico?

did tensions
between the two countries remain strong during
Carranza's presidency?
D,'ollar diplomacy played a significant role

Latin American country: Mexico. Though
uneasily referred to the United States as
North,
"
economic
ties
the late 19th century.
ened these
ties,
in
another
many Mexicans
''the
Colossus of the
between the two countries increased
But the Mexican Revolution of 1910
in
threat-
bringing the two countries to the brink of war.
American
artillet7
along
the Mexican border, 1916
workers, and the middle class, angry
The MEXICAN
revolution
political
armed
Dollars helped
tie
Mexico and
the United States
closer together in the late 19th centun', thanks to
who
Mexico's president. Porfirio Diaz. Diaz,
with
the political support of wealthy landowners ruled
Mexico
for
more than 30
years, offered special
concessions to attract foreign investment.
By
1908,
U.S. companies controlled three quarters of
Mexican mining operations. Total U.S.

ments amounted
to
all
Foreign investors helped develop Mexico's
to U.S.
railroads that linked
Mexico
and other foreign markets. But foreign
investors and Diaz"s friends profited the
economic growth.
Little trickled
down
most from
to
workers
and peasants. Indeed. Diaz's policies helped

wealthy Mexicans and foreigners take land away
from peasants. As
a result,
most Mexicans
mainly landless peasants and struggling urban

workers
In
lived in poverty.
1910 Diaz used force and fraud
lack of
democracy, rallied behind Madero
revolt against Diaz beginning in
rebels defeated Diaz's troops in
in
November.
key
cities in
northern and central Mexico, forcing Diaz into

exile in Paris in 1911. In
elections in
Mexico's
first
democratic
30 years. Madero won the presidency.
Madero sought
to estabhsh a
democratic gov-
ernment, but few agreed on the details. The revolutionar\' leaders
who had
Women
in
supported Madero against
invest-
almost $1 million by 1913.
economy by building
The
at the
to defeat
opposition candidate Francisco Madero. Peasants,
served
military roles during the Mexican
Revolution. This 1911 photograph shows a group of female

revolutionaries
armed with
rifles.
Diaz thought Maderos plan did not
go
far
enough
in
such areas as return-
ing land to the peasants. Others,
including conservative military

officers and wealthy landowners,
thought the plan went too
Complicating
far.
this situation
was Henry Lane Wilson,

ambassador,
who
the U.S.
did not believe
Madero could protect U.S. investments in Mexico. Wilson overstepped his diplomatic role by
arranging for factions opposed to
Madero to meet and discuss
Madero's overthrow.
In
1913.
backed by wealthy landowners and

foreign business interests. General
Victoriano Huerta (wER-tah) seized

control of the government and had
Madero thrown into jail. Huerta's

soldiers shot Madero when, they
Pancho
Villa,
center, and Emiliano Zapata, right, are
with their followers
in
the presidential palace
in
Mexico
shown
City.
alleged, he attempted to escape.
Madero's murder outraged

President Woodrow Wilson. He angrily
refused to
recognize Huerta. calling his regime a "govern-
ment of butchers." Civil war raged
in
Mexico
as
Huerta's soldiers arrested several crew
from the
USS
members
Dolphin. The U.S. sailors had gone
ashore for supplies
at
the
Mexican
port of
revolutionary armies battled to drive Huerta out.
Tampico. The Americans were released unharmed,
President Wilson adopted a policy of "watchful
but Wilson pursued the matter.
waiting," hoping that the revolutionaries would be
American admiral, who demanded an apology and
successful.
He
also authorized
arms
sales to the
revolutionaries, while refusing to allow
arms sales
to Huerta's forces.
a public
the
ceremony
American
salute
it
in
He backed
the
which Mexico would "hoist
flag in a
prominent position and
with twenty-one guns." Huerta
made
the
apology but refused to perform the ceremony.
The Mexican
Revolution strained
U.S.-Mexican relations as the
fighting disrupted Mexico's gov-
ernment and
On
Congress:
society.
April 20 President Wilson went before
come
to ask your approval that
should use the armed forces of the United

States ... to obtain from General Huerta
A MERICAN INTERVENTION
and
adherents the
fullest
recognition of
the rights and dignity of the United States,
Four major revolutionary armies continued

Huerta. But their leaders
his
to fight
Venustiano Carranza
even amidst the distressing conditions

unhappily obtaining
In
Mexico.
now
**
(bay-noos-TYAHN-oh kahr-RAHN-sah). Francisco
"Pancho"
Villa.
Emiliano Zapata, and Alvaro
Obregon (oh-bray-GAWN)
were not
united.
Two
for the
each other. Although the revolutionaries controlled
U.S.
throughout Mexico, Wilson worried that
they would never be able to defeat Huerta.

In
1914 an incident occurred that gave
Wilson an excuse
:!
German
of the leaders. Carranza and Villa, actually hated
territory
576
Before Congress could
CHAPTER
19
to inter\ene directly.
On
April 9.
act.
Wilson learned
ship bearing arms for Huerta
Mexican
Navy
port of Veracruz.
to land
marines
at
that a
was heading
He ordered
the
Veracruz, take the
customs house, and prevent the weapons from

being delivered. By the time Congress voted
Wilson the authority
been carried
out.
to use force, the order
had
At
Chile
sometimes called
organized a conference
to resolve the crisis.
to resign.
at
the
more
powers"
into
The conference urged Huerta
Mexico
fire a bullet
against Mexicans, our brothers, and
the Americans
them know
August 1914 Carranza
City.
have decided not to
to prepare and organize ourselves to attack
Falls, Ontario,
Since his forces were losing, he com-
plied and tied to Spain. In
marched
"ABC
Niagara
We
and
this critical stage Argentina. Brazil,
free and a
For the next year the
in
that
tomb
their
own dens and make
Mexico
is
a land for the
for thrones, crowns, and
99
traitors.
revolutionary generals battled each other for con-
of the presidency.
trol
In
March 1916 some 500 of
crossed the border to raid Columbus,
The United States intervened
men burned and looted

and the army post located
Americans
were
government.
nine
killed,
died. Villa
turn,
In
have
1915 Carranza assumed the presidency, and
and eight soldiers
civilians
hoped the
in
would provoke
raid
Mexico
that
expected
Without Carranza's approval President

into Mexico
United States recognized Carranza's government
to capture Villa
year, after
would respect foreign
he guaranteed that Mexico
lives
and property.
Venustiano Carranza, with his trim white
anyone's picture of a typical revolutionary.

in the state
Villa's raid.
fit
Bom
in
of Coahuila (koh-uh-WEE-luh) in
northern Mexico, he
when he took up
the
Carranza,
itable
A week
after
Pershing led a force
Mexican
more
territory, the
the
Mexicans resented
the Americans.
A battle between
Mexican and U.S. troops
who
a large, prof-
ranch,
had
in
June brought the United States and Mexico to

the brink of war. Carranza ordered
rebel cause.
held
J.
some 5,800 soldiers into Chihuahua, Villa's

home state. Although Pershing later increased his
troop size to more than 10,000 men. Villa still
eluded capture. The deeper Pershing pushed into
was over 50 years old
owned
"dead or alive."
General John
of
goatee and his "gentlemanly bearing," hardly
1859
in
result.
Wilson ordered a military expedition
same
would,
undermine Carranza's regime. He did not

to wait long for his
American forces withdrew from Veracruz. The

in the
town
Seventeen
while more than a hundred Mexicans
American intervention
UARRANZA IN POWER
there.
men
Mexico.
the surprised
Villa's
in Mexico to help overthrow

the antirevolutionary Huerta
Villa's
New
to
Mexican troops
prevent U.S. soldiers from advancing any
farther south into
Mexico.
When
one of Pershing's
cavalry units attempted to pass through the town
many govern-
ment offices under

Diaz.
But
in
1908
Diaz and Carranza

clashed, and three
Venustiano Carranza
years
later.
Carranza
joined Madero's fight

to
overthrow Diaz. After Madero was deposed,
Carranza helped defeat Huerta's forces.

his experience as
and
He used
head of a revolutionary army
his considerable political talents to gain the
presidency of Mexico.
Carranza's presidency was marked by conflict.
Pancho
Villa,
who had hoped
for U.S. support
against Carranza. decided to retaliate against the
Americans for recognizing Carranza as president.

Villa
communicated
Emiliano Zapata:
his plans to rebel leader
v ^
r''^^'^'-*-^^- r'-^ct^^-i-v/f?"^
^-<i-=-<^--i
In 1916 President Wilson sent U.S. soldiers into

Mexico to capture revolutionary leader Pancho
Villa, "dead or alive."
577
America
U.S. 9nterests in Catin

DOLLAR DIPLOMACY
American policy
in
America aimed at protecting
Latin
investments and keeping European powers out. Ownership of the

that nearby countries not
LOCATION
under the control
fall
Panama
interests
U.S.
and
Canal increased U.S. concerns
of hostile forces.
Which areas were United
States protectorates?
AFRICA
^.^
UNITED STATES
OCBAM
April
In
I9M.
Mexicans arrest
sailors;
U.S.
demands
U.S.
respect for flag.
Key" JMiamK^
.BAiJuÂS
West.--^
Gulf of
Mexico
MEXICO
Tampico'
(1903-19I2),
In
_JJCUBA
^189g-)902.-
90S, the U.S. applies the Roosevelt
Corollary in the Dominican Republic.
1906-1909.'^
1906-1909,
1917-1922
In
March 1916. Pancho
Villa
Quantinamo Bay
raids
town and army
(1903-)
post,
provoking
U.S.
intervention.
U.S.
JAMAICA
-VIRGIN
1915-1934
(British)
IS.
U.S.
REPUBLIC
purchases Virgin
1916-1924
Islands from
CARIBBEAN SEA
Enormous
U.S.
in
Denmark
1917.
[Nicaragua
investments
EL
SALVADOR'
CANAL
ZONE
1912-1925
>>j;>J926-1933
*%;4^
were a powerful incentive

for
COSTA
Panama
^'"^'
/(1903-1979)
!
Rica
Mexico's internal affairs.

U.S.
aids
Panama's revolution
against Colombia;
United States
Varilla Treaty
Hay-Bunau-
(1903) gives
U.S.
and possessions
sovereignty over Canal Zone.
U.S. protectorates
Equator
Bombarded
or occupied
by U.S. forces
Route of Pershing's
U.S.
PACIFIC
Expeditionary Force
Boundary
OCEAN
line arbitrated
by United States
S
battle ensued.
In that same year, Carranza approved a

sweeping new constitution for Mexico, but
he would not have much time to put its provisions in place. In 1920 he was overthrown and
By
killed
by forces loyal
leader
Alvaro Obregon.
commander of
of Carrizal. the
the
Mexican
garri-
son refused passage. Instead of bypassing the

town, the U.S.
and a
early
commander chose
to enter Carrizal,
September 1916 nearly 150,000
Guardsmen were stationed along

the Mexican border. The prospect of armed
U.S. National
conflict with
Mexico was extremely unpopular
the United States, however, particularly in
in
view
of the events in Europe and on the high seas

that threatened to pull the
War
In
(see Chapter 20).
exchange
for
United States into World
in
Mexico
to
protect U.S. investments. Carranza refused to limit
Mexican sovereignty
578
::
in this
way. Realizing that the
war increased with every day U.S. troops

in
withdrawn
in
CHAPTER
19
quent Mexican presidents gradually implemented

the
new
constitution. This constitution
have important repercussions for U.S.

panies operating in Mexico
in the
would
com-
oil
1930s (see
Chapter 25).
Wilson backed down.
allow the United States to intervene
remained
Obregon and subse-
withdrawing U.S. troops, Wilson
asked Carranza to adopt a measure that would
threat of
to another revolutionary
Mexico, Wilson ordered U.S. troops

January 1917.
on a U.S. town and

army post and Carranza's refusal
Villa's raid
to grant the United States the

right to protect American investments raised tensions between
the United States and Mexico

to a dangerous pitch.
Although designed
Commentary
military governments that
many
Expansion
In the years
in
Perspective
from 1890
involvement expanded enormously. In some cases

this
involvement meant actual military intervention
and colonial rule of foreign
new
territory
States,
territories.
Although
and influence benefited the United
many Americans
believed that overseas
expansion helped foreign countries as well.
countries often denied citizens a basic
Many
at the
Puerto Rico, for example, the U.S.
try's culture. In
government ordered
native Spanish
that English
be
used
non-European
imperialists asserted that

sibility to
of view. American
Americans had a respon-
bring democracy, prosperity, and order to
But did U.S. imperialism succeed
Maldonado-Denis,
in bringing
of these benefits to foreign countries? In Cuba,
education, roads, transportation, and public health
such
as in
flag.
And
in
this
a Puerto
system, recalled that
"Puerto Rican students had to daily swear loyalty
North American flag
to the
English" and sing
in
in English composed to inspire

North American students." In
"songs
patriotism
in
this
way,
attempted "to rob us of every source of identification with all that
some
cases,
Venezuela, U.S. diplomatic actions pre-
is
Puerto Rican."
U.S. economic expansion also created resent-
Puerto Rico, and the Philippines, better sanitation,
followed the American
citizens."
in the
Maldonado-Denis concluded, the United States
the world's nonindusirialized nations.
all
classrooms. English
in
make Puerto Ricans
order to
in
Rican who grew up under
countries as economically backward and uncivi-
instead of the
North
"good
words of Manuel Maldonado-Denis
was used
American
this point
demo-
expense of the other coun-
Philippines. Puerto Rico, and other
Arguing from
in
U.S. attempts to spread American culture
sometimes came
supporters of imperialism viewed Samoa, the
lized.
were established
cratic right: political representation.
America's global
to 1920.
democracy, the U.S.
to create
ment against
The
the United States around the world.
millions of dollars that U.S. banks and busi-
nesses poured into
oil wells,
mines, plantations,
poor nations gave the
vented European countries from colonizing Latin
and railroad projects
American
United States control of those nations' natural
territory.
U.S. economic and military interventions,
however, rarely brought order or democracy

politically troubled countries.
dollar
diplomacy
in
to
For example, U.S.
Nicaragua did not prevent a
resources.
as they
The people
watched
from them flow
in
in these nations
their resources
into the
grew angry
and the profits
United States. The efforts
of these countries to regain control of their
own
revoh, and the United States militarv' brutally sup-
resources would provide a continuing source of
pressed the Filipino independence movement.
tension between
the United States.
REVIEW
SECTION
IDENTIFY and
them and
explain the significance of the following: Porfirio Diaz, Francisco Madero, Victoriano
Huerta, Venustiano Carranza, Francisco "Pancho"
Villa,
Emiliano Zapata, Alvaro Obregon, John
J.
Pershing.
1.
MAIN IDEA How
did the
Mexican Revolution impact relations between the United States and
Mexico?
2.
3.
MAIN IDEA Why did President Wilson ask Congress for authority to use the military in Mexico?
IDENTIFYING CAUSE AND EFFECT What event during Carranza's presidency provoked
U.S. intervention
two
4.
Mexico?
WRITING TO EXPLAIN
in
What
effect did U.S. intervention have
on
relations
between the
countries?
of Porfirio Dfaz.
5.
in
Write
Imagine you are a landless peasant
a letter to a relative
in
in
Mexico
after the
the United States explaining
overthrow
why you took
part
the revolution.
SYNTHESIZING How
did U.S. intervention both help and hurt other countries?
579
U.S. recognizes
Spanish-American
War begins.
U.S.
gains control of
CHAPTER
19
U.S. annexes
Philippines.
begins
Open Door
in
Puerto Rico,
policy inau-
Philippine Govern-
gurated.
ment Act
1898
1900
Why
5.
1902
were the United
Germany
write a sumnnary of the chapter.
control of Samoa?
and
list
to
Study the time
5.
in
ond next to
2,
the order
first
controlling
in
economy
Panama.
3.
Venustiano Carranza assumes power
4.
5.
Open Door
Mexico.
War
Democratic Values Why
line,
and
in
AND
imperialism
2. Jose Marti
THINKING CRITICALLY
1. Evaluating How did the
ment
IDEAS
6.
John Hay
7.
Carlos Finlay
Analyzing Why did Japan, unlike China, not

become divided into European spheres of influence?
Hypothesizing What might have been the effect
2.
3.
on
U.S. relations with
8.
dollar diplomacy
Philippines
4.
Liliuokalani
9.
Porfirio Diaz
Open Door
5.
spheres of influence
0.
Venustiano Carranza
led industrialized nations to
Review the
seek overseas
the late 19th and early 20th centuries?
What arguments
did imperialists use to justify the
establishment of overseas colonies?

2.
What
3.
How
in
the Philippines have on that country?
did U.S. relations with Hawaii and Japan
eventually lead to
4.
How
American involvement
did U.S. actions
in
Hawaiian
of
Queen
in
local
in
each of those countries?
Skills
Handbook entry on Writing
in
1893
who
Paper
Liliuokalani.
if
has witnessed the overthrow
What
information
you are preparing an
newspaper about
this event?
will
you
article for a
Suppose that you
are writing a diary entry about the occupation.

will
your approach to writing
How
differ in this case?
China?
the Dominican Republic,
Nicaragua, and Haiti signify Roosevelt's,
the United States had adopted an

policy
beginning on page 1001. Imagine you are a native
need to collect
positive and negative effects did U.S. inter-
vention
if
Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the
580
react to revolutionaries such as Emilio
Emilio Aguinaldo
United States govern-
Aguinaldo and Venustiano Carranza?
3.
in
might some people
the Philippines conflicted
with democratic principles?
colonies
in
What
resulted
begins.
IDENTIFYING PEOPLE
affect the
What problems
of that country?
argue that U.S. actions
1.
did the pres-
Mexico
policy inaugurated.
Cause and
from the time
in
from these investments?

in
3.
Russo-Japanese
Identifying
won
Why was Cuba
Panama Canal completed.

U.S. recognizes Republic of
and
finally
American government?
2.
2.
Britain,
Who
the United States
Cuba?
ence of foreign investors

1
Great
Samoa?
surprised and angered by the position of the
activity
below.
States,
in
REVIEWING THEMES
Why was
interested
the sec-
interested
Global Relations
1.
which
in
next to
above,
line
passed.
WRITING A SUMMARY
China.
Guam, and Hawaii.
Review
Number your paper
Republic of Panama.
Hay-Bunau-Varilla
Treaty negotiated.
Boxer Rebellion
Taft's,
and

Writing to Explain Write
an essay that traces the
Wilson's willingness to apply and extend the
negotiations and events that helped the United States
Monroe Doctrine?
build
CHAPTER
and control the Panama Canal.
Russo-Japanese
The Mexican
War begins.
Revolution starts.
1904
1910
Panama Canal
completed.
1912
the Far
Charles Denby had been the U.S. minister to
member
of McKinley's commission to study
the islands. Read the following excerpt from Denby's

article "Shall
We
November 1898
Keep the
in
Forum.
Villa's
Columbus,
New
Philippines?" published
Why
1914
LINKING HISTORY
in
China. After the acquisition of the Philippines, he
became
Pancho
soldiers raid
Mexico.

A firm supporter of American expansion
East,
Venustiano
Carranza assumes
power in Mexico.
Wilson sends
marines into Haiti.
in
does Denby think the
AND GEOGRAPHY
War
Historians have noted that the Spanish-American
was
primarily decided at sea. Study the
map on page
561 and the text discussion on pages 560-62.
Then
write a paragraph supporting this view and
how
describing
phy might have
enced
United States should keep the Philippines?
1916
geograinflu-
U.S. military
strategy.
44
The whole world sees
China a
in
splendid market for our native products.
We
are closer to her than any other com-
mercial country except Japan. There
Teddy Roosevelt and the

Rough Riders
is
before us a boundless future which will
make
the Pacific
more important
the Atlantic.
San Francisco,
Tacoma are
in their infancy.
destined to rival
New
and
Seattle,
BUILDING YOUR
PORTFOLIO
They are
and Philadelphia.
If we give up the Philippines, we throw
away the splendid opportunity to assert our
influence in the Far East. We do this deliberately; and the world will laugh at us.
Why did we take Manila?
.
-.^
to us than
York, Chicago,
*^'-^"
The Philippines are a foothold for
Far East. Their possession gives

us standing and influence. It gives us
us in the

cooperatively.
GLOBAL RELATIONS
member
I900s.
of the State
Write
Imagine you are a
Department
memorandum
in
the early
to the president that
addresses concerns about U.S. relations with Spain,
also valuable trade both in exports
China, Japan, Latin America, or Mexico. Your
and
orandum should mention
imports.
Should we surrender the Philippines,
what will become of them ?
... To
[Spain] they will be valueless; and

sells
them
by that
to
if she
any continental power she
act, light the
torches of war
will,
England will not stand by and see any

other European power take the Philippines.
They are on the line to Australia and India.
By holding the Philippines we postpone
at least a general European war.
.99
.
with annexation, colonization, construction of the
Panama Canal, or protection of
her
mem-
specific issues dealing
U.S. investments,
and propose courses of action.

2.
WAR
Imagine you are a U.S.
officer in 1898.
Army
recruiting
Create a series of recruiting
posters aimed at attracting a wide range of

recruits
such
as college students, Native
Americans, cowboys, would-be adventurers

serve
in
to
the Spanish-American War.
58!
Americans
Tfte United States
and the World,
GEOGRAPHY
moreign landholdings of the United States were very small
to those of the European empires. The largest
compared
American
a
territory,
Alaska, appeared to
useless, frozen wasteland.
many
skeptics to be
The discovery of gold,
oil,
and
other useful minerals, however, would prove very valuable to
the United States
THE UNITED
in
years to come.
AND
STATES
THE WORLD
WHE
Industrial Revolu-
tion affected nations through-
out the world.
eve of Worid
By
War
1914. the
I,
many
nations of the worid were
connected
complex web
in a
of economic trade and investment. The vast majority of

this trade
and investment was
controlled by European
nations, particularly Great
Britain,
which had amassed a
huge colonial empire. Japan
was
the only Asian nation to
attempt significant foreign
expansion
century.
in the early
Compared
20th
to the
European empires, the United

States
had relatively
little
financial investment in other
countries. Yet even the
United States expanded
economic and
its
political
ôu^ America
Brazil,
involvement
in
foreign
housed many valuable resources, including
copper from Argentina and Peru, and
fertilizer
and
explosives)
from
Chile.
from
tin
nitrates (used to
make
Although the European

Antarctic Circle
nations during this period.
empires did not attempt to create

as they did
in Africa,
self-governing South
investment
in
concentrated
582
UNIT
êy
new
colonies in South America,
invested heavily
American
countries.
The
the economic
life
of
U.S. also increased
South America, but most of its investments were

in
Central America
and the Panama Canal
region.
1900-191^
GERMAN FOREIGN INVESTMENT
IN
1910*
(in millions of U.S. dollars)
Countries and Pos:>essio ns
^^M
#\s/an empires went

Germany
Netherlands
Belgium
IJH Italy
'
'
1914
through
dramatic chariges around the turn

Denmark
^^M
^^M
in
Japan
Great Britain
of the century. China, which had
^H France
been the
^^M
Spain
world, suffered a series of political
^H
Portugal
^^M Russia
empire
crises that led to a loss

its
Ottoman
largest
territories
in
the
of many of
and eventually
to the
United States
overthrow of the emperor
in
Independent
Meanwhile the
ofjapan
MM
tiny nation
191
1.
was becoming the leading Asian
power
as
its
empire expanded
through military victories over China
and
BRITISH FOREIGN INVESTMENT,
1900-1910
(in millions
mluropeans had explored and traded

Africa for
major
late
of U.S. dollars)
140 E
in
struggled to claim African lands (and

This led to a
of wars between European forces and
1914
Liberia, the
country founded by American abolitionists

in
the early 1800s,
and Ethiopia were the
160
NEW^
effort to colonize the continent. In the
African peoples. By
A^
zealandCv
for a few
had never been a
resources) for themselves.
i'i^^rj
Bight
1800s, however, European countries
series
Great
Australian
many years. Except
small settlements, there
Russia.
oo
^ oo
^ ô
o oo
^
^ ^
only self-governing African countries.

in
North
America
In
South
America
In
In
In
Africa
Europe
Asia
Chapter 20
1914-1920
WORLD WAR
UNDERSTANDING
THE MAIN IDEA
When
v/ar enveloped Europe, the
United States tried to remain neutral.

In
1917, however, the United States
joined the Allied cause. The governn)ent quickly
moved
economy and
for the
to mobilize the
to build public
war Then v/hen
support
the fighting
stopped, Wilson worked to shape a

just peace.
He
failed,
however, to win
congressional support for the treaty he
helped
write.

might a country be drawn into an
international conflict
efforts to
in
spite of
remain neutral?
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT How might fighting a

war
affect a nation's
economy?
DEMOCRATIC VALUES
How
might war affect a govern-
ment's respect for
its
citizens'
rights?
1914
1915
Archduke Franz
German U-boat
Congress
Ferdinand
sinks Lusitania.
declares
assassinated.
war
Wilson introduces
Fourteen Points.
Treaty
Versaill
UM
In his farewell
TO THE PAST
address Presiderit Washington had warned against
entangling American "peace and prosperity
in
the
toils
of European
ambition." The United States had long heeded this advice and tried
to remain neutral. But isolation
became
nation emerged as a world power
in
increasingly difficult as the
the early
900s.
O.
n the morning of July 29, 1914, Americans opened their
newspapers
screaming headlines announcing the outbreak of war
to
The New York Tribune proclaimed: "AUSTRIA declares
in Europe.
WAR, RUSHES VAST ARMY INTO SERBIA; RUSSIA MASSES 80,000 MEN ON
BORDER."
Most Americans reacted with stunned

grateful that the Atlantic
Americans not
neutral course
to
to steer a
With the passing months,
difficult for the
pushed America closer
step, events
Wilson attempted
the warring nations.
however, neutrality became more
by
Many were
Ocean separated them from Europe. Urging
to take sides, President
among
disbelief.
United States. Step
involvement. Finally, in the
spring of 1917, the United States entered the fighting on the side of
the Allies
one of some 30 nations on
the war. Before
people and
left
it
five continents formally to join
ended, the war claimed the lives of over 8.5 million
some 2 1 million wounded
World War
or
maimed.
profoundly affected the American
home
front. It
spurred government regulation of the economy, triggered a great
northward migration of African Americans, and unleashed ugly forces

of suspicion
even
attacks
against dissenters.
President Wilson hoped that a
world order would
arise
new
from the
ashes of the war. Yet, ironically,
when
the shooting stopped, the
victors
imposed
a harsh peace
on Germany, and the United

States refused to join the
League of Nations, the

Houplines, France, 1918
organization that embodied
Wilson's hopes.
Red Cross
unit
WORLD WAR
585
Section
WORLD WAR BREAKS OUT

I
FOCUS
What
tensions helped bring about the
What was
Why did
in
life in
the trenches
most Americans
war
in
Europe?
like?
find
difficult
it
to remain "impartial
thought" concerning the war?
How
did the warring nations' naval strategies challenge
American
neutrality?
fjy the early

militarism
1900s nationalism,
had turned Europe
petty jealousies.
territorial rivalries,
a powder keg of hatred and
into
An assassination
and
in
a small Balkan state provided
the spark that ignited this explosive mix. Within weeks,
the
whole continent. Everyone expected the conflict
but
it
to
war gripped
end
quickly,
sank into a deadly stalemate. The United States declared neu-
trality,
but the personal feelings of many Americans and the actions
of the warring nations tested the country's stand.
Soldier and horse
Europe. There the
The origins of the war
in
gas
masks
Pan-German movement,
by Germany, sought
to unite all
led
German-speaking
peoples under one flag. In direct opposition,

While
the
Wilson administration grappled with the
Russia supported the Pan-Slavic movement.
problems created by the Mexican Revolution,
which sought
another dangerous international situation devel-
ples of central and eastern Europe.
oped
in
peaceful
Europe.
On
after all,
the surface
Europe appeared
no major conflicts had erupted
since the 1870s. Furthermore,
many European
ments seemed destined
many Slavs lived

German world.
used to
settle disputes
among
territorial rivalry.
come
into conflict, since
Austria-Hungary, a part of the
in
Europe was
European nations, large and
most
small, coveted land held by their neighbors. In
1908, for example, Austria-Hungary annexed
vice to arbitration and international cooperation.
Bosnia and Herzegovina. The annexation angered
Fear, distrust, and petty jealousies often ruled their
Serbia,
relations with other nations.
province. Other countries, too, eyed neighboring
which also had designs on the small Balkan
territories.
Nationalism and territorial
586
to
These move-
lip ser-
nations. But
European governments paid no more than
in
Another source of tension
nations had endorsed the recommendations of two

international peace conferences that arbitration be
to bring together all the Slavic peo-
rivalries.
Baltic
Russia wanted ice-free harbors
Sea and access for Russian warships from
Sea into the Mediterranean. Germany,
At the root of the problem was the intense nation-
the Black
alism that engulfed Europe. Nationalism proved
the major Baltic power,
especially strong in northern, central, and eastern
tions.
CHAPTER
20
in the
opposed Russia's ambi-
France wanted to recover Alsace-Lorraine, a
French area the Germans had conquered
and
I
in
1871.
nearby territories belonging to
Italy desired
would
likely involve nationalist rivalries.
German
general Helmuth von Moltke (MAWLT-kuh)
remarked
Austria-Hungary.
Militarism and alliances. This dizzying
tan-
gle of territorial claims helped generate a spirit of
in 1912:
European war
sooner or
militarism, or glorification of armed strength,
struggle
across the continent. Each nation built up
Slav. It
its
army
and navy against the military threat posed by
its
neighbors. Militar)' buildup quickly turned into an
arms race as each nation
tried to
develop weapons
As
later,
bound to come
is
and then
it
will ...
be a
between Teuton [German] and
is
the duty of
the banner of
prepare for
all
German
states
uphold
spiritual culture to
this conflict.
must come from the
who
But the attack
Slavs.
^*
more powerful than those of its neighbors.

European nations also sought
their military
to strengthen
positions through alliances.
Germany. Austria-Hungary, and
formed the
Italy
year.
The attack came in 1914. In June of that

Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir to the
Austro-Hungarian throne, paid a goodwill
visit to
Triple Alliance. Great Britain. France, and Russia
Sarajevo (SAHR-uh-ye-voh). the capital of Bosnia
joined in the Triple Entente. In the treaties that
and Herzegovina. As Franz Ferdinand's open
cemented these
promised
to aid
alliances, the
members usually
any other member who came
motor car proceeded along the
stepped out of the crowd and fired two shots,
under attack from an outside power.
killing the
The spark
that led to war. These
alliances
helped maintain a balance of power, but they also
meant
war.
even a minor incident could provoke a
that
Many
occurred,
observers feared that
it
would be
unstable that
some
such an incident
"the
it
Franz Ferdinand,
Suspecting
correctly that the
Serbian
government knew of Princip"s plans. AustriaHungary declared war on Serbia. The declaration
drew each side's allies into the conflict. Russia
a region so
sided with Serbia: Germany, with Austria-
week France and Great Britain

war
had declared
on Austria-Hungary and
Germany. Despite membership in the Triple
Alliance. Italy remained neutral until 1915. when it
Europe." Observers also agreed that the incident
T Archduke
archduke and his wife, Sofie.
powder keg of
Balkans
in the
called
if
city's streets.
Serbian nationalist Gavrilo Princip (PREENT-seep)
his wife,
and their
children pose for a royal family picture.
Hungar}-. Within a
joined France. Great Britain. Russia, and the other
Allied
Powers
against the Central
Germany. Austria-Hungary,
the
Powers of
Ottoman Empire
(Turkey), and Bulgaria. Eventually some 30

nations
would take
sides in the Great
Nationalism, territorial
War
rivalries,
militarism, and military alliances
created tensions that led to war.
Gavrilo Princip was 9 years old when

he assassinated Franz Ferdinand. He was
arrested and sentenced to 20 years the
I
maximum
prison penalty for
under 20 years
someone
old.
i:
587
could
The early weeks of the war
move
its
With France and Britain knocked out of the war.
Germany could
In 1905. accepting the inevitability of a
war.
German
On August
3.
1914. the
their plan, surging into
Germans launched
Belgium. German military
German
leaders expected to reach the French border

quickly and then sweep across northern France
German
toward
The plan
called for
border, march through ihen-neutral
Paris.
Like their kaiser
(ruler).
Wilhelm
II.
Belgium, and invade France across the practically
they believed that the war would end "before the
unsuarded Belgian border before Great Britain
leaves have fallen from the trees." But thanks to
Wotld War
::
focus on defeating Russia.
forces to skirt the heavily defended Franco-
for swift victory.
588
European
military leaders had developed a plan
forces across the English Channel.
CHAPTER
20
I,
191^-1917
the small Belgian army's
resistance,
fierce
the
Ak
Germans spent nearly

three
weeks
across Belgium.
Wm Central
^^ Powers
Allied
I
Powers
^0
-^
^^
'
As
General Joseph
Joffre (zhawfruh), the
a result.
AND CENTRAL RESOURCES, 1914-1918
fighting their
-o
way
lED
5-1
French commander, had

time to rush troops to the
Belgian border, and the

British
port
had time
2
3
to trans-
some 90,000 troops

Tanks
Produced
to northern France.
These
managed
to
measures
slow the
German advance
not stop
it.
Aircrc
Major Naval
Streng
1918
Vessels,
Sources: Enc/dopedia of Military History; A Concise History
COMP, ATIVE STRENGTh
The Germans'
War
ofWWI
pushed the French and

the British back to the
BUimiNG GRAPH
Germany had
At the beginning of the war,
and was the second greatest naval power. However, the

able to use their economic resources to surpass
River
During the
1914
but did
superior military might
Mame
Troops Mobilized
SKILLS
Allied
Germany
What was
in
the majority of aircraft
more troops and were
countries mobilized
war production.
overall
1918?
the total aircraft strength in
in northeast
France. Against heavy

odds, the French and the British stopped the
Germans
early in September 1914 at the First
Battle of the
w.AR REACHES A STALEMATE
Marne. From roughly Ypres
(eepruh) to Verdun, the
German
line fell
back some
By
dug
early 1915 both armies
in
along a front
40 miles (see map on page 588). The French and
running some 400 miles from the North Sea to the
the British launched a counteroffensive but were
Swiss border. Holed up in trenches and separated
unable to dislodge the Germans. The Germans had
by a thin
no better luck advancing against the Allies. As
both sides struggled to advance.
1914 drew
that there
of territory called no-man's land.
strip
to a close, leaders of both sides realized
would be no quick
Trench warfare. Even
victory.
dier
the
most hardened
had never encountered anything
sol-
like
trench warfare. Britain's field marshal Lord

Kitchener lamented.
done
this isn't
"I
don't
know what
with deafening artillery
fire.
Then
as the
dust from the cannonade cleared, one
charge the
ceeded
is
to
be
war." In this war most battles began
enemy
in getting
trenches.
Most
smoke and
army would
soldiers
who
suc-
through the barbed wire and land
mines strewn across no-man's land were cut down
by a
hail of bullets
Battle of the
from the enemy trenches. In the
Somme
British suffered
in
1916. for example, the
some 60,000
casualties in a single
day! All told, this four-month-long battle claimed
more than a million dead and wounded.

Maneuvering
As
This 1914 photograph shows
German
traveling to the western front in a train
with the inscription "A trip to Paris

again on the boulevard."
soldiers
marked
See you
in the trenches
was nightmarish.
British soldier Charles Carrington wrote:
4 When moving
about
in
the trenches
you turn a corner every few yards, which
makes
It
seem
like
walking
in
a maze.
It is
WORLD WAR
i:
589
impossible to keep your
sense of direction and
proceed
nitely tiring to
When
infi-
at
all.
the trenches have
been fought over the confusion
becomes
all
the greater.
Instead of neat, parallel
trench
lines,
you make the
best use of existing trenches
which might run

direction.
in
any
*^
Even during
lulls in the fight-
proved
ing, life in the trenches

frightful.
Rats and lice plagued the
soldiers.
Rain flooded the trenches,
drenching the soldiers
in
mud.
Artillery fire frequently prevented
burial of the dead for days, and
British tank force
France,
in
is
shown here
fighting near
Amiens,
August 1918.
exploding shells often unearthed

corpses buried
earlier.
Such unsani-
tary conditions bred disease,
and sickness claimed
many men as bombs and

way out of the trenches, a
The
nearly as
bullets did.
only
British soldier
scared the
Germans "out of
made them
soldier reported, and
introduced during World
guns
fired
added
to the
The Germans" machine
hundreds of rounds per minute,
advancing Allied troops
"scuttle like
But perhaps the most feared new weapon
weapons. New weapons
horror of trench warfare.
one British
frightened rabbits."
observed, was on a stretcher.
New
their wits."
felling
like a scythe cutting
War
was poison
whistling shell announced a gas attack.
gas.
No
The green
mist silently drifted over the trenches, and the soldiers
Any
had only seconds
to slip
on
their gas
masks.
delay meant a slow, suffocating death. After
wheat. The Allies introduced the tank partly to
watching a comrade die of poison gas. soldier-poet
counter the machine gun's deadly impact. First
Wilfred
used
at the
Battle of the
Somme
Owen
wrote:
September
in
1916. the tank produced the intended effect.
It
But someone
still
was
yelling
out
and stumbling.
And
floundVing
or lime
man
like a
in fire
Dim, through the misty panes and

thick green light.
As under
a green sea,
drowning.
Heavy
saw him
99
casualties, unsanitary con-
ditions,
and
fearful
new weapons
made
trench warfare a horrible

experience.
Soldiers fought
much
of
World
War
from
trenches. There they struggled to protect themselves from artillery fire, exposure to all types of
weather, and disease and unsanitary conditions.
590
CHAPTER
20
Continued stalemate.
While new military
technology produced horrendous casualties on

both sides,
it
did
little
to break the stalemate
on the

western front. From 1915 to the spring of 1917.
Challenges to American neutrality.
both armies launched offensi\es that gained them a
Despite
feu miles of territon.. which more often than not
could not remain untouched by the war.
they quickly
war began,
lost.
its
polic) of neutrality, the United Stales
the British
When
the
navy blockaded the German
months passed, many people wondered whether the fighting would e\er stop. They
coast and planted explosive mines across the North
began to suggest
bound
As
the
that only the intervention
of the
United States could brins the war to an end.
Sea.
The
cargos
British even stopped
American ships
for ports in neutral countries
including
the mail
for
and examined
goods
ultimately be destined for Germany.
that
might
The United
States protested, charging that British actions vio-
A MERICAN NEUTRALITY
lated
American
neutrality.
American
toward Great Britain
hostilit\
German submarine,
Germans
At the outbreak of the war. most Americans had
faded, however, in the face of
expressed surprise and horror. After the initial
or U-boat, warfare. Early in 1915 the
shock, however. Americans tended to look on the
established a
war
ships entering this zone, even those from neutral
as a faraway conflict that did not involve the
United States. As one American diplomat wrote:
"Again and ever
thank Heaven for the Atlantic
Ocean."
nations,
received strong support
then. President
Wilson
u hen he announced
a pol-
be "neutral in fact as well as in name
impartial
thought as well as action." Wilson thought that
by taking a neutral
might
stance, the United States
help to negotiate a settlement to the conflict.

this
He
goal throughout 1915 and 1916. but
As
the
war dragged
remained neutral
few could claim to
in action, but
Some 28
be impartial in thought.
Americans
most Americans
on.
almost 30 percent of
million
the population
United States would,
American
lives or property
On March
more than 100 peo-
liner in the Irish Sea. killing
an American. While the United
States debated
its
response, a far more serious
incident occurred.
On May
Most Americans, however, backed

Ties of ancestn.. language, and culture
the AUies.
bound many
to Britain. Strong, long-estabhshed
to France also existed. After
helped Americans win their

British also bolstered
Allies through a skillful
which painted Germans
The
all.
War
the French
Unks
had
of Independence.
American support
liner
Lusitania. The dead included
128 Americans. The
New
York
Herald accused the Germans of

"piracy on the high seas." and
New
York Times called the
ers justified their actions,
for the
placed advertisements in
U.S. newspapers warning
Americans against
into the
sailing
war zone. They
also charged that the

Lusitania was carrvine
propaganda campaign.
as brutal
warmongers.
government remained
but most Americans
U.S.
neutral,
1915. a U-boat
declaring that they had
Britain's rule.
The
7.
patrolling off the Irish coast torpe-
Germans "savages drenched

with blood." Outraged Americans agreed. German lead-
Americans
seas.
ple, including
Many men and women
with the Central Powers. So did many Irish

Americans anxious to free Ireland from Great
of neutrality.
on the high
the
of German. Austrian.
in
28. 1915. a U-boat sank a British
were immigrants or the children of immigrants.

Hungarian, or Turkish background sympathized
Any
U-boat attack. In response.
that the
doed the British passenger
without success.
Britain.
hold Germany accountable for any injury to
icy of neutrality. All Americans, he urged, ought to
pursued
liable to
Wilson warned
accordance with international law
Not surprisingly,
in
were
"war zone" around Great
because of ancestral ties or

national sympathies favored
one side or the other.
The
Lusitania's 1915
voyage announcement
carried a warning from
the
German Embassy
against Atlantic sea

travel.
WORLD WAR
59
THE SINKING OF
THE LUSITANIA
Germany's Baron von
Schwarzenstein offered
the following response
to the outrage over the
sinking of the Lusitania:
li/t was only after England declared
The
its
Lusitania
fateful
was
photographed shortly before
voyage from
New York
in
the whole North Sea a war zone
1915.
Germany
same
with precisely the
that
right declared
the waters around England a war zone and
armaments for England

tion that later
proved
an
accusa-
announced her purpose of sinking

commercial vessels found therein.
true.
Nevertheless. Wilson fired off an
case of the Lusitania the
angry protest to the German govern-
Jennings Bryan, charging that the
take pains to save
amounted to an
ultimatum, resigned. Bryan argued
regrets
president's protest
more
act of war.
he warned, would eventually
German Ambassador
human
sincerely
Nobody
than we Germans the
lives?
places.
and
and German
The scene of war
We
is
no golf links,
have sympathy with the victims
their relatives, of course, but did
anything about sympathy
naval activities violated
we hear
when England
adopted her diabolical plan of starving a great
the rights of neutral

nations and led to
nation?
99
protests.
SECTION
REVIEW
militarism, Triple Alliance, Triple Entente,
Pan-German movement,
Archduke Franz Ferdinand, Gavrilo
Pan-Slavic
Princip, Allied
Central Powers, First Battle of the Marne, no-man's land, trench warfare. Battle of the
LOCATE
the ships of belligerent powers no pleasure
be drawn into the war.
IDENTIFY and
the
dreds of men. Yet the sinking was a justifiable
ultimatums and remain neutral. The
American
In
hard necessity of sending to their deaths hun-
United States could not issue
British
sage thereon. Does a pirate act thus? Does he
Secretary of State William
countr>'.
great American newspapers against taking pas-
against unrestricted submarine war-
that the
even further warned Americans through the
ment, demanding specific pledges
fare.
all hostile
movement,
Powers.
Somme.
and explain the importance of the following: Austria-Hungary. Bosnia and Herzegovina,
Alsace-Lorraine, Balkans, Belgium.

1.
2.
3.
4.
MAIN IDEA What factors contributed to the outbreak of World War

MAIN IDEA What effect did Britain and Germany's naval strategies have
I?
ANALYZING How
the western front?
592
::
neutrality?
RECOGNIZING POINTS OF VIEW Did the U.S. government's policy of neutrality reflect the
views of most Americans? Why or why not?
WRITING TO DESCRIBE Imagine you are a British soldier at the front during 1916. Write
a diary entry that describes the conditions
5.
on American
CHAPTER
20
you experience during trench warfare.
might trench warfare and
new weapons
have contributed to the stalemate on
Section 2
THE UNITED STATES GOES TO WAR
FOCUS
Why
did the United States finally enter the war?
Why did
What
the United States institute a draft?
part did the American military play
in
the Allied war effort?
^4 ermany's continued violations of American neutrality drew the

United States into World War I on the Allied side
Americans entry came none too soon for the

'
1917. The
in
Allies,
who faced a
desperate military situation. As U.S. forces poured into Europe

the tide turned.
1918
The Germans slowly fell back, and
the warring parties signed
in
November
an armistice. The four-year
nightmare had finally ended.
World War
infernal
Che road to war
was
so,
most
still
to
home
for
White House," Roosevelt
many Americans. Even
hoped the United States could stay
however, were not long
in
American
coming. In
httle better than a
"coward and weakling."
Others accused Wilson of abandoning neu-
the conflict in
out of the war. Further challenges to

neutrality,
in the
trality.
Former secretary of
Bryan argued
that
state
William Jennings
Wilson's commercial and trade
policies helped the Allies.
As
secretary of state,
Bryan had discouraged American bankers from
August 1915 two Americans died when a German

submarine sank the Arabic, another British
March 1916
Sussex was attacked,
Then
in
In a sternly
liner.
the French passenger vessel
injuring several Americans.
Woman's Peace
worded message
to the
German gov-
ernment, President Wilson threatened to sever

diplomatic
stricted
ties if
Germany
did not abandon unre-
submarine warfare. The
ment responded with
the
poster
complained, had adopted a course of inaction and
The sinking of the Lusitania brought

Europe closer
skunk
German
govern-
Mrs. Henry Ford and the National
Party organized
a telegram campaign in 1915. President Wilson received hundreds of
telegrams on Thanksgiving Day from

people all over the United States who
supported peace.
Sussex pledge, a renewal
of an earlier promise not to sink liners without
warning or without assuring the passengers'
Wilson's actions criticized.

Americans supported Wilson's
However, a number of prominent
safety.
Most
approach.
politicians,
including former president Theodore Roosevelt,
accused Wilson of not doing enough. Wilson, "that
w ORLD WAR
593
The publication on March 1. 1917. of an

intercepted cable from German foreign secretary
Zimmermann to the German minister in

Mexico further heightened tensions. The
Arthur
Zimmermann
Note, as the cable was quickly
dubbed, instructed the minister

States declared
that if the
United
war on Germany, he was
to pro-
pose to Mexico that
enter an alliance with
it
Germany. With German support,

on,
These Girl Scouts helped the war effort by colpeach pits. The pits could be ground into a
charcoal powder and placed in gas masks to help
filter out the poisonous fumes during gas attacks.
Mexico could "reconquer
New
the cable went
the lost territory in
Mexico, Texas, and Arizona."
lecting
As
weeks passed, Wilson
the
cluded that the United States could not stay out of
On
the conflict.
making
loans to either side, but this policy
soon abandoned. Bryan's successor
at
was
the State
Department, Robert Lansing, encouraged trade
war
materials, especially with the Allies.
arms sales
to the Allies stood at
2,
1917, the president
addressed Congress, asking them to vote on a declaration of war.
in
mil-
in 1914.
CONGRESS DECLARES WAR

A
Preparedness and peace.
April
1916,
some $500
about 80 times the amount sold
lion,
By
reluctantly con-
Bryan's fears
when Wilson launched a military "preparedness" program. The National Defense Act,
passed in June 1916, increased the number of soldiers in the regular army from some 90,000 to about
increased
hushed Congress heard Wilson condemn
Germany's submarine warfare
for
its
"wanton and
wholesale destruction." Wilson, however, did not
on the
rest his case solely
He summoned Americans
evils of
U-boat warfare.
to a crusade for a better
world:
175,000, with an ultimate goal of about 223,000
men.
also set the size of the National
It
some 450,000
Another
passed two months
bill,
$313 million
Guard
at
troops and provided for their training.
to build
later,
appropriated
are glad ... to fight thus for the
eration of
its
lib-
peoples, ... for the rights of
nations great and small and the privilege
up the navy.
President Wilson assured Americans that he
had not abandoned neutrality. Running on the

slogan "He Kept
We
ultimate peace of the world and for the
Us Out of War," Wilson won
of
men everywhere
of
life.
to choose their
way
The world must be made
safe
**
for democracy.
reelection in 1916, narrowly defeating the Republicans" Charles Evans Hughes.
Wilson
hoped
still
to the war. In a January
"peace without victory."
had
to
At these words, cheers and applause rang through
to negotiate a settlement
1917 speech, he called for
lasting peace, he said,
the Capitol.
"My message
young men.
How
and vanquished. Once again, however, Britain and
U-boat
Germany
tion of the
rejected Wilson's effort to mediate.
Diplomatic relations broken.

February
1,
U-boat
On
strange
it
seems
to
applaud
that."
fleet
could defeat the Allies before the

as he
had
He
also
threatened, broke off diplomatic relations.
ordered the arming of American merchant ships

sailing into the
war zone. Nonetheless, German
torpedoes sank five American ships.
CHAPTER
and the intercep-
activity
Zimmermann Note
United States to declare
war on Germany.
Germany resumed full-scale UThe Germans were gambling that
Americans joined the war. Wilson,
:i
an aide:
1917,
boat warfare.
their
later told
be one between equals, not between victor
led the
594
somber Wilson
today was a message of death for our
20
mmillM
The Senate declared war on April 4;

two days later. The vote was
the House,
j^Qj
unanimous
6 senators and 50
repre-
sentatives opposed the declaration. Congress-
woman
Jeannette Rankin of
the opposition. "I
she explained, "but
want
I
Montana was among
to stand
by
my
country,"
cannot vote for war."
Born
Montana,
was
the
women's
taught civics and English. Congress did, however,
pacifist,
and leader of
social worker,
suffrage
offer citizenship to the
Americans who
move-
woman
elected
Congress, and
recruits experienced particularly harsh discrimina-
to
1918 she
in
played a key role
some 10,000 Native
.served during the war.
The more than 370,000 African American
ment. In 1916 she became the

first
example, were
soldiers, for
assigned to segregated units where they were
1880, Rankin
committed
Most foreign-born
Missoula,
in
in
tion.
They were blocked from service
marines and limited to kitchen duties
in the pas-
in the
in the
navy.
in the
army were con-
Amendment. However, with
fined to all-black support units
commanded by
Allied victory only days
white officers.
away, Rankin
to
sage
Nineteenth
of the
lost
Most African Americans
her bid
for a Senate seat in the
November 1918
army
And
training
African American draftees sent
camps
in the
South often faced
harassment from local whites.

Pressure from the
elections.
Elected to the House
NAACP
and other African
American organizations convinced the army to
again in 1940. Rankin
open up more opportunities for black
continued to speak out
school was established to train African American
Jeannette Rankin
against the draft and
officers,
military spending, casting the only vote against the
duty.
War
United States" entry into World

cost her reelection in 1942.
II.
That vote
protest the
and more blacks were assigned combat
The army, however, made no
grate blacks
and whites
in the
same
effort to inte-
units.
She did not give up her
pacifism, however. In January 1968, at age 87,
Rankin led
soldiers.
march on Washington, D.C.,
to
Vietnam War.
The United States instituted the

draft to bring the
up to
full
armed
services
force.
yWoBILIZING AMERICAN
MILITARY
In his
POWER
war message on April
pledged
all
President Wilson
2,
the nation's "material resources" to the
Allied war effort. But what the Allies most
Few Amer-
urgently needed were fresh troops.

icans,
however, rushed
to volunteer for military
service.
On May
18, 1917,
Congress responded by
passing the Selective Service Act, which required
men between
ages 21 and 30 to register with local
draft boards.
(The age range was
later
changed
to
18-45.) By the end of the war, some 24 million

men had registered, and some 2.8 million had
been drafted. In
4.8 million
fact,
more than
half of the almost
Americans who served
in the
armed
forces were draftees.
Many who
that the draft
supported conscription argued
would help build
America by bringing together
more democratic
soldiers
ent backgrounds. In reality. Native
from
differ-
Americans,
African Americans, Mexican Americans, and
many
foreign-born soldiers faced discrimination.
Approximately 1,400 African American officers

served during World War I. This officer was stationed in Saint-Dizier, France.
WORLD WAR
;:
595

de Lafayette, the French hero of the American
ÊR THERE
we
Revolution. "Lafayette,
one of Pershing's
are here!" proclaimed
aides.
Lieutenant Edward
Graham wrote home

and many
With mobilization well under way. American

troops sailed to France as part of the American
about the sense of purpose that he
Expeditionary Force (AEF). The
other soldiers
command
under the
reached France
U.S. troops,
first
of General John
June 1917.
in late
The
July 4, thou-
Paris to the
tomb of
HISTORY
is
me
now
.
You should be
on.
participate
in
the
BY DR. PAUL BOYER
the
in
proud to have
Marquis
the
desperate contest between justice
and empire ...
sands of "Yanks." cheered on by huge crowds,
marched through
felt:
Pershing,
J.
On
F.
the Doughboy's Pack

H
istory
is
much more than
study of dates, documents, or
about
facts
influential people.
Soldier equipped
with gas
steel
mask and
helmet
Ordinary objects also leave a

record about an event
historical
or an
mon
items provided to soldiers
during a
how
For example, com-
era.
war
a story about
tell
war was
that
War
American infantryman
the
or
doughboy, as he was nick-
named
ment
wearily trudged
all
his
Some
War
are
pages.
graphs
we
in
What
experiences of World
The
car-
field kit,
with
tive flap. Until
its
1918 most of the
war on the western

I
what
was
front
Begin with the
field kit.
belt
coils
of sharp barbed wire. Getting
even a small cut from the rusty

barbs could prove dangerous
infections
in
minor wound
fought from the trenches.
often led to the amputation of
Consequently, digging equip-
an
ment was a necessity. Each
Examine the cartridge
reach the enemy's trenches, he
had to clear a path through
notice the shovel
blade encased inside a protec-
they carried?
arm or
a leg.
Now
examine the photo-
squad shared a variety of tools:
graph of the American soldier
shovels, hand axes, pickaxes,
wearing the gas mask and steel
and wire cutters. Wire cutters
helmet. Chlorine gas and mus-
the individual pockets. Each
were
tard gas
compartment held
the needs of
attached at waist
level.
Notice
10 rounds of
ammunition. The around-the-
596
amounts of ammunition during the heat
strapped to the
can
War
as
needed easy
Next
combat
soldiers by studying
as five bullets
World
shown on these
carefully.
many
of battle.
Examine the photo-
learn about the
now fire
tridge belt served this purpose.
of the items provided to
American soldiers
Rifles
could
access to large
necessary equip-
his back.
because of automatic
soldier
inside a canvas "field kit"
strapped to
World War
during
per minute, and a
across European battlefields

carrying
pockets was adopted
weapons.
fought.
During World
waist design with
CHAPTER
20
particularly essential to
infantry.
World War
Before a soldier could
were
greatly feared
weapons introduced during

World War The gas mask
I.
human
struggle as a part of the

a
second Dark Ages.
**
Some
wall against
().()()()
American women worked
Emily Vuagniaux, an
the.se hospitals.
Corps nurse, described
As
weeks went
a battlefield hospital:
life in
American troops
arrived in France in ever-swelling numbers. To
supply and maintain them, army engineers built
hours
docks and railroads and strung up networks of
and they run four tables day and night and
the
by,
44 We
telephone and telegraph lines. They also constructed camps,
the
and hospitals.
out poisonous fumes
soldier.
The odd-looking
rub-
ber contraption was hot and

uncomfortable, but crucial to
survival.
The
soldier's
you can
steel helmet, as
line.
meat" by many
see,
The helmet was designed

was
soldier
particularly vul-
nerable to such injuries
he
first
trench
when
peered out from a
just before going
"over the top."
Next look
at a soldier's
"mess" equipment. The
oval
"meat can" served
both a
skillet
as
and a
Sturdy metal con-
plate.
tainers protected
days'
worth of
from
rain, rats,
insects.
carried
two
sometimes
have the operating
18
room
in.
know we
so you may
are quite
99
soldiers.
From
boy's supply lines
were within
short distance of each squad.
More-substantial meals were
prepared by a company cook,
who
followed the combat units.

In
shown
addition to the items

here, an infantryman car-
ried a tent, tent poles, a rain
poncho, a bayonet, a blanket, a

sewing
On
kit,
socks, identification
compass, and a
a long
march
Field kit
flashlight.
World War
soldier might have cursed his
heavy pack. But he also
knew his burden could

mean the difference
between
life
and death.
rations
and
A doughboy
two portions
of
4 Bacon tin
hard biscuits called

hardtack.
can assume that a dough-
tags, a
vital
have worked
simple nature of the rations,
we
to help prevent head wounds.
mess equipment and the
this
extended to the top of the ear
straight.
field,
close
that could suffocate or blind a
have between 200 and 300 patients right off
ammunition dumps, storage sheds,
filtered
in
Army Medical
The condi-
ment can had separate

compartments
fee, sugar,
and
for cofsalt.
the condiment can

tin. In
Above
is
a bacon
addition to such supplies,
a soldier carried
emergency
Meat can
rations such as stringy beef,

scornfully called
"monkey
A Condiment
can
WORLD WAR
597
A Ambulance drivers were responsible for transporting wounded soldiers from

the battlefield to hospitals behind the front lines. Many of the ambulance units
included women drivers and mechanics.
Thousands more American
as volunteers for the
Red
women went
Cross, the
Europe
to
YMCA.
or
other agencies.
Merchant vessels, escorted by American
1917. Political turmoil continued until November,
when the Bolsheviks, a branch of the Russian

Communist party, seized power. The Bolshevik
leader.
Vladimir
Ilich
Lenin, opposed the war. The
warships, transported troops, supplies, and volun-
Bolsheviks signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
North
with the Central Powers in March 1918. leaving
teers through the submarine-infested

Atlantic. This
convoy system proved quite
effec-
the Central
Powers
Of the more than two million American soldiers who crossed the Atlantic, not one died as
the result of an enemy attack on the high seas.
western front.
Other American warships patrolled the western
21.
tive.
some 70.000 mines
Atlantic and laid
Germany's
free to
mass
their forces
on the
On March
1918. some one million German troops
last bid for victory.
in a lethal
launched a do-or-die offensive against the Allies.
240-mile necklace across the North Sea from
The Germans were backed by some 6.000 heavy
Norway
guns, including "Big Berthas'" capable of firing
to the
This barrier
Orkney Islands off Great
made
life
Britain.
hazardous for German U-
250- to 300-pound shells 74 miles. By
Germans had pushed
boats trying to return to their bases.
late
May
the Allies back to the
the
Mame
River, only 50 miles from Paris.
General Pershing had originally insisted that
American troops
IhE END OF THE WAR

The Americans'
entr>' into the
soon for the Allies. In an
their
war came none too
effort to
break the dead-
lock on the western front, the Allies had launched
an offensive in the
summer
of 1917.
It
failed, shat-
tering the Allied troops" already shaky morale.
That
fall,
mutinies broke out
in
French units
all
along the front. In October the Central Powers

crashed through Italian lines
at
Caporetto. on the
command
Italy
American troops helped

Germans
at
ing conditions, had o\erthro\\n the czar in
CHAPTER
20
March
American marines counterattacked,
Wood and two other villages.

fighting, the German advance was
recapturing Belleau
and Paris was saved.
On
liv-
the French stop the
Chateau-Thierrx on June 3-4. Nearby,
a division of
from collapse.
Russian people, dissatisfied with working and
of Marshal Ferdinand Foch of
proved decisive. In a last-ditch defense of Paris.
After fierce
the arrival of Allied rein-
In light of the situation,
France. The introduction of American forces
halted,
Only
Worse news arrived from Russia. The
Si
under the
map on page
forcements saved
598
own commanders.
army under
however, he agreed to join a unified Allied army
border between Italy and Austria-Hungary (see

588).
fight as a separate
July 15 the
into a final assault
Germans threw
ever\'thing
around Reims. But the Allied
lines held,
and Foch ordered a counterattack three
days
The charge, spearheaded by American
later.
pushed the Germans back. The
troops,
had
tide
turned in favor of the .AlHes.
Meuse River and through

Forest, facing artiller)'
rugged Argonne
the
and machine-gun
fire all the
way. The Americans suffered some 120.000 casual-
With the
assistance of
American
on
ties
troops, the Allies turned the tide
this drive, but
reached and occupied the
against the Germans.
Lieutenant
By
casualties.
Allied victory.
summer Foch
In the late
seized the initiative, ordering a major offensive
the
war
by November they had

hills
around Sedan.
Edward Graham was one of
the
the time he died, he no longer saw
as a noble venture. In his last letter he
described
it
as incomprehensible:
along the entire western front. Over the next three
months, the Allies pushed deep into German-held
In this offensive the
Americans fought
pushed the Germans back
Mihiel. France, in September 1918.
Germans had held

the
led
rail
since 1914. For
GERMAN OFFENSIVE
I:
center that
more than a
cowering war
in little
pigmy man
holes and caves praying to
who pounds
the earth with blind hammers.
**
African American troops played a major role

in the
Argonne offensive. Members of
the 369th
Infantry, an African American regiment whose
men
hailed from
New
York, so distinguished
^he Western Jront, 1917-1918
When
the
Germans signed
March 1918, some 579,000 German soldiers were able
PLACE
at Saint-
Americans pushed northward along the
IVoWd War
is
escape the blows of the giant
The Americans
next drove toward Sedan, the French
month
as a
army under Pershing's command and
the attack that
the
This
huddles
territory.
separate
%%
Which two countries were
to
the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Russia in
move
to
largely occupied by the
the Western Front.
Germans throughout World War
I?
SWITZERI.AND
WORLD WAR
599
Mutinies broke out

the
both
in
German army and
German
navy.
civilians took to
demanding food,
the streets
not war. Realizing that the
war was
Wilhelm
lost.
11
fled to the Netherlands in
November. The
early
fol-
lowing day. Germany's new
government agreed
to an
armi.stice. or cease-fire.
On
November
8,
1918,
German
tives
were summoned
representato
Compiegne (kohmp-YAYN),
the Allied headquarters,
The armistice ending the war was signed

November II, 1918.
in this
railway passenger car on
to hear the armistice terms.
The
Allies
demanded
Germans
the
that
evacuate
themselves that the French awarded them the Croix
France, Belgium, Luxembourg, and Alsace-
de Guerre (kwahd
Lorraine.
ger), or "Cross of
War," a
Repeatedly hammered during the Allied

offensive, the Central
Morale
grate.
soldier,
in the
They
also insisted that
Powers began
German
to disinte-
military sagged.
One
anxious for peace, wrote home:
including
much
of their naval
Allies reserved the right to
In
fleet. In
what way have we sinned, that we
Germans agreed
ing of guns
place, cold, filthy
vermin. Will they never
make peace?
November
warring parties signed the armistice, and
Hunted from place to
99
at
The Great War.
at
[that]
long
11, the
1 1
The constant
was replaced, according
American, by a "silence
able."
SECTION
terri-
to these harsh terms.
the cease-fire went into effect.
we
like
addition, the
tory east and west of the Rhine. After brief negotiations the
should be treated worse than animals?
are destroyed
surren-
occupy German
Early on the morning of
44
Germany
der an enormous amount of war materials,
French military honor.
a.m.
crash-
to
one
was nearly unbear-
last,
had ended.
REVIEW
IDENTIFY and explain the significance of the following: Sussex pledge, Robert Lansing, National
Defense Act, Zimmermann Note, Jeannette Rankin, Selective Service Act, John J. Pershing, convoy
system, Bolsheviks, Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, Ferdinand Foch, armistice.
LOCATE
Meuse
and explain the importance of the following: Caporetto, Chateau-Thierry,
River,
St. Mihiel,
MAIN IDEA What actions
2.
MAIN IDEA Why did the United States pass the Selective Service Act?
ANALYZING What evidence suggests that conscription did not make America more
3.
Sedan,
Compiegne.
provoked the United States to declare war on Germany?
democratic?
4.
WRITING TO INFORM
dum
Imagine you are Secretary of State Robert Lansing. Write a
to President Wilson that summarizes the effect the American entry into the
memoran-
war had on
Allied efforts.
5.
HYPOTHESIZING How
U-boat warfare?
600
CHAPTER
20
might the war
in
Europe have been
different
if
Germany had abandoned
Section 3
THE WAR AT HOME

c u s
What steps did
economy
the federal government take to mobilize the
for war?
How did
How did
the government
wartime
policies?
0.
fice the
the labor force change during the war?

stifle
dissent and rally support for
its
United States entered the war, President Wilson quickly
moved to mobilize
the nation. The
government
set
up programs
to
finance the war, to conserve scarce resources, and to redirect

industry
and labor toward wartime production. Wilson also
launched a huge propaganda campaign
war
effort.
to mobilize
support for the
But as the government whipped up enthusiasm for the
war, intolerance of antiwar opinion spread across the land.
program
jyiOBILIZING THE ECONOMY
Irving Berlin
for months, finally reaching
song sheet, 1918
agreement
in
October 1917. The new taxes on business incomes
and large personal incomes produced about $9
At the outset of the war, Wilson had noted
that
lion for the
less than expected.
Mobilizing the economy for war entailed
"there are no armies in this struggle; there are
To "arm" the nation.

economy had to be put on a
much
war
bil-
entire nations armed."
more than
Wilson realized, the
coordinating the actions of government, business.
raising
money, however.
It
also involved
wartime footing.
The first step in this process was raising

money to pay for the war, which eventually cost
Americans more than $33
raised
money through
billion.
during the war and one Victory

the armistice. Posters, parades,
moted each bond
issue.
The government
Bond issues
Bond issue after
four Liberty
and
rallies pro-
"Every person who refuses
to subscribe ... is a friend of
Germany," declared
William McAdoo, secretary of treasury and

Wilson's son-in-law, and
American
citizen."
"is
not entided to be an
With pressure
like this
behind
them, these promotions were a huge success,

ing
some $23 billion for the war.

The government also planned
to raise
rais-
money
by increasing taxes. This proved more
difficult
Movie stars Douglas Fairbanks, Mary Pickford,

and Charlie Chaplin lent their support to a Liberty
than selling bonds. Congress debated a
new
Bond
tax
drive in Philadelphia.
WORLD WAR
60
and industry. This was done through

federal
war boards. While
a nuiltitudc
exercised sweeping economic

It
Organizing industry
the federal governnienl
never took complete control of the economy,
various agencies.
of
power through
set the prices
it
these
and production
levels of hundreds of commodities and regulated
Hundreds of other boards and agencies regulated

Railroad Administration, run by William
McAdoo,
businesses crucial to the war effort.
reorganized the railroads, setting limits
on transportation
all
these boards
was coordinated
War
by the government's central war agency, the

Industries
Among
and workers' wages.
rates
The work of
CONSERVING FOOD AND FUEL
and distribution. For exam-
industrial production
ple, the
Board (WIB).
Wall Street
Its director.
war
banker Bernard Baruch, had overall responsibility
the Fuel
for allocating scarce materials, establishing pro-
Administration, which were charged with regulat-
duction priorities, and setting prices. Baruch pre-
ing the production and supply of these essential
ferred to persuade business leaders to
the most successful of the federal
Food Administration and
boards were the
To
resources.
direct the
Food Administration,
Wilson chose Herbert Hoover, a prosperous mining
who had managed
engineer
for war-stricken
campaign
a food-relief
Belgium. Hoover saw his task as
twofold: to encourage increased agricultural production
and
to
To
his wishes.
However, when
cut prices, the
government threatened
their foundries
and
Hoover
guaranteed farmers high prices. Farm production

soared. For example, farmers
to take
to
over
mills.
many business leaders were critical

of Wilson's economic mobilization programs.
At
first
Government
conserve existing food supplies.
stimulate wartime production.
comply with
owners refused
steel
intervention, they argued,
would
per-
manently damage the American free-enterprise

system.
As
profits soared,
however, they ceased to
complain.
upped wheat production, harvesting
The government mobilized for

war by setting up programs to
some 921 million
bushels in 1919
a dramatic
money, conserve scarce

resources, and coordinate government, business, and industry.
raise
increase over the 1917

figure of
some 637
million bushels.
Announcing
that "food will
win the war,"
Hoover called
on Americans
to
reduce their
food consump-
tion
Herbert Hoover, director of the
Food Administration
by observing
wheatless and meatless days.
To sup-
plement their
diets,
OBILIZING LABOR
Organized labor moved quickly
to gain its share of
wartime prosperity. With hundreds of thousands of
men
drafted into the
immigration slowed
itself
the
army and with European
to a trickle, industry
war
effort.
found
it
geared up for
Taking advantage of
this situation,
desperately short of labor as
unionized workers across the country went on
demanding higher wages and other
he suggested they plant "victory gardens" filled
strike,
with vegetables. The campaign proved very effec-
Nearly 4,500 strikes involving more than one mil-
tive
without, as Hoover proudly
noted, forced
The Fuel Administration
director,
Harry
Garfield, the son of the former president, took a
similar course of action, encouraging people to
observe heatless Mondays. Garfield was not

averse to using force, however.
When
the nation
ran short of coal in early 1918, he closed
all
tories east of the Mississippi for several days.
CHAPTER
lion
workers occurred
worked
rationing.
602
20
fac-
over
the
war
in
benefits.
1917 alone. The
years,
tactic
working conditions
substantially improved.
To ensure
that the voice of labor received a
hearing. President Wilson established the National
War Labor Board (NWLB)

Composed of
labor, the
in
April 1918.
representatives from business and
NWLB
arbitrated disputes
between
workers and employers. In the more than 1,200
Women
Carrie
tion.
leader, sat
also helped plan wartime mobiliza-
Chapman Catt, a women's suffrage

on the Women's Committee of the
Council of National Defense, a civilian agency
organized
to
support the war effort. Harriot
Stanton Blalch, the daughter of Elizabeth Cady
Stanton, headed the Food Administration's

Speakers' Bureau.
Women's war
efforts helped
very important political change

the Nineteenth
produce one
the passage of
Amendment. President Wilson,
who had wavered on woman

support behind the
suffrage, threw his
amendment
recognition of
in
women's wartime contributions. "The greatest

came out of the war," Carrie Chapman
Catt later noted, "was the emancipation of women,
for which no man fought."
thing that
Many American women helped the war
effort by
working in munitions factories and other industries.

Here, a woman loads cartridges for rifles.
The great trek north

The labor shortage
that
drew women
into the
work
force also spurred immigration from Mexico.
Fleeing the Mexican Revolution and lured by
cases that
heard, the board ruled in favor of labor
it
more often than

port,
not. In this climate
bership, for instance, rose
1916
force
some
By
in
the end of
15 percent of the nonagricultural
was unionized.
The labor shortage
that
of these
women
worked
as
New
Mexico, or Texas. But some headed northward for

better-paying jobs in such industrial centers as
helped strengthen
Job opportunities and the prospect of higher
work
wages also brought about one of the most impor-
in the
The number of women working outside
home grew by about 6
jobs in Arizona, California, Colorado,
Chicago and Cleveland.
unions also brought about changes

force.
AFL mem-
from some 2 million
roughly 3.2 million by 1919.
to
the decade,
work
of official sup-
union membership grew rapidly.
southwestern employers who depended on

Mexican labor, some 150,000 men and women
migrated from Mexico to the United States during
the war. Most took agricultural, mining, or railroad
percent during the war.
the
Many
took traditionally male jobs. They
tant population shifts in
American history
the
Great Migration of African Americans from the

South
to northern cities
automobile mechanics, truck drivers,
Persuaded by recruitment agents sent by the
bricklayers, metalworkers, or railroad engineers. In
Pennsylvania Railroad and other large employers,
some
all,
1.5 million
American women worked
industry during the war. Like
interviewer with a
women
women's
Norma
in
B. Kastl, an
service bureau,
many
considered employment their patriotic duty:
hundreds of thousands of African Americans
moved northward during
the
war years (estimates
range from 200,000 to 550,000). African American
newspapers strongly encouraged the migration:

"Get out of the South," declared an
The
navy
is
taking
on
women
as
yeomen to do shore duty.

Every girl
that becomes a yeoman can have the satis.
knowing that she
faction of
from prison, some
sailor
is
who
releasing, as
had been
fuming
days
an office Instead of on the deck
In
because he had to spend
of a destroyer.
99
his
Chicago Defender. "Come north
editorial in the
.
The Defender
says come."
The wartime
labor shortage
brought large numbers of
women, Mexican immigrants,
and African Americans Into the
work
force.
WORLD WAR
i:
603
message the CPI
illustrate the
tried to
convey.
CPI pamphlets warned

on the lookout for German
citizens to be
Dozens
spies.
of "patriotic organizations," with names
American Protective League and
like the
American Defense
the
Society, sprang up.
These groups spied, tapped telephones,

and opened mail
''spies
and
in
an effort to ferret out
traitors."
These groups targeted almost anyone
who
called for peace, questioned the
Allies' progress, or criticized the govern-
ment's policies. They were particularly
hard on
National guardsmen were called in to preserve the peace

during the East St. Louis race riot in July 1917.
whom
German Americans, many
lost their jobs.
Sometimes
anti-German sentiment took absurd
German books vanished from

African Americans went to the North with
Ahhough
wartime
from concert programs. People even renamed
in the South, racial violence
hoods
problem. The most brutal
a serious
occurred
in
East
St.
Louis,
egged on
1917. White
rampaged through black neighbor-
on July
Illinois,
rioters
2,
an orgy of burning and shooting that
in
African Americans asked themselves why

should fight for freedom in Europe when
enjoyed so
left
39 dead. Shocked and angered, many
at least
little at
German-sounding items: sauerkraut became

erty cabbage,
liberty pups,
Vigilantes publicly humiliated people of
German
heritage by forcing
recite the
them
to kiss the flag,
Pledge of Allegiance, or buy war bonds.
Sometimes
March
the vigilantes turned violent. In
they
1918 John H. Wintherbotham. a midwestem repre-
they
sentative for the government's Council of National
home.
Defense, reported:
believed
over
this part of
are being lynched.
for religious, political, or per-
that the
All
men
and some
the country
are being tarred and feathered
OBILIZING ATTITUDES
Many Americans
dachshunds became
lib-
and hamburger became Salisbury steak.
sonal reasons
lan-
they enjoyed a better standard of
racial incident
by spectators
library
German
guage courses, and German music disappeared
Hving than they had
remained
this
turns.
the North proved
great hope. But for many, hfe in

harsh.
shelves, schools stopped teaching
of
These cases do not
get into the newspapers nor
Is
an effort
United States
should have stayed out of the conflict. President
who wanted
Wilson,
war
all
Americans
effort, established the
Information (CPI)
in the
by George Creel, a progressive
waged
a vigorous propaganda
war
Americans.
to
At
put out
first
much
to support the
Committee on Public
spring of 1917. Headed
journalist, the
campaign
CPI
to sell the
of the material that the CPI
was based on
fact but
censored to present
an upbeat picture of the war. Very quickly, however, the
CPI began churning out raw propa-
ganda, picturing the Germans as evil monsters.
Hollywood joined
604
in,
producing movies such as
4 Wartime
posters
inspired people to
purchase savings
The Claws of the Hun, The Prussian Cur, and The
stamps for their
Kaiser, the Beast of Berlin.
country.
CHAPTER
20
These
titles
vividly
ever
made
cerned.
to punish the individuals con-
In fact, as a rule,
it
has the
The Committee on
com-
Information rallied support for

the war, while the Espionage and
Sedition acts crushed antiwar
99
plete backing of public opinion.
Public
dissent.
SUPPRESSING DISSENT
Even
in this hysterical
More
than 1,000 people
200 members of the
atmosphere, some Americans
including
IWW were
some
convicted of
continued to oppose the war. Quaker and Mennonite
violating these laws. Victor Berger, a Socialist
men. committed by
congressman from Wisconsin, received a 20-year
faith to
nonviolence, refused to
take up arms. Considered traitors by
many
sentence for publishing antiwar articles
Pacifists like
Congresswoman Jeannette
party leader
Addams
house leader Jane
who heaped contempt on
Wilson,
sway with
acts violated the First
the pacifists for
To most
war used the laboring masses
in a capitalist struggle for control
The
Industrial
strikes in a
To
party
as
its
Schenck
unalter-
a year later.
4%
of world markets.
write, or publish
made
it
The question
in
guage" criticizing the government, the

military. Opposition to the draft, to
danger.
When
that might be said
a nation
in
is
at
war many
time of peace
things
will
as protected by any constitutional right.
acts
not
**
lan-
This decision was meant to apply to extraordinary
flag, or the
circumstances like war. Unfortunately, intolerance
war-bond
of unpopular ideas continued long after the war
had ended.
SECTION
REVIEW
explain the significance of the following: William
Administration, Herbert Hoover, Railroad Administration,
War
whether the words
be endured [and] no Court could regard them
arms industry also became a crime.
National
is
a crime to "utter, print,
any disloyal ... or abusive
IDENTIFY and
...
such circumstances and are of
such a nature as to create a clear and present
industries.
June 1917 and the Sedition Act
in
of treason but also
War
McAdoo, Food Administration,
Fuel
Industries Board, Bernard Baruch,
Labor Board, Carrie Chapman Catt, Harriot Stanton Blatch, Great Migration,
Committee on
I .
Amendment. The Supreme
United States (1919), Justice Oliver
v.
used are used
had a similar view of the war
number of war-related
These measures not only outlawed
drives, or to the
supported
and Sedition
Wendell Holmes wrote:
members,
silence dissenters, Congress passed the
Espionage Act
who
cannon fodder
Workers of the World (IWW). the
radical labor union,
and led
even some
Court, however, disagreed. In the landmark case
Socialist party, too. proclaimed
able opposition to the war.

the
to prison for 10
the war, believed that the Espionage
their "stupidity."
The
Debs went
V.
Many Americans,
never stopped calling for

little
Eugene
years for making a speech against the war.
Rankin. Senator Robert La Follette. and settlement-
peace. But such declarations held
in his
newspaper, the Milwaukee Leader. The Socialist
Americans, they faced violence and abuse.
Public Information, Espionage Act, Sedition Act, Victor Berger.
MAIN IDEA How did the U.S. government mobilize the economy for war?
MAIN IDEA What effect did wartime labor shortage have on the work force?
MAIN IDEA What steps did the government take to shape and control public
opinion during
the war?
WRITING TO EXPLAIN
editorial,
Imagine you are an American opposed to the war. Write a newspaper
oudining your reasons for opposing the Committee on Public Information.
EVALUATING Do you think the

during the war? Why or why not?
U.S.
government was
justified in taking
control of the
WORLD WAR
economy
605
Section ^
THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS

c u s
What two major
peace plan address?
issues did Wilson's
Why was Wilson forced to compromise on his Fourteen

Why did the Senate reject the Treaty of Versailles?
What impact
did the
Points?
war have on Europe and the Middle
resident Wilson developed a
East?
program for a just peace
even before the war ended. This program served as the
focus of the Paris Peace Conference
compromise on many of the
1919. Wilson
in
had
to
points, but the final treaty
included the heart of his peace program
the League of
Nations. The U.S. Senate, however, rejected the treaty.
Without American membership, the League of Nations
proved inadequate
to solve the world's
postwar problems.
Versailles, site of peace-treaty signing
This challenge had long been on Wilson's
IViILSON'S FOURTEEN POINTS
mind. Late
1917 he had invited a group of
in
scholars to advise
News
of the armistice on
November
11.
1918, set
off a joyful celebration in the United States.
Wilson shared the people's great happiness

Allied victory, but he
a just peace lay ahead.
knew
at
the
that the task of forging
from
their
him on peace terms. Drawing
work. Wilson had developed a program
world peace, which he had presented to

Congress on January 8. 1918. He called his profor
gram
the
Fourteen Points because
it
contained 14
points, or principles.
Nine of the points dealt with the

issue of self-determination
the right
of people to govern themselves
and
with the various territorial disputes
created by the war. Other points

focused on what Wilson considered the
causes of modern war: secret diplomacy, the arms race, violations of free-
dom
of the seas, and trade barriers. But
the final point

the
the establishment of
was
League of Nations
the heart
of Wilson's program.
Jubilant
Americans celebrate
in Washington, D.C.,
Armistice Day
in
606
::
CHAPTER
20
1918.

In his
peace plan Wilson aimed
to settle territorial disputes and
to end the causes of
modern
war.
Congress and the American public warmly
The
received the Fourteen Points.
reaction of the
AlHes, however, proved lukewarm. Moreover, the
German government,
labeling Wilson an
"American
busybody." rejected the program.
However, as the war turned against them, the
Germans sued
for a peace settlement based on
the Fourteen Points.
Wilson had
push and prod
to
the Allies, but they eventually agreed. After the
was
armistice a peace conference
1919
his
To make
in Paris.
set for
January
sure that the talks focused on
peace program, Wilson attended the conference.
Pictured here are David Lloyd George of England, Italian

Naron Sonnino, Georges Clemenceau of
foreign minister
France, and
Woodrow Wilson
of the United States.
The PARIS PEACE CONFERENCE

toward the Germans or of giving up Britain's naval
On December
4. 1918.
Wilson boarded the George
Washington for his precedent-setting trip to

he was the first president to cross the
Europe
As
Atlantic while in office.
New York
harbor, a huge
the ship steamed out of
crowd gave Wilson
rousing send-off. His reception
some nine days
of Brest
siastic.
And on
Britain,
and
later
at the
French port
proved no
less enthu-
a triumphal tour through France,
Italy,
Wilson convinced himself
that
he had a mandate to
shape the peace according to the Fourteen Points.
While Wilson and

to discuss peace, the
his fellow leaders gathered
world was
far
from peaceful.
Across central and eastern Europe, various ethnic
now
liberated
from Austro-Hungarian or
Russian rule, clashed over
Germany
territory.
Defeated.
teetered on the brink of civil war. In
Russia, Bolsheviks fought off the czarists' challenge.
of the seas."
The French premier, Georges Clemenceau,

wanted to ensure France's security by crushing
Germany. Distrustful of Wilson's idealism,
Clemenceau growled: "God gave us his Ten
Commandments, and we broke them. Wilson gave

us his Fourteen Points
As
people welcomed him as a con-
quering hero. Elated by the cheering throngs.
groups,
supremacy by accepting Wilson's idea of "freedom
The Allied powers
had become entangled
including America
in the
Russian conflict,
we
the conference
shall see."
opened on January
18,
1919. Wilson expressed great enthusiasm for the

task ahead. But the
Four
of the Big
demands of
the other
as Wilson,
members
Orlando, Lloyd
George, and Clemenceau became known
soon
wore Wilson down. The others insisted that

Germany bear the financial cost of the war by
making huge payments, called reparations,
Allies.
war
They
treaties
also
wanted several secret
to the
spoils-of-
honored. Such demands violated prac-
tically every
one of the points of President
Wilson's peace plan.
Wilson had two options: he could either com-
sending troops to support the czarists' effort to
promise or walk out. Indeed,
overthrow the Bolsheviks.
ordered the George Washington to stand by to
The other delegates

to let
Wilson
at the
minister, Vittorio Orlando,
make
conference refused
dictate the peace terms. Italy's
came
He had no
intention of
to the
United States. But he realized
would be an admission of
failure.
He
also feared that without a comprehensive peace
agreement, the Bolshevik Revolution might spread
in
1915. David
an election with such slogans as "Hang the
Kaiser."
him
that leaving
had been
it
Lloyd George, Britain's prime minister, had just
won
return
one point he
to Paris only to
sure his nation got the territories
promised on entering the war
prime
at
showing generosity
from Russia into the already
politically unstable
regions of central and eastern Europe.
More
than
anything else, however, he wanted to see the

creation of the
League of Nations. The League, he
WORLD WAR
607

believed,
would remedy any
injustices the treaty
Publicly, the
might contain. Wilson stayed on.
on June 28, 1919.
Versailles, just outside Paris,
American delegation expressed
satis-
faction with the document. In private, however. the\
Allied
demands that Germany

pay war damages and that secret
voiced a different opinion. Secretary of State Robert
honored forced
compromise.
Wilson to
regret,
Lansing confided
treaties be
and
44
that
he
The terms
He
The treaty of Versailles

treaty.
The
if
Resentment
not desperation, are bound
to be the consequences of such provisions.
After six months of debate, the delegates agreed to a
peace
continued:
of peace appear immeasur-
ably harsh and humiliating.
and bitterness,
"disappointment.
felt
depression."
official signing of the Treaty of
Versailles took place in the magnificent palace of
We have
bring
a treaty of peace, but
permanent peace because
on the
shifting
it
it is
sands of self-interest.
will
not
founded
**
According to the
Germany's colonies and the Ottoman
Empire (Turkey) were
treaty.
divided
among
the Allied
nations, as specified in the
spoils-of-war treaties. At
Wilson's insistence, howe\er. the treaty established
mandate system
that
required the new colo-
on
nial rulers to report
their administration to
the
League of Nations.
To
satisfy nationalist
longings in central and
eastern
Europe,
the
peace treaty also created

the
new
of
nations
and
Czechoslovakia
Yugoslavia. (Finland.
Estonia. Latvia. Lithuania, and Poland also
emerged from
the
war
as
independent nations
Poland after nearly 150
years of domination by
outside powers.)
The
HEJAZ
Europe and the Middle

END OF EMPIRE
^MSt
After World
Four empires had collapsed by the end of the
First
World War
War /
bitter
treaty
pill
proved
for
the
Germans. Not only did

Germany lose its colonies,
but France also reclaimed
the Russian.
Alsace-Lorraine and
won
German, Austro-Hungarian, and Ottoman.
15-year control of the
MM
LOCATION
How many countnes were
created from or received land that had belonged to
Saar. an industrial region
Russia before the war?
of
608
CHAPTER
20
Germanv
rich in coal
and iron. In addition.
reservationists
Germany was disamied.
could support the treaty
forced to admit
the
full guilt
said they
if
League Covenant were
and assessed
amended. They particu-
billions of dollars in
larly objected to Article
reparations.
10.
for the war,
Harsh
as
treatment was,
it
would
to
constitutional
some of
Nations
president
the
made
The
first
in
Geneva
1920.
for consent
to
win
Gaining their support, however, meant
tionists.
compromising on
Headquartered
in Geneva, the League conpermanent administrative staff; an

assembly, where each member nation had one
and a council, or executive body. The council
have five permanent members
France, Great Britain,
was
over close to 20 reserva-
sisted of a
Italy,
that
which Wilson
advisers urged com-
the League,
refused to do. The more his
promise, the more rigid Wilson became.
Henry Cabot Lodge of Massachusetts, head

of the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations and
Wilson's longtime enemy, led the reservationists.
Japan, and the United
and four other members
cally elected
in
sure
included a covenant creating the
to
Wilson's only hope
informal meeting of the League of
met
League of Nations.
was intended
to
tected, they insisted.
And. above
that the treaty
power
declare war must be pro-
treme Allied demands.

all,
came
that
under attack. The Senate's
opposed
more ex-
the
com-
to
defense of any
He
steadfastly
States
in
League member
erating influence.
vote;
war
much worse
Wilson's mod-
have been
but for
which seemed
mit the United States to go
this
were periodi-
Lodge,
too, refused to
bottled up the treaty in the Foreign Relations
Committee through
by the assembly.
The League Covenant required member
budge. Playing for time, he
and
frustrated,
the
summer of
Wilson took
Angry
1919.
his case to the people.
nations to try to resolve disputes peacefully. If
Although he was not feeling well, Wilson began a
negotiations failed, the nations were to observe a
grueling 9,500-mile speaking tour on September 4.
waiting period before going to war. If any
member
nation failed to follow this procedure, the council
In city after city he ardently defended the treaty.
To
Wilson's satisfaction, the crowds grew more enthu-
went on. Lodge, however,
could apply economic pressure and even recom-
siastic as the tour
mend
remained unmoved. "The only people who have
The
the use of force against the offending nation.
heart of the
required each
League Covenant
member
Article 10
votes on the treaty," he declared, "are here in the
nation to "respect and pre-
Senate."
On
serve" the independence and territorial integrity of

all
other
member
September 25,
the night of
impassioned speech
nations.
complained of a
in
after an
Pueblo, Colorado, Wilson
splitting
headache. His worried
doctor ordered him back to Washington, D.C.
few days
The treaty in the senate

Returning to America
Wilson worked
to
in July
1919, President
win the Senate's consent
Treaty of Versailles.
He
to the
believed that he could
count on the votes of most Democratic senators,

but he
would need
solid support
from Republicans
to gain the required two-thirds majority.

difficult task, for
doubts about the
He
Fourteen of them
would have nothing
treaty.
the irreconcilables
called
to
do
with the League of Nations and flatly rejected the

treaty.
The other 35 Republican senators the
Wilson collapsed from a
near-fatal
rest of his
term
in
seclusion in the White House, cut off from practically everyone except his wife and his closest
Moody,
aides.
touch with
suspicious, and increasingly out of
reality,
Wilson refused
all
suggestions
of compromise on the treaty.

In
faced a
most Republican senators had
later,
Wilson lived out the
stroke.
with a
November, Lodge presented the
list
treaty,
of 14 reservations, to the Senate. Wilson
ordered Democratic senators to vote no on the doc-
ument, thereby rejecting

list
it.
The
treaty without the
of reservations met the same fate
at the
of the irreconcilables and reservationists. In
hands
March
WORLD WAR
609
4 On
his
65th birthday
Woodrow
Wilson was photographed for the

time since his stroke.
first
1920 another vote on Lodge's \ersion

o\'
num-
the treaty failed, although a
ber of Democrats broke ranks and
sided with the reservaiionists.
weeks
few
Wilson vetoed a con-
later.
gressional resolution declaring the

United States
at
peace with the Central
Powers. There would be no peace

treaty,
he insisted, without the League
The global impact of the war

While U.S. leaders debated whether or not to
accept the Treaty of Versailles, the Europeans
struggled to recover from the war. The destruction
and human suffering were almost incomprehensiin battle,
and
another 21 million were wounded. Germany, with
some 6
million dead and wounded, and Russia,
with nearly 7 million casualties, suffered the greatest losses. (In contrast, the
forces counted
some
11
United States armed
2.000 dead.) To add further
misery, the influenza epidemic of 1918-1919
some 27
killed
of Nations.
over 8.5 million died
ble. In all,
million worldwide.
The war had
Wilson's refusal to
compromise on the
of
League Covenant
omist John
much of
the industry and agriculture
left
continental Europe in ruins. Northern
France was completely destroyed. As British econ-
led
Ma\ nard Keynes
obser\ ed:
to U.S. rejection of the
9w
Treaty of Versailles.
No
Wilson clutched
at
the 1920 election as his
one remaining hope. He urged the nation

the election a "great
the
to
make
and solemn referendum" on
League Covenant. Americans, however,
u anted
to put the
For mile after mile nothing was

building
was habitable and no
for the plow.
One
exactly like another
morass of
wire,
shell-holes,
left.
field fit
devastated area was

a
heap of rubble, a
and tangle of
y*
war and troublesome European
problems behind them, and
in
November
they gave
the Republican party a landslide victory.
By
the
Those businesses
enough
to
still
operating could not produce
meet demand, and rampant
inflation
resulted. In
Germany, food shortages were so
been established, but without the participation of
extreme
it
the United States.
track of prices.
time Wilson
left office,
the
League of Nations had
Verdun was just one of the many

bombing attacks during the war.
cities
that
proved almost impossible to keep
reduced to rubble by
T American soldiers who fell in

France are
honored in
610
CHAPTER
20
still
remembered and
this
cemetery.
Germany, reeling from the
MILITARY LOSSES
harsh terms of the treaty, seethed
IN
WORLD WAR
with unrest. Throughout the conti-
nations
nent,
with
vied
one
Allied
Central Powers
Powers
another over territories they

thought the treaty ought to have
ceded to them. In the Middle East.
Arab nations, which had sided
Wounded
with the Allies in hopes of win-
Dead
ning their independence from the
Ottoman Turks, found themselves

living under
French and British
mandates. Tensions in the region

heightened after Britain issued the
Balfour Declaration
1917.
in
declaring British support for a

Jewish homeland in Palestine.
The new world
which
order,
(1)
i-
many hoped would arise from

World War I, never
so
>^
0)
r)
E
s:
reasserted
noted.
its will,
and
spoils of war.
the
war
I/)
E
o
00
*->
*->
"The old order

distributed the
left
unresolved
problems which had led to

in
n
n
0)
lA
materialized. Instead, as historian
M. Winter
w
c
LU
the ashes of
J.
bO
<U
<->
CL
1914."
The
war, which
Source: The
destroyed a generation
of young
much
men and
of Europe
ruins, resolved
prewar
A GLOBAL
left
War
in
I;
WAR
It
is
New
estimated that more than 8.5 million soldiers died during World
an even higher number suffered from battle-inflicted wounds.
few
Encyclopaedia Btftannica
casualties?
Which
Which Central power had the highest
Allied
power had the highest number
issues.
SECTION
IDENTIFY and
REVIEW
explain the significance of the following: Fourteen Points, self-determination, Vittorio
Orlando, David Lloyd George, Georges Clennenceau, Big Four, reparations. Treaty of
mandate system,
LOCATE
irreconcilables, reservation Ists,
Versailles,
Henry Cabot Lodge, Balfour Declaration.
and explain the importance of the following: Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Finland, Estonia,
Latvia, Lithuania, Poland,

I.
of total
casualties?
Saar
MAIN IDEA What did Wilson's peace plan hope to accomplish?

MAIN IDEA What Allied demands forced Wilson to compromise on his Fourteen Points?
ASSESSING CONSEQUENCES What were some of the effects of the war on Europe and
the
Middle East?
Imagine you are a reservationist
Prepare a speech stating your reasons for not supporting
SYNTHESIZING What
Robert
in
the U.S. Senate.
ratification of the Treaty of Versailles.
aspects of the Treaty of Versailles lend support to Secretary of State
Lansing's observation that
it
was "founded on the
shifting
sands of self-interest"?
WORLD WAR
German government
issues Sussex pledge.
Archduke Franz
Italy
Ferdinand assassi-
CHAPTER
Allied side.
nated. First Battle

of the Marne fought.
20
i
1916
1914
involvement
your answer
summary
ident.
Lusitania.
WRITING A SUMMARY
write a
German
U-boat sinks
evi
Wilson reelected pres-
enters war on
2.
of the chapter
in
was
the conflict
Economic Development How was

American economy mobilized
Number your
and
list
paper
to
5.
Study the time

in
ond next to
2,
3.
the order
in
next to
first
line
I,
the sec-
Archduke Franz Ferdinand assassinated.
German U-boat
3.
National
War
2.
sinks Lusitania.
Zimmermann Note
5.
Wilson reelected president.
line,
and
in
published.
3.
a paragraph, explain
its
wartime
Amendment
rights?
Evaluating What
positive and the nega-
the United States?
in
effect did the
women,
wartime labor
African
Americans, and Mexican Americans?
Assessing Consequences Select two events on

the time
the draft
shortage have on unions,
Labor Board established.
4.
did the U.S. govern-
support for
Analyzing What were the

tive effects of
1.
the
for war?
THINKING CRITICALLY
activity
below.
2.
rally
policies interfere with First
which

ment's attempts to
above,
inevitable? Explain
how
Hypothesizing How might the outcome of the

war have been different if Wilson had been more
willing to compromise on his Fourteen Points?
they
affected the course of the war.
IDENTIFYING PEOPLE
AND
Editorial
IDEAS
sinking of the Lusitania.
ist
1.
militarism
2. Triple
6.
Entente
convoy system
7.
Bernard Baruch
Gavrilo Princlp
8.
Great Migration
4.
Sussex pledge
9.
self-determination
5.
Jeannette Rankin
0.
Henry Cabot Lodge

What
in
2.
tensions contributed to the outbreak of
contributions did the United States
the Allied
into the
3.
4.
war
Europe?
What
What
What
war
role did
through
make to
effort both before
and after entry
women
war
war?
did President
his
play in the
effort?
Wilson hope to accomplish
Fourteen Points?
Why was
he forced
to compromise?
0^ REVIEWING THEMES
I.
612
Global Relations What factors led the United

States to declare war in 1917? Do you think U.S.
CHAPTER
20
give to suggest that
United States
3.
Cartoons on page 332. Then study the
fol-
lowing cartoon, which appeared shortly after the
in this
What
clues does the cartoon-
Germany
incident?
humiliated the
Wilson introduces
Fourteen Points.
National War Labor
Board established.
Congress passes Sedition
Zimmermann Note
published. Congress
declares war. Bolsheviks

seize
power
in Russia.
Act. Armistice signed.
1917

Writing to Persuade Imagine you
are an African
American soldier during the war. Write your commanding
officer a letter that tries to convince the
to open up
more opportunities
army
for black soldiers.

In his classic
Western
rible
novel about
Front, Erich
World War
I,
All
Quiet on the
Maria Remarque portrayed the hor-
experiences of war through the eyes of
encounter between German and French

is
We have become wild beasts. We do not

fight, we defend ourselves against annihilation. It is not against men that we fling our
bombs, what do we know of men in this
moment when Death is hunting us down
now, for the first time in three days we can
see his face, now for the first time in three
days we can oppose him.
No longer do
we can destroy and kill, to
we lie helpless,
save ourselves,
and
to
be revenged.
99
Read the following excerpt, which describes an
soldiers.
point
German
1920
1919
1918
Remarque
trying to
soldiers.
What
make about trench warfare?
LINKING HISTORY
AND GEOGRAPHY
map on page 588. After the French and

the British stopped the German advance at the Marne
in 1914, the German army retreated to the Aisne
Refer to the
The moment ne
three faces rise
are about to retreat
up from the ground
in front
of us. Under one of the helmets [I see] a

dark pointed beard and two eyes that are
fastened on me. I raise
my
a circus round me,
rather than retreat into
slaughter whirls like

then the
head
rises
and my hand-grenade flies through

the air and into him.
We make for the rear, pull wire cradles
into the trench and leave bombs behind us
up,
with the strings pulled, which ensures us a

fiery retreat.
and dug themselves into trenches.
hand, but I can-
not throw into those strange eyes; for one
mad moment the whole
River, halted,
Why
do you think the Germans chose trench warfare
Germany?
71BUILDING YOUR
PORTFOLIO

cooperatively.
The machine-guns are already
firing from the next position.
GLOBAL RELATIONS
portrayed a State Department
In
Chapter
official
9 you
concerned
with global relations. Building on that experience,

imagine you are the U.S. ambassador to
in
1915.
German
2.
Write
violations of neutral shipping rights.
WAR
In
Chapter
ing officer during the
Building
19
you portrayed a recruit-
Spanish-American War.
on that experience, imagine you are
ator committed to U.S. neutrality
Write
Germany
a letter to the Kaiser, protesting
a speech that states
why
in
a sen-
World War
I.
the United States
should remain neutral.

Soldiers in trench
WORLD WAR
613
U N
mencan
^he Spanish American War
As a
of the Spanish-American War, the United States won territories
result
Caribbean ami the
Pacific. In the following selections,
Jose Marti, Puerto Rican poet Lola Rodriguez de
American
and American
poet,
writers
Tio,
Diarij tintrij
woods we
Day of combat.
Straight through
are drawing close, already
Guantanamo.
The
the claws
in
breast swells with fond rev-
the United States.
Awake from your
sleep
time to
fight!
it's
will
At that
of cannon
be dear to
patriotic
Lola Rodriguez
de Tio
Come! The sound
[April 25, 1895.]
of
an anonymous Mexican
for
byjose Marti
the
Cuban poet and essayist
Mark Twain and Edgar Lee Masters
war for the Caribbean and
explore the meaning of the
in the
us.
clamor
doesn't your heart burn?
erence and overpowering affection at the sight of the
We
vast landscape of the loved river
cross
near a
it,
ceiba tree, and after greeting a patriot family, over-
joyed to see
us,
we
enter the open wood, with sweet
sun, rain-washed leaves.
horses, so thick
As over
the grass. All
is
a carpet
is
and through the openings, to the

the cleared fields
is
tered and compact.
visible
.
garland and
right,
Here
as
everywhere
and the unity of soul which
will
we
impulse of
harm
its first
which has borne

it,
will
fruit,
am
will
not be rec-
be overridden, harming, at
The
spirit
sowed,
and that of the
and guiding ourselves by
it,
we
will
in
is
Island,
the
Song
Awake, Borinquenos,'
for they've given the signal!
614
UNIT
in its
beating
the place, the meeting place!
we have to follow
who want to fight!
beautiful Borinquen,
more seem
Cuba;
fearful!
Let us no more, timid, permit our enslavement!
We
want to be free already

and our machete is well sharpened!
should we, then, remain so asleep
and
deaf, asleep
and deaf to that
signal?
and with
soon triumph,
of lôrinquen
by Lola Rodriguez de Tid
is
free,
him freedom.
war announces
you have brave sons
Why
that
and with a better victory and for a better peace.
TAi
Most
Let us no
are received,
of delay, the Revolution
year.
of
soon be
not be allowed to
coalesce [grow together], and which
least with the
The drum
will
will give
that the thicket
shel-
the machete
leaf,
the green of
on the other bank,
touched by the affection with which
ognized, and which
go our
Look! The Cuban
General Toral surrenders the

General Shaftner in 1898.
city
of Santiago to
There's no need to
for saving the
We want no
Women,
fear. Ricans,
homeland
is
the sound of cannon,
the duty of the heart!
trusted us;
despots! Let the tyrant
likewise wild, will
know how
and our machete
Puerto Ricans,
LIBERTY
Is
to
fight!
let's
go
have stabbed an
will give
it
to us!
we
Shadow from an enemy
we
ally in
have
that hadn't
it
to
his land
and
but each detail was for the best.
*l*
have robbed a trusting friend of
already,
sell;
waiting, ever so anxious! *X*
"Harry Wilmans" From

1
we
the back and slapped the face of a guest;
liberty;
for
have stamped out a just and intelligent
fall!
bought
We want freedom
Let's go,
we
and well-ordered republic;
more
who
have turned against the weak and the friendless
Borinquenos are Puerto Ricans. The word
is
adapted from
SpOOn RiVet
Anthology
Borinquen, the Native American name for Puerto Rico.
by Edgar Lee Masters
^he Voice of the Hispano
was
just
turned twenty-one.
Anonymous
And Henry Phipps, the Sunday-school superintendent,

Made a speech in Bindle's Opera House.
Many are the opinions
"The honor of the
Against the Hispanic people
"Whether
will
And went to the war in spite

And followed the flag till saw
not refuse to be soldiers.
of
it
It
matters not what
Or how our fame

As they
will fight
is
By our camp
said
is
And
insulted,
Of
with pleasure
And
And
And
native people
being rabble.
Till
the battlefield.
Like
good countrymen
And
faithful
Americans,
free
them from
The humble Cubans.
in
my
father,
a rice field near Manila,
flies
it.
and poisonous things;
there was the deadly water.

the cruel heat.
the sickening, putrid food.
fell
flag,
with a scream, shot through the guts.
Now there's a flag

A flag! A flag!
1
We will
flag
raised
of us cheered and cheered
Following the
But they have not proven to be so
On
all
But there were
For the American eagle.
They accuse our
the
As he spoke.
men
Do
said,
he waved
be disillusioned,
brave native
must be upheld," he
Or the greatest power in Europe."

And we cheered and cheered the speech and
Making an experiment,
Our
flag
be assailed by a barbarous tribe of
Taga logs'
And they accuse them of betraying

The American government.
They
it
a people of central
over
me
in
Spoon
River!
Luzon. Philippines
that yoke
!
1 .
To the Person
Sitting in Darkness
From
when he wrote
missed Cuba in
2.
by N[ark Twain
Jose Marti had just returned to
they were told
in a
lies;
yes, but
good cause.
have been treacherous; but
that
was only
in
order that
real
evil.
True,
we
have crushed a
deceived and confiding people;
support of independence from Spain.
In
the
in
New York
and wrote
Whose model
anonymous poem, what does the author
American soldiers
4.
good might come out of apparent
absence?
does she
urge Puerto Ricans to follow?

3.
We
his
Cuba from his exile in New York

Which phrases show that he
Like Marti, Lola Rodriguez de Tio lived

in
There have been
this diary entry.
Mark
will
believe Mexican
prove?
Twain's controversial essay and Edgar Lee Masters's
poem
use irony to express the authors' views of the war. Describe
both authors' perspectives on the
war
we
AMERICAN LETTERS
615

RECOGNIZING
STEREOTYPES

In
they could find
the following passage, Samuel
Bryan, an Anglo American soci-
stereotype
a general-
is
Mexican immi-
ologist, describes
or oversimplifica-
ization
grants
ual differences
too much.
good
difficulty
by attributing the
lazy. All Irish
All African
Socially
Mexicans
Americans
athletes. All girls have
with math and science.
and
rise
country gives
in this
to serious problems.
They
English,
move
from
readily
place to place, and
do not
extent. But their
and prejudice.
vorable characteristic
portrayed.
all
indi-
group?
signal
always, never,
may
signal
all
Mexican
He
the fact that
in
ignores
many
ous Mexican American
communities existed
long before Anglo set-
Detect bias or prejudice.

Note any bias or tone that
tlement. Second, he
toward the
subjects being described.
Use your knowledge.
blames immigrants
for conditions that
are a product of
In
their immigrant sta-
members
evaluating general statements
tus. Like
about people, apply what you
of other immi-
have learned from your stud-
grant groups,
ies
or through direct experi-
ence with individual
class-
Mexicans often
found many jobs
mates, your family members,
closed to them.
or others.
One
UNIT
difficult
for
many Mexican

Study the song poster below.
Then, on a separate sheet of paper,
1.
What group
2.
Why
is
pictured
in this
can this song poster be
a clan-
considered an example of
is
an exam-
area
in
he
and, by impli-
stereotyping.
indicates prejudice
such farm work,
typical of
it
immigrants to buy land.
their
Mexican
States stable, prosper-
tions; their use
4.
cation,
First,
all
areas of the United
all,
is
live in
stereotyping. Watch for clue

or every that allow no excep-
3.
words such
as
search of
unfa-
99
breeds prejudice.
Americans.
Note words that
Bryan's description
immigrants
in
made
stereotyping?
yourself:
being attributed to
nish manner.
lumps together
ties
2.
Ask
Are the same quali-
in
song poster?
lack supporting facts.
viduals
most
ple of the kind of stereotyping that
Identify generalizations that
often
answer the following questions.
and often lead to discrimination
is
move
crops to harvest. This migratory
are slow to learn
acquire or lease land to any
son or group
sea-
the
politically
Most stereotypes are negative
How to Recognize
Stereotypes
1. Examine the message. Pay
close attention to how a per-
is
Mexican farm workers were
forced to
wages
^4
presence of large numbers of
drink
sonal,
existence, coupled with the low
inclination to
616
1912:
in
individ-
group: All poor
in a
people are
are
deny
characteristics to every
member
the United States
about a group or
tion
culture. Stereotypes
same
in
work was farm
labor Because farm labor
which
L
Outlined
below are four
DEMOCRATIC
19th century led to the establish-
RIGHTS
ment
Historians note that

historical
conflicts with foreign
progressivism was primarily a
REFORM
In
designed
the late 19th century
the transformation of
in
chapters 17 and
the progressive emphasis on
problems.
In
response, the
chapters
9 and 20,
map showing
of U.S. colonization, investment,
and
conflict
through World
women's
needs of
suffrage best serves the

all
brought the United States onto the
women.
world
chapters 17 and
GLOBAL
18,
stage.
Using the portfolio

in
chapters
19 and 20, prepare a speech for
create a series of Progressive
RELATIONS
delivery to Congress, outlining
party campaign posters that out-
The
some
the party's reform
line
goals.
Videodisc Review
In
United States
cies of the
Ettinger, Albert M.,

Ettinger.
America
Fighting 69th.
the years between
1897 and 1920. Choose images

that best illustrate the major topics
of the period.
Write
Reminiscence of World

script,
collage to the class.
(1992).
War
B.,
by a
Rainbow
E.
Tuttle (1991).
1
9th-century
Hawaii.
Schneider, Dorothy, and Carl
J.
Schneider. Into the Breach. Viking

(1991). Examines the participation
and
Don M.
Coerver.
Revolution on the Border. The United

States
Queen. Charles
Firsthand account of
the
Division.
Linda
by Hawaii's
Liliuokalani. Hawaii's Story
White Mane
a script
of the costs and benefits of
America's international role.
the
and A. Churchill
soldier of the 69th
Hall,
to
in
A Doughboy wi^

in
expansionist poli-
Further Reading
I.
The Spanish-American
War and World War
fj

in
War
WAR
woman on whether
Progressive party sought reforms.
designed
areas
middle-class progressive and a
economy to an
social
in
create a world
conduct a debate between a white,
working-class
industrialized,
designed
18,
the United States from a rural
urban society created numerous
powers.
movement and
thus did not address many of the
concerns of working-class women.
white, middle-class
concepts involved.
of U.S. overseas colonies,
increased foreign investment, and
and Mexico, 19 0-1 920.
University of
New
Mexico Press
(1990). Examines the role that
trade and investment played
U.S.-Mexico
relations.
in
of American
women
in
World
War!.
Tuchman, Barbara
W.
The Guns of
Bantam (1989). Analysis

of the events of August 1914
August.
that propelled Europe into
World War
I.
REVIEW
617
THE JAZZ AGE

1920-1930
A TURBULENT DECADE
1919-1929
1929-1933
Prosperity
and
Crisis
1919-1945
r'"*
'
MM
Lhe prosperity of the
1920's introduced
millions of Americans to
mass produced
goods and mass culture and led many

question traditional values.
By
the
the decadey however^ the nation

into the Great Depression.
to
end of
had plunged
Facing unem-
ployment and poverty, millions of
Americans turned to President Roosevelt
and his New Deal. But economic recovery

^.s
remained slow until the United States

entered World
iAM
States
THE
NEW DEAL
War 11. By 1945 the United
was the world's most powerful nation.
President Roosevelt, radio broadcast,
BETWEEN THE WARS
Chapter 26
I92I-I94I
WARM
?^
IN WORLD
1941-1945
AMERICANS
>
937
Chapter 25
1933-1940
K.^
1919-1929
Chapter 21
A TURBULENT
DECADE
UNDERSTANDING
THE MAIN IDEA
The end of World War
ushered
a period of economic and

bility.
Voters,
in
social insta-
eager to return to
"normalcy," elected probusiness
Republican presidents, and as the
1920s progressed, prosperity returned.
Not
this
all,
however, shared the benefits of
economic renewal. Organized
labor lost ground,
and Native
Americans, African Americans, and

immigrants faced discrimination.
DEMOCRATIC VALUES
How
might a democratic govern-
ment respond to
a perceived
threat of revolution?
CULTURAL DIVERSITY
In
what ways might ethnic and
racial
groups respond to acts of
discrimination?
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT What actions should

the federal government take to
promote economic prosperity?
1919
1921
Palmer
Congress
raids begin.
immigration.
limits
1924
Congress grants
Native Americans
citizenship.
1927
1928
Sacco and
Herbert Hoover
Vanzetti
executed.
elected president.
During World War
LINK TO THE PAST
the government tried to
stifle dissent,
women
took jobs traditionally held by men, and African Americans moved

to northern cities. These
and other changes
in
society continued
to affect Americans after the war.
he end of World
War
brought joyous celebration. As author
Malcolm Cowley wrote, "We danced
women and
tle bars,
streets
drank with our elbows locked
many Americans
veterans returned
did find
ings.
swore blood brotherhood with soldiers

in theirs, reeled
in
lit-
through the
with bottles of champagne." But this joy proved short-lived.
For
War
pretty girls,
embraced old
in the streets,
life after
home
social
war did not appear promising.
few jobs
to find
work soon discovered
Economic and
the
available.
that soaring prices ate
up
Those who
their earn-
problems increased. Strikes broke out
across the nation, and violent race riots
exploded
in
many American
Fueled by wartime
cities.
fears, anti-
immigrant feelings raised

social tensions.
on the
first
Looking back
years after the
war, author and journalist
Ray
Stannard
remarked,
no period
"I
in
Baker
can recall
which
life in
America looked bleaker."
Aftermath of Wall Street bombing, 1920
World War veteran with

I
his family,
TURBULENT DECADE
1919
621
Section
POSTWAR TROUBLES
FOCUS
What
were economic conditions
How
like after
the war?
did workers react to hard times?
Why did many Americans fear that a Communist
revolution
was
at hand?
What
did the Sacco
and Vanzetti case reveal about America
(^
in
the early 1920s?

I
^he
horrors of World
War I shocked and disillusioned many
Americans. The war, wrote novelist John Dos Passos, had been a
''waste of time, waste
many Americans
response,
before the
''old
of money, waste of lives, waste of youth.
ways,
war But
" the
there
way
tried to return to the
things
was no going back. Instead of a
nation faced economic hardship
"
/n"x
had been
return to the
and social
Children
strife.
1916 supporting
in
their striking relatives
American government by surprise literally.

Trains carrying new recruits to boot camp were
stopped en route. Within a year some four million
Demobilization
Under
shift
the best of conditions, demobilization, the
from a wartime
to a
peacetime footing,
is
soldiers returned to civilian
Women
not
were urged
an easy task for a nation. The process
make room
more
patriotism which induced
is made
when the shift is rapid, as was the
World War I. The war's end caught the
difficult
case after
life.
to give
up
their jobs to
for returning veterans. "The same
women
to enter industry
during the war should induce them to vacate their

positions." declared the
tion.
Most of
the
patriotic appeals
ally held
women
in the
it
Adding
work
did not respond to
result, the
tradition-
percentage of
force in 1920
had been
to
York labor federa-
were forced out of jobs
by men. As a
below what
New
women who
fell slightly
in 1910.
employment worries was
rocketing cost of living. With peace
at
a sky-
hand, con-
spending spree, making

purchases they had put off during the war. As the
sumers went on
demand
for
goods outpaced supply, prices soared
until the cost
World War millions of veterans scrambled

American Legion employment offices, such
Los Angeles, tried to find work for veterans.
After
I,
able jobs.
one
622
in
CHAPTER
for avail-
as this
of goods and services
in
1920 was
about twice that of 1914.
Soon, however,
this trend
reversed as the
deep but brief recession of 1920-1921 struck and
prices
fell.
Demobilization was one of the factors
behind the recession. During the war millions of
Americans worked
in
war
But
industries.
end the government canceled more than $2

in
war
war's
at
billion
contracts. Factories responded by cutting
back production and la\ing off workers. By 1921
some
5 million workers
the labor force
omy was
more than
Seattle general strike. The first strike

in January, when some 35.000
shipyard workers in Seattle, Washington, walked
were unemployed, and
the econ-
workday. Within two weeks

to join the
economic
An
10 A.M.
one shipyard worker,

"the
Department of
thing
fell.
According
to the
Agriculture, wheat, for example, dropped from
S2.16 a bushel
1919 to less than a dollar a
most beautiful
ever seen!"
Alarmed
at
bushel in 1922. Burdened with debt, hundreds of
thousands of American farmers
immigrants, calling the
their land
lost
ownership of
during the 1920s.
strikers
The Seattle Union

Record published a special edi
tion on February 6, 1919,
announcing the beginning
of the general strike.
such a
show of unity. Seattle

blamed
newspapers
in
^.-
^r^^^^^!Seattle_lJnjgn Record
left their
jobs. "It was," declared
prices
at
"'""JSiSl!
60,000 workers
revived, however, these markets dried up and farm
general strike.
calm
eerie
over the city as
Europe. As European farm production
in
in a
began on February 6
strike
problems. Farmers had benefited from wartime

markets
10 local unions voted
shipyard workers
The general
fell
crisis contributed to the
demanding higher wages and a shorter
off the job,
10 percent of
shrinking.
farm
The
of 1919 occurred
"muddle-headed
foreigners" and "riffraff from Europe intent on
After the war the cost of living

soared, but prices soon fell as a
recession took hold and unem-
terrorizing the
ployment increased.
incidents occurred. Instead, the well-disciplined
denounced the
community." Mayor Ole Hanson
work of Bolsheviks and
strike as the
called in troops to prevent unrest. But no violent
took steps to preserve order and to
strikers
make
sure that food and essential services were available
JLABOR STRIFE
community. Nevertheless, the
to the
strikers
came
under increased public pressure to go back to work.

In 1919. however.
Americans were
still
struggling
with rapidly rising prices for food, clothing, and

shelter.
Workers watched
inflation ate up their
Angry and
in
dismay
as
asked for higher wages
and shorter hours. But management ignored labor's

pleas. In response,
job. In
strikes
many workers walked
fi\
ended the
e days they
strike
without win-
ning any of their demands.
runaway
wartime financial gains.
frustrated, they
After
Although the
had been peaceful,
strike
anti-
labor forces tried to convince the public that

Seattle
Hanson
had been on the brink of revolution. Mayor

told the national press:
off the
1919 alone, unions called more than 3,600
involvins more than four million workers.
Revolution
The general
weapon
quiet.
the
That
the
more dangeris
it
to
must
say,
it
government out of operation. And
is all
achieved.
Many
all
itself
To succeed,
suspend everything.
puts the
of
is
of revolution,
ous because
that
doesn't need violence.
strike ...
there
**
is
no matter how
to revolt
people believed these charges. In the end the
Seattle strike helped turn public opinion against
organized labor.
4 Strikes became commonplace in the years after

World War as workers demanded better wages
and conditions. Here, mounted policemen break up
I,
a group of Philadelphia strikers

A
in
1919.
TURBULENT DECADE
;S
623

^ An important
police strike
issue during the
was whether
Boston
public employ-
ees had the right to strike. When policemen refused to report to work, civilians
took over
traffic
control and other public
safety jobs.
return to work. Curtis, however, refused to
reinstate them. Instead, he hired a
force
made up of unemployed
new
veterans.
Union sympathizers protested. Unmoved.

Coolidge backed the commissioner, proclaiming that "there
against the
pubhc
is
no right
to strike
safety by anybody, any-
where, any time." Coolidge's words made
him an overnight hero
in
conservative
circles.
The Boston
1919 another
police strike.
strike, this
September
In
lime by the Boston police
force, further inflamed antilabor sentiments.
The
Boston police had recently formed a union to seek
working conditions. Although
better pay and
police in other cities had unionized without incident, Boston's police commissioner,
Edwin
Curtis,
The
in
response,
on
some
75 percent of the police force went
many
Public order collapsed. Journalist William

Allen White described the
The
devil
night of the strike:
first
was loose
Boston.
in
knots of boys and young
By midnight, the
crowds had
formed one raging mob,

noisy, irresponsible
Someone threw
mob.
window
about one o'clock. The tension

snapped. ... By two o'clock, loot-
had begun.
99
After two nights of violence.
Governor Calvin Coolidge called
in the
The
city's
state militia to restore order.
newspapers denounced the
strikers as
"agents of Lenin" and the strike as a

"Bolshevist nightmare." The public also
came out firmly against
the strike.
Recognizing
cause was
that
their
doomed, the police voted unanimously
624
CHAPTER
walked off the job.
their
union and protesting
low wages and long working hours. This massive
walkout threatened to shut
down
the steel industry.
For years the major steel companies had

fought efforts to unionize steelworkers.
companies did everything
in their
power
Now
the
to break
lines,
they portrayed foreign workers as radicals
and called on "loval" Americans
to return to
work.
During the steel strike, Pittsburgh policemen arrested

dozens of protesters. In a notice printed in several languages, the Pittsburgh Chronicle Telegraph declared the
strike a failure and urged strikers to go back to work.
drunken,
a loose paving
stone through a store
ing
of them immigrants
demanding recognition of
men
began wandering through the streets.

...
September some 365.000 steelworkers
the strike. In an effort to divide labor along ethnic
strike.
Little
after the trouble
Boston, the most important strike of 1919 began.
In late
refused to recognize the union. Instead, he fired 19
officers for engaging in union activities. In
steel strike. Two weeks
to
The
bosses also brought
steel
thousands of
in
African Americans and Mexican Americans as

replacement workers, and they hired armed thugs
were
to attack the strikers. Strikers
jailed, beaten,
1^

^ Hr 1^
lAr
or shot. Faced with such tactics, union leaders
on January
called off the strike
suffered a crushing defeat.
It
9, 1920.
Labor had
would be
15 years
before unions again tried to organize workers in
heavy industry.
i^
it
ik Ik i^
it
ir
k ^
ik
Workers
responded to hard
times by striking for higher pay
and better working conditions,
but their efforts largely failed.
This cartoon entitled Put
The red scare

The 1919
Out appeared
were prompted primarily by
strikes
labor's desire for a fair deal.
Americans saw labor unrest as proof
that Russia's
its call
for a
worldwide revolution of workers, was spreading

shores. This fear of
to
communism reached
fever pitch in 1919 and 1920, a period of anti-
known as the Red Scare.

Although Communists and Socialists com-
Communist
hysteria
prised only a tiny fraction of the country's popula-
some Americans saw "Reds" everywhere.

They even implied that Communists controlled
many women's organizations. Peace groups, such
as the Women's International League for Peace and
Freedom, came under particularly strong attack.
tion,
Antiradical fears reached such heights that several
members of
New
into
American
society.
However, many
Bolshevik Revolution of 1917, with
American
Them Out & Keep Them
the Philadelphia Inquirer in 1919 and

expressed the fear that Bolshevism was creeping
in
The Palmer
scares
seemed
raids.
to justify
alert postal clerks
In 1919 a rash of
Americans'
discovered 36
bomb
fears. In April,
bombs
in the
mail
addressed to such prominent citizens as John D.

Rockefeller,
Supreme Court
justice Oliver
Wendell
Holmes, and Postmaster General Albert Burleson.
month later, several bombings

occurred, one of which damaged the front of
Then
less than a
Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer's house. The

assailant,
an
Italian anarchist, died in the blast.
Newspapers began demanding harsh action

against radicals.
One paper even
called for "a
few
free treatments in the electric chair." Attorney
York State Assembly
General Palmer, hoping to further his presidential
were expelled because they were members of the
ambitions, responded by launching an anti-Red cru-
elected
Socialist party.
As
the
journalist Walter
Lippmann
sar-
sade.
He
created a special government office to
castically noted:
The
people are shivering
over Bolshevism, they are
far
in
their boots
more
afraid of
Lenin [the Bolshevik leader] than they ever
were of the Kaiser [Wilhelm
II,
who
World War
I].
We
Germany
during
be the most frightened

the world ever saw.
ruled
seem to
lot of victors that
99
The Bolshevik Revolution and

the strikes of 1919 led many
Americans to fear that a Communist revolution was at hand.
4
A
A. Mitchell Palmer
TURBULENT DECADE
625
gather intormation on radical activities and put
Edgar HiH)ver. the future head
J.
of the FBI. in charge.
was a series of
The Palmer raids
Pahiier's most dramatic action

raids to capture alleged radicals.
in November 1919 and peaked on January 2,

when federal officials arrested thousands of
suspected radicals in 33 cities nationwide. As jour-
But as she
schemes;
his
wanted
travel. Besides,
So
later wrote, "I
age
but love."
1920.
the United States.
listen to
know
to study, to
at
life,
Goldman immigrated
16.
The young Goldman
New
Frederick Lewis Allen wrote:
would not
to
never would marry for anything
began
nalist
marry a man she did not
father arranged for her to

love.
to
settled in Rochester.
York, where she took a factory job. Gradually
she grew disillusioned with the treatment of for-
44
Over
in all.
learn
six
thousand men were arrested
eigners and workers in the United States. In 1889
often without any chance to
what was the
them. ...
In
were herded
explicit
at
men
became famous
such speech
into a bull-pen measuring
for a week. ... In Hartford, while the sus-
pects
were
in jail
tors
who came
In
the authorities took the
called
cles
all visi-
99
to see them.
most cases, there
was no
evidence against them. In
real
she was convicted of inciting
1906 Goldman started a radical monthly
Mother
Earth. In
on a w ide range of
modem
Most of those arrested were poor immigrants

in the country. In
art
and
fact,
to
Red
from
all.
draft.
Scare, she
years
radicals, she
up closer^T\t
seized in the raids.
Goldman.
later, at
the
was released from
were "armed
were
she used the
arrested again, this
Two
prison and deported to Russia. Like
to the teeth." only three pistols
arti-
birth control to
defend freedom of speech.
Goldman was
time for opposing the

height of the
pages she presented
Above
literature.
fomm
In 1917
its
topics,
although the government claimed that radicals
Emma
one
for her fiery speeches. After
in 1893,
magazine as a
newly arrived
City and
a riot and sent to prison for a year.
twenty-four by thirty feet and kept there
further precaution of arresting ...
New York
entered the world of radical politics. She soon
charge against
Detroit, over a hundred
age 20, she moved to
many
other
was eager
to see revolutionarv Russia
,"
she wrote. "I would behold
last
from
the land freed
political
and economic
During the Red Scare hun-
masters." Instead of a free land, however, she
dreds of foreigners suspected of radical activities
found a country where freedom of expression was
were deported
Emma
Among
the deportees
was
severely limited. Disenchanted.
a noted feminist, writer,
and
Russia
to Russia.
Goldman,
Goldman
1921 and spent the rest of her
life
left
speak-
ing and writing in Europe.
speaker.
Goldman was bom

nation that
traditional
in
was then
in
1869
in Lithuania, a
part of Russia. Raised in a
Jewish family. Goldman was an inde-
pendent, determined
girl
her authoritarian father.
who
often clashed with
When
she was 15. her
By mid- 1920
public hysteria over radicalism
was dying down. The
fearful predictions of A.
Mitchell Palmer and others that a

olution
was close
Furthermore,
at
hand proved
Communist
to be
rev-
unfounded.
many Americans had never
sup-
ported the witch-hunting tactics employed by
many of the anti-Communist cmsaders.
DACCO AND VANZETTI

Although the Red Scare passed,
hostility
toward
foreigners and radicals persisted. This hostility
evident during the 1921

chists.
trial
was
of two Italian anar-
Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti.
Accused of committing murder during
a payroll
robbery at a factory outside Boston, they were convicted and sentenced to death.
The verdict outraged defenders of civil

liberties. They argued that the two men had been
626
CHAPTER
21
4 American
called for a
new
St.
On August
23, 1927.
Sacco and Vanzetti were
Many Americans
believed that radicals like
poet Edna
Vincent Millay was
one of many protesters

during the Sacco and
Vanzetti
trial,
but
all
executed.
trial.
Sacco and Vanzetti deserved

"^
these pleas failed.
their views, while others
to be
saw them
punished for
and
as heroes
l'*/U#ft(,
martyrs. Historians
still
debate whether Sacco and
Vanzetti were guilty or innocent. All agree,
convicted not because of
ever, that the case reflected the
the evidence presented but
ing at
American society
in the
how-
deep divisions
postwar
tear-
era.
because they were immi-
The Sacco and Vanzetti case
Even
judge had shown
grants and radicals.

the trial
underscored a hostility in the

United States toward foreigners
and radicals following the war.
bias by declaring that the
men's anarchist beliefs were

grounds for conviction.
The verdict and

subsequent appeals
drew worldwide attention. In Paris,
New
York
City,
and else-
where, thousands of people marched

protest.
Noted writers and
the cause. Calling
in
artists rallied to
them "victims of race
and national prejudice and class hatred,"

labor unions contributed to Sacco and
Vanzetti's defense fund.
In
The
protesters
the early 1930s immigrant artist Ben
Shahn created a
series of paintings
about
the events surrounding the Sacco and

Vanzetti trial.
Shahn. Ben. Banoiomeo VanzeW and Nicola Sacco from the Sacco- Vanzetti series of twenty-three paintings {1931-32).
Tempera on paper over composition board 10 1/2 x 14 1/2" (26.7 x 36.8 cm). The Museum of Modern Art. New York.
Gift of Abby Aldrich Rockefeller. Photograph 997 The Museum of Modern Art, New York. 997 Estate of Ben Shahn/
1
Licensed by
VAGA. New
York.
SECTION
IDENTIFY and
1 .
2.
3.
Emma Goldman,
MAIN IDEA How

MAIN IDEA How
Were
REVIEW
explain the significance of the following: demobilization,
Scare, A. Mitchell Palmer, Palmer raids,
LOCATE
NY
did the
did
end of World
War
Ole Hanson, Edwin Curtis, Red
Nicola Sacco, Bartolomeo Vanzetti.
Seattle,
affect the
Washington; Boston, Massachusetts.
economy?
workers respond to deteriorating economic conditions
after the
war?
their efforts successful?
IDENTIFYING CAUSE
AND EFFECT What events
led to the
Red Scare? What were some of
the Red Scare's consequences?

4.
WRITING TO INFORM
Imagine you are a reporter covering the Sacco and Vanzetti case. Write
an article exploring the public debate surrounding the anarchists' arrest and conviction.
5.
ANALYZING Why
ety
in
can
it
be said that international events had a strong impact on American soci-
the postwar years?
TURBULENT DECADE
627
Sect ion 2
fl
Z^ THE REPUBLICANS IN POWER

s
c u s
Why did voters
elect
Warren G. Harding president
1920?
in
How did the economy fare under Harding?

What kind of president was Calvin Coolidge?
What were some effects of the Republicans' probusiness
îred of social
voters in the
strife,
policies?
1920 election rejected the party
of Woodrow Wilson and elected Republican Warren G. Harding
Harding years ended
president. Although the
in
scandal, Harding's
Republican successor Calvin Coolidge, restored a sense of integrity

to the
White House. As a
result, voters
Herbert Hoover
president
elected another Republican

1924 campaign slogan
in
1928.
favoring big business
the most, however,
XhE ELECTION OF
With the country
in
1920
to
united once again. Republican leaders
felt
confident
As
their
candidate they nominated
PARTY ^
Slatt
nationality.
Wilson's razor-
friendly.
that
Democratic candidate. Governor
" immigration, and

aid to farmers.
What
Tn .anr
to pressure
League of Nations.
The
nation's farmers, suffering from falling
suppon behind Harding.
farm prices, threw
their
Many
class, tired
in the
middle
of labor strikes and
high taxes, also voted Republican. Americans cast

their vote for
"normalcy." giving Harding some 60
percent of the popular vote.

'
THE
< With
REPUBLICAN
,
TICKET
J
r^9d>r..SOT.i.
lan
628
:i
CHAPTER
this
1920 campaign
ribbon, the Republican
P^f^
Pennsylvania urged
voters to support the
"whole Republican ticket."
in
from
President Wilson and stressed support for the
promised tax
pleased war-weary voters
WHOLE
not submer-
Chas. A. Snvder
.\.ND
**
James M. Cox of Ohio, bowed
some
not heroics
internationallty but sustainment in
was pleasant and
Boies Penrose
Fw
in
In contrast, the
''""'''
Lewis
not surgery but serenity,
sharp intelligence, but he
revision, higher tariffs.
S.
triumphant
probusiness. antilabor plat-
Fjut.c-.,j
is
normalcy, not revolution but restoration,
of Ohio. Harding lacked
form
call for a return
but healing, not nostrums [quack cures] but
gence
Harding ran on
Sam'l
America's present need
Senator Warren G. Harding
Woodrow
,UBUe
turmoil and Republican voters
of victory in the 1920 presidential election.
was Harding's
"normalcy":
Anxious
for stability after the
war and the
social strife of the
Wilson years, American voters

elected a Republican president.

The HARDING ADMINISTRATION
From
his first
day
in office.
Harding
set a
very dif-
somber Wilson.
Frederick Lewis Allen commented on
ferent tone from that of the

Journalist
the change:
For four long years the gates of the
White House had been locked and guarded

with sentries. Harding's
to throw
seers to
act
first official
them open, to permit
roam the grounds and
was
sight-
flatten their
President Harding's cabinet was photographed on the

at its first meeting in 92
Secretary of
State Charles Evans Hughes is seated to Harding's right,
noses against the executive window-panes.

.
The
act
seemed to symbolize the return
99
of the government to the people.
Focus on the economy. What

administration
as
White House lawn
came
Harding put
to
while Vice President Calvin Coolidge
in business
and more business
seated to his
left.
in
government." His probusi-
Andrew W. Mellon
and Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover.
PRESIDENTIAL LIVbx
These men believed
that
HARDING
As
business.
to aid
a result, the administration
two main economic
1865-1923
government should
economy except
not interfere with the
G.
ness cabinet included such successful businessmen

as Secretary of the Treasury
WARREN
is
the Harding
symbolize, however, was
"less government
it^
had
goals: to reduce the national
debt and to promote economic growth.
Wartime spending had driven up the national

in office
debt from
1921-1923
$25
some $1
billion in 1919.
billion in
1914
To eliminate
to
more than
the debt, the head
of the newly created Bureau of the Budget, Charles
Dawes,
set out to slash
year on the job,
spending. In 1922, his
Dawes succeeded
first
in turning the
annual deficit into a surplus.
To achieve the second goal

genial, sociable
man, Warren G. Harding was
fond of drinking and spending time with

friends.
He was
the sort "to play poker with
his
atmosphere of an
Elks
more the
or Moose lodge than a
stately executive mansion. Liquor
flowed freely
at Harding's parties, despite Prohibition.
Harding,
compared
that he
who
did not like being president,
his position
to being
was unsuited for the
in jail.
Believing
job, he
once
remarked that he was "a man of limited talents
Secretary Mellon proposed eliminating
the high wartime taxes
all
Saturday night," one associate recalled. Under
Harding, the White House had
growth
If
economic
imposed on the wealthy.
"government takes away an unreasonable share,"
he argued, "the incentive to work
is
there and slackening of effort
the result."
Furthermore, he claimed,
if
is
no longer
taxes were lower, the
would have more money to invest and the

economy would grow. The benefits, Mellon said,
would then trickle down to the middle and lower
rich
classes in the
form of jobs and higher wages.
In
response to Mellon's program, Congress cut taxes
on wealthy Americans during the 1920s.
By 1923 Harding's economic policy
from a small town."
appeared to be working. The postwar slump was

over,
the
unemployment was low, and most
economy had entered
growth. Not
all
sectors
a period of
sectors of
tremendous
were flourishing, however.

A
TURBULENT DECADE
i:
629

4 Teapot Dome and other scandals tarnished the
reputation of the Harding administration.
Harding's right-hand man, was forced to resign
after
it
was discovered he had been taking
Dome
Next erupted the Teapot

took
its
name from
government
bribes.
scandal, which
reserve in
oil
Teapot Dome, Wyoming. According to a Senate

investigation. Secretary of the Interior Albert Fall
had received loans, cash, and
cattle for leasing the
along with another reserve

California
private
companies.
was
oil
reserve
in
to
Fall
oil
convicted of accepting bribes and jailed

the first cabinet
member
crimes committed while
The
coal industry
on hard times as
fell
a popular fuel source.
The producers of cotton and

because of competition from
new
synthetic fabrics, such as rayon. These and
other "sick industries" signaled that not
was
all
be imprisoned for
to
in office.
UOOLIDGE TAKES CHARGE

After Harding's death Vice President Calvin
Coolidge succeeded
to the presidency.
from the Harding scandals and
administration's
Coolidge easily won the Republican presidential nomination in 1924.

the Democrats, divided
wings and
scandals. Midway through
party's nominee. Robert
Gang
known
to
as the
The
first
scandal
of 1923, when
it
came
to light in the spring
that Charles
Forbes, director of the Veterans' Bureau and

Harding's close friend, had received millions of
dollars as the result of corrupt schemes.
and called for more aid
Harding
the Forbes scandal and
my
that
keep
enemies
me
my
enemies.
all right. [It's
my]
can
friends
Harding
set out
on an
extended tour of the West. In San Francisco on

2.
he died.
After Harding's death other scandals surfaced. In
CHAPTER
1924 Attorney General Harry Daugherty.

2
to
working people.
won by
a landslide, receiving 15.7 million
about 4.8 million votes. Although the Progressive

party faded from the scene
soon
when La
Follette died
its strong showing made it

Americans agreed with the
after the election,
clear that not
all
Republicans' emphasis on big business.
ways Calvin
Coolidge seemed an unlikely
man to win the support of so
many Americans. Stern
In
y^^
some
walking the floor nights." Soon
after talking to White.
August
Backed by
votes to Davis's 8.4 million. La Follette received
June 1923 he confessed to journalist William Allen

White, "I have no trouble with
Follette.
Despite these rumblings of discontent.
other signs of wrongdoing in his administration. In
take care of
La
form denounced federal policies favoring business
Coolidge
was discovered
was deeply worried over
faced strong opposition from the Progressive
Ohio
Washington and were
expense.
at the public's
and urban
angry farmers and workers, the Progressive plat-
using their connections with the president to enrich
themselves
rural
haunt the Harding administration.
had followed him
the 103rd ballot
chose John W. Davis, a corporate lawyer. Both par-
with the nation's course. Yet talk of corruption had
group of Harding's friends
630
between
ties
to
On
over issues such as prohibition,
split
Harding's term, most Americans seemed happy
begun
to restore the repu-
tation of the presidency.
probusiness policies helped fuel an

economic boom, but not all sectors of the economy benefited.
The Harding
Im-
mediately he began working to limit the damage
well in the economy.
The Harding
1926
became
oil
wool
textiles suffered
in
Calvin Coolidge
V^tSiDENTmL/vg
n office
CALVIN COOLIDGE
/
1923-1929
872-/ 933
was
Vermont-born Calvin Coolidge had
Sometimes rather than
quiet.
UNfTEO STATES POSTAGE
a stern face
manner
that
made him seem
New
very picture of cold

granite.
buying presents, he sent out the
and quiet, unemotional
According to
boxes of cigars that he himself had
the
received as
England
$5*
ner party another guest told
CALVIM
COOLIDGE
^f
A
the stream
nk^l
home
words
Coolidge replied, "You
or
even stingy
as
day he
stranger catching
from the stream. Coolidge
after the
"Silent Cal" could be as

frugal
One
sent a Secret Service agent
'^^
lose."
front of his vacation
South Dakota.
in
fish
/"^/j
to her. Tight-lipped as usual,
in
observed
Coolidge she had bet that she could

say at least three
Coolidge even
refused to share the contents of
his wife
Grace, once at a Washington din-
make him
gifts.
are
to retrieve the
stating bluntly,
fish,
he
man
my
"They
fish."
and unemotional, he was known as Silent Cal. His

often sour expression inspired one wit's
Coolidge looked as
that
if
comment
XhE ELECTION OF
he had been w eaned on
1928 the Republicans nominated Secretary of
a pickle. Yet because Coolidge's no-nonsense
man-
In
ner and frugal habits recalled a simpler era.
many
Commerce
Americans found him reassuring.
more probusiness than Harding. "The business of
who
is
"The man
business." he once declared.
The man who
builds a factor} builds a temple.
works there worships
and efficiency.
nation's apparent prosperity after

eight years of Republican rule. In a
campaign speech he declared:
lation stifled private initiative
The
opposed laws
islation to aid business but generally
poorhouse
from among
such legis-
and harmed the
us.
We
is
vanishing
have not yet
reached the goal, but, given a
economy.
chance to go forward with the
Coolidge also took a tightfisted approach
vetoed a bonus
bill
designed to aid World
veterans (Congress passed the
bill
we
sell
to
...
be
in
when poverty
known
sight of
for his integrity
and humanitarian
will
this nation.
be
**
ideals.
farm prices
them abroad.
After a bitter fight the Democrats nominated
Governor Alfred
popular and almost certainly could have
won
reelection in 1928. Instead, to almost everyone's
announced he would not
soon
banished from
buy surplus
Despite these vetoes the president remained
surprise, he
shall
the day
over his veto).
also vetoed a bill designed to boost
by authorizing the government
War
By the 1928 election

Herbert Hoover was
policies of the last eight years,
to
government spending. In the name of economy, he
crops and
skill
His strongest asset, though, was the
there." Coolidge favored leg-
to help farmers or workers, arguing that
He
Herbert Hoover for president. Hoover
had a reputation for
staunch conservative, Coolidge was even
America
1928
run.
ate progressive.
in
Smith of
New
York, a moder-
party's choice signaled a shift
Democratic strategy
a response, in part, to the
Progressive party's strength in the 1924 election.

Smith's core support
voters.
Coolidge was a conservative,

probusiness president whose nononsense style won the support
of most Americans.
E.
The
to
By nominating
came from urban immigrant

Smith, the Democrats hoped
be seen as "the party of progress and liberal
thought." as Franklin Roosevelt put
had several
political liabilities.
it.
Yet Smith
He was Roman
Catholic, he opposed prohibition, and he had ties
TURBULENT DECADE
i:
63
to
New York
City's
Tammany
This rapid industrial growth was not without
Hall. All these
drawbacks, however. Chemical wastes poured
points stirred strong opposition lo Smith's candi-
its
dacy, especially in the South.
into the nation's rivers
Riding on Smith's handicaps and the econ-
omy's
strength. H(X)ver
lar vole.
Smith
lost his
southern stales that
won 58
ow n
percent of the popu-
stale as well as several
went Republican for the
and
few Americans saw these consequences of indus-
development as problems.
trial
first
time since Reconstruction. However, Smith did well
Labor and farming.
His appeal to these vot-
significantly in businesss
in the nation's largest cities.
ers offered the
Democrats hope
lakes. Cities witnessed
increased traffic congestion and air pollution. Yet
From 1923
1920s.
for the future.
some 60
increased
Herbert Hoover sailed to victory

1928 on the strength of the
economy and his opponent's
Workers did not share

good fortune during
the
1929. business profits
to
percent.
Over
the
same
period,
workers' incomes grew by only about 10 percent.
Many
in
workers
as the postwar
political liabilities.
in "sick industries"
even faced pay
unemployment. Farmers w ere also
cuts and
slump
hit hard,
farm prices continued
in
into
the 1920s.
To help farmers. Congress passed the

Fordney-McCumber Tariff Act of 1922. The act
The effects of republican
levied high duties on imported farm products in an
policies
effort to boost
During the 1920s the Republican administrations'
little
probusiness policies helped promote economic
low
domestic crop prices. But
Farmers
still
it
brought
faced shrinking markets,
prices, high interest rates,
and crushing debts.
Organized labor also suffered during the
growth. Yet these policies also had negative effects
on the environment and on many working people.
relief
1920s as the government and courts sought to
roll
back the gains of the Progressive Era. Federal
Business growth and prosperity. One

boom that began in 1923
courts, for example, upheld
reason for the economic
w hich
was
union. At the
the availability of surplus capital, in part due
to tax cuts.
This capital allowed old industries to
grow rapidly and new ones

corporate giants.
1.000
mergers
to enter the ranks of the
The 1920s also saw more than

the combining of two or more
companies. Business favored mergers because they
brought greater efficiency and higher profits.

1930.
some 200 corporations owned nearly
nation's corporate wealth.

its
By
half the
The government, with
favorable attitude toward business, encouraged
this
process of consolidation and
made
little
"yellow-dog contracts."
required employees to promise not lo join a
a policy
same
known
called for
time, business leaders promoted
as the
open shops
American
Plan. The plan
factories in
which workers
could choose not to join unions and management

did not have to negotiate with union leaders.
result,
As
union membership shrank from a high of
more than
5 million in 1920 to
some
3.6 million in
1923. Without the backing of strong unions,
many
people continued to work long hours for low
wages under often unsafe conditions.
effort
Republican policies contributed
to enforce antitrust laws.
to business growth and general

prosperity, but many workers
and farmers suffered.
The equal rights amendment

Regulating hours, working conditions, and wages
for
women
and children had been an important part
of the progressive agenda. However, in the 1920s
women
As early as 1917, the corner of 42nd St. and Madison Ave.
New York City was often congested with heavy auto traffic.
632
CHAPTER
in
debated the desirability of such protective
legislation. This debate
National
Woman's
came about because of
party's efforts
the
on behalf of the
FEMALE LABOR FORCE, 1890-1930

Equal Rights Amendment, introduced into
Congress in 1923. Had it passed, the amendment
would have given men and women "equal
throughout the United Stales."
One
Single
rights
of the amendc
tective legislation.
DMen
i
Women
50-
w 40-
argued that protective legislation discouraged
employers from hiring women. Furthermore, they
to
women
0)
many
JU1890
highly paid jobs.
20
10
Opponents of the amendment supported profew of
whom
belonged
to
Mary Anderson,
families.
Women's Bureau,
99 Women
one job
in
unions
and
are
little
laws.
Pauline
Source: Historical
WOMEN
wage earners, with
time and energy
They need the help of
**
Newman
League observed
of the
1930
Years
the
in
left
AT
grow by 1930,
working
to
WORK
its
makeup
women were
Statistics
Not only did the
size
also changed. By
1930 some 30 percent of
of the female labor force
married, up from just over 10 percent
BUILDING GRAPH SKILLS Women
carry on the fight to better their economic

status.
1930
their
asserted:
who
78%
1890
director of the U.S.
the factory and another
home, have
0-1
women
tective legislation as necessary to protect
TOTAL LABOR
FORCE
Divorced
60
^
M
C
The amendment drew most of its support

from middle-class and professional women. They
out of
Widowed/
Married
70
ment's effects would ha\e been to invalidate pro-
argued, limitations on working hours kept
percentage of the total labor force
in
1890?
in
in
1890.
made up what
1930?
labor
Women's Trade Union
only middle-class and upper-class
women who had
that before protective legislation
the training to enter the professions or skilled trades.
and 'equal* to work long
hours for starvation wages, or free to leave the job
The debate over these issues created deep

divisions in the women's movement. It would con-
and starve!"
tinue to divide
women "were
'free'
Protective legislation did
working
in
hamper women
until the
1960s.
male-dominated occupations. However,
few working-class
women were employed
in
The debate over the Equal Rights

Amendment divided women's
such
occupations. Thus, they withheld their support for

the
women's organizations
amendment, which they viewed
groups.
as benefiting
SECTION
IDENTIFY and
Herbert Hoover, Charles Dawes, Teapot

mergers, Fordney-McCumber
1.
2.
Tariff Act,
Dome
Warren G. Harding, Andrew W.
scandal, Albert
American
Fall,
Mellon,
Calvin Coolidge, Alfred
E.
Smith,
Plan.
MAIN IDEA Why did American voters elect a Republican president in 1920?
MAIN IDEA What qualities did President Coolidge possess that won the support of most
Americans
3.
REVIEW
in
the 1920s?
effect did the probusiness policies of
Harding and
Coolidge have on the economy?

4.
WRITING TO PERSUADE
1928.
5.
Write
a handbill
Imagine you are a Republican campaigning for Herbert Hoover
in
you would distribute to urge other voters to support your candidate.
ANALYZING Why were
women's groups divided over support of the Equal
Rights
Amendment?
TURBULENT DECADE
633
Section 3
A NATION
c u
How
Americans respond to new
did Native
What
What
DIVIDED
gave
rise to black
nationalism
in
efforts to seize tribal land?
the 1920s?
did the revival of the Ku Klux Klan and the passage of new
immigration laws reveal about the 1920s?
Why
did immigration
from Mexico increase?
A,J though many Americans prospered during the

and
racial divisions
still
plagued American
life.
deep social
J 920s,
Native Americans,
/^;
African Americans, and Mexican immigrants all struggled for a
place
in
American
society.
migrate to northern
cities,
As African Americans continued

racial tensions increased.
Ku Klux Klan encouraged bigotry
to
The
not only against African
Americans but also against foreigners. Responding
to the
national mood, Congress passed laws limiting immigration.
Ku kiux Kiansman
Indians by dividing tribal land into individual
ATIVE AMERICAN LIFE
act's allotment policies
For Native Americans the 1920s brought some

recognition of the difficulties they faced.
Dawes
The
plots (see Chapter 14) had clearly failed.
The
Act. which attempted to "Americanize"
Board of Indian
as the
Commissioners acknowledged
had often been
"a short cut to the separation of
Indians from
and cash."
their land
In the
1920s Native Americans successfully
organized to fight new efforts to take
tribal land.
Native American leaders stopped the Harding

administration's attempt to buy back
Then
in
all tribal
1922 the different Pueblo tribes of the
Southwest organized against the Bursum
which was designed

American claims
bill
would
to
limit the
and
This
will
dear
in
Native Americans carry water from a government well

Arizona.
634
CHAPTER
bill
lands,
power of
to all
tribal
governments.
Americans:
common life
which we hold
destroy our
our customs, our
Are the American people
see this happen?
non-Native
to legalize
rob us of everything
our
tions.
will
Bill,
Pueblo land. Furthermore, the
The Pueblos appealed
land.
**
tradi-
willing to
Many Americans were
noi.
The Pueblos won
support of the General Federation of
the
Women's
Clubs and of anthropologists, as well as the sup-
many
port of
a result, the
1923 that the

In
other innucntial
New
bill
was "happily, dead."
1924 Congress granted citizenship
Native Americans, partly
who had
men and women. As
York Times could write in January
fought in World
in
War
to all
recognition of those
I.
But citizenship did
not soften the harsh effects of poverty that
many
Native Americans continued to experience.
A A neighborhood strewn with

Native Americans organized to
fight efforts to take their lands.
tragic aftermath of the
northern
cities.
rubble reveals the
Chicago race
riots in 1919.
Harlem, a section of
New
York City
with a large black population, proudly styled
/African Americans
"the capital of Black America."
move north
The North, however, was not

African Americans
During the
who had moved

I. By
1930 the
confronted lynch mobs. Others faced discrimina-
North during World War
almost 2.5 million, more than double

1910. Large African
in
risked their lives in
Europe "to make the world safe for democracy"
tion,
North's African American population had reached
up
who had
free of bigotry.
920s some 800.000 African Americans
joined the hundreds of thousands

to the
itself
its
Americans were the
At times,
size in
One of
American communities sprang
Chicago, Detroit,
New
York
City,
and as demands for labor eased. African
and other
lose their jobs.
first to
racial tensions erupted violently.
the worst outbreaks occurred in
July 1919.
The trouble began when
Chicago
a white
in
man
Percentage Change
1920-1930
More than 100.0%
increase
50,1-100.0% increase
?|
25.1-50.0% increase
15.1-25.0% increase
10.1-15.0% increase
0-10.0%
increase
0-10.0% decrease
.
More than 10.0% decrease
African American Population Changes, 1920-1930

MASS MIGRATION
dedine
Efl
in
their
numbers
MOVEMENT
The great increase

in
In
some other
in
African Americans
in
some northern
states
meant a
states.
which states did the African American population more than double?
TURBULENT DECADE
635
Randolph
to
found the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters
in
workers led labor
1925.
it
activist A. Philip
became a powerful voice
for black workers.
13 LACK NATIONALISM
Frustrated by the slow pace of change,
African Americans
lost
hope of ever achieving
What African
equality in the United States.
Americans needed, they
A The NAACP began as an interracial coalition fighting for

Weldon Johnson,
African Americans' rights. James
said,
was a nation of
own. Foremost among these black
seated
some
their
was
nationalists
behind the desk, served as executive secretary of the NAACP

920 to 930. Johnson was also a noted author and
Marcus Garvey.
songwriter.
Universal Negro Improvement Association
from
Garvey, a native of Jamaica, founded the
(UNIA)
threw rocks
ming
an African American teenager swim-
at
shore spread to the rest of the
lence as they prowled the slums, attack-
Americans and destroying
By
537
time order was
the
restored. 38 people
had been
and
killed
late
1919,
some 25
race riots
had erupted around the country. In June

1921.
at least
30 people died during
race riot in Tulsa.
Oklahoma. One
resi-
dent described attacks on the black section
of town:
People were seen to
with babes
was
in
their
[A]
Marcus Garvey's Back-
movement
drew many followers
in
the following message to a Universal Negro

Improvement Association (UNIA) convention:
the cordiality with which
the
home
down on our
The National Association
for the
ing and discrimination in housing.
The
unions" continued failure to help black

2
to
all
constructive
feels,
who
men and
are able to lend a
hand
in
the
work which our country so deeply
and greatly needs.

Here we have abundant room and great
opportunities and here destiny
is
working to
ele-
vate and enthrone a race which has suffered

slavery, poverty, persecution
and martyrdom,
Americans
and mounted campaigns against lynch-
CHAPTER
them back
land, particularly those qualified to
writers, musicians, professional

(NAACP) stepped up its legal battle to
:i
invite
vast resources. Teachers, artisans, mechanics,
and discrimination, many African

Americans organized to defend their
636
99
rights for African
[Garvey's followers] of
help solve our big problems and to develop our

.
Faced with continued violence
win equal
in
tive of the king of Abyssinia (Ethiopia) read
women
rights.
America and
Africa. In 1922 a representa-
arms and
machine gun
raining bullets
section.
BACK-TO-AFRICA
fissure them
leading crying and excited chil.
"We
MOVEMENT
both
but whose expanding soul and growing genius
now
the hope of
to
to cre-
in Africa.
THE
flee
from their burning homes, some
dren.
independent black homeland
to-Africa
injured.
By
ate an
The
city.
White gangs fueled much of the vio-
property.
had two main goals:
more than a week.
rioting continued for
ing African
UNIA
Americans' economic independence
by establishing black-owned businesses and
broke out between whites and blacks on
fight that
1914.
foster African
Lake Michigan. The boy drowned. The
in
in
many
millions of mankind,
is
yy
shall
now
Garvey
told the delegates to
UNIA's
organize,"
seemed
international
first
different.
One
sign of this
growing
intoler-
Ku Klux Klan.
Klan of post-Civil War days, the new
ance was the resurgence of the

Like the
1915
Stone Mountain,
convention, "to plant the ban-
Klan. established
ner of freedom on the great
Georgia, used kidnappings, beatings, and lynchings
continent of Africa."
to terrorize
Americans
to
draw on
Marcus Garvey
their African heritage.
asserted that before Europeans
African Americans
99
Africa
were
was peopled with
He
we
lose hope?
you were once great; you

again.
immigrants. Catholics, and Jews, as well as such
ci\ ilized:
The Klan grew slowly
Why,
peak
shall
but as the
Red
its
as five million
members. At mass
rallies
white-robed Klan members burned crosses and
be great
spoke out against people and ideas they considered
faith,
**
go forward.
at first,
mid- 1920s, the Klan had perhaps as
in the
many
Black men,
Lose not courage, lose not
moral values as divorce.
Scare took hold, membership soared. Reaching
masters
.
cities,
the Klan targeted not only blacks but also radicals,
a race of
who were
science and literature.
in art,
then, should
South.
in the
midwestem towns and
South. In northern and
threats to traditional
cultured black men,
at
However, the Klan also grew rapidly outside the
charismatic speak-
Garvey urged African
er,
in
"undesirable." Klan views also influenced politics,
helping candidates win elections in such states as
To
foster
economic independence, Garvey
founded the Black Star Steamship Company

1919.
He urged
company so
that they
"may
company never turned
same
exert the
man does
Garvey promised investors huge
influ-
today."
returns, but the
a profit. In 1925
Garvey
jailed for mail fraud in connection with his
fund-raising activities. President Coolidge par-
doned him
in
died in 1940.
1927 but ordered him deported.

still
chnging
to his
He
dream.
jailed. Nevertheless, as
one newspaper said
"He made black people proud.

that black is beautiful."
leaders, such as
...
He
in 1927,
even Oregon.
particularly powerful in Indiana.
After 1925. however, the Klan declined, and
by 1930
its
membership had dropped
to
some
Red
9,000. Rising prosperity and the end of the
Scare diminished the Klan's appeal, but other fac-
One was the conviction of

an Indiana Klan leader
Grand Dragon David
tors also contributed.
Stephenson
was
for second-degree murder.
the discovery that
ting rich
Garvey"s movement declined after he was
American
The Klan was
African Americans to invest in his
ence on the world as the white
was
in
Louisiana, Oklahoma. Ohio. Texas
Another
Klan promoters were
from membership fees and the
regalia. Nevertheless, the
continues to spread
its
Klan did not die
get-
sale of
out;
it
message of white supremacy.
taught them
Although other African

W.E.B.
Du
Bois. shared
Garvey"s belief in racial pride and solidarity, they
opposed
his Back-to-Africa
insisted that African

tice
and equality
in
movement. They
Americans should
American
fight for jus-
society.
Continued
discrimination and a
growing sense of black pride led
to the rise of black nationalism.
The return of the

ku klux klan
To some degree, racism and discrimination during
mood in
More and more, native-born
Protestant Americans distrusted people who
the 1920s reflected a broader repressive
American
society.
Ku Klux Klan members taught
their children. Here, a baby
racist attitudes to
being enrolled into

the Klan on Independence Day, 1927.
A
is
TURBULENT DECADE
637
altogether. (Immigration
from
Immigration
nations in the Western
Hem-
restrictions
isphere
was not
The
1924
Immigration
limited.)
.Act of
During the 1920s the Klan also
reduced the quota to 2 percent
played on anti-immigrant feel-
of the 1890 figures for each
Many Americans feared

the country was being
national group. This change
ings.
that
overrun b\ immigrants
1920 nearly
worked against southern and

eastern Europeans because in
in
a quarter of the
1890 most Americans traced
henrysantrey
benton ley
population was foreign-bom or
their origins
to
England.
lee'david
nonwhite. Furthermore, the
Ireland, or northern Europe.

M WITUARK 6 SONS
number of immigrants, which
Of
While the 1924 law did not

exclude Asians, it set the
annual quota at only 100
Chinese and 100 Japanese
immigrants. In 1925 the
had declined during the war.
was once again
some 140.000
ing from
to
rising, increas-
some 805.000
1919
in
1921. This
in
"Ellis Island
Blues" was one of
many
songs written in the 1920s

about the flood of immigrants to the
United States after World
War
I.
dramatic growth, coupled with
restrictions reduced the total
the widespread belief that immigrants held radical
number of new immigrants from Europe.
views and took jobs from native-bom Americans.
Asia, and Australia to
demands
led to
for limits
Africa.
some 153.000.
on immigration.
In 1921 Congress passed a law limiting the
number of immigrants from each

into the United States.
countr)' allowed
The quota was
set at 3
percent of each nationality already in the country

in
1910. except for Asians,
who were excluded
The
revival of the
and new
limits
Ku Klux Klan
on immigration
revealed continued hostility

toward racial and ethnic groups.
Mexican Americans:
Percentage of State
Population, 1930
More than 10.0%

5.1-10.0%
I
1.1-5.0%
0.5-1.0%
Less than
0.5%
Total Mexican American

population: 1,422.533
Many
of the
some 37.000 Puerto
Rians who immigrated before World
Fewer than 20.000 Cubans came to
War
the United States before
became
agricultural laborers
Key West
in Arizona,
most
Midwest or the East
the
Hispamc Population, 1930

MASS MIGRATION
Between 1920 and 1930 some 500.000 Mexicans immigrated pnmanly
southwestern states where
many found
WM MOVEMENT
638
:i
CHAPTER
Which
jobs as agricultural, mining,
state's population
to the
and railroad maintenance laborers.
had the highest percentage of Mexican Amencans?
settled in
1930. and
Key West or Tampa.
Because of economic hardship, many families
EXICAN AMERICAN MIGRATION
allowed their young, unmarried daughters to work
Many found employment
outside the home.
In the Southwest, employers, particularly
in agri-
eries, hotels,
and
laundries, while others
bak-
in
worked
as
culture, railroad construction, and mining,
maids. Their newfound independence, as one
encouraged Mexican immigration, which was not
Mexican immigrant woman sadly noted, brought
affected
by the
restrictive legislation of the 1920s.
Few people were
arriving
from Europe and Asia,
and southwestern employers were eager to keep a

steady flow of workers to
low-wage
fill
jobs.
As
1920s some 500,000 immi-
a result, during the
where wages were
grants arrived from Mexico,
young women
learn
"into conflict with their parents.
about the outside world, learn
English, and then they

ents
who
They
speak
to
become ashamed of their
par-
brought them up here." Despite such con-
these
flicts,
how
new immigrants
mosaic of cultures
contributed to the
that helps define
American
life.
far lower.
The promise of jobs drew
Those who took agricultural jobs not only

had
low pay but many also had
to accept
Mexican immigrants, who were
to live in
ramshackle labor camps. One observer noted:
were made of almost every
Shelters
conceivable thing
branches.
ing
water
This
In the 1920s
In
palm
burlap, canvas,
woman
carry-
from the
Irriga-
found one
large milk pails

.
which they have
moved
We
In
tion ditch.
not subject to restrictive quotas,

to cities in the Southwest and
Midwest.
evidently
is
all
the water
99
camp.
many Mexican immigrants also

Some were drawn to well-
into urban areas.
paying factory jobs in
cities
such as Chicago and
new centers of Mexican

Midwest. Most, however,
Detroit and established
population in the
migrated to
cities in the
Southwest
particularly
Los Angeles, El Paso, and San Antonio (see map

on page 638). Usually the
men came
alone, and
once established, they sent for their wives and

dren.
Many brought
chil-
other relatives as well,
reestablishing extended family networks. These
networks helped
new
arrivals find jobs
and housing.
Mexican American Victor Vlllasenor wrote Rain of Gold, a

his family's experiences as immigrants to California
in the 920s. Shown here is the 929 wedding of his parents,
Juan Salvador and Lupe.
book about
SECTION
IDENTIFY and
REVIEW
explain the significance of the following: A. Philip Randolph, Marcus Garvey,
Immigration Act of 1924.

I .
MAIN IDEA In what way did Native Americans fight government attempts to take tribal land?
MAIN IDEA What factors contributed to the rise of black nationalism?
MAIN IDEA What events in the 1920s revealed continued hostility toward racial and ethnic
groups?
WRITING TO EXPLAIN
that explains
Imagine you are a Mexican immigrant
why you moved
EVALUATING What
In
the 1920s. Write a diary entry
to the Southwest or to the Midwest.
effect did the migration of African
Americans have on the North?
TURBULENT DECADE
639
Palmer raids
Marcus
Garvey founds
Race
begin.
CHAPTER
21
out
breaks
riot
in
Tulsa, Okia-
Black Scar
Warren G. Harding
homa. Congress
Pueblos orga-
Steamship
elected president.
limits immigration.
nize against
Company.
Bursum
Bill.
1919
REVIEWING THEMES
WRITING A SUMMARY
Using the essential points of the chapter as a guide.
summary
write a
steps did the federal
government take during the 1920s to reduce the
of the chapter.
perceived threat of revolution?
Number your
and
list
paper
to
5.
in
ond next to
2,
2.
Study the time

the order
3.
activity
did Native
did Republican
probusiness policies attempt to stimulate the
below.
economy?
1.
Palmer raids begin.
2.
Calvin Coolidge elected president.
3.
Congress
4.
Sacco and Vanzetti executed.
5.
what ways
In
Americans respond to discrimination?
the sec-
Cultural Diversity
Americans. African Americans, and Mexican
which
in
next to
first
above,
line
limits
Equal Rights
THINKING CRITICALLY
1. Synthesizing Why did many
immigration.
Amendment
Republican
introduced into
tial
Congress.
2.
How
Hypothesizing
might
political
been different during the 1920s
if
events have
President Harding
3.
had not died?
AND
IDENTIFYING PEOPLE
Americans vote
the 1920. 1924, and 1928 presiden-
elections?
Analyzing Why did many farmers fail to benefit

from the economic boom of the 1920s?
Evaluating Do you think women's groups that
opposed the Equal Rights Amendment were justified?
IDEAS
in
Why
or why not?

Dome
Review the Strategies for Success on Recognizing
1.
demobilization
6.
Teapot
2.
Edwin Curtis
7.
mergers
3.
Red Scare
8.
American Plan
passage from a
4.
Emma Goldman
9.
Marcus Garvey
the Imperial Wizard of the Ku Klux Klan.
5.
Andrew
0.
Immigration Act of
is
1924
terization be considered an
W Mellon
scandal
Stereotypes on page 616. Then read the following

1
Why
How
did demobilization lead to recession and an
increase
2.
in
What were
article
by Hiram Wesley Evans,
alien ...
is
instincts, character,
Why
What group
can Evans's charac-
example of stereotyping?
unalterably fixed
in his
thought, and interests by
centuries of racial selection and development.
unemployment?
...
the results of the 1919 strikes
926
the subject of this passage?
The
did the cost of living soar after the war?
He
own
thinks first for his
people, works
in
only with and for them.
considers himself
Seattle and Boston?

3.
How
were Warren G. Harding and Calvin
Coolidge
4.
What were
Why
5.
alike in their
approaches to government?
**
the "sick industries'" during the 1920s?
did they
fail
to benefit from the economic
boom?
What
the impact of the Sacco and Vanzetti case on public
events and attitudes led to increased social
tensions during the 1920s?
640
always one of them, and never an
American.
CHAPTER
opinion.
essay evaluating
Amendment
Congress grants Native

Americans citizenship.
Immigration Act of
A. Philip Randolph
founds Brother-
Sacco and
Herbert Hoover
introduced
into Congress.
1924 passed. Calvin

Coolidge elected
hood of Sleeping
Car Porters.
Vanzetti
executed.
elected president.
Harding
dies.
Equal Rights
president.
Albert Fall
goes to prison.
1
1925
1923

In
more than
1925
strike in Passaic,
ing conditions
and higher wages. Read the following
excerpt from "The

activist
War
Passaic" written by labor
in
Mary Heaton Vorse. Then write
summarizing the author's views of the
Half the picket line
a paragraph
strike.
composed of young
is
1927
1929
The present Passaic
went on
to demand better work-
1.000 textile workers
New Jersey,
^^
"^
people. Mothers with children by the hand,
strike is only
phase of the long fight of the
textile
for organization and a living wage.
When
there
cent,
it
human beings
becomes
large to
make
this state
such want and suffering, when
is
conditions of toil are so degrading,
places that
workers
live in
when
the
are so inde-
the concern of the public at
its
power felt and
of things
altered.
is
to see that
99
women and high-school boys and girls
older
stream along, their heads thrown back,

singing.
Passaic sprawling
and snow watches
slush
winter
in its
mill-workers
its
make a fidl-heaited protest against
the intol-
LINKING HISTORY
AND GEOGRAPHY
Study the African American and Hispanic population
maps on pages 635 and 638. Write a brief summary

shown on each map. Then
of the population trends
of possible factors that might help
erable conditions in the mills, against the
prepare a
inhuman and unbearable wage
explain the population distributions.
cut.
list
The mayor of Passaic menaced the

strikers with
a force of three hundred mount-
ed policemen.
3,000
strikers,
women, and
They charged a crowd of
BUILDING YOUR
PORTFOLIO
bludgeoned many men,
children,
and smashed with

and cameras of
deliberate intent the persons

the
news photographers.
anned with gas masks,
The
helmets,
strikers,
and
their

cooperatively.
unbending courage, defied the police successfidly
and paraded
in
peace.
THE ECONOMY
War
veteran
in
1919.
why you
tor, explaining
Imagine you are a World
Write
feel
a letter to
your sena-
the federal government
should help you secure a job. Your letter might
mention your concerns about low wages, the high

cost of
living,
and the few employment opportuni-
ties available in
2.
the postwar economy.
CULTURE AND SOCIETY
Imagine you
are an immigrant artist on the staff of
Goldman's
radical
Emma
magazine Mother Earth
1920s. Create a cover illustration for an

issue that expresses
following: the
Red
case, labor strikes,
in
the late
upcoming
your views about one of the
Scare, the Sacco and Vanzetti
or the Equal Rights Amendment.
Passaic strikers
TURBULENT DECADE
Bl
641
America's
GEOGRAPHY
Land Use
lêfore 1^92
LAND USE
^ OR
thousands of years
Americans have used the

land to
grow
crops.
Many
Native American groups

cultivated crops on small
plots of land long before the

arrival of
Europeans. In the
Game
Fish
Wild plants
1
Cultivated plants
early days of the republic,
and wild plants
Primary crop
grew a
Balance of
most farmers continued
to
IMaize
game
grow food crops on small

farms, although
many
or/y
Native American civilizations

variety
of crops. Although
maize was the most common domesticated crop,
large
oêrs included beans,
squash, pumpkins, tomatoes, potatoes,
plantations in the South used
grow
the land to
sweet potatoes, peanuts, cashews,

pineapples, papayas, avocados, sun-
great quan-
flowers, chili peppers, cacao, vanilla,
tities
of tobacco and cotton.

tobacco, indigo,
By
and
cotton.
the late 19th century, im-
proved farm machinery and
pesticides allowed farmers

to
grow
larger quantities of
food on smaller plots of

land. Despite
changes
The multipurpose,
wonder of the 20th century. By 1991

was the second most-popular crop
in
in
American farming
com
is still
the
primary food crop grown
in
America
just as
it
was
in the earliest civilizations.
^-
_-
insect sprays,
and
paint, as well as in
food products such
milk,
baby
cereals,
food.
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION, I9I0-I99I

1910
199!
2.85 billion
7.75 billion
CORN
(in bushels)
WHEAT
(in
bushels)
625
million
.98 billion
conoN
(in bales)
5 s
II. 61 million
17.5 million
processed
meats, and
TOBACCO
tofu.
(in
pounds)
.05 billion
1.66 billion
SOYBEANS
(in binhrJs)
642
UNIT
the processing of
as soy sauce, soy

in
.^-.rsarr-
the United States.
Soybeans are used
cattle feed, fertilizer.
have remained the same. For

instance,
^wi
it
farming techniques, some

aspects of
high-protein
soybean has become the agricultural
< 50.000
99
billion
and Use, 1910
Kmrop
production
in
the
United States was increasingly diversified
by the early
20th century. While wheat
and corn production dominated the Midwest region,

cotton dominated the South.
Most of this cotton was

grown by sharecroppers and
poor tenant farmers. The
South had the nation's
highest percentage of
Woodlands
Tobacco
people
living
culture
would continue
on farms. Agri-
H
I
Forest
and
Mixed crops
pasture
Grazing
Little cultivation
Hay and dairy
Urban, 1980
Wheat
200
to
dominate the South more

than any other region
400 Kilometers
after the
unt/7
930s.
>
I
'
of state
Corn
18% population
residing on farm
Cotton
Corn
Primary product
r^lthough
distinctive "belts"
of crop produaion
still
exist
today, regions are not as
dom-
inated by one particular crop.
For instance, cotton produc-
has shifted more to the
tion
Southwest, while soybean
and poultry production has

increased
in
the South. The
biggest change in farming in
recent years has been the decline
of the small family farm.
While the size of total farm

population has decreased
dramatically, the size of individual farms has increased as
large-scale
ing
Cand Use, 1980
commercial farm-
becomes the norm.
Chapter 22
1920-1930
THEJAkzAGE
UNDERSTANDING
THE MAIN IDEA
Jazz, the upbeat musical form devel-
oped by African Americans, helped

give the
1920s a unique character
The automobile, adver^sing, radio programs, and movies also inûenced
American
ArtJsts
life.
and
writers por-
trayed an American society growing
more urban and "modem." Many

Americans found the changes of the
1
920s
unsettling,
marked by
and the decade was
social conflict
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT How might increased

consumer spending help improve
a nation
economy?
TECHNOLOGY AND
SOCIETY How
might
new
technology transform people's

lives?
CULTURAL DIVERSITY
How
might the cultural tradi-
tions of a particular area or
group
conflict with
or contribute
to a national culture?
1920
1925
First radio stations
Scopes
go on the
Dayton,
Tennessee.
air.
held
in
trial
1926
Langston
Hughes's Weary
Blues published.
1927
Charles Lindbergh
completes first nonstop
flight from New York
1928
Amelia Earhart
crosses Atlantic
Ocean by
plane.
Americans had cut back on purchasing goods during World

::
ilUK TO THE PAST
War
the
I.
men and women were eager to buy
With the war over,
new products
that postwar American industry offered in
abundance.
new products transformed
n avalanche of
Americans
1920s
in the
none more so than
the lives of
the automobile.
The
automobile changed the way Americans worked, socialized, and ran

their households.
early as 1907 a
who
also helped
It
poem
change social roles for women. As
celebrated the growing independence of
women
drove:
44
Like the breeze
the passage of
Or
swift as the
or
in its flight,
fall
light,
of a
star.
She comes and she goes
in
nimbus
of dust
A goddess
The maid
enthroned on a
car.
of the motor, behold her
erect
With muscles
as steady as steel.
Her hand on the

in
The
New
lever and always
front
girl in
the automobile.
99
forms of entertainment,
including the wildly popular jazz
bands, amused Americans in the

generally prosperous 1920s. Radio
Life
magazine cover,
926
programs, talking pictures, musical

performances, and sporting events also entertained millions. But the
decade was not

revitalized
\2l22.
floor
show
in
all
amusement.
American
arts
small group of writers and artists
with their sober reflections on the war, race
Chicago, 1924
relations,
and the nature of American
society.
THE JAZZ AGE
645

Section
BOOM TIMES
c u s
What factors
led to the
economic boom of the 1920s?
Which processes changed work
habits during the twenties?
How did the automobile affect American life?

What developments stimulated consumerism?
cihe economy prospered in the 1920s.

higher than they had been
from $70
1922
billion in
in
to
In
1928 wages were a
third
1914. The gross national product climbed
$100
was accompanied by changes
billion just seven years later Prosperity
in the
workplace and a new automobile age.
Salespeople sold cars and a host of other products through aggressive

Automobile adver-
campaigns that aimed
to turn the
United States into a nation of consumers
P ROSPERITY AND PRODUCTIVITY
tisement, 1920
and food grinders. Radio and phonograph sales
boomed. Chemical companies also tempted con-
made from
and other new "wonder"
sumers, offering a variety of products
Many factors led to the boom times of the 1920s.

One was the Republicans' probusiness stance.
Another was abundant supplies of energy
oil,
network of
electrical
power

cal production
fuel oil
went from some 56
billion to 114 billion kilowatthours.
By 1930 over two
U.S.
homes had
thirds of
electricity.
The widespread
availability
of electricity created a demand for

a dizzying array of
new
electrical
washing machines,
sewing machines, cake mixers.
appliances
The Ford Motor Company

introduced assembly-line techniques in its factories as early as
1913. This photograph of a Ford
factory was taken in 1924. Henry
Ford is shown in the inset.
646
::
coal,
CHAPTER
22
materials. In 1930. textile mills produced
more than
118 million pounds of rayon and acetate
more than 13 times
yams
the 1920 production level.
A new
plants.
output doubled, and annual electri-
all
natural gas, and waterpower, as well as a vast
plastic, rayon, acetate,
nique
the
production
assembly
factories churn out
Around 1913,
line
tech-
helped
goods
faster.
after adapting tech-
niques used in the slaughterhouses
The assembly
ELECTRICAL PRODUCTION
line
allowed man-
ufacturers to reduce the prices of cars,
bringing them within reach of ordinary
American
Automobile
families.
regis-
from
trations during the twenties rose
8 million to 26 million
one car
3
40
0.
30
60
1920s the aulo industry
the nation's bigge.st business. This
new
20
for every five citizens.
In the
was
an average of
industrial giant
quantities of
consumed huge
and
steel, glass, rubber,
other materials. Gasoline, formerly a
5
1920
1930
i920
troublesome by-product of the petro-
1930
Total U.S.
Homes
Consumption
with Electricity
Source: Historical
Statistics
leum
became
industry,
the industry's
most-valued product. By 1929 over

one million people labored
in the auto-
mobile industry or a related business.
ABUNDANT ENERGY
The use of alternating
electric current
and
powerful transformers allowed electricity to be transmitted over great

distances. As a result, electrical use increased dramatically during the
IDENTIFYING CAUSE AND EFFECT

percentage did electrical consumption increase from
Probusiness policies,
ample energy, new industries, and the assembly
1920s.
By about what
1920
1930?
to
line fueled
boom
the econonnic
of the 1920s.
of Chicago, Henry Ford introduced the assembly
automobile plant. Workers stood
line in his Detroit
HANGESINWORK
one spot as partially assembled automobiles
in
moved
them on
past
advance precisely
conveyor
timed
belt
by
six feet per minute. Bit
to
bit,
workers assembled the 5,000 parts of a Model T, or

"Tin Lizzie," until the finished product could be
much
driven out of the factory. Machinery did

the
work of producing individual
ing
them
to workers.
of
and carry-
parts
Boasted Ford:
Although assembly
human
they had a
needed
"work
to
skilled laborers
lines increased productivity,
cost. Little technical skill
the line." Thus,
jobs on the line suffered.
The work was deadening, leading many to quit

within a few weeks. To counter the high turnover.
Ford limited the workday
Every piece of
moves;
chains ...
form, or
is
it
it
workman
lifting
may
travel
may go by
that there
or
work
in
is
no
on
the shop
The assembly
time for a Model
moving
gravity,
lifting
No
The
do with moving
have
in half.
engine assembly
Other large car manu-
facturers quickly followed Ford's lead and

installed
assembly
lines.
one Ford worker noted, the
as the wife of
pay increase did not change working conditions:
99
line cut the
hours and dou-
Both of these bold steps were welcomed.

However,
plat-
but the point
or trucking.
has anything to
anything.
to eight
bled wages to an unheard-of $5 a day.
may move on hooks, on overhead
it
was
higher-paid
were thrown out of work. But even
who found
the people
many
But few small companies
is
chain system [assembly line] you
a slave driver!
My
God! Mr. Ford.
My
husband has come home & thrown himself

down & won't eat his supper so done out!
Can't
it
blessing
be remedied?
a bigger
oh they earn
That $5 a day
is
one than you know but
**
it.
could afford the expense of building or maintaining the
new
technology. Unable to compete,
many
The innovations of "Fordism" were more than
were driven out of business. Soon the industry was
matched by those of another movement,
dominated by three big corporations: Ford,
"Taylorism." The movement's creator, Frederick W.
General Motors, and Chrysler.
Taylor, called his approach scientific
management.
THE lAZZ AGE
647

< Frederick W.
Taylor pioneered
techniques used to
increase workers'
Just as the automobile
output.
the world of work, so the automobile revolution-
A LAND OF AUTOMOBILES
assembly
By 1930
ized the entire transportation system.

trucks,
horse-drawn vehicles. Even railroads and trolley
idea that every kind
cars lost riders to Ford's "Tin Lizzie" and other
of work could be
automobiles.
was based on
broken
down
tasks.
Trained ob-
servers conducted
"time-and-motion" studies to identify these tasks
machines had
To accommodate
into a
series of smaller
than 400,000 miles of
Soon
to meet.
"efficiency experts"
were applying Taylor's methods
to
many
areas of
the increased traffic,
new
host of
new
structures
highways sprouted a
filling stations, drive-in
and billboards.
restaurants, tourist cabins,
The automobile enabled
rural residents to
have greater contact with their neighbors and more

access to shopping and leisure activities. Cars
linked rural regions to urban areas, making
business.
scientific
management
ier for rural residents to relocate to the
changed the types of jobs available
to workers.
cities
The assembly
line
and
While the number of factory jobs grew only
slightly
during the 1920s, openings for such white-collar
more
roads were built during
the decade. Alongside the
of production that people and
set rates
cars,
and buses had almost completely replaced
the
It
and then
transformed
line
the
and for
it
eas-
booming
city dwellers to visit the country.
same time, however,
At
the automobile con-
tributed to the depopulation of America's inner
jobs as manager, clerical worker, and salesperson
increased from slightly more than 10 million to
more than 14
million.
Because most of these jobs
required that applicants have at least a high-school
With some nine million automobiles in use by

more and more families explored the country In their cars. Shown here is an advertisement
encouraging motorists to take the Apache Trail
Motor Tour through Arizona's National Reserve.
1920,
education, few newly arrived immigrants qualified.
Discriminatory hiring practices also closed most of

these jobs to African Americans.
Changes
in
technology affected domestic
labor as well. Electrical appliances transformed
housework
for those
who could
afford them.
Before the introduction of appliances, servants did

the laundry and heavy cleaning in
APACHE TRAIL
120 MILE MOTOR TRIP THROUGH
ARIZONA'S NATIONAL RESERVE
most middle-
and upper-class homes. With the introduction of

electrical appliances,
many
middle-class house-
wives took over the jobs they had previously

supervised.
As
a result,
many
servants were forced
new employment.
As more families bought
velt
l^kr and Daui, the ancient

am! ihr Cinyon of
River.
cars,
many middle- and
housewives
upper-class
families had cars, their groceries and other supplies
homes. The automobile
allowed housewives to drive to grocery stores and

other shops. Thus, like household servants, delivery
people often found their jobs
Scientific
in jeopardy.
management and new
technology transformed working

conditions in the 1920s.
648
CHAPTER
22
Through tickeU
Soulhcm Pacific Lines mII be

honomi ^â the .APACilE TRAIL
on
|Kiynieni of
Hitli iIm-
$15 additional.
Car*
Slrr|>in*
Sunwl
l.imilnl
air-
in
rtMimrlion
nprntnl
cvvn
El PjMk Ttrt, aiut Glolir. Arix..

Tiirxiai
to their
over
also began taking over their families' transportation
had been delivered
in
Cliff DueUiiis."
l*ulliiMn
needs. Before
jounirv
(t>infortablc inolor car lclwccn
GIoIk: and Phoenix. .Arir-via R(>o5e-
ihc Sail
to find
(iavV
Allirilliu^
antl
Kridjii.
Can brt^rra
L( An^k>. (^L
Sk^piii^
Kra.! Ihr Mt>r^ of ibr

thi i*Mir of RccrcJtion.
AIm
dailr
nHM.-aL\.
l>rtt-rm
SuDtlay.
l*iilliiuti
Ariz.,
and
APACHE TR.\IL ui
Changing
HITTING THE ROAD
Wags
In
the 1920s, as millions of
Americans purchased automo-
tion.
new
biles,
nation
craze swept the
the "autotouring"
vaca-
Guidebooks urged
Americans to
Does
fish
the road:
hit
father crave to
for trout and bass and
pike and musky? Take him
auto-touring.
want to
dip
Does
in
Families took advantage of
sister
new government autocamps
traveling on the road. This photograph
the surf
while
shows a family camping
in
the 1920s.
or see the world? Take
...
her automobile vacationing.
Does mother
from
for a rest
tines?
It was
sigh
daily rou-
Take her touring.
Does baby need fresh

mountain
air far
from
tourists]
camping.
all
**
sofa pillors.
routes of passenger trains, car
under their
trimmed with the
city
dwellers
who
vacationed
in
But
in
ain't
chins, caps
tails
porcupines.
free
**
farmers welcomed
often took a lot of "it" with
these visitors from the
them. Camping gear for the
Autotourists broke the isolation
typical autotourist included a
of rural
autocamps to provide
welcome com-
forts, while
keeping them off
private land. Electric lighting
city.
and seemed
to keep
These agencies set up
tourists with
life
town govin
people and visitors from
local
clashing.
first
**
ernments, stepped
squirrels, skins of rat-
At
loaded with
services, along with
of
tlesnakes, and quills of
getting away, they
shotgun
National and state park
the country to "get away from

it all."
bri
which
road dust]. They wore
were
doubl
Egyptian veils and even
paper hats that tied
tourists
gas masks [to keep out
Freed from travel restrictions
America.
sochible to strangers and
of
veils
imposed by the schedules and
Most motor
extent of 2 mongrel dogs
descriptions, flowing
owners took to the road to see
full
which neve was over
managed to
They wore
attain.
flies
and heat? Take him auto-
will
persecuted to the
knickered rovers [auto-
Trespassers
amazing what
colorful combinations the
made
it
possible for motorists
to arrive and set up
likely
camp
after
tent, gas stove, heater,

utensils,
table
cooking
customers for farm produce.
pots and pans, folding
and
chairs, blankets,
But instead of buying
and
their
them from
snitched
Autotourists tended to
all
a culture
own. They often dressed
and
the need for firewood.
The heyday
vegetables, vacationers often
even beds.
camp together and had
fruits
dark, and gas ranges eliminated
fields.
;
trees and
passed as the prosperity of the
Sometimes campers even
milked farmers' cows! They also
dumped
their garbage
of autotourism
on farm-
920s gave way to the depression
of the
930s. But
be seen today
in
its
legacy can
the continuing
in
ways that
led observers to
ers' land.
marvel and to gawk at the same

time.
One
reporter wrote:
Soon
autotouring appeared
\
areas.
One
appeal of sight-seeing and camp-
signs banning
in
ing vacations
rural
such sign read:
ity
and
in
the popular-
of recreational vehicles.
THE JAZZ AGE
649
cities.
Suburbs.
more accessible
ni)\\
ilian ever,
attracted thousands ot middle-class families.
The automobile
also transformed family
Cars enabled families to enjoy simple drives

country and elaborate camping
bile created
new
trips.
life.
in the
The automo-
relations.
Lynd and Helen Lynd,
whose book Middletown (1929) chronicled
life in
Muncie, Indiana, wrote:
CREATING CONSUMERS
extensive use of this
new
became big business in the

demand for cars and other consumer goods. Before World War I. money spent on
Advertising, which
tool [the
1920s, fueled the
automobile] by the young has enormously
extended their mobility and the range of

alternatives before
them; joining
motoring over to a dance
away may be
community
social opportunities for teenagers
as well. Sociologists Robert
4 The
Cars revolutionized the nation's

transportation system, eased
rural isolation, aided suburban
growth, and changed family and
a matter of a
advertising had totaled
crowd
moment's
sion, with no one's permission asked.
some $500
million yearly.
By 1929 the total had soared to more than $3 billion. Ads were everywhere. Commercial messages
twenty miles
deci-
**
bombarded
potential buyers not only in
magazines
and new spapers but aLso on billboards and over the

But the automobile had negative effects as
well. Critics
claimed that cars reduced people's
sense of neighborliness.
The Lynds observed
that
"since the advent of the automobile and the
movies" Muncie families and neighbors no longer

spent "long
summer evenings and Sunday
traffic
was
of radio.
Advertisements, most of which targeted

women, used psychology to play on consumers*
hopes and fears. Ads for Borden's milk, for
instance,
warned mothers
well-to-do and poor alike
by
malnutrition. Your
were already causing pollution,
this insidious evil."
noons on the porch or

the twenties, cars
after-
new medium
in the side yard." Also,
jams, and parking problems. Most serious
the steadily climbing accident rate.
own
that
"Hardly a family
escapes
child
Companies used slogans,

monials by celebrities to
fix
may
the
menace of
fall
jingles,
victim to
and
testi-
product names
in
,XiJ^-^ liU-^-
Advertisements often stressed the ease of oper-
It
hasn t a
single belt, fan
ation or low maintenance of the device being
offered for sale. This ad for an "unusually quiet"
or drain pipe
refrigerator appeared in 1927.
Salespeople proudly display a host of new home

proved wildly popular in
the 1920s.
electrical appliances that
^MS
m^t
Omi<^<k*
efrigetator
GENERAL ELECTRIC
650
:;
CHAPTER
22
Eleanor
minds.
customers"
Roosevelt (whose husband.

Franklin D. Roosevelt,
governor of
New
was then
York) praised
Cream of Wheat, which
their
son John had eaten since baby-
hood. The cereal, she was

quoted as saying, "has undoubtedly played
his robust
As
part in building
physique."
the
expanded
its
number of products
to
meet the growing
demand, new chain stores sprang
up around the country. For
A & P grocery
grew
from
some 3.000
chain
example, the
stores in
1922 to about 14.000 by
The chain grocery
1925.
Chain grocery stores did not completely replace the neighborhood

grocery. Immigrants continued to shop at family-run groceries such
as this one, owned by Antonio and Angeline Tortolano. At such
stores customers could buy ethnic foods and talk to shopkeepers in
stores,
their native language.
which slowly replaced the comer

markets, stocked a wide variety
of
new
products.
The chain
stores could
do so
because cellophane, a transparent wrapping material

first
produced
in the
United States
in 1924,
and
buyers purchased about 75 percent of cars on

credit.
items.
The practice soon spread

As a car dealer noted:
to
many
other
quick-freezing techniques preserved fresh foods
To
longer and allowed them to be shipped over longer
keep America growing
we must
keep Americans working, and to keep
distances.
Effective merchandising depended above
Americans working we must keep them
all
on clever salespeople. "There are always some

people that you can
sell
them hard enough." claimed a car
more than
wanting; wanting
the bare neces-
you hammer
sities;
wanting the luxuries and
dealer. Door-to-
make
life
anything to
if
so
frills
that
much more worthwhile, and

makes
door salespeople hawked everything from cleaning
installment selling
supplies to encyclopedias.
Americans wanting.
it
easier to keep
99
People also bought more because of easy

credit.
Advertising, merchandising, and

installment buying encouraged
consumerisnn.
Before the 1920s, consumers bought only a
few expensive items, such as pianos and sewing

machines, on the installment plan.
By
mid-decade,
SECTION
REVIEW
IDENTIFY and
explain the significance of the following: assembly
Taylor, scientific
management, Robert Lynd, Helen Lynd.
I .
line,
Henry Ford, Frederick W.
MAIN IDEA What factors contributed to the economic prosperity of the 920s?
MAIN IDEA What innovations transformed working conditions in the late 1920s?
ASSESSING CONSEQUENCES How did the invention of the automobile change
1
Americans
the
way
lived?
WRITING TO INFORM
of directors a brief
Imagine you are the president of a chain store. Prepare for your board
summary
ANALYZING Why can
it
of
how
the
company
plans to attract
new customers.
be said that the technological and business innovations of the 1920s
had both positive and negative consequences for American society?
THE JAZZ AGE
651
Section 2
LIFE IN
c u s
What were the most
popular forms of entertainment during the
In what ways did young

female behavior?
What
THE TWENTIES
women
of the
did the debate over Prohibition
American
Whe decade
society
in
920s?
920s depart from traditional
and Fundamentalism reveal about
the 1920s?
of the 1920s has been called the gateway
to
modern
America. For the first time a truly national mass culture emerged
in the
United States. Commercial radio linked Americans from
coast to coast. Instant communications not only entertained
people but also informed them about serious developments. The
emerging mass culture also brought changes
and caused conflicts over traditional
in
women
's
roles
values.
POPULAR ENTERTAINMENT
Matinee
Commercial radio arose
many
times
in the
though
not
United States meant that

all
Americans had bigger
paychecks and more free time than
To help
fill
their leisure hours,
turned to radio and movies.
in years past.
many Americans
Detroit's
first stations,
KDKA.
Boom
idol
Rudolph Valentino
The
in the twenties.
WWJ
and Pittsburgh's
By 1929, more
than 800 stations reached some 10 million
homes more than a third of the nation's hou.sewent on the
air in
1920.
holds. "There
is
radio music in the
air,
every night,
everywhere," gushed a San Francisco newspaper.
"Anybody can hear
it
home on
at
Along with music, radio

events, news, and
By
the
a receiving set."
stations broadcast sports
comedy shows.
end of the decade, two networks, the
National Broadcasting
Company (NBC) and
Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS), aired
the
their
programs nationwide. Households across the land

tuned
in to the
same programs.
Movies proved equally popular, having

grown in both length and complexity since their
beginnings in the 1890s. The earliest movie
^ Advances
in
technology
made
radio
more
Americans during the 1920s. This

photograph shows a young woman tuning in to
a program on her radio set in 922.
accessible to
652
:i
CHAPTER
22
Moviegoers during the

see
romance
920s stood
to
in line
films starring John Gilbert
and Greta
Garbo, action films with Douglas Fairbanks, or

comedies featuring Charlie Chaplin.
As motion pictures grew in popularity, theater

owners built lavish movie palaces with elaborate
balconies, box seats, and a pit for live orchestral
music.
theaters
called nickelodeons because of the five-
cent admission
attracted mainly working-class
and immigrant audiences.
movie palaces with names
By
the 1920s, lavish
like the
short films
Americans turned to radio and

movies for entertainment during
and
theaters impressed jour-
In
the "de luxe" [movie] house every
man
a king
woman
Most of these cinema palaces

seats at the
same
price,
and get
it;
in
the
this
suave atmosphere, the differences
men
In
age 31. mourners lined up for
became
One
sports favorite
1920 to 1935, during which time he
99
New
York Yankees to four

World Series championships. In
led the
first
1927 the spindle-legged.
feature-length "talkie." The Jazz Singer, starring Al
pigeon-toed
Jolson. Silent-screen stars with high squeaky
player astounded the
voices soon found themselves unemployed. In
emerged new actors with
distinctive
ball
sports world with a

record 60
home
runs.
and appealing voices, among them Gary Cooper
Hard-hitting tennis
and Clara Bow. The advent of sound also led
Star
new
was Babe
Ruth. Ruth dominated baseball from
enter these portals equal, and
1927 Warner Brothers released the
their places
instant celebrities.
in the public eye.
especially athletes and pilots.
thus the movies are perhaps a symbol of
democracy.
Rudolph Valentino died
So did other figures
In
that determine our lives outside are forgotten. All
at
culture, actors
with the poor. ...

.
1926
star
and heroes
blocks to view his body. In this era of mass
their
man
in line
When movie
a queen.
sell all
rich
stands
the 1920s.
vTelebrities
and every
to the
the silent films.
nahst Lloyd Lewis:
is
the day. In
Roxy. the Bijou,
velvet drapes, plush carpets, uniformed ushers,
The mass appeal of movie
news of
1929 some 80 million Americans flocked
ences as well. The more-luxurious theaters had
accompany
the
theaters each week.
and the Riiz. were attracting middle-class audi-
great theater organs to
summing up
to
film forms, includina musicals and newsreels.
Helen
wowed
Wills
audiences
^
During
714
broken
hit
his
home
long career, Babe Ruth

runs a record not
until 1974.
THE JAZZ AGE
653
THE TWENTIES
German
Richard Miiller^Freienfels, a
professor and writer,
studied industrialization and the mass culture that emerged

In the early 20th centurv. Here is his description of American
life in
the 1920s:
mIII
by the same
the
tailor,
men seem
and
all
the
to be clothed
women seem
to have bought their hats at the
shop.
same
The most remarkable thing
men,
faces,
all
these
girls,
and captured more major tennis championships
U.S.
Open
woman
title
world. Wills
in the
a dead-level as
won
the
seven times and Wimbledon eight
Swimmer Gertrude Ederle broke the world

record when she swam the English Channel in
at
age
She went on
19.
to set
swimming records and to win

the 1924 summer Olympics.
U.S.
in
Few
lull
greater
more than 20
several medals
fame than Jim Thorpe. Born

Irish,
in
1888
in
and French
ancestry.
Thorpe attended the Carlisle Indian
School
Pennsylvania. There he played every
in
After
0^
^v
more remarkable when
nowhere
[else]
is
there such
99
world," said the Swedish king as he presented
in the
Thorpe with a
replied
A
ashes.
"Thanks, King,"
his gold medals.

grin.
year later Thorpe's triumph turned to
The news became public
that
he had played
semiprofessional baseball for money. (At the time.
Olympic
athletes had to be amateurs.) Officials
name from Olympic
confiscated his awards.
Thorpe had been treated
him from
people
unfairly; he
ized that playing baseball for

qualify
record books and
Many
felt that
had not
real-
money would
dis-
track competition.
Thorpe went on
to a respectable career in
left
.several spectacular years

ball. In his later years,
playing professional foot-
which were clouded by
become
movie
Not
ill-
Olympics.
1982. 29 years after his death, did an Olympic
At
the
1912 games, held
in
committee restore
Stockholm, Sweden,
he became the
first
actor.
until
his medals.
Probably the greatest celebrity of the 1920s
was
pilot
Charles Lindbergh. In
May
1927 he took
contestant to win both
off in a small single-engine plane, aiming to
the pentathlon and the
$25,000 prize
that
decathlon. "Sir. you
been offered
to
are the greatest athlete
the first pilot
NVP
22
the
ness, he tried to
Charles Lindbergh's solo flight

across the Atlantic Ocean in 1927
in his plane, The Spirit of St. Louis,
made him an international
CHAPTER
he
Thorpe be-
RVftN
654
the United States, and
gan training for the
Jim Thorpe
celebrity.
no other
major-league baseball and in the 1920s enjoyed
intercollegiate sport the school offered.
Carlisle,
In
mixture of races and peoples.
erased his
athletes of the 1920s, however, enjoyed
Oklahoma, he was of Sauk, Fox,
in
all
reflect that
Thorpe with
times.
1926
appears
this
we
with their doll-like
which are generally painted, seem to
than any other
a Ford factory, not by the
in
country are the individuals reduced to such
clean-shaven
All these
somewhere
dozen but by the thousand.
is
that even the people impress one as having
been standardized.
have been produced
had
win a
New
nonstop from
to fly
York
to Paris. After fly-
ing solo for 33 1/2-hours. he landed in France.
Americans were delirious with

a ticker-tape
threw
New
joy.
Yorkers
the
at
White House. Lindbergh's
coming era of
exciting glimpses of a
next year, pilot
woman
making and motherhood.
It is in
hope of the country
that the
home-
her type
99
resides.
parade for Lindbergh, and
President Coolidge received the modest young
man
to shoulder the responsibilities of
The
air travel.
Amelia Earhart became
to cross the Atlantic
Ocean by
IS
flight offered
The "new woman"
of the twenties defied conventions in dress

and behavior.
the first
plane.
CRISIS
OF VALUES
Many Americans found
The "NEW WOMAN"
the social changes of the
1920s more troubling than exciting. For them conin
servative values and traditional ways of life
women's dress and behavior. Influenced by popu-
remained important. Despite the spread of mass
Two
many changes
of the
lar actresses
1920s were
in the
and by the independence of working-
women, some young women exercised new

freedom in how they dressed and behaved. These
class
women
Moore explained
Actress Colleen
changes
in dress
represented a
that these
new independence
many
citizens' lives
still
centered on fam-
church, and neighborhood, and religion
ily,
remained a
stopped wearing heavy corsets and started
wearing shorter skirts and transparent silk hose.
For these
ized the
of American culture.
vital part
traditionalists, the flapper
unwelcome changes overtaking

With
try in the 1920s.
their
symbol-
the coun-
unconventional dress
and behavior, flappers rejected traditional values.
To conservatives, the popularity of romantic
women:
for
culture,
movies and cheek-to-cheek dancing seemed signs
44
Long
skirts, corsets,
tresses have gone.

will
see to
this.
She
is
and flowing
The American
of increasing immorality. Most
"modem"
girl
decreed
this
who
in
cities,
critics
blamed these
noting with anxiety that
ways
to
remotest rural areas. Anxiety increased
the past have
or that for her to wear.
on
radio and movies spread city
independent, a
thinker [who] will not follow slavishly the
ordinances of those
habits
census of 1920 revealed that for the
99
first
even the
when
time,
the
more
than half of the U.S. population lived in met-
ropolitan areas. In the face of these
"new women"
tremendous changes, arguments
flappers. Flappers enjoyed defying traditional
raged over such issues as alcohol
People began to
standards of
call the era's
womanly
behavior.
bobbed
dresses daringly short,
makeup. They also drove

sports,
and smoked
They wore
their hair,
in their
cars, participated in
in their social
economic independence.
Young women increasingly worked outside
money
to
employment and
for themselves.
to fulfill their roles
clear in 1921
Progressive
If
alcohol
urban
to
combat
problems
(see Chapter 17). Baptists,
they
as wives
when he described
Miss America beauty

homemaker was still the ideal of
Methodists, and other Protes-
opposed drinking.
Furthermore, during World
War I, many reformers had
tants also
advocated prohibition
war measure.
as a
pageant, the
Playing on wide-
American womanhood:
spread anti-German
sentiment, they had
She represents the type of
America needs
such
family
violence, crime, and poverty
the winner of the first
as
the
and mothers. As Samuel Gompers, leader of the
AFL, made
Prohibition.
meet
married, however, they were expected to quit their
paid
/^^:
religion.
reformers had called for a ban on
home, which gave them more freedom

people and save
and
and wore
cigarettes.
Flappers gloried not only

freedom but also
their
womanhood
strong, red-blooded, able
German
Americans owned
noted that
Couples during the 1920s often held

each other close In a cheek-to-cheek
style while dancing to romantic music.
THE JAZZ AGE
655
Gangs branched out
to seize control of
gam-
bling establishments, houses of prostitution, and
dance
halls.
They
also
made money through "promoney from owners of
tection" rackets, collecting
and other businesses by threatening vio-
stores
lence
if
their victims failed to pay.
Prohibition had some positive consequences. Alcoholism declined and so did the
number of deaths from alcohol-related
causes.
Prohibition's negative results, however, drew
more
attention. Prohibition led to a
widespread
breakdown of law and order and turned millions

of otherwise law-abiding citizens into lawbreakers.
Prohibition would later be repealed with the
Amendment
ratification of the Twenty-first

in
Federal agents such as Izzy Einstein and Moe Smith often went
undercover and tried to purchase alcohol in speakeasies. When the
alcohol
was served, the agents made
their arrests.
1933.
Fundamentalism. The
of a Protestant
movement
increasing popularity
called
Fundamentalism
also revealed deep cultural conflicts in 1920s
America. Fundamentalists believed that every
word of
many of the
large breweries.
They had
also pointed
They attacked Christian
"liberals"
who had
out that drinking reduced the efficiency of soldiers
accepted modern scientific learning, such as the
and workers. After the Eighteenth Amendment
theory of evolution. This "modernism," said
made
Fundamentalists, weakened Christianity and con-
the manufacture, sale, and transportation of
alcoholic beverages illegal in January 1919.
Congress passed the Volstead Act
in
tributed to the moral decline of the nation.
October 1919
amendment. America entered
to enforce the
the era
Revivalist preachers of the "old-time
gion" found an eager audience, both
reli-
in rural areas
urban areas where traditional values
of Prohibition.
and
some regions Prohibition was strictly

enforced, and drinking declined. But in many parts
of the country, especially among immigrants, col-
remained strong. Billy Sunday, who had long
In
lege students, and
some
city dwellers. Prohibition
in
preached against alcohol, drew huge crowds to his

tent revivals.
People were spellbound by Sunday's
showmanship and
his rousing attacks
When
on dancing,
was extremely unpopular and widely ignored. Many
card playing, and drinking.
people treated the reform as an annoyance,
into effect, he held a funeral service for "John
joke.
They frequented speakeasies.
made
their
own wine
bought bootleg
or liquor, and
(illegal) alcohol that
had been smuggled from Canada or

the
West
Indies.
Bootlegging became one of

the decade's
booming businesses.
Criminal gangs
in the large cities
controlled liquor sales.
Gang
lead-
if
not a
Barleycorn."
hol,
Aimee Semple
McPherson preached
nearly 20 years
in
personified alcothat "the reign of
tears is over."
for
Another popular
a Los
Angeles temple that her

supporters built at a cost
of $1.5 million.
who
and declared
Prohibition went
the
revivalist of
1920s was Aimee Semple
McPherson, whose practice of
faith
healing and message of love

attracted thousands to her International
Church of
the Foursquare
Los
ers gained the cooperation of lav\
Gospel, headquartered
enforcement
Angeles. Most of her followers
officials
by bribing or
in
dwellers of modest
threatening them. Al Capone. the
were
boss of Chicago's underworld,
army of heav-
income, many of them recent

migrants from the Midwest.
armed mobsters. He and other
Outfitted in her signature white
commanded
ily
gangsters
656
true.
the Bible should be regarded as literally
CHAPTER
a small
made
22
millions of dollars.
city
dress, white shoes,
and blue cape.
address public concerns over
speech continues. The National
movie content, Hollywood set
Endowment
up
I he Roaring Twenties
time of short
skirts,
bathtub
gambling, jazz, and the

ing movies.
old taboos
after the
It
was
was
1924
its
own
board, a forerunner of today's
attack for funding artists
gin,
movie-rating system, to screen
works some consider obscene.
movie content.
But while
when
The American
were challenged one
Liberties
other Alarmed and
art as
Civil
Union and other
NEA
The
and other
agencies are caught
middle of the
the
in
battle.
Several rock and rap
religious,
and government groups
musicians have also
come
took
action.
These
activists pulled
that contain violent lyrics or
from
library
and store
lyrics that
under
shelves books and maga-
fire
for recording songs
degrade women.
In
response, the Recording
zines that used foul lan-
Industry Association of
guage, discussed sex
America has begun
frankly,
or supported
radi-
Although James Joyce's Ulysses was inibanned, a later federal court ruling
declared that it was not obscene and was
cal political ideas. U.S.
Customs
many
officials
tially
labeled
a true
books
foreign
work
of literature.
restrictions
on the content of
author James Joyce.
movies and
literature.
Groups
movie
labels
placing
on any
recordings that contain

lyrics that
might be unsuit-
many
people believe voluntary
including the novel Ulysses by

Irish
warning
able for minors. But
obscene and seized them,
also targeted the
industry. Several states
labeling
They
is
not enough.
for instance,
In
1992,
Washington State
argued that such censorship vio-
banned the
lated the Constitution's First
of certain recordings to minors.
sale
and distribution
and dozens of communities
Amendment, which guarantees
formed censorship boards to
freedom of speech and freedom
tion of free speech or a
ban movies deemed unsuitable
of the press.
form of protection? American
for young people. To both
stem
McPherson addressed her
new
doctrines of
jazz-ism."
followers' concerns about
"communism,
McPherson
Today the
battle
between
socialism, and
also used radio
and maga-
such censorship a viola-
needed
society and U.S. courts continue
to struggle with this question.
any Tennessee schoolteacher
who would
challenge
the statute. John Scopes, a shy high-school biology
teacher from Dayton, accepted the offer.
The
zines to spread her fundamentalist message.
As
The Scopes
Is
censorship and freedom of
the tide of censorship and
the
obscene and unsuitable
expression.
moral standards,
many community,
judge the
critics
defend their right to freedom of
groups opposed these growing
breakdown of the
nation's
some
for public funding, the artists
outraged by what they saw

as the
come under
whose
for example, has
review
first talk-
a time
in
for the Arts (NEA),
trial
took place in a circus atmosphere.
the trial began in Dayton, the
little
town was
Fundamentalism went on
overrun by reporters, farmers in mule-drawn wag-
a famous court case in July 1925. Earlier that
ons, and big-city lawyers. Scopes's chief defense
year the Tennessee legislature had outlawed the
attorney was salty Clarence Darrow, a famous
trial in
trial.
teaching of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution
prime target of Fundamentalists

lic
schools.
To
test the
in the state's
pub-
law's constitutionality, the
American Civil Liberties Union offered
to
defend
criminal lawyer from Chicago.

star witness
was
The prosecution's
the elderly William Jennings
Bryan, the former Democratic presidential candidate and secretary of state.
THE JAZZ AGE
657
Clarence Darrow (right)

devoted a large part of his
career to defending the
"underdog." This photograph
shows him with John Scopes
legal
in
I92S.
Because the theory of evo-
human
lution implied that
beings had descended from

ape-like creatures, the Scopes
trial became known as the
"Monkey
Trial."
Jg^'iiiiJ
THE CHICAGO DAILY NEWS.:~^3

TTBiDkt.
iTU
M.
MM.
SCOPES "GUILTT'
The Scopes
trial
new
felt that
the Tennessee law as a threat to free expression. In
in
one of his courtroom speeches, he warned
traditional religious val-
ways of
many Americans
values based on scientific
thought. Bryan represented the
who
APE CASE
exposed a deep division
American society between

ues and
IN
teners that "today
tomorrow the
Darrow's arguments failed
They found Scopes

verdict
purpose and our only purpose
seemed
Bryan and
guard the religion of their children against
many
made
undermine
in
the
faith in
name
guilty
to
sway
the jury.
and fined him $100. The
which often portrayed
trial,
narrow-minded, colored
his cause as
people's views of Fundamentalism.
of science to
supernatural religion.
99
The debate over
Prohibition and
Fundamentalism revealed a
of values in 1920s America.
Darrow, on the other hand, expressed the

views of many other Americans when he attacked
SECTION
IDENTIFY and
day the preachers
a victory for Fundamentalists. But
press accounts of the
is
to vindicate [uphold] the right of parents to
efforts
the public school teachers,
is
private, the next
newspapers."
Bryan
declared:
Our
crisis
REVIEW
explain the significance of the follov^lng: Babe Ruth, Helen Wills,
Gertrude Ederle,
Jim Thorpe, Charles Lindbergh, Amelia Earhart, flappers, Volstead Act, Twenty-first
Amendment,
Fundamentalism, Aimee Semple McPherson, John Scopes.

1
MAIN IDEA What two
forms of entertainment were most popular among Americans during the
1920s?
2.
MAIN IDEA How
3.
IDENTIFYING VALUES
Jennings Bryan
4.
in
did the flapper represent the

In
the Scopes
WRITING TO INFORM
what ways
"new woman"
of the 1920s?
did the differing views of Clarence
trial reflect
the clash
in
Darrow and William
values of 1920s America?
Write an essay explaining the negative and
positive
consequences of
Prohibition.
5.
HYPOTHESIZING What
revivalists
658
CHAPTER
22
social factors
during the 1920s?
lis-
and the lecturers, the magazines, the books, the
the theory of evolution contradicted
deeply held religious beliefs. Speaking before the

trial to an audience of local admirers,
it
his
might account for the popularity of sports figures and

Section 3
A CREATIVE ERA
B^
c u s
How did African Americans
contribute to the arts during the
Harlem Renaissance?
Who were the
Lost Generation writers, and
how
did they get their
What factors influenced artists and designers of the 1920s?

How did mass media and advertising affect American culture
the
name?
in
920s?
^he decade of the
1920s was a period of great creative energy.
African American musicians transformed popular music by introducing

the nation to jazz-
A new generation of writers explored the problems
of postwar American
life
and
the experience of being black.
Mexican
muralists brought their paintings of social protest to the United States.
And new
currents in art
and architecture swept the
nation.
Louis
As
USIC
AND DANCE
became popular on a
was adapted
in various
among them
The 1920s has been

this
it
was
the period
plex rhythms,
originated
especially
called the Jazz
when jazz, with
first
won
Age because
richly
its
com-
Beiderbecke
Armstrong
national level, jazz
ways. White musicians
the cornetist and pianist Bix
incorporated jazz rhythms
in their
music. George Gershwin's Rhapsody in Blue, which
wide following. Jazz
among African Americans in the South,

in New Orleans. By the late 1800s, jazz
had emerged from a blend of West African and

Latin American rhythms, African American spirituals
and blues, and European harmonies.

Joseph "King" Oliver, an early jazz great,
helped spread jazz northward by moving from
New
Orleans to Chicago and founding the Creole
Jazz Band. In 1922 the great jazz trumpeter Louis
Armstrong joined Oliver
composer Ferdinand
moved north.
Ferdinand
in
Chicago. Pianist and
"Jelly Roll"
"Jelly Roll"
playing ragtime piano in
Morton
Morton began
New Orleans.
his
also
career
Later, he
moved to Chicago where he formed the recording

group Red Hot Peppers.
THE JAZZ AGE
659

premiered
in
1924. "translated" jazz
symphonic form. Jazz also

influenced many classical musicians, including such noted composers as Igor Stravinsky and
into
Aaron Copland.
The big bands,

both black (Fletcher
'
Henderson's and Duke

Ellington's, for instance)
and white (such as Paul

Whiteman's). popularized
jazz for dancing, creating
faster
and bouncier dances
rhythms. This
set to jazz
new kind of jazz swept

the nation via
phonograph
and
the
Young men and
their
records,
radio,
In
movies.
actor
the 1920s Paul Robeson won fame as an

in such plays as Shakespeare's Othe//o.
flapper partners shocked their
During the 920s jazz

music such as "Tin Roof
Blues" and "If You Knew
1
Susie Like
Know
became popular
elders by dancing cheek-to-
cheek fox-trots. The Charles-
Susie"
hits.
the dance of the twenties.
melodies of blues for white audiences. Bessie
it
ticular sadness, pain,
While jazz became uni-
Smith, "the Empress of the Blues," toured widely
and made many blues recordings. Marian
and joy of black America.
through jazz, African Americans were saying

should
want
as spirituals. In 1920
continued to express the par-
African American poet Langston Hughes noted
"Why
to
be white?
am
Anderson, a gifted singer
when African Americans were
In an era
ited in the theatrical roles they
widely popular dur-
ing the 1920s, influencing

other forms of music.
many
Eubie Blake's Shuffle Along (1921). African

American actors also achieved fame. Charles
made
title
actors,
a white actress.
more evident than in the New York City

neighborhood of Harlem, the nation's
leading African American community. So
many important African American writers,
Ijjlil
ing African
"*"
American
musicians, and artists lived in Harlem that this

is
known
as the
Harlem Renaissance.
1
920s was a decade of achievement for
African American musicians. They popularized not
660
:!
leading role opposite
and musicians in the 1920s expressed a

growing black pride. Nowhere was this pride
period of artistic development
CHAPTER
22
actress of the 1920s
was Rose McClendon.
Bom
in
1884
Carolina.
moved
role in
in
history in 1924 by
black actor to play a
artists,
to
produced and staged several enor-
Gilpin played the
African American writers,
lim-
were allowed
mously successful Broadway musicals, including
drama Emperor Jones
A BLACK RENAISSANCE
her operatic
actor, incorporated spirituals in their repertoires.
play, blacks
Jazz became
who began
career in the 1920s, and Paul Robeson, singer and
Negro
and beautiful!"
The
known
performed by slaves, became
versal in the 1920s,
that
only jazz but also blues and religious songs
Mamie Smith's recording

of "Crazy Blues" made popular the moody
an African dance
ton, originally
to
in
South
McClendon
New York
City as a child. She
took part
in
church
Eugene O'Neill's
1920. Paul Robeson
becoming
the first
become
plays but did not
Harlem Renaissance, 1920s
professional actress until
HARLEM'S EXPANSION
her thirties, after winning a
West
scholarship to the American
Indies.
Migrants came to
New
York City from the South and the islands of the
During the 1920s, some 25 percent of Harlem's black population was foreign born.
PLACE
What was
the extent of African American settlement in Harlem
in
1920?
Academy of Dramatic Art.

McClendon first won
fame in Deep River, a
"native opera with jazz"
staged in 1926. Even the
nkees
simple act of descending a
won
staircase
from
her praise
and fellow
critics
actors alike. In later years
she played in the Pulitzer
Prize-winning tragedy
/;;
Abraham's Bosom, about

a would-be reformer; the
first
production of Porgy,
set in
Charleston, South
No
Carolina; and Never
More,
Her
lynching.
in
of
story
the
last role
Langston
was
Hughes's
Mulatto.
In addition to direct-
ing plays
Harlem
at the
Experimental Theatre. Rose
McClendon helped found

the
in
Negro People's Theatre
Harlem
in
1935. The
increased
organization
opportunities for black

actors
and playwrights.
As
important
impressive
and
African
as
American contributions
to
movie and stage were

during the Harlem Renaissance,
erary
it
was above
all
lit-
movement. Black
novelists and poets produced
work marked by
terness and defiance but also
by joy and hope. In
his novel
Claude
Home
McKay
stresses of
Harlem (1928), Jamaica-born
to
bom
life
for a returned black soldier.
in
Chicago of West Indian and
Danish ancestry, described the quest for

identity in her novel
Among
the
cultural heritage with sensitivity. In the
poem
"I,
Too," Hughes sums up black pride in a few

powerful
lines:
explored the excitement and
Harlem
Nella Larsen,
bit-
racial
Quicksand {\92^).
most-famous Harlem poets were
I,
I
too, sing America.
am
the darker brother.
They send me to eat
When company
the kitchen
comes,
Langston Hughes and Countee Cullen. Hughes's
But
Weary Blues (1926) and Cullen's Color (1925)

viewed African American life and the African
And eat well,

And grow strong.
in
laugh,
THE JAZZ AGE
66

and several other young writers became ambulance
way
drivers as a
experience and develop an
to
understanding of war.
wounded while
Hemingway was
seriously
serving at the halian front. Later,
he expressed his anger
war's
at
such
futility in
novels as The Sun Also Rises (1926) and A

Farewell to Arms (1929). In a famous passage
from the
book, a war veteran explains what
latter
war means
the
to him:
was always embarrassed by the
words sacred,
glorious, and sacrifice and
the expression
Langston Hughes
time, and
things that
Chicago
I'll
if
be at the table
When company
now
for a long
were glorious had no glory and

like
the stockyards at
nothing was done with the meat
except to bury
comes.
had heard them
had seen nothing sacred, and the
the sacrifices were
Tomorrow,
We
in vain.
and had read them
iL
J5
Nobody'll dare
"Eat
works of other Lost Generation
the kitchen,"
in
War
Disillusionment with World
Say to me,
echoed
in the
writers, including
John Dos Passos's Three Soldiers (1919) and
Then.
Manhattan Transfer (1925).

Besides,
Another Lost Generation
They'll see
how
beautiful
am
Fitzgerald, was
And be ashamed
I,
too,
am
F.
novel. This Side of
first
Paradise (1920). Fitzgerald described the
99
Scott
the foremost chronicler of the
youthful Jazz Age. In his
America.
writer.
life
of
rich college students bored b\ fast living and hard

liquor. In
African American musicians,

actors, and writers in the 1920s
flourished, creating a cultural
movement known as the Harlem
Renaissance.
The Great Gatsby (1925). Fitzgerald
portrayed the emptiness of

zied struggle to
in Prohibition-era
who
another writer
life
devoted to a fren-
make money and win
social status
America. Sinclair Lewis,

American society,
criticized
satirized middle-class life in
Main
Street (1920)
^nd Babbitt {\922).
The
championed
The LOST GENERATION

The
Many younger
in the literature
writers of the time
of the decade.
were haunted by
World War I and

scornful of middle-class consumerism and the
superficiality of the postwar years. "You are all a
the death and destruction of
lost generation," said poet
one such
writer. Ernest
label
spent
much of
France. Spain, and Cuba. During World
662
CHAPTER
22
Henr\
writers. In his
L.
Mencken
magazine The
who
satirized middle-class
ridiculed as "the booboisie."
Americans,
whom
Mencken made
Republican politicians, fundamentalist Christians.
many
other groups.
Gertrude Stein called Ernest

Hemingway and other postwar
his life in
War
sense of
I.
he
he
fun of
rural southerners, residents of small towns,
writers "a lost generation"

because of their anger and
Lost Generation.
Hemingway
new
critic
Gertrude Stein to
Hemingway. The
stuck, and scholars refer to writers of the era as the
Ernest
the
and
American Mercury. Mencken publicized novelists
creative spirit of the 1920s expressed itself not
only in jazz, but also
journalist
loss.
and

anyone
else,
Stieglitz's
gave
New
it
new
status.
York gallery
enced many other American

In
influartists.
addition to striking portraits
of people, his
own
subjects included
airplanes, skyscrapers, and crowded
city streets.
Charles Sheeler.
won fame
for the "portraits of machinery"
he produced for the Ford Motor
Company, which commissioned
him to photograph its plant near
photographer and painter,
Detroit. Michigan, in 1927.
Another renaissance of the

1920s took place in Mexico and was
later
brought to the United States
its major artists. This artistic

movement stressed American Indian
traditions and the ideals of the
Mexican Revolution of 1910. The
artists emphasized the nobility of
by
A Diego Rivera painted many murals that focused on workers

and their relationship to industrial production. Shown here is
Entry to the Mine.
ordinary people
Other currents in art
peasants and other workers
and the tyranny of wealthy capitalists. Their
and design
favorite
medium was
mural because,
The
the
artistic vitality
work of U.S.
of the 1920s can also be seen in
and designers as they con-
artists
fronted the machine age and reflected
on American
new
society.
influence
its
They chronicled
Clemente Orozco (oh-rohs-koh).
"it
cannot be
hidden away for the benefit of a certain privileged

few.
factories,
technology, workers, and urban landscapes.
monumental public
words of artist Jose
the
in the
It is
for the people.
The movement's
in
Mexico
It is
for ALL.''
three major artists
known
as los tres grandes, or "the big three"
were Orozco. David Alfaro Siqueiros (see-KAY-
Painting and photography.

American painters of
industrial settings.
Many
the 1920s depicted urban,
Edward Hopper's New York
City scenes convey a sense
Addison Gallery of American Art,
rohs), and
Diego Rivera. Each
known
in
in the
United States
Phillips
Mexico
Academy. Andover.
in the
first
became
1920s and painted murals
in the earlv
1930s. Orozco
MA
of loneliness. Early Sunday
Morning (1930) shows
row
of darkened stores and a

street
empty of people.
New
York City intrigued Georgia

0"Keeffe. too. In the 1920s
she painted pictures of
its
factories and tenements.
Later she would
New
move
to
Mexico, paint dramatic
pictures of flowers, and

capture the stark beauty of
the Southwest.
Photography came into

its
own
as an art
form
in the
early 1900s. Alfred Stieglitz
(STEEG-luhts).
more than
This
928 painting by Edward Hopper
is
called
Manhattan Bridge Loop.
THE JAZZ AGE
663

created several murals tor American universities,
many
who helped
featuring heroic figures
humanity. In Los Angeles, Siqueiros painted largescale murals outdoors, "in the free air," as he put
it.
Diego Rivera focused on workers' problems and
development
industrial
mural
Detroit In.stitute of Art,
at the
painted
U.S. murals. In a
in his
which Rivera
1932, his subject was, fittingly,
in
assembly-line workers in automobile factories.
Industrial design. The machine age that

inspired artists also gave rise to a new professional
field: industrial design. Spreading from Germany
to the United States in the 1920s, industrial design
aimed
to create objects that
were pleasing
to look
at as well as functional.
Industrial designers,
working with such new
materials as stainless steel and plastics, developed

a
wide range of products with
"modern"
The designers developed streamlining

that
and
reduced resistance
They
cars.
Georgia O'Keeffe
(inset) painted this scene,
New
York, in 1927.
look.
contours
for trains, planes, ships,
also applied streamlining to objects
even move, such as radios, clocks, and
that did not
entitled Radiator Building, Night,
appliances.
cient to build
boom
in
upward than outward, witnessed
skyscraper construction during the 1920s.
Builders began construction of two landmarks

the Chrysler Building and the
Empire State
Building.
Manufacturers quickly learned that a new
Civic boosters loved the skyscrapers,
design for what was essentially the same product
but critics voiced their doubts. For example,
boosted
sales.
They had discovered what came
be called planned obsolescence
a verse of the time protested:
making prod-
go out of
ucts specifically designed to
to
style
and
ii
to
be replaced by the purchase of an up-to-date
the first
SCRAPER
advantage of planned obsolescence. In the
TALL
among
model. Auto manufacturers were

to take
THE
early 1920s General
Motors introduced the ideas
many American
TO ALL
A THING
families routinely
new
traded in their "old" models and bought
WONDER
of the yearly model change and the trade-in.

Thereafter,
cars
TOADMIRE
every year.
BEYOND
Architecture.
Industrial design,
bined function and visual appeal, had
QUESTION
which comits
Butoh!downbelowwherepedestriansgo
counter-
itcertainlyaddstocongestion
part in the world of architecture. Louis Sullivan
**
and Frank Lloyd Wright inspired many other

architects to
embrace the idea
that a building
ought to use the materials and follow the forms
most suitable
structure that
ple
was
to the building's
most clearly
illustrated this princi-
the skyscraper, with
lines, its use of steel
purpose. The
its
clean-cut vertical
and concrete,
its
many
and expensive
664
::
CHAPTER
22
What were
the social effects of the
new mass
whose population density

estate made it more cost effi-
marketing helped produce a standardized middle-
City,
real
Standardized Culture?
media and mass marketing of the 1920s? Most

historians agree that mass media and mass
its
relative
ornamentation.
York
freedom from
glass windows, and
New
Commentary
class culture. Movies, radio, advertising, and
^r

homelands. Ethnic newspapers continued
magazines such as The Saturday Evening Post and

Time reached every comer of the nation. These
new
fulfill their role
forms of media promoted middle-class ways by
grants' languages
presenting an ideal world of middle-class families
very similar
in
behavior and values. Mass
customers a limited range of choices
same brands
at
among soap
products. Rather than relying on local or regional
extended credit
over the countr\' used largely the
cies,
which the chain
life
comer
Americans by acquainting them with the
cul-
maintain traditional
rich
and poor, urban and
cultures while they
Americans enjoyed reading the works of Harlem
And when
middle-class
diets.
Furthermore, these cor-
The mass media thus helped maintain
enced music and dance, and some white
Many
These
meet, swap news, and gossip.
rural
and danced to African American-influ-
Renaissance writers.
stores rarely carried.
groceries thus allowed ethnic Americans to
ner stores served as places where people could
tures of other groups of Americans. For example,
listened
The grocers
to their customers.
ethnic ingredients such as Italian
media and mass marketing also changed
many people
local grocers,
macaroni, Jewish kosher meats, or Asian delica-
Historians recognize, however, that mass
for
These
buy from
to
usually shared the ethnicity of their patrons,
.sold traditional
same products.
the
chain stores, most working-class
their local corner groceries.
who
all
identities.
and immigrant families continued
and appliance brands, car models, and food

goods, people
and ethnic
While most middle-class families bought
marketing promoted standardization by offering
to
of helping to preserve the immi-
women
ethnic
promoted middle-class values.
middle-class Americans
country copied the style of
life
all
over the
presented by the
adopted forms of behavior previously associated
movies, network radio, and mass magazines, they
women, such as wearing

makeup and smoking.
The mass media also helped strengthen
tural perspectives. In short, the
working-class, immigrant, and African American
ways but
Musical recordings by African

Americans. Mexican Americans, and others
thinking and acting throughout the nation.
were adopting ways influenced by different cul-
with working-class
cultures.
and working-class neighborhood movie theaters
Some
local
radio stations devoted their programs exclusively

to ethnic audiences, offering ethnic
local
news
as well as
news about
also helped sustain traditional
music and
cultures.
the immigrants'
Generation, Diego Rivera, Alfred
1.
REVIEW
explain the significance of the following: Joseph "King" Oliver, Langston Hughes,
Harlem Renaissance, Marian Anderson,
LOCATE
new ways of
also helped to spread
SECTION
IDENTIFY and
traditional
Mass media and mass marketing

promoted both new and standardized modes of behavior. At
the same time, the mass media
preserved traditional musical forms. Immigrant
served as community meeting places.
mass media and
mass marketing not only supported
Paul Robeson,
Stieglitz,
Rose McClendon, Ernest Hemingway, Lost
planned obsolescence.
and explain the importance of the following: Harlem.
MAIN IDEA
In
what ways
did the artists of the
Harlem Renaissance contribute to American
culture?
2.
MAIN IDEA Why were

generation"?
Who
Hemingway and other young writers
of the
920s called "a lost
coined this phrase?
MAIN IDEA What

in
Ernest
characteristics did the
work
of artists and photographers of the 1920s have
common?
WRITING TO EVALUATE How did radio help people maintain long-held customs?
ANALYZING Why might black artists, writers of the Lost Generation, and other painters
photographers of the 1920s be considered
and
social critics?
THE JAZZ AGE
665
CHAPTER
22
First radio
Eubie Blake's
stations go
Shuffle Along
George Gershwin
composes Rhapsody
on the
opens.
in Blue.
air.
1922
1920
WRITING A SUMMARY
2.

write a
summary
eview
3.
of the chapter.
1924
Technology and Society How did new technology affect Americans' lives at work and at home?
How
Cultural Diversity
did the
mass media
help preserve ethnic cultures?
Number your
and
list
paper
to
Study the time
5.
in
ond next to
2,
the order
first
in
next to
line
above,
which
I,
tal
activity
2.
Scopes
trial
held
in
problems?
Synthesizing
Why
might the Model
be an
appropriate symbol for the 1920s?
Dayton, Tennessee.
3.
Eubie Blake's Shuffle Along opens.
Evaluating
How
did social changes contribute
to the popularity of religious revivals?
3.
The jazz Singer released.
4.
Robert Lynd and Helen Lynd's Middletown
5.
George Gershwin composes Rhapsody
How
Assessing Consequences
influence the
productivity and
consumerism pave the way for future environmen-
the sec-
below.
2.
THINKING CRITICALLY
1. Analyzing How did increased
issued.
in Blue.
did The Jazz Singer
development of American entertainment?

Review the
Skills
Handbook entry on Taking
page 1002. Below
is
that might be asked about Chapter 22.
paragraph summarizing
AND
IDENTIFYING PEOPLE
IDEAS
a Test
how you would
Write
arrive at the
correct answer.
The aspect of
sales was
industrial design that
1.
assembly
line
6.
Fundamentalism
2.
scientific
management
7.
Harlem Renaissance
a.
scientific
3.
Helen Lynd
8.
Rose McClendon
b.
advertising.
Diego Rivera
c.
planned obsolescence.
planned obsolescence
d.
streamlining.
4. Jim
5.
Thorpe
9.
Charles Lindbergh
10.
management.

1.
How was
middle-class
the 1920s changed by
life in
mass media and advertising?

2.
What postwar problems

deal with
3.
4.
in
did the Lost Generation
their literature?
What influences led women

dom in dress and behavior?
How
to exercise
did the prosperity of the
new
free-
920s influence
American entertainment?
5.
What
contributions did African Americans
make
to the changing American culture of the 1920s?
REVIEWING THEMES
I.
Economic Developnnent How
did advertising,
merchandising, and installment buying help the

nation's
666
economy
CHAPTER
22
in
the 1920s?
on
a sample multiple-choice question
Ford automobile plant,
92
most increased
Gertrude Ederle
breaks world record
for
swimming
The Jazz Singer
English
Channel. Langston
Hughes's Weary Blues
Scopes trial held

in Dayton,
Tennessee.
released. Charles
Ernest Hemingway's
Lindbergh completes first nonstop
A
Amelia Earhart
published. Robert
from New
York to Paris.
crosses Atlantic
Ocean by plane.
Lynd and Helen Lynd's

Middletown issued.
flight
published.
Farewell to Arms
--
1926
LINKING HISTORY

principal at the time of the
Scopes
are a high school

trial.
to parents, outlining the issues involved
and explaining
how
the verdict
1930
1928
Write
in
will affect
the
a letter
trial
AND GEOGRAPHY
map on page 66
Refer to the
explain the birth of the
What
factors might
Harlem Renaissance during
the 1920s?
next year's
science curriculum.

Harlem was the
capital for
In
many
social, cultural,
the following excerpt,
talks
and entertainment
African Americans during the 1920s.
Howard
"Stretch" Johnson
about the black basketball teams popular
in
the
1920s and about the influence of Paul Robeson, one

of the
Harlem Renaissance's major
Americans
in
figures.
how Robeson
paragraph explaining
Write
influenced African
the 1920s.
Young women
Harlem
in
4 4 The Renaissance
Big Five basketball
team was a part of [the Harlem

Renaissance].
BUILDING YOUR
PORTFOLIO
My father was a very fine professional

basketball player
He played with
called the Puritans, which later
Renaissance Big Five.
a group
became
the
Paul Robeson played with Alpha fraternity against
cooperatively.
my father when my father
was playing with
1.
St.
Christopher's, another
semipro team that was popular
in the '20s.
Paul was a great figure. People used
to
swarm around him when he walked out on

the street. He was the inspiration in every
walk of life. Those blacks who went in for
law had respect for his being a Phi Beta
Kappa at Columbia University. Those who
had him as an exemplar [model] with
his
record at Rutgers, where he got fifteen varsity letters
ual
more varsity A
who ever went
basketball, track,
to
's
than any individ-
Rutgers
and
baseball.
in football,
In
Chapter 21 you por-
experience, imagine you are a prosperous business
owner
in
the
920s. Create an advertisement for a
new household product aimed
at the
expanding
consumer market. Your ad might use psychology,

slogans, jingles, or celebrity testimonials to sell
your product.
2.
aspired to be successful in the athletic field
THE ECONOMY
trayed an unemployed veteran. Building on that
CULTURE AND SOCIETY
you portrayed an immigrant
In
Chapter 21
artist. Building
on that
experience, imagine you are an African American

artist
during the Harlem Renaissance. Create a
dance, jazz poem, or painting that expresses cultural
pride
in
your African American heritage.
99
THE
AZZ AGE
667
1929-1933
Chapter 23
UNDERSTANDING
THE MAIN IDEA
In
1929
the stock market crashed,
causing financial ruin for millions of
Americans. The collapse of the stock
market was one of several factors that

gave
rise to tJie
When
Great Depression.
President Hoover's efforts to
economy
revive the
failed,
Americans
elected a Democratic president,

Franklin D. Roosevelt, to reverse the
country's
economic
decline.
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT What factors might

cause an economic depression?
How
might an economic
affect people's choices of
to
crisis
where
live?
CULTURAL DIVERSITY
How
nic
and why might various eth-
groups be affected differently
by an economic depression?
1929
1930
193!
1
Stock market
Smoot-Hawley
crashes.
Tariff passed.
1932
Scottsboro Boys
case begins.
Franklin Roosevelt
elected president.
The economic boom of the /920s gave most Americans tremendous

::
LIHK TO THE PAST
faith in the future. For
many Americans,
prosperity
seemed
however, the prosperity was unevenly distributed. The
limitless;
life-style
of the
)aiz Age also led to enormous debt.
dawned windy and cool
rhursday, October 24, 1929,
York
City.
Employees of
New
the
their overcoats as they hurried
few hours of stock
down Wall
Street to work. In the first
trading, share prices fell sharply.
its
prices continued to
pouring
upward
fall,
At
in recent
Today was
trend.
New
York Stock Exchange buttoned
remained calm. The market had been shaky

always resumed
in
first,
investors
weeks but had
different, though.
panic struck. Frantic orders to
sell
stock
As
came
in.
All across America, grim-faced investors
watched
as stock tickers reported the
alarming
news. The plunge in prices was wiping out the

life
savings of millions of Americans
invested in stocks.
who had
"One saw men looking
defeat in the face," said an eyewitness.

"[It
was] the smash-up of the hopes of years."
The economic prosperity of

1
the
920s was over, and the worst econom-
ic
depression in U.S. history had
begun. Over the next several years the
American people faced widespread
unemployment and
poverty.
By
the
time of the 1932 election, they were

desperate for a change.
Mexican American
bound
for picket line
Valley, California,
in
women
Ticker tape machine
the San Joaquin
cotton
strike,
1933
669
Section
PROSPERITY SHATTERED
^^1
Why
What
What
[}
did
many Americans
invest in the stock
in
the
920s?
caused the stock market crash of 929?

1
factors gave rise to the Great Depression?
hmiighout the generally prosperous
warned of problems with
the
need of attention.
J 920s,
isolated voices
American economy. Some people
pointed to thefann crisis and to

in
market
industries as problems
''sick''
Yet despite these warnings,
most
Americans believed that the economy would continue
to thrive.
Then came the stock market crash of 1929. Stock prices

plunged, and investors lost billions of dollars. U.S. industries,
already showing signs of weakness, almost ground to a
Newspaper headline.
October 1929
halt.
many
stocks to the point that
'ET
RICH QUICK"
more than
the\
stocks were selling for
were realK worth. This speculative
buying was fine as long as demand was high, but
Few Americans
other than farmers and the poor
worried about the nation's economic heahh

late
Many Americans
1920s.
Hoover
umph over
agreed with Herbert
was "nearer
that the nation
in the
to the final
tri-
poverty than ever before in the history
of any land."
This sense of confidence was reflected
in the
As demand
Man\
rose, so did stock prices.
experts sav\ no end to the bull
upward trend
in stock prices (as
market, or downward
trend).
opposed
Motors executi\e John
Americans
to invest, claiming that

in the stock
end up with S80.000
By
to a
J.
tion fueled
economic growth,
it
CHAPTER
23
market continued.
would
as long as the bull
though, investors
If prices fell,
find themselves
pay off their loans.
It
deep
was a
in
debt with no
anyone who put
"playmake
Although speculaalso created prob-
1929. a few
way
to
ver> risky venture.
bear
a fortune at the time.
was widespread.
Margin buying worked
ket remained high throughout the
lems. Rapid buying and selling inflated the prices of
670
10 percent of the price of a stock, borrowing the
Although consumer confidence
market for 20 years would
ing" the market by buying and selling to
the
Raskob. urged
the late 1920s, stock speculation
quick profit
Business leaders, such
as General
S15 a month
market
if
would tumble.
The situation was made shakier still by

margin buying purchasing stocks with borrowed money. Many speculators put up as little as
rest.
stock market. Stock sales had risen steadily for several years.
investor confidence weakened, prices
gloomy voices were
in the
mar-
summer
of
heard. In early
September, stock analyst Roger Babson wrote:
"Sooner or
terrific."
later a crash is
Some shrewd
coming, and
on the wall and began to
one eyewitness wrote: "Money

something
of riotous
else.
spirits
cold calculation."
It
is
may be
sell their stocks,
most people remained confident
is
it
investors saw the writing
in the
is
king
market.
but
As
but there
a high, wild time, a time
and belief
in
magic rather than
Hoping to earn enormous profits

from rising stock prices, many
Americans invested in the stock
As
who owed them
money. The brokers demanded cash
Unable
loans.
market.
prices plunged, brokers fired off Irantic
telegrams to the customers
to raise the funds,
people were forced to
sell their
to
cover their
thousands of
stocks at huge
Many investors were wiped out. By midNovember the average value of leading stocks
losses.
The stock market crashes
had been cut
some $30
The magic
on October 24, 1929
faltered
Thursday. Large
investors,
ous factors, including rising interest
began
to sell their shares.
Black
made nervous by
vari-
exceeded the
World War
in half,
billion.
and stockholders had
By
total cost
of U.S. involvement in
I.
suddenly
rates,
Speculative buying drove stock
The dumping of so much
stock on the market jolted investor confidence and
prices above their real value.
caused prices to plunge. Panic gripped Wall
When
A New
Street.
men
in October 1929, the

market crashed.
with a speed and ferocity that
of the market.
little
The bottom simply
dazed.
crammed
The
speculators,
out
fell
The DEPRESSION BEGINS
were
streets
with a mixed crowd
inquisitive individuals
agonized
sold-out traders,
In the first
and tourists seeking
Where was
it
going to end?
downward
the following
stocks.
spiral. Prices
dropped
lower
still
week, as more investors sold
On October 29
sank to a shocking
Black Tuesday
new low
their
prices
declared:
and
market crash,
shall rapidly recover."
passed the worst
But optimistic
ments could not conceal the grim

1930
it
was
clear that a
was under way
in the
state-
By
truth.
late
major economic depression
United States and throughout
the rest of the world.
From
sank
over 16 million shares of stock on the market.
"We have now
Hoover
dumped
as investors
after the stock
was minor and temporary. President
the setback
99
Black Thursday was only the opening stage of

a long
months
business leaders and public officials insisted that
a closer view of the national catastrophe.

.
large-scale selling
occurred
York Times reporter described the crash:
It came
left
lost
year's end stock losses
late
1929
1933 the U.S. economy
to
steadily. In 1929, the last
period,
boom
year of the
America's gross
national product
value of
THE CRASH
the
goods and
all
total
ser-
vices produced in a given
High Price
Company
Sept.
3,
American Telephone and Telegraph
304
General Electric
396
General Motors
1929
Low
Nov.
Price
13,
1929
I97IA
'A
72 3A
Montgomery Ward
1377^
United States Steel
261
Woolworth
1003/8
3A
68 1/8
year
reached $103
depression,
billion.
lowest point for the year on
November
13,
fall.

of points
between September
period,
average income for Americans
ISO
52IA
and
by
half.
By 1932
steel industries
ducing
at just
the auto
were pro-
a small fraction
of their capacity. Factories
mines
stood
idle.
Railroad cars sat silent and
Average stock prices reached their
1929, slightly two months after they had
reached the high point for the year on September
number
same
fell
the days following the stock market crash on
October 29, 1929, stock prices continued to
below $56
fell
that
49 'A
and
In
it
Over
36
Source Only Yesterday
FROM RICHES TO RAGS
billion.
In 1933, at the depth of the
Which company's stock
and November
empty.
Many companies
shut
down, and millions of work-
3.
13,
1929?
lost the greatest
ers lost their jobs.
The banking industry

was also hard
hit
by the
671
many people lost their

The collapse of one big New York
deposits were not insured,

life
savings.
City bank in 1930 wiped out roughly $180 million

in
savings by
some 400.000
depositors, including
many poor immigrants.
CAUSED THE DEPRESSION?
IViHAT
The stock market crash of 1929 jolted
the
American economy and destroyed individual
for-
tunes, but
Panicked by the 1929 stock market crash, many bank depositors stood in long lines to withdraw their money. This photograph was taken in New York City.
it
alone did not cause the Great
Depression, the deep economic downturn
that
gripped the United States between 1929 and the
beginning of World
War
II.
At the time, many
observers, including President Hoover, blamed the
economy
fol-
The global econom) had
suf-
depression on the state of the world
depression. After the stock market crash,
many
lowing World War
I.
enormous setbacks because of
debt-ridden investors and businesses could not
fered
repay their loans, leaving banks with no incoming
war debts incurred by European countries. But

this, like the stock market crash, was only a con-
funds. Fearing bank failures,
many
depositors pan-
icked and withdrew their savings. Under the com-
bined weight of these factors,
the banking system
collapsed.
who went
U.S. banks failed. Customers
agree that the root causes of the Great Depression
numerous
factors, including the
economic system
money gone. Because bank
1920s appeared
to
LIV^^
in office
After college Hoover rapidly
young man Herbert Hoover was
Born
Quaker
into a
1929-1933
874-/ 964
shy and av/kv/ard, but very hardworking.
Although the
be a decade of unlimited
HERBERT HOOVER
a
American
itself.
The troubling twenties.
^tSDENTm
As
historians
to their
banks to withdraw savings often found the doors
barred and their
Today economists and
tributing factor.
lay in
Between 1930 and 1932 more than 5.000
the massive
built a
career as a successful mining
engineer and business consultant. By
family in Iowa,
.HtesDJorT'
he v/as
left
had few friends
in
college and
vender around with

the ground as
one of
his
if
his
the age of 40 he was a millionaire. His
would
role as coordinator of food relief dur-
eyes glued to
to avoid people.
As
few friends noted, he had
habit of standing "with
forward,
He
an orphan at age nine.
jingling
one foot thrust
the keys
in his
trouser
pocket," chuckling sometimes, but

rarely laughing out loud. Even in
the
White House he remained
self-conscious and shy.
672
:!
CHAPTER
23
ing
World War
also gave him a repu-
tation as a kind and humanitarian

leader. After his presidency
ued to work
in
public service and
wrote many books and

"There
men's
is
he contin-
little
lives."
articles.
importance to
he wrote, "except
the accomplishments they

leave to posterity."
the Global Depression

UNEMPLOYMENT
mM
PLACE
In
The worldwide depression created record
levels of
unemployment.
1932 which countries had unemployment rates exceeding 30 percent?

Azimuthal Equidistant Pro|ection
United States
America remains determined
to collect the
war debts despite
the European countries' mability

to
pay them.
USSR
The Communists
France
organize agriculture
Unemployment remains low

and build up heavy
because foreign workers are
industry
sent home, and
many
factory
Germany and
Italy
Government economic
policies
order to
in
become economically
workers return to family farms.
and
self-sufficient.
centralized control help bring these
countries out of the depression.
South America
Dependent on
Chile,
Bolivia,
selling
Percentage of
Force
raw materials,
and Peru see exports
Work
Unemployed
1929
^^1932
by more than 69 percent from
1928-29
to
economic prosperity, many analysts place primary
blame
for the Great
practices in the 1920s.
Depression on economic
These practices produced
quick profits for some but in the long run con-
economic chaos. Farm
tributed to
ple,
dropped
in the 1920s.
By
prices, for
exam-
the end of the
decade, mining, textiles, construction, and other

industries
were also beginning
Another disturbing trend was the widegovernment encouraged borrowing by
Italy
is
from 1931
money to pay for them. This

was not a problem when the economy was booming. Once the economy began to slow and
not actually have the
the
government raised
many consumers could

the crash
interest rates,
however,
not pay their debts. After
many businesses stopped extending
credit altogether.
one department store even
In 1931
to suffer.
spread dependence on credit. In the late 1920s,

the federal
'Figure for
1932-33.
turn the "credit crunch" to

inviting customers to shop
they wanted
to,
it
its
tried to
advantage. While
and spend as much
advertised that
it
as
would accept
keeping interest rates low. The Republican
only cash. The store claimed to be protecting
administrations of the time reasoned that an easy-
patrons from falling into debt. This approach
credit policy
would promote business. Easy
credit
enabled consumers to buy goods when they did
depended on the hope

spending
in the face
that
its
consumers would keep
of a depression.
i:
673
Unt'orlunalely. by 1931 few debt-ridden

to make any purchases.
The illusion of prosperity had prevented
many from realizing that the benefits of the
economic policies of the iy2()s had been
consumers had the cash
The
business cycle. Some economists
that better fiscal
planning
These economists view depressions

inevitable part of the business cycle
economy. According
mismanaged economy.
Economists
cite
1920s could not
in the
have prevented the onset of the Great Depression.
ups and downs of business
une\enly distributed.
argue
as
the regular
in a free-enterprise
to business-cycle theory,
and hire more work-
industries increase production
as
ers during prosperous times so that eventually sur-
another central cause of the Great Depression.
pluses pile up. Industries then cut back on
income
the unequal distribution of

the wealthiest
in
America
disposable income of
the
percent of the nation increased by
production and lay off workers, causing the
cent of the nation decreased by 4 percent.
Upton
"The
Sinclair noted:
abundance, not of scarcity.

trouble
rest
is
depression
Events
business-cycle theory in part. While a
products fueled the economic growth of the
the
920s,
by the end of the decade fewer Americans were buying expensive goods.
Most people who wanted such
products, and could afford them, had already bought
This income gap meant that a large portion of

the population did not have the buying power
to boost the
wave of new
writer
one of
while the
economy. According
to
them. The inability to

businesses to
many
fail
According
sell their
goods caused many
and contributed
to the depression.
to this theory,
however, once the
if
workers had received better wages
surplus goods are sold, industries again gear up for
for their labor
and farmers better prices for their
production and the depression comes to an end. But
economists,
crops, the depression
would have been
less severe
or perhaps could have been avoided.
Even
far
have been eased by more-
cycle
farsighted U.S. policies. Economists point out that
tariffs,
tariffs
on
including the high-
Smoot-Hawley Tariff
of 1930.
SECTION
IDENTIFY and
it
seems incorrect
or any one factor
Many
blame the business
most
histor>'.
factors contributed to the
Great Depression: the global economic downturn, debt, the

unequal distribution of wealth,
and overproduction.
REVIEW
explain the significance of the following: bull market, bear market, margin buying, Black
Thursday, Black Tuesday, gross national product, Great Depression, Smoot-Hawley

1.
to
for causing the
severe economic depression in U.S.
imported goods. Even after the crash, Congress
est in U.S. history, the
Thus
worldwide
economic downturn by slapping high

continued to pass high
beyond the normal rhythms of the business
cycle.
the United States contributed to the
went
the length and seventy of the Great Depression
Hoover blamed
the global factors that
for the depression could
encouraged many Americans to participate
in
the
Tariff,
bull
business cycle.
market of
the 1920s?
2.
3.
MAIN IDEA How did speculation affect stock prices?

IDENTIFYING CAUSE AND EFFECT What caused
1929?
4.
What
effect did this have
WRITING TO EXPLAIN
the large-scale selling of stocks
In
October
on the stock market?
Write an essay
outlining the factors that contributed to the Great
Depression.
5.
ANALYZING
Sinclair's
::
of
Great Depression support the
is
have the debts."
needed
in the
As
The cause of
that a small class has the wealth,
start
a recession or a depression.
63 percent while the income of the poorest 93 per-
674
an
CHAPTER
23
Considering the economic developments of the 1920s,
how
accurate was Upton
statement that the depression was "one of abundance, not of scarcity"?
HARD TIMES
u
How did unemployment affect Americans in the

What were urban and rural living conditions like
1930s?
during the
Great Depression?
What
Americans do
did
for entertainment during the period?
\the Great Depression of the 1930s was not the first depression
in
American
history, but
it
was by far
the worst. It lasted for
most
of the decade, and during that time millions of Americans lost their
jobs and sank into poverty. In
and
cities
in rural areas,
and despair
ple suffered from hunger, homelessness,

all
many peo-
Life
was not
bleak during the depression, though. Movies, radio, and popu-
lar fiction helped
lift
American
spirits.
Unemployed worker, 1930
w<ORK IS WHAT
WANT"
factories laid off employees, black workers
were
much
as 25
often the
first to
go. In several cities as
1929
40 percent of African Americans were out of

work by 1933. One study of Chicago unemployment patterns noted the general view among
Americans were unemployed;
whites that blacks "should not be hired as long as
to
Perhaps the clearest sign of the deepening depression
was
some
unemployment.
a sharp rise in
1.5 million
three years later that figure
had risen
and failed businesses
million, as ailing
By
in
America was looking
some
to
12
laid off their
employees. To poet Langston Hughes,

"everybody
In
seemed
it
there are white
men
without work."
African American
women, who made up
the
vast majority of domestic servants, also suffered
for work."
1932. industrial output had fallen to about
half that of 1929. resulting in massive layoffs.
Even
for those
wages
fell
who managed
dramatically
in
to
keep
some cases
their jobs,
to as
low
as 10 cents an hour. Factory workers' average
annual income
fell
by nearly one third between
1929 and 1933. For the
first
time in years, immi-
gration to the United States greatly decreased.
One
despondent Slavic immigrant told a reporter

1932: "If you had told me,
country that
now
when
live like this.
shot
come
in
4 Thousands
to this
you dead."
African Americans faced especially difficult

times, as
economic troubles added
to the
problem
of racial discrimination they already faced.
of
unem-
ployed workers gathered

before the White House
on March 6, 1930, to
protest for better
When
unemployment
TH
REAT DEPRESSION
policies.
:
675
Unemployment Kelief
American women actually
DOUBLE TROUBLE
the early
adding to the
of the Great Plains,
In
1930s a disastrous drought struck the agncultural states
difficulties
caused by the depression.
tion in domestic
PLACE
Which
state
had the highest percentage of
its
fell
because of increased competi-
people receiving unemployment?
and agricul-
work.
tural
Some unemployed workers took to selling apples
on the
where on a good day a
street,
seller
might earn $1.15, causing
President Hoover to claim.
"Many people have
left their
jobs for the more profitable one
of selling apples." But few people in the depression had any
choice over how or where they
worked.
Some even
hitchhiked
or hopped freight trains across

the country to find jobs.
Percentage of Total State
Population Receiving
Unemployment
More
Relief
During the depresone fourth of
than 25 percent
sion
^^1 21-25 percent
the work force lost
16-20 percent
Many
seek work
their jobs.
11-15 percent
had to
wherever they
Less
than
percent
11
could find
it.
massive unemployment. Without regular work,
many would
stand on street corners and try to
work as maids. Two black women. Ella

Baker and Marvel Cooke, referred to this
method of hiring as the "Bronx Slave
-JFEINTHECITY
obtain
Market." In an investigative
The impact of
the depression spread
America, hitting people
article they
and disrupting family
wrote for The Crisis, they described a
lasting
typical scene:
women,
old
across
Some
of the most-
urban America, as the depression
Rain or shine, cold or hot.

will find
life.
all
and on farms
images of the period came from
many
you
in cities
cities hard.
1930s the federal government did
Negro
and young somethem there
to aid local
hit
During the early

little
communities.
governments,
religious
like the Salvation
Army, and
City
times bedraggled, sometimes
groups
neatly dressed
charitable organizations such as the
tantly for
waiting expec-
Bronx housewives to
buy their strength and energy.
Red Cross
99
tried to take
on the burden
of providing direct relief to the needy.
Neighbors also helped one another.
many employers could

women more cheaply than
Since
hire
One African American woman
in
in
Most were employed
as
in dance
marathons to win money.
Some marathons would last
for days, until all but one
couple dropped from
the 1930s.
But as the percentage of

the
work
centage of employed
CHAPTER
women
in
force rose overall, the per-
23
African
In
the 1930s
participated
exhaustion.
many
couples
told a
"My neighbors helps me, by

me a little to eat, when
visitor:
men. the percentage of women

the work force actually increased
office workers or domestic servants.
676
bringin"
they
knows
ain't got nothin" in
the house to cook."
Mexican American communities
formed mutualistas. or
mutual-aid societies, to help

residents.
lcx:al
Some Chinese American

,IFEONTHEFARM
The depression
also struck hard at rural America,
as the farm crisis of the 1920s turned into a disas-
1930s. People in the cities needed food
ter in the
but could not pay for
As demand
it.
farm prod-
for
plummeted, and farmers found
ucts shrank, prices
themselves with more goods than they could
While people went hungr\'
some
and
areas were forced to
sell.
farmers
in the cities,
in
crops rot in the fields
let
to slaughter excess livestock they
could not
afford to feed.
As
incomes
their
keep up
unable to
their
many farmers were
fell,
mortgage payments. While
banks foreclosed on farms
across America,
all
some communities banded together

Shantytowns appeared outside many towns and
cities during the early 930s. Shown here is a
I
Hooverville
in
communities
Often when a bank held a foreclosure auction to

sell
off a family's possessions, neighbors
set out
open barrels of
rice so that
1
M ^W^^^ ^^ TT^1[
DEPRESSION
large social gatherings that charged a
small admission to help pay someone's monthly rent.
Across the countr\. people engaged
in a daily
struggle to feed themselves and their children.
women
Haggard men and
waited in breadlines for
When
bowls of soup and pieces of bread.

schoolchild
replied: "It
ter's
day
was
told to
This
is
my
Hunger was so widespread
by 1932 one out of every five children
built out
93
in
^H^^t^J/i
^^^
^^^^1
^he slump in trade and employment
New
and the business
losses
which have ever occurred
No
form of stunted growth, weak
[hardship]
and
to suffer
problem during the depression.
collections of makeshift
shelters
over the world
are as bad as the worst
in
the
modern
history of
country
is
exempt. The privation
whot
is
sometimes worse
anxiety which exist today
homelessness was a
is
extreme.
in millions
In
the
of homes
all
the three chief indus-
countries of the world. Great Britain,
trial
Germany, and the United
States,
estimate that
of packing boxes, scrap lumber, corru-
gated iron, and other thrown-away items
up outside most
cities.
rose
Blaming an unresponsive
probably 12 million industrial workers stand
But
am
not sure that there
president for their plight, the homeless mockingly
human misery today
referred to these shantytowns as Hoovervilles and
countries of the world
the
^ys
^ ^^fe^^ ^S'cu-
1 ,
^
economist John
Maynard Keynes discussed
its worldwide reach:
the world.
In addition to hunger,
Shantytowns
in
British
sis-
bones, and dental problems.
serious urban
a radio talk
long-term
caused some Americans
health effects in the
In
that
York City suffered from malnutrition. Meager

diets
^n\^
go home for lunch, she
won"t do any good.
to eat."
one hun-
^L
The depression of the
borders.
knew
no
930s
1
w
^
Wi
WORLDWIDE
asking for handouts. Harlem residents organized
gr\'
would
New York City.
people could draw from them privately, without
"rent parties"
to fight back.
newspapers they often slept under as Hoover
blankets.
With
in
help from the federal
government, urban communities

struggled to provide for the hungry and homeless.
not even more
the great agricultural
Canada, Australia, and
South America, where millions of small farmers

see themselves ruined by the
little
is
idle.
fall in
the prices of
their products, so that their receipts after harvest
bring
much less than

*
produce. *
them
them to
in
the crops have cost
677
arrive and bid absurdly low

prices, such as 25 cents for a
plow. In a particularly note-
worthy example, a farm with

an S8(X) mortszage was sold for
$1.90. After the auction they
would then give
the
goods back
farm family. Furthermore,
to the
farmers quickly warned off

anyone w ho made serious
bids.
This tactic was so successful

that several
farm
ning with Iowa
states,
begin-
1933. passed
in
foreclosure moratorium laws.
Conditions were especially bleak for tenant farmers
South, where most rural
in the
residents already faced crip-
As
pling poverty.
cotton prices
from 16 cents per pound
fell
1929
below 6 cents
to
many
in
in
1931.
Shown here is a meeting in Los Angeles, around 1940, of the group

known as El Congreso, which helped organize Hispanic migrants to
tenant farmers, mostly
African Americans, were virtu-
fight for better conditions.
Some were even
ally ruined.
forced off the land they had

lived on
farmers
all
their lives.
While
Some
Midwest faced an overabundance of
in the
food, southern cotton farmers faced scarcity due to
poor
and lack of money
soil
to
buy food. Gracie
families
^^^^
of the Mexican American
who
stayed
during
the
depression helped organize resistance to
One such
Turner, a sharecropper's wife, testified to the hard-
discrimination in the Southwest.
ships of tenant
organizer was Josefma Fierro de Bright, the daugh-
life in
the 1930s:
ter
That's
all
there
is
hard and go hungry part time.

year's
cents
it
costs
but they don't
twenty-five cents
in this
is
who had
fled revolution in
Mexico
The experience of growing
up during the depression
This
midst of poverty
in the
and ethnic discrimination had a profound effect on
twenty-
come many
house.
of migrants
to settle in California.
been so hard we had to drop our
burial insurance. ... All

five
work
to expect
her.
As w ith many children of
Fierro's life
99
move
was very
unstable.
often, causing Fierro to
the depression.
Her family had
to
diange schools eight
times. But throughout the hard limes her mother
Migrant farm workers
in the
Southwest,
always encouraged her to
most of them recent immigrants, also
on yourself, be independent." Mrs.

Fierro advised. She also emphasized
the
cheaper
policy
Mexican migrants
of
the
paying
importance
of getting
an
education.
In 1938. at age 18, Josef ina
to return to their
land. During the 1930s

some 500.000 people of Mexican
descent
some of them U.S. citi-
California
zens
pressured into leaving
activism on behalf of the Mexican
Those who remained often
American community soon took up
native
were
the states.
Fierro entered the University of
planned
faced discrimination and poor
workins conditions.
SI
"Rely
encountered difficulties. As relief

costs soared, local authorities chose
678
strive for success.
CHAPTER
23
to
at
Los Angeles. She
study medicine, but
most of her time. With the aid of

Josefina Fierro de Bright
her husband, activist Hollywood
Economic hardship took
screenwriter John Bright, she began to lead boyin
Mexican
however.
hire
Mexican
strain.
cotts of companies that did business
American communities but did not
Some
The divorce
Many young
on families,
its toll
eventually broke apart under the

rate rose during the depression.
people put off getting married and
American workers. Enlisting financial support

from a few well-known movie stars, Fierro de
Bright also started a radio program for Spanish-
and birthrates
speaking audiences.
years of the depression. Looking back on those
These
activities
brought her to the attention
Mexican American group called
of a
starting their
years, a
which caused marriage
families,
during the early
to decline, especially
Chicago schoolteacher remarked:
El Congreso,
which was organizing Hispanic migrants
Do
to resist
oppressive conditions. In 1939 El Congreso leaders
own
you
realize
how many
people
generation are not married? ...
asked Fierro de Bright to help them establish a
that
we
Los Angeles. Over the next few years,
with
someone when the Depression
branch
in
was going
hit.
probably would have gotten married.
she worked tirelessly, leading marches and hunger

strikes,
didn't have a chance.
Suddenly he was
lobbying for expanded relief programs for
Hispanic Americans, and encouraging bilingual
And he
of bricks.
laid off. It hit
my
in
wasn't
It
him
We
a ton
like
disappeared.**
just
education for migrant children. "I used to work so
hard
it
out her
used to
life
kill
instilled in her
depression.
improve the
me," she recalled. But through-
she never forgot the lessons her mother
during those early years of the
Those memories spurred her

lives of all
efforts to
Life
was
certainly not easy for
women
during
economic hardship,
the depression. In the face of
the mothers of hard-hit depression families often
played roles of quiet heroism. Such daily challenges as putting food on the table and making
working people.
more year brought

As one woman remarked: "I figured every which way I could to make ends meet
but some of [those] ends just wouldn't meet.
They just couldn't be stretched far enough to
clothes and shoes last for one
Rural farm workers faced

increased hardship during the
depression. Some were forced to
leave their land.
constant worry.
meet." In rural and small-town households,
women
revived old crafts such as soap making and bread
Family
On
LIFE IN
farms and in
THE
cities,
making. Others took jobs outside the
1930s
home
to help
support their families.
family members often
pulled together and helped one another cope with

their difficulties.
They shared food and money and
Commentary
provided the support and encouragement their relatives
needed
to get
cases, relatives
through hard times. In
doubled up
young adults moved back
many
in small houses,
and
in with their parents.
Life was difficult for many families during the

depression as they struggled to make ends meet.
The strain is clearly evident in the faces of these
migrant children and their mother.
The
Psychological Impact
of the Depression
The Great Depression affected Americans
countless ways. Some of these effects
such
hunger and homelessness
When
most people.
were temporary for
the depression ended,
Americans got back on
in
as
their feet.
Other
most
effects,
though, were longer lasting. In fact, the depression
had a major long-term impact on the behavior and

the outlook of the millions of
Americans who
struggled through hard times.
The term depression could

describe the
economy
mood
in
the
just as easily
of the country as well as the
1930s.
More than 20,000
Americans committed suicide
in 1932, a
28 per-
cent increase over 1929. For middle-class and

well-to-do Americans,
many
of
whom
had never
679
known poverty, the depression was a cruel blow.

Many wi>uld never forget the shame they feh at
being unemployed, losing their businesses or
homes, and being unable
lies.
The
to provide for their fami-
unemployed teacher
attitude of an
Orleans was typical: "If with

I've had,
can't
make
all
in
New
the advantages
a living. I'm just
no good,
guess. I've given up ever amounting to anything.
no use."
It's
The depression had
on
a devastating effect
Many men whose lives had been

dominated by work did not know what to do without a job. They often spent their days just
unemployed.
the
dawdling around the house or roaming the
streets.
The depression proved equally severe on working
women who
lost their jobs, especially
those
who
were single or whose families depended on two

incomes
to survive.
Many
parents
support their families were
who
could not
consumed by
guilt
and
Hollywood musicals flourished during the depresorder to take their minds off their troubles,
audiences flocked to see upbeat films such as Gold
sion. In
Diggers of
self-doubt.
Even
after the depression, the
933.
memories of
those lean years remained vivid. Habits of scrimp-
ing and saving, of
would
rest
bility
of
stay with
of their
making every penny count,
members of
lives.
this
generation for the
strong desire for financial sta-
and material comforts shaped the outlook
many Americans who came
of age during
Meanwhile, upbeat musicals
like
Gold
Diggers of 1933, featuring the song "We're
in the
Money," and comedies portraying

antics of
comedians
very popular.
like the
Marx Brothers proved
Movie cartoons
1930s, thanks to Walt Disney's
the depression.
the hilarious
also brightened the
Mickey Mouse and
Donald Duck characters. Often, Disney cartoons

were as popular with movie audiences
as the fea-
ture films they preceded.
/Popular culture
the thirties
Even during hard
Many
the
movie business
enjoyed
its
golden age. Radio was immensely
to
it
flourished, radio also
offered free entertainment
home.
people took up inexpen-
sive pastimes, such as reading and playing

at
As
popular because
Americans found ways
times,
enjoy themselves.
in
games
home. Movies and radio also offered a tempo-
rary release
from economic worries.
The sound
explosion. Movies were
a big hit
during the depression. Talking pictures, which had
begun
to replace silent films in the late 1920s,
enthralled audiences,
movie
theaters cropping
Among
who
up
the most popular
flocked to the
in
new
nearly every town.
movies of the early
1930s were gangster films, which portrayed tough
way to the top against all odds.

Likewise, strong women, such as Bette Davis,
guys fighting
their
Greta Garbo,
Mae
West, and Marlene Dietrich,
lit
up the screen, reinforcing the theme of survival
in
a difficult world.
680
:i
CHAPTER
23
This couple, seated beside their radio,

entertained themselves by listening to their
favorite radio programs.
at
OW
^hen
f
^*
BASEBALL
However, the biggest
ference between baseball then
now was who
1930s baseball was
the country's favorite sport and

a symbol of American culture.
just as
the 1930s
much
today But baseball
it is
was
different
some ways
from the game
in
the game. Professional baseball
to black teams
when white
was
teams were on the road.
To be
racially
still
could play
segregated
in
White owners main-
it
in
the
Without
to bring the
game
City Monarchs pioneered a
their
sign black
So African Americans
portable lighting system and

first
night
games
The
major-league park.
Monarchs' night games drew
Eagles and the
such good crowds that within a
in
Newark
New York
few years scores of other

parks also installed
Black
In
for their local

baseball sta-
dium to root
home
Games
for the
team.
in
1930 the
year the
held
in
players
PBJ^^^^^^^^â^S
MM^pyit^^^^MBKRB^HWM
^P^fn " p^^flPHH|l||
white
in
^^îl9
5^-'^
Depres-
'
JLi^rlrwVTlHÂ^B
other coun'^
-
skills
of
H^^^HJnly^
Babe Ruth and
painting by M<^rris
pitcher Walter
game from
S
W
baseball players
,^mS^
needed
.^^KS
money they
who
players
had higher batting aver-
than today's
more home runs

players. The ball-
parks were often smaller than

today's stadiums.
the
could earn
in popularity during the 93 Os thanks to

such as Babe Ruth and Lou Geihrig. This
Kantor, Baseball at Night, depic:tsa
1
especially in the
black leagues,
provided just
34.
enough to get
They cheered
ages and hit
all
their salaries,
"Boom Boom"
Beck.
in
the 1930s,
plilyers
most
Americans
'
^^Î^K^q^hI 'mI^ vO^^[^
Baseball incTeased
the
tries. Like
players as
home-run king
played
Â^jljg
watched such
Mexico,
Cuba, and
V
J^
v|h^mbk
jt ^^^
sion-era fans
many
both
black and
^^m
a major-
league park.
Paige and
EpHp^^BTtl^^^^l
S^^fe^
game was
night
H^^^^HI^^^^HII
^^^^1
^^R^H
^^^^Bm>^^ j^^^^^^^j^l^BBl
other baseball
^^^^^ l^^^B^^^^Ê^
first
off-
^^^H ^^^^^j^^H ^^^^^^^^
I^P jK^^^pii
the daytime
until
the
season. Satchel
^^nl
were held only
ball-
lighting.
games on the
raHin nr hparjprl
in a
The Negro National

the East such as the
homes, fans either listened to
held the
own.
League (NNL) fielded teams
television
into people's
In fact.
such an
agreement not to
1930s meant taking trips out to

the ballpark.
just
arrangement that the Kansas
formed clubs and leagues of
a baseball fan
was under
tained a so-called gentleman's
players.
we know now.
white club
their ballparks
the 1930s.
in
sign black players,
owners rented
and
By the
Although they would not
dif-
And
the day
games favored batters because

they could see the
ball
more
The Negro American

League (NAL) covered the
by.
South and Midwest with clubs
contracts were unheard of
Yankees.
like
the Kansas City Monarchs
and the Chicago American

Giants. Players included Hall
of
Fame
pitcher Satchel Paige
and William "Judy" Johnson.
clearly during the day than
Turnouts at
today's players can at night.
be as large as any
Paige's
games could
in
the majors.
Today's off-season training
camps and
million-dollar
during the depression. Salaries,
team
rosters, ballparks, and
media coverage are
all
ferent today. But the
very
dif-
most
the enjoy-
important element
ment the game
brings
remains the same.
TH
REAT DEPRESSION
During the 1930s the number of radio
some
the United States rose from
sets in
William Faulkner
used his experiences
growing up in Oxford,
12 million to
about 2S million. The most popular programs

allowed listeners to forget the hardships of
Mississippi, to create
reality.
the mythical
Like the voice of a comforting friend, the opening
Yoknapatawpha
County a setting
that appeared fre-
of a favorite program captured listeners:
44
days of yesteryear
.
now
Return with us
From out
of the
horse with the speed of
again!
evil, offering a
a fiery
cloud of
light, a
The Lone
99
Heroes such as the Lone Ranger,

Annie, and the
in his novels.
[sound of hoofbeats]
West comes
dust, and a hearty 'Hi-yo Silver'
Ranger rides
quently
to those thrilling
II
Little
Orphan
Book cover of The
Sound and the Fury
Shadow always triumphed over
hopeful message to listeners.

-tL
Literature in the early

lic's
desire for
930s. The pubentertainment also gave rise to new
forms of popular
Magazines and comic
literature.
of Chicago's Irish immigrants
life
Studs Lonigan trilogy (1932-1935). while
tainment, presenting fantastic heroes such as
Nathanael West presented the American dream
Superman and Tarzan. One of
Miss Lonelyhearts (1933).

William Faulkner, in novels such as The Sound
and the Fury (1929) and As I Lay Dying (1930),
the best-selling
as a
magazines of the time. Reader's Digest, presented

a selection of
condensed
articles
from various
magazines. For families on a limited budget,
Many
novels later earned him the Nobel Prize for
James Hilton's Lost
ture in
Horizon (1933), a weary traveler stumbles upon a

peaceful, prosperous Utopia hidden in the
The idea of discovering

world appealed to many readers.
Not all fiction of the 1930s was
tains of Tibet.
however. James
T. Farrell
2.
3.
in
1955
930s Americans
of popular
culture, including movies, radio
programs, and literature.
During the
enjoyed
escapist,
many forms
REVIEW
T. Farrell,
Nathanael West, William Faulkner.
did the depression affect the
work
force?
MAIN IDEA What impact did the Great Depression have on living conditions in rural areas?
MAIN IDEA How were urban communities affected by the Great Depression? In what ways did
and communities try to cope?
WRITING TO DESCRIBE
culture during the 1930s.
entertainment during
EVALUATING How
:i
one
1963.
explain the significance of the follovîng: mutualistas, breadlines, shantytowns, Josefina
MAIN IDEA How
individuals
4.
in
litera-
moun-
a perfect
portrayed the grim
Fierro de Bright, James Hilton, James

1.
1949 and two Pulitzer prizes
and another
SECTION
IDENTIFY and
in
Yoknapatawpha County. Mississippi. Faulkner's
of the most popular novels of the era
also offered escapism. In
nightmare
tragically portrayed small-town life in fictional
this
"all-purpose" magazine seemed ideal.
682
his
in
books offered cheap and accessible forms of enter-
CHAPTER
23
Imagine you are a magazine editor researching a story on popular

Write an outline for an article that describes popular forms of
this period.
did
economic hardship
alter family
life in
the 1930s?
Section 3
HOOVER FAILS
c u s
What beliefs shaped President Hoover's response to the depression?
What effect did the Hoover administration's economic policies have
on the depression?
Why did
Hoover
lose the election of 1932?
ONr
IV,hen the depression

Herbert Hoover His
in
began,
skills
istrator inspired confidence.
many Americans had great faith
as a businessman and as an admin-
Under
his direction the
^ VOTE ^
,.4^^:.
government
undertook some important measures to fight the depression. But
enough
they were not
end the
to
election of 1932 rejected
crisis.
Hoover
As a
in favor
result, voters in the
of his Democratic
Republican campaign
opponent, Franklin D. Roosevelt.
button, 1932
Direct federal
HCOVER'S PHILOSOPHY
relief,
Hoover argued, would
create
a vast bureaucracy, inflate the federal budget,
and
undermine the self-respect of people receiving the
The most urgent task confronting President Hoover
was
human
to ease the
suffering caused by the
depression. Prior to the crash most Americans

believed that the government should not interfere
in the free-enterprise
New
crash, the
system. Immediately after the
aid. Instead,
Hoover urged Americans
to lift
themselves up through hard work and strength of

character.
Hoover's
political beliefs
stemmed from
notion of rugged individualism
the idea
the
that
York Times advised that "the funda-
mental prescriptions for recovery [are] such

homely things
for the turn."
as savings
and hopeful waiting
Within a few months, however, the
Unemployed workers protested in New York's

Times Square in 1933. Demonstrators carried signs
indicating they were willing to work for $ a week.
I
worsening
ment
crisis led to calls for the federal
provide direct relief
to
and money
ter,
4%
do not
food, clothing,
to the needy.
government
idea of such
govern-
Hoover
shel-
rejected the
aid, stating:
believe that the
power and
duty of the [federal] Government ought to
be extended to the
fering.
The
relief
of individual suf-
lesson should be constantly
enforced that though the people support

the
Government the Government should
not support the people,
yy
!:
683
Nurses, such as this one in Maryland,

went door-to-door offering people
often
free medical assistance.
Private charities and organizations such as the
Army helped families in need of

tance by bringing them food and clothing.
Salvation
assis-
success comes through individual effort and

private enterprise.
ties
and
He
believed that private chari-
ment, could best provide for those in need.

voluntary deed." said Hoover, "is infinitely
"A
more
precious to our national ideas and spirit than a
Hoover was not alone
his beliefs.
in
Millions of Americans agreed that voluntary
tion.
It
were preferable
soon became
tary efforts
critics
would
relief plans failed
later
charge that Hoover's
because he did not get the gov-
ernment involved. Hoover was not totally

to the government intervening in the
economy.
In fact, despite his opposition to direct
public relief. Hoover's administration played a
government intervenhowever, that volun-
alone could not deal with the scale of
the depression.
Communities and private
chari-
lacked the resources to cope with the ever-
ties
rising tide of
were forced
to
to
clear,
Although
opposed
thousandfold poured from the Treasur)."
efforts
5COSTING THE ECONOMY
communities, not the federal govern-
local
human
misery. Local governments
to stretch already
inadequate funds
cover growing numbers of needy families.
By
1933, for example, families on public welfare in
New
York City were paid just $23 a month.

In
930 Hoo\ er appointed
Unemployment
efforts.
the
Committee
for
Relief to assist state and local relief
The committee, however, did
little
beyond
urging Americans to contribute more to charity.
The human misery of
the depression continued
practically unchecked.
Hoover's belief
rugged individualism led him to oppose direct federal relief for those in need.
684
:!
CHAPTER
23
in
President Hoover addressed 250 leaders of
finance, industry,
and commerce
in
August 1932.
speech, Hoover asked business leaders to

assume more responsibility for improving the
In his
economy.
more active
omy
role in attempting to shape the econ-
employing jobless workers. Overall, he approved
some $800 million in public-works funding. Yet

the crisis was so great that even this large amount
than any previous administration had.
Stimulating the economy. Within weeks
had
little
impact on the depression.
of the stock market crash. Hoo\er called a White
House conference of top business,

ical leaders.
The New York Times
labor,
and
polit-
hailed the meet-
Coping with the farm

fell.
Hoover instructed
44
[It is]
As
the Federal
Farm Board created through the Agricultural

Marketing Act of 1929 to buy up surplus wheat,
the largest gathering of noted
heads of Industrial and other corporations
corn, cotton, and other farm products. Officials
Washington since the resources of the
believed that reducing crop supplies would cause
in
nation
the
were marshalled
for participation
in
99
World War!
Hoover urged these leaders
to
maintain employ-
The government could store these

commodities and then sell them when prices were
higher. The scheme did not work. Farmers at first
prices to rise.
refused to hmit production. Instead, they reacted to
ment and wages voluntarily as a step toward reviv-
low prices by growing more crops.
ing business activity and promoting recovery. At
Farm Board stopped buying surplus

already spent some SI 80 million.
the
same
time, he issued cheerful public statements
designed to boost confidence and get the
economy
Unfortunately, most people did not share
Hoover's optimism.
and
in
Just as he
factory workers.
going again.
Many became
toward the administration as

business declined.
the Republican National
trust in
Moaned
very cynical
government
the chairman of
Committee: "Every time
direct relief for jobless
Hoover
resisted giving direct aid
indirectly, though,
He
money
did try to aid farmers
by recommending passage of
Home Loan Bank
vided
crops, having
opposed
to desperate farmers.
the
In 1931 the
Act
The
in 1932.
to savings banks, building
act pro-
and loan
companies for low-
associations, and insurance
mortgages. Hoover believed that the act
an administration official gives out an optimistic
interest
statement about business conditions, the market
would reduce foreclosures on homes and farms
immediately drops."
and thus allow more farmers
At Hoover's request. Congress funded several
public-works programs,
Hoover
Dam
among them
II
also
took some steps to ease the plight of farmers.
crop prices
ing as a step in the right direction, noting:
Hoover
crisis.
the giant
on the Colorado River. Hoover
also believed that the act

construction, boosting
the flow of
keep
to
their land.
He
would encourage home
employment and increasing
money through
the
economy.
expected these projects to achieve two goals: (1) to

stimulate business
struction
by providing contracts for con-
The Reconstruction Finance Cor-
provide relief by
poration. Hoover also tried to stimulate the

economy through the Reconstruction Finance
Corporation (RFC), created by Congress in
and materials and
(2) to
February 1932. The
RFC
sums
lent large
to rail-
roads, insurance companies, banks, and other

financial institutions.
By
strengthening these key
businesses through federal loans. Hoover hoped

to
reduce bank failures and create more jobs.
By
the
end of Hoover's term.
RFC
loans had
helped a number of large corporations avoid col-
economy continued
lapse. Yet the
part because the
RFC
was created while

swing, and
it
electric
in
offered too httle, too
the depression
was
late. It
in full
provided no direct aid to industries or
4 Hoover Dam
completed
to decline, in
power
on the Colorado River was

It is the main source of hydro-
936.
in
the Southwest.
TH
REAT DEPRESSION
685
which continued
to small businesses,
alarming
Critics attacked the
approach
money
to fail at an
to
RFC's trickle-down
economic recovery. They argued
lent to big business
would not
filter
that
down
quickly enough to help the real victims of the

depression
put
it,
ordinary
was
this
As one economist
putting fertilizer on the
citizens.
like
branches of a tree
rather than on the roots
help the tree grow.
critics,
would be
need. This
in
more
to funnel
to
44
in
movie newsreels pro-
in
from audiences. And he
made
little
catcalls
effort to
is
manner or
"This
showman's job," Hoover remarked.
is
not a
many other
things,
stiff,
boring speeches.
of character."
As confidence in Hoover eroded, radical

political parties grew more vocal. Both the
Communist party and the Socialist party condemned the capitalist system that they believed
over. ... In
respect to government finance, as
win public support by chang-
ing his aloof
"I will not step out
wrote:
in
created the depression. Both parties helped orga-
Congress
nize several mass protests in the early 1930s.
and the people of the country have radically

to readjust their minds.
most hated man
voked boos and
that this era of easy finance
respect to so
the
America. His appearance
directly to those
hard for the country to realize
It is
By 1932 Hoover was
effective approach, said
would increase consumers' buying
when he
nUMBLINGS OF DISCONTENT
money
power and thereby stimulate business. Newspaper

columnist Walter Lippmann reflected popular sentiments
Hoover's limited measures to

end the depression did little to
ease the crisis.
rate.
99
Socialist leader A.
J.
Muste gathered
the jobless
Unemployed Leagues to demand work. The

Communist party encouraged labor-union activism
into
Government activism. Although President

Hoover's policies failed to end the Great
RFC and other
Home Loan Bank Act and
such
Depression, the
measures
the
funding for public
works
represented
policy.
To
a major shift in
and led
strikes
by migrant farm workers.
as
government
a greater degree than ever before, the
president and Congress accepted the idea that the

federal
government can and should do something
to boost the
economy
in times of crisis.
In the early 1930s Treasury
Secretary
Andrew Mellon had
advised the traditional donothing approach. He even

argued that a short depression
would be good
because
"it will
for the country
purge the rotten-
ness out of the system." But as
became more
the depression
severe, the
government took
unprecedented steps to pro-
mote recovery. Unfortunately, these
measures were
not sufficient to halt the
downward
trend.
Americans continued
As
to
suffer, they increasingly
blamed
Andrew Mellon
686
CHAPTER
their
Herbert Hoover.
23
plight
on
As the depression worsened, more and more

people began to blame President Hoover for their
troubles. This cartoon appeared June 93 in the
Albany News.
1
support a veterans' bonus

Congress. The
ans
bill
then before
bill
would have granted
many of whom
the veter-
were unemployed
payment of pension bonuses due
them
to
early
for their
service during the war. This group was soon
dubbed
the
At
Bonus Army.
first, officials
demonstrators to live
in
allowed the Bonus
Army
empty government
build-
camp in an open area across the

River.
When Congress rejected the bonus
Potomac
ings and to
most of the demonstrators returned home. But
bill,
about 2,000 veterans stayed, defying orders to

leave. In a clash with authorities,
two veterans and
The
police requested
two policemen were
killed.
and President Hoover ordered the army
aid.
to dis-
perse the squatters.

In late July the
army moved
guns, tanks, and tear gas.
in
with machine
One woman
recalled her
husband's experience that day:
My
husband vênt to Washington. To
Shown here is lawyer Samuel Leibowitz (left)

meeting with Heywood Patterson, one of the
march with
principal defendants in the Scottsboro case.
machine gunner
.
The party
sentenced eight of nine black youths aged 13 to 21
in
half
the war. He'd say them
off the
water hose,
He was
the bonus boys.
in
own government
and run him
Alabama,
Germans gassed him
[then] his
also helped expose racial injustice.
In 1931 an all-white jur\' in Scottsboro.
Germany. And
.
gassed him
country up there with
drowned
him.
**
years to death on a highly questionable rape

charge.
The Communist party helped supply
legal
defense for the "'Scottsboro Boys" and organized
mass demonstrations
Many
to overturn the convictions.
desperate Americans responded to
communist and
socialist calls for direct action.
men
Early in 1932. thousands of unemployed
demanding work participated
in a
hunger march on
the Ford auto plant near Detroit.
Four were killed
when
police opened
fire.
In Seattle. 5.000
unem-
ployed protestors seized a public building. After
two days
local officials finally forced
Some
them
out.
activism was spontaneous, reflecting
the desperation of the times. In rural areas people
armed with
clubs, pitchforks,
and shotguns con-
fronted officials trying to foreclose on homes.
Farmers destroyed crops and blocked roads
to pre-
vent food from being shipped to market, hoping
food supplies would push prices up.
that limiting
"They say blockading the highway's

Iowa farmer
said.
"Seems
to
me
there
illegal."
was
an
Tea
Party in Boston that was illegal too."
The biggest
protest
was staged by more than
War I veterans and their families

They came to Washington. D.C..
10,000 World
in
May
to
1932.
More than 10,000 veterans marched to Washington, D.C,

immediate payMay 1932 to petition Congress for full and immediat<
nwlM \^/^w
War
ment of rk^nci/^rk
during \^/
World
pension l%r\>-ftiicê
bonuses ^^rt^^
earned îrkrr
in
'
I.
687

Commanded
(later a
hero
in
b\ Cicncral
World War
II).
Douglas MacArthur
and prestigious family, his background suggested
the troops drove the
that
he would be more likely to identify with the
He could
veterans from the buildings, broke up their encamp-
wealthy than with working-class citizens.
ment, and burned their shacks. Hundreds were
easily
injured and three killed, including an 11 -week-old
instead he chose a career in public service.
baby.
Man\ Americans found
FDR was
the government's
treatment of the veterans shocking. Across the
have become a Wall Street power broker, but
highly influenced by the progres-
sivism of his distant cousin, former president
As
the election
Theodore Roosevelt, and by
of \9?>2 approached. Americans joked
bitterly. "In
president's niece Eleanor Roosevelt,
nation, anger against Hoover grew.
Hoover ue
trusted
FDR
and now we arc busted."
in
1905.
Her earnest
that of the
who
former
married
belief in social reform
impressed the young FDR. Mrs. Roosevelt would
grew as the depression worsened and Hoover mishandled the Bonus Army protest.
Public unrest
become one of
his
most important
political assets.
fellow Democrat once said of the relationship
between Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt: "Any

good things he may have done during
his political
career are due to her and any mistakes he
The ELECTION OF
summer of
In the
for the
fall,
have made are due to
1932
the Republicans reluctantly renomi-
With public sentiment running strongly
against the Republicans, no other
party
was eager
for
the
member
of the
nomination. The
Democrats, sensing victory, chose Franklin Delano

Roosevelt of
New
York as
FDR
in
ran as a vice-presidential candidate
1920. but his political career appeared to
be over when he was paralyzed from the waist
down by
polio in 1921. Yet with the help of his
wife, he
overcame
who
initials,
often went by his
skillful politician.
FDR was
Bom into a
Franklin D. Roosevelt's support of innovative
programs while governor of New York made

him a strong contender for the 932 Democratic
party presidential nomination (below). The photograph at right shows him campaigning in 1932.
relief
688
CHAPTER
23
New
York
in
1928.
As
governor he gained high marks for his imagina-
unemployment
challenger. Roosevelt
and
his physical challenges
was elected governor of

tive state relief
their candidate.
The Democratic
mined and
may
up the matter
with his wife."
1932, with elections scheduled
nated Herbert Hoover as their presidential candidate.
his not taking
programs
that
had instituted
benefits and supported failing
industries. In accepting his party's
nomination for
a deter-
president, Roosevelt issued a call for a
wealthy
of government, declaring:
new
style
44
in
Republican leaders not only have failed
material things, they have failed
national vision, because
have held out no hope. ...

I
pledge myself, to a
new
**
American people.
in
UCAK
disaster they
in
pledge you,
ROOSEVELT
deal for the
UEHMIVN
TREMAINE
BENNETT
change
in
paign had one key issue
Hoover
had
tried to
little
POUND
leadership. The 1932 cam-
the depression.
VOTE EVERY
While
defend his policies, he realized he
chance of victory. Roosevelt continually
attacked Hoover's record and called for major policy changes, including direct federal relief for the
needy, a massive public-works program, and fed-
A These Roosevelt campaign artifacts were used

during the 1932 presidential election.
of the stock market to prevent fraud.
eral regulation
Roosevelt promised to seek a fairer distribution of

wealth and to put the political and economic system
at
election day, Roosevelt and his running
mate, John Nance Garner of Texas, carried 42

states,
capturing 23 million popular votes and 472
Hoover's 16 million popular
electoral votes to
votes and 59 electoral votes.
The Democrats won
decisive majorities in both houses of Congress,

solidifying gains they
had already made
gressional election of 1930.
was confident
that his
As
in the
con-
a result, Roosevelt
Americans saw
1932. voters
made
out of
"new
March
see
troubles. Roosevelt
its
4,
how
had promised a
months between
Day and Roosevelt's inauguration on

1933, Americans waited hopefully to
the
new
president
would carry out
his
Hoover lost the election of 1932

because voters were upset by the
Republicans' handling of the
depression and were inspired by
glowing prosperity. In
blame
Franklin Roosevelt's confidence.
for the depression.
SECTION
IDENTIFY and
Home
Roosevelt the kind of dynamic
campaign pledge.
clear that the Republicans
to take the
Act,
in
deal." During the four
Election
most Americans had credited
it
were
for Roosevelt
programs would have strong
the Republicans for the era's
would have
who voted
personality they believed could lead the country
support in Congress.
In the 1920s
of those
really voting against Herbert Hoover. But other
"the service of the people."
On
Many
REVIEW
explain the significance of the following: rugged individualism, Agricultural Marketing
Loan Bank Act, Reconstruction Finance Corporation, Andrew Mellon, A.
J.
Muste, Bonus
Army, Franklin Delano Roosevelt, Eleanor Roosevelt.

I.
MAIN IDEA Why
did President
federal relief for those
MAIN IDEA What

did they
in
Hoover
rely
on
local
and voluntary efforts and oppose direct
need?
measures did the Hoover administration support to end the depression?
Why
fail?
MAIN IDEA Why did public unrest grow during the Hoover administration?
WRITING TO EXPRESS A VIEWPOINT Imagine you are a campaign worker for
Franklin
Delano Roosevelt. Write a campaign poster explaining why voters should support your candidate
in
the 1932 election.
HYPOTHESIZING How
might the events of the early 1930s have been different
administration had supported direct federal
if
the
Hoover
relief?
TH
REAT DEPRESSION
689
...
Stock market crashes.

William Faulkner's
The Sound and the fury
CHAPTER
23
Smoot-Hawley
published. Agricultural
Faulkner's A%
Marketing Act passed.
published.
1930
1929
REVIEWING THEMES
WRITING A SUMMARY
summary
1.
Economic Development What
2.
Geographic Diversity How

influence
and
list
to
5.
in
ond next to
2.
3.
Study the time
the order
above,
where people
did the depression
during the 1930s?
lived
How were
Cultural Diversity
African
Americans and Mexican Americans affected
which
in
next to
first
line
differ-
ently by the depression?
the sec-
activity
THINKING CRITICALLY
1. Evaluating How did the
below.
1
factors caused
the Great Depression?
of the chapter.
Number your paper
Lay Dying
Ifêview
write a
Tariff
passed. Williann
Stock market crashes.
2.
Bonus Army marches on Washington, D.C.
3.
Scottsboro Boys case begins.
depression affect the
behavior and outlook of Americans
who
struggled
through those hard times?

2.
4.
James Hilton's
Lost Horizon
al
Miss Lonelyhearts published.

3.
5.
Smoot-Hawley
Tariff passed.
How
did Hoover's
Evaluating
Committee
for
Why
Analyzing
Hoover oppose
did
direct feder-
and Nathanael West's

relief
to the needy?
Synthesizing What major
policy changes did
Franklin Roosevelt propose during the 1932
Unemployment
appointment of the
Relief
show
his
presidential campaign?
sup-
port for rugged individualism?

Review the
IDENTIFYING PEOPLE
AND
IDEAS
ing excerpt, in
Tribune
bear market
de Bright
6. Josefina Fierro
2.
Andrew Mellon
7.
James
3.
Black Tuesday
8.
rugged individualism
4.
mutualistas
9.
Home
5.
shantytowns
10.
Handbook entry on Distinguishing

Then read the follow-
Skills
Fact from Opinion on page 990.
which the editor of the Johnstown
warns the
city of
dangers to be expected from
the arrival of the Bonus Army.
What
How
editor have about the marchers?
Farrell
opinions does the
might they
Loan Bank Act
Bonus Army
In
any group of the
size of the
Bonus
Army, made up of men gathered from
What
factors led
Americans to
market during the 1920s?

ket crash
in
How
3.
What
4.
What measures
in
the stock
did the stock
mar-
effect did the depression have
on family
parts
there
uglies [thugs], degenerates.

itself
is
certain to
thieves, plug-
The community
from the criminal
fringe of
the invaders.**
life
the 1930s?
What
are
did President
Hoover take to
economy?
some
of the ways
CHAPTER
23

a poem or lyrics for a
mood of Americans strug-
Writing to Create Write

in
which people
expressed their discontent during the depression?
690
be a mixture of undesirables
must protect
did the depression affect the banking industry?
stimulate the
5.
tive leadership in a crisis,
invest
1929?
2.
in
Why
all
of the country, without discipline, without effec-

1
differ
from the opinions of one of the marchers?
song that would
reflect the
gling with the depression.
Home
Herbert Hoover appoints

Committee for
Unemployment Relief.
RFC
Loan Bank Act passed.
created. Bonus
James
Army
and
Nathanael West's
marches on Washington, D.C.
Scottsboro Boys case
Franklin Roosevelt elected
begins.
president.
Hilton's
Lost Horizon
Miis Lonelyhearts
published.
i
1933
1932
As the depression continued into the winter of 1932,
numbers of unemployed forced to seek

soup kitchens became a familiar sight. In her
the growing
relief in
poem "Bread
Line,"
which was published
in
January
1932, Florence
Converse attempted to make sense
of this tragedy.
Read the following excerpt from the
poem.
What
point
is
the poet trying to make?
spark can creep, a spark can run;
Suddenly a spark can wink
And send
us
down
down
LINKING HISTORY
the avenue,
Full of eyes that will not meet
The other eyes that throng the street
Refer to the
ment
AND GEOGRAPHY
map on page
benefits?
variations
popping with surprise
brink.
676.
Which
states had the
smallest percentage of people receiving unemploy-
The questing eyes, the curious eyes.

Scornful,
's
What if our slow-match have caught

Fire from a burning thought?
What if we should be destroyed
By our patient unemployed? 99
What's the meaning of this queue,

Tailing
destruction
in
What
the
unemployment
factors might account for
number
of people receiving
assistance?
To see a living line of men
As long as round
As long again ?
.
the block,
.
What's the meaning
Modem
and then
BUILDING YOUR
PORTFOLIO
in these faces
industry displaces,
Emptying the factory

To set the
men so
tidily
Along the pavement
Now and then
in
a row?
cooperatively.
they take a slow
Shuffling step, straight ahead,
As
if a
dead march
said:
"Beware! I'm not dead.
"
1.
THE ECONOMY
In
chapters 21 and 22
you dealt with the postwar economic downswing

and the upswing of the 1920s. Building on that
experience, imagine you are a cartoonist
Create an
ment
2,
cartoon that
editorial
criticizes
in
1929.
the invest-
practices that led to the stock market crash.
GLOBAL RELATIONS
Imagine you are a
journalist in the 1930s at the height of the
Great
Depression. Create a series of newspaper headlines that
both
in
describe the effects of the depression
the United States and around the world.
Headlines might mention stories about individual

families,
homelessness and food shortages, unem-
ployment, Hoover's
political
problems, or interna-
tional trade issues.
Breadline
69!
1933-1940
Chapter 24
THE
NEW DEAL
UNDERSTANDING
THE MAIN IDEA
To help the nation recover
the
fronr)
Great Depression of the 1930s,

President Franklin Roosevelt created
New
of programs known as the
series
Deal. These reforms improved the
economy and expanded the

government
in
economic
ernment provided jobs
role
life.
to
of
The gov-
thousands of
unemployed workers and provided

direct relief to the needy.
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT How can the federal

government
aid
economic
recovery?
CONSTrTUTIONAL
HERITAGE Why
might
government interference
the
in
economy be considered
unconstitutional?
CULTURAL DIVERSITY
What
role might the arts play
in reflecting
ethnic and cultural
diversity?
^^^^ni ^^^1 ^^^^1 ^^^1
^^^^H
1935
1933
P^HII^^^Hi
New
Deal
launched.
CIO
organized.
"^H
1936
Gone with the

Wind published.
1939
1937
1940
TTH^^^^H ^^^^^^î^^l ^^^^^^^^1

GM strike
The Grapes of
begins.
Vi/rath
published.
Native Son
published.
The prosperous economic times of the 1920s had come

::
LINK TO THE PAST
to a
devastating end with the stock market crash of 1929 and the Great
Depression. President Hoover's administration had been very cautious
in
dealing with the economic
1932, the nation
in
appeared ready for the federal government to take
a more active role
t3.
By electing Franklin Roosevelt
crisis.
in
shaping the economy.
y 1933, Americans had endured three years of economic
depression
each year more desperate than
office. President
string.
There
is
Hoover was heard

nothing more
to sigh,
we can
the
last.
"We
On
day
his last
in
are at the
end of our
new
president.
do." But the
Franklin Delano Roosevelt, did not share this despair. In his inaugural
address he offered the American people hope:
44
we
First of
let
all
have to fear
is
me
assert
fear itself
my
firm belief that the only thing
nameless, unreasoning,
unjustified
terror which paralyzes needed efforts to convert retreat into
advance.
This Nation asks for action, and action now.
^5
Roosevelt's words rang out across the land, lifting Americans
from despair and

port of the
new
stirring their hopes.
Some
half a million letters in sup-
president poured into the White House.
Roosevelt's program had three general aims:

plight of citizens in
my
to health:
economic
and refonn,
society. Despite
much
relief, to
ease the
distress; recovery, to restore the
to correct ills
and
injustices in
econo-
American
confusion, inefficiency, and political conflict.
Roosevelt's measures proved enor-
mously powerful and far-reaching.
They restored public hope, aided

the
unemployed, and gave the gov-
ernment a central role
business and the
in regulating
economy and
promoting public welfare.
Post office mural, Evening on the Farm,
by Orr C. Fisher
National Recovery Administration
symbol
THE NEW DEAL
693
Section
RESTORING HOPE
"
FOCUS
What New
Deal programs tackled the banking, farm, and

owners' crises?
How
did the
What
New
Deal provide
effect did the
New
relief for
the unemployed?
Deal have on the Tennessee Valley region?
n.'Oosevelt wasted no time making good his pledge of

action now. "
As soon as he arrived
in the
Oval
and provide
relieffor the needy.
's
''action,
and
he confidently
Office,
proposed programs that would strengthen the nation

ing system
home
teetering bank-
Soon he moved on
to attack
and
One
the deep-seated problems that plagued agriculture
industry.
New
Yorker
magazine cover, 1933
project would transform an entire region of the country.
measures, which made up the heart of the presi-
f?OOSEVELT CONFRONTS
THE EMERGENCY
dent's
New
Roosevelt started with the nation's banks,
which were
The day
after his
inauguration, he issued a proclamation closing every
whole country
bank
is
with him," noted humorist Will

If
he burned
down the Capitol, we would cheer and say, 'Well,

we at least got a fire started anyhow.'" People
were ready for action, even
if
it
meant mak-
ing mistakes along the way.
Roosevelt did indeed get a
fire started.
With the help of the Brain Trust, the advisory group that he had formed in 1932
while
still
getic
new
governor of
New
York, the ener-
president drew up 15 relief and
recovery measures, his promised "new deal
American people." Immediately

after taking office on March 5, Roosevelt
called Congress into special session. Over
for the
the next 100 days. Congress approved all 15
^ Americans
listened as Roosevelt discussed
important issues
broadcasts.
::
in serious trouble.
Roosevelt's optimism proved contagious. "The
Rogers, "just so he does something.
694
Deal program.
CHAPTER
24
in
one of
his
many
radio
in the nation for a
few days. This so-called
bank holiday was designed to stop massive withOn Thursday, March 9, Congress took only
a few hours to pass the Emergency Banking Act.
drawals.
Corporation (FDIC)
THE GREATEST MAN

OF THE AGE
Australian,
came
$2,500. (Today, the figure
to
$100,000
Roosevelt then turned his attention

to the plight of the farmers.
On March
28 he issued an executive order to create
years working
is
per account.)
to
the United States in

1926. He spent the
next
June 1933. This
reform insured each bank deposit up
Murray, a young
B.
J.
in
California orchards,
the
in
Farm
Credit Administration,
to
provide low-interest, long-term loans to
oil fields,
and ranches. When Franklin Roosevelt was

nominated for the presidency in 1932,
Murray became an eager observer of
these loans, farmers paid off mort-
American
lost farms,
farmers. Congress obliged, and with
gages and overdue taxes, bought back
politics.
and purchased needed
seed, fertilizer, and equipment. In
"J
J or myself," he later wrote
about
in
his travels titled
American
April, Roosevelt asked

in
a book
Trails, "I
create the
believed
Corporation (HOLC)
Roosevelt completely, and became engrossed
with his campaign.
and
He
address the
By June 1936
Again, Congress obliged.
and wherever he
HOLC
had saved the homes of

some one million American families by
the
left
irresistible."
to
not meet their mortgage payments.
hope behind him. The man's charm of

manner and quiet confidence and strength were
went
to
problem of home owners who could
travelled to distant cities,
into the farming country,
Congress
Home Owners Loan
granting them low-interest, long-term
Murray noted that
Roosevelt's "per-
mortgage loans.
warm
sonality flooded the countryside like

shine.
clear,
new
The country
The bank holiday and
listened spellbound to [his]
confident voice, which assured
era was commencing."
him down as the greatest
all
that a
FDIC restored
Murray concluded,
"Listening to his radio talks,
FCA and HOLC
examine
all
banks and allow those that were financially sound
pro-
vided loans to farmers

and home owners.
of the age."
to
public
trust in banks, while the
had already marked
man
which authorized the government
to
sun-
FOR THE NEEDY
ELIEF
reopen. Roosevelt hoped that the act would
restore public confidence in the
Along with these measures
banking system.
Caught without cash, Americans scrambled

to find substitutes for
it
during the bank holiday.
tration also
the Roosevelt adminis-
launched a large-scale program of
direct relief to the nation's 13 million
unemployed.
Many used subway and bus tokens, postage

stamps, and lOUs. On Sunday evening, March 12.
completed the agenda
some 60 million anxious Americans tuned
in their
ing to get the government to support since the
bank
Progressive Era. Through the efforts of Eleanor
of
Roosevelt and Democratic National Committee
the
member Molly Dewson, the president brought in

many long-time reformers to direct his programs,
radios to hear the president explain
how
the
holiday would protect their money. In this
many
"fireside chats"
White House
in banks. "I
first
radio broadcasts from
Roosevelt urged people
can assure you that
it
is
to reinvest
safer to
keep
your money in a reopened bank than under the
The next morning,
many ways
Roosevelt's direct-relief program

that reformers
as
banks began reopening,
billion in deposits
flowed into the sys-
tem. Confidence in banks increased
still
more when
Congress created the Federal Deposit Insurance
had been
try-
including Secretary of Labor Frances Perkins.

In
May
1933,
at
Roosevelt's request. Congress
established the Federal
mattress." he advised.
more than $1
In
Emergency Relief
Administration (FERA) with half a
billion dollars
for relief aid to be funneled directly to state and

local agencies.
One
of FDR's most trusted advisers,
Harry L. Hopkins, headed the
FERA
program.
THEN EW DEAL
695
W'ashiniilDn
ihe
FLRA
44
newspaper
The
ilu-
last a
new
Hopkins, the
month
Harry
if
of
in
than $5,000,000 during his

in office.
first
out of
main-
veteran of the experience:
really
enjoyed
ya.
935 the
had risen
total
eight million
had three wonderful
They sure made
man
in
There was nobody
the CCC's.
bet-
*7
**
of such direct federal relief aid
some S3
lo
it.
equal.
ter than another
During
By
day.
because you learned that every-
body here was
two
to help their families
CCC
square meals a
disbursing
home
earnings were sent back
Said one
L.
relief administrator,
pace he set yesterday
tains the
hours
iiollK
half-billion dollars for direct relief
of States won't
more
rept)rted the eagerness
direetor U) get reliel lo
billion.
At one point nearly
American families were surviving on
its
the
life,
enrolled more than 2.5 million young
CCC
men and
planted millions of trees, most in the South and the
Southwest. The program earned back

cost in the value
public assistance.
nearly 10-year
it
added
much of
its
to the nation's forests.
.Americans, however, disliked this kind of aid.
They wanted
Works
nized the Civil
Most of
create jobs.
So Hopkins orga-
jobs, not handouts.
.Administration
these were
(CWA)
"make-work" pro-
jects such as raking leaves and picking up park
From 1933
lion in
to 1934, the
wages
To
aid
CWA
to
paid
some $750
litter.
mil-
men and women.

unemployed young men between ages
to
some
four million
18 and 25. Congress established the Civilian
Conservation Corps (CCC)

250,000 young men
army camps
for
SS Through the FERA, the CWA,

and the CCC, the New Deal
granted direct relief to the
unemployed and created jobs.
CCC
some
homes and went to
in 1933. Initially,
left their
training.
Once
trained, they
HELPING THE NATION RECOVER

While
New
Deal relief programs aided needy
Americans, the Roosevelt administration also pur-
sued recover)' programs to revive the economy.
spread out into the nation's forests, where they
Roosevelt saw^ relief as
planted trees, cleared underbrush, laid out park
recovery was his long-term goal.
trails,
To stimulate recovery
and developed campgrounds and beaches. For
their efforts they
earned a dollar a day. Most of their
a short-term
try,
in business
remedy:
and indus-
the Roosevelt administration poured
into the
economy through
ernment spending
"priming the pump."
money
federal loans and gov-
process sometimes called
Many
New
of the
Deal
reco\ery programs were based on the theories of
noted economist John Maynard Keynes,
who
argued that for a nation to recover fully from a

depression, the government had to spend
money
to
create jobs and boost investment.
One of
the chief
ways
in
which the
Roosevelt administration attempted to prime the
economy's pump was through the National

Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA). which
Congress passed in June 1933. The act was
designed
activity
to stimulate industrial
and business
and reduce unemployment by
stabilizing
prices, raising wages, limiting workers' hours,
and providing jobs. To help achieve these goals.
A Some 2.5 million jobless young men were

employed by the CCC from 1933 to 1943. During
the decade they worked on projects designed to
t>f^^^
ife
i-r. --t
696
CHAPTER
24
^ ^
preserve and restore the nation's natural resources.
FRANKLIN
1
"Mr. Roosevelt
the
is
D.
speech writers commented that one

could never
states-
who seems able to relax,"

man
wrote one journalist about the
.
FDR
interior."
and idealism
instinct
value for him. His
warm
win support for many of
recuper-
thoughts behind
dazzling smile.
his
pro-
grams. Years after the depression
polio.
The president always

his private
in
weekly "fireside chats," helped
look may have helped
in his
and
compassionate manner, expressed
that faced his
his
from
little
style
administration. His optimistic out-
ation
on
making deci-
in
sions. Political ideology held
and easygoing, despite the
enormous pressures
what was going on
Yet, the president relied heavily
always appeared to be warm, energetic,
tell
FDR's "heavily forested
in
charismatic leader. Indeed,
1933-1945
882- 1 945
a unique figure in
modern world: the one
in office
ROOSEVELT
One
^
n-<tê4y ^"î^
of his
NIRA created two new federal agencies

Public Works Administration (PWA) and
the
the
to
member.
a beloved family
The NIRA's other arm,
the
National Recovery Administration (NRA).
The PWA, under
many Americans would

remember FDR almost as
hid
his
the
NRA,
attempted
promote recovery by encouraging businesses
draw up "codes of
to
competition." Under these
fair
the leadership of Secretary
codes, competing businesses agreed to work
of the Interior Harold Ickes, provided jobs and
together to stabilize prices, wages, hours, and pro-
stimulated business activity by contracting with
duction levels. Businesses were able to do this
private firms to construct roads, public buildings,
because the
and other public-works projects. Between 1933
To help
and 1939, the
some 34,000
PWA
spent
more than $4
billion
on
NIRA
had suspended
antitrust laws.
protect labor through this period of busi-
ness self-regulation. Section 7(a) of the
NIRA
guaranteed workers the "right to organize and bar-
projects.
gain collectively through representatives of their
own choosing
restraint or coercion
Under
Hugh
free
the direction of former
NRA
Johnson, the
S.
from the interference,
of employers."
army general
began on a wave of
popular enthusiasm. Parades of workers marched

through
cities displaying the
NRA
eagle clutching lightning bolts in
slogan
"We Do Our
Part."
banner
a blue
claw, with the
its
Johnson compared the
NRA to a fighting army:
This campaign
is
a frank
dependence
on the power and the willingness of the

American people to act together
person
in
Blue Eagle
an hour of great danger

is
symbol of
and self-government.
Roosevelt's approach to
recommend
government was to
new program,
try
it,
and
if it
failed,
then "admit it frankly and try another." His

approach is satirized in this 934 cartoon.
1
as
.
one
.
The
industrial solidarity
T*
But enthusiasm soon faded. Businesses did not

always obey the codes. Workers complained
the codes held their
that
wages down, while consumers
THE
NEW DEAL
697
complained
people
that the
NRA. they joked that

"National Run Around" and "No
confidence
lost
stood lor
it
codes pushed prices up. As
Recovery Allowed."
decliired the
NIRA
in the
1935 the Supreme Court
In
(and the
NRA)
unconstitutional.
supporters pointed to these favorable results as

proof of the value of sound federal planning. But
critics
of the
New
that the taxes
Deal farm program pointed out
on food processors were passed
along to consumers
in the
form of higher
prices.
Thus, while farmers' incomes rose, the purchasing
power of
AGRICULTURAL RECOVERY
To
city dwellers declined.
Critics also charged that farmers with large
land-holdings benefited far more from the
raise farm prices and increase farmers' purchas-
than did small farmers. Often
large
AAA
landown-
ing power. Roosevelt proposed that farmers cut
ers cut production, they forced sharecroppers off
production. Congress passed the Agricultural
their land
Adjustment Act (AAA)
in
May
1933, which estab-
and kept
all
of the government payments
for themselves. Thus, the poorest farmers
were
Adjustment Administration
forced into deeper poverty. In response, a group of
paid farmers to reduce their
Arkansas sharecroppers, both black and white,
output of cotton, wheat, corn, hogs, rice, tobacco,
formed the Southern Tenant Farmers' Union
lished the Agricultural
(AAA). The
AAA
dairy products, and other commodities.

for these payments, or subsidies,
The money
came from
levied on food processors, including
taxes
meat packers,
In
(STFU)
ment
one year the plan reduced the cotton crop
Such increased income gave cotton growers
and large-scale farmers
more cash
to spend, thus
stimulating overall economic recovery.
New
Deal
INNOVATION
many
flood control
and
soil
LOCATION
in
the region
it
tax
Through which states does the Tennessee River flow?
CHAPTER
24
to force
landown-
payments with the farmers who rented
one year the
STFU
the
AAA on the
ruling against the
It
grounds
had grown
to
that the processing
was unconstitutional. This
improved
covered by providing cheap electricity and by promoting
conservation.
and
the govern-
Early in 1936, the Supreme Court struck
down
The TVA was one of the most innovative creations of the Nev/ Deal.
people
The union lobbied
more than 10,000 members.
Zennessee Valley Authoritij

the lives of
1934.
to halt tenant evictions
ers to share
by more than three million bales, raising cotton

prices.
in
land. Within
canners, and flour millers.
698
when
NIRA
and
decision, like
NRA,
its
reflected
the
Supreme Court's opposition
growing
to
government power.
To stimulate economic recovery,

Congress passed the NIRA to
help business and industry and
AAA to aid
the
agriculture.
le EVITALIZING A REGION
The most monumental of
the early
all
New
Deal
The TVA's system
programs was the Tennessee Valley project, which

sought to revitalize the seven-state region drained
by the Tennessee River and

on page 698). This
cut forests
its
rural area
tributaries (see
map
and
illiteracy
plagued
its
two million
David E. Lilienthal, the

several
cre-
1933, transformed the economic and
Under
social life of the region.
power
TVA
the guidance of
built
38 dams and
stations that provided electricity,
flood control, and recreational facilities for the

region. Other
eracy,
and
TVA
soil
projects
some 41,000 square miles.

the construction of Norris Dam.
Critics
combated malaria,
who
feared
would
cut into their divi-
TVA. The Supreme Court, however, refused

strike down the TVA. Probably the best known
the "alphabet soup" of
one of the
New Deal's
to
of
programs created during
Roosevelt's First Hundred Days, the
TVA
remains
most enduring successes.
illit-
The TVA transformed economic

and social conditions throughout
the Tennessee River Valley.
which had barely
changed since Reconstruction.
SECTION
IDENTIFY and
it
as overuse of
in private utility
dends, brought several court cases against the
erosion and tried to improve the
region's standard of living,
TVA
denounced the
government power. Shareholders

companies,
The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA),
May
is
was scarred by over-
residents.
ated in
Shown here
and frequent flooding. Poverty, malnutri-
tion, disease,
of hydroelectric plants, dams, and navi-
gation channels covers an area of
REVIEW
explain the significance of the follovîng:
Act, Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation,
Nev/ Deal, bank
holiday,
Emergency Banking
Home Owners Loan

Harry L Hopkins, Civil Works
Farm Credit Administration,
Corporation, Frances Perkins, Federal Emergency Relief Administration,
Administration, Civilian Conservation Corps, National Industrial Recovery Act, Public
Works
Administration, National Recovery Administration, Agricultural Adjustment Act, subsidies. Southern
Tenant Farmers' Union, Tennessee Valley Authority.
LOCATE
I.
and explain the importance of the following: Tennessee River
Valley.
MAIN IDEA How did the Roosevelt administration attempt to restore confidence
system? What New Deal measures provided loans to farmers and home owners?
MAIN IDEA Which New

jobs?
Deal programs granted direct
Which programs helped
GEOGRAPHY: REGION
WRITING TO INFORM
a letter to a critic of the
region
where you
relief
in
the banking
to the unemployed and created
business, industry, and agriculture?
Describe the physical characteristics of the Tennessee River

Imagine you are a resident of the Tennessee River Valley
TVA,
outlining the positive
ways
in
which the
TVA
in
Valley.
1935.
Write
has transformed the
live.
ANALYZING How are
the economic theories of John Maynard Keynes evident
that the Roosevelt administration took
toward
reviving the
in
the approach
economy?
THE NEW DEAL
699
Section 2
NEW CHALLENGES
c u s
What criticisms were aimed at the New Deal?
What enabled Roosevelt to win reelection easily in 1936?
How did Roosevelt try to prevent the Supreme Court from
his
overturning
programs?
How
Second
did the
New
Deal benefit labor and agriculture?
nee the furious activity of the First Hundred Days ended,
the nation anxiously waited to see
would work.
ing the
were quick
Critics
New Deal down,
to
how
New Deal
well the
speak
Rather than slow-
out.
however, these critics
administration more determined to enact
still
made
the
another series of
innovative programs that created jobs, provided security for
older Americans, and improved labor
and fanning
conditions.
Townsend
Plan sign near
the Constitution and free enterprise
CRITICS OF THE
NEW DEAL
New
and the right of the

radical critics
on the
was not going
far
ery,
left
was
political spectrum. Liberal
and
Townsend wanted
argued that the
enough
providing
in
and reform. Conservatives on the
that the
fere.
relief,
Deal
recov-
right charged
Dr. Francis E.
sion of
S200
where
it
had no
right to inter-
Conservatives also worried about the heavy
New
costs of the
Deal. Although
paigned for a balanced budget

deficit rose
some $3.5
FDR
had cam-
in 1932, the federal
from roughly SI. 3
billion in
1933 to
billion in 1936.
Most conservative complaints came from the

American Liberty League, made up largely of
Republican business interests and disenchanted
Democrats
led
by Al Smith,
who
accused
New
Deal
supporters of "irresponsible ravings against millionaires
and big business." The League complained
that the
700
:i
New
CHAPTER
24
Deal measures were destroying both
the
month
government
to everv
within 30 days and thus
Deal was going too far
into areas
to grant a pen-
American over 60
years old. All recipients were to spend the pensions
pushing gov-
New
ernment
New
who opposed the New Deal

Townsend of California.
the others
Deal came from both the
left
and would drive
the nation into bankruptcy.
Among
Criticism of the
Weslaco, Texas
Huey Long
pump money
into the
economy. Father Charles
message from
priest," broadcast a similar

in
He urged
Michigan.
banks and return
ize all
Coughlin. the "radio
E.
government
the
his pulpit
to the silver standard.
Huey Long, "the Kingfish,"
In the
a colorful but
corrupt senator from Louisiana, probably had the
most radical plan. Like Robin Hood, Long wanted

to take from the rich and give to the poor.
He
claimed that he had done just that as governor of
when he had helped
Louisiana,
ing public housing, roads,
The second new deal
to national-
the poor by build-
and schools and by pro-
midterm elections of 1934, the Democrats
picked up more seats
in
Congress. The victory,
coupled with pressure from the
New
Deal planners
left,
encouraged
more public-works
to initiate
programs, a social security plan, and wage and

hour improvements for laborers. This series of pro-
grams would eventually come

Second
New
Deal. While
to
be called the
providing relief and
still
viding free textbooks to students. Actually, he had
pursuing recovery, the Second
financed his state's public-works projects not by
increasingly emphasize reform.
New
Deal would
taking from the rich, but by imposing higher taxes
on everyone
Long and
including the poor.
his friends
In addition.
had often profited personally
from the projects.

In
1933 Senator Long proposed a radical
new kind of
program, which he called
relief
Share-Our- Wealth. The program would empower

the
government
from the
to confiscate wealth
rich
The Works Progress Administration.

A works program, the Works Progress
Administration (WPA), began in April 1935
under the direction of Harry Hopkins. The CWA
had ended the previous year, yet unemployment
was still high. Millions of American families
remained on relief rolls. To create jobs for them,
WPA.
through taxes and then provide a guaranteed mini-
Congress allotted $5 billion for the
mum
Over the eight years of its life, the WPA

employed an estimated 14 million people, with
about 2 million working for it at any given
time. Workers engaged in a variety of tasks. Male
blue-collar workers built or rebuilt a total of some
350 airports, more than 100,000 public buildings,
some 78,000 bridges, and about 500,000 miles of
ily.
income and a home
Long even had
Ev'ry
man
his
every American fam-
to
own theme
song:
man
a king, ev'ry
a king,
For you can be a millionaire,

There's enough for
When
it's
all
people to share.
sunny June and December
roads. White-collar workers took
too.
Or
the vîntertime or spring:
in
jects
and teaching jobs. The
women, but
There'll be peace without end,
division for
Ev'ry neighbor a friend,
criminated against
With
ev'ry
man
a king.
99
the
women by
on research pro-
WPA
had a special
program often
dis-
paying them lower
wages than men. On most projects male workers

received $5 a day while female workers received
In spite of Long's reputation for corruption,
the Share-Our-Wealth
of popular support.
program drew
Some
critics
a great deal
suspected that
Long harbored dreams of becoming a dictator.

Such fears led the Communist party and the
Socialist party to denounce Long even though his
program promised
only $3 for the same job.
The WPA employed many women, such as

weaver from Kansas, in a variety of jobs.
this
to redistribute wealth. Bolstered
by popular support. Long soon threatened to challenge Roosevelt as a third-party candidate in the
1936 election. But both
this threat
and the Share-
Our-Wealth program died when an assassin killed
Long
in 1935.
accused the New

Deal of pushing government
power too far, while others
Some
critics
wanted to expand
it
further.
THE NEW DEAL
701
WPA
The
^^^B
young peo-
tried to help strugglinii
ple between the ages of 16 and 25 by establishing
Youth Administration (NYA), a

"junior WPA." The NYA gave young people partlime jobs that provided money to help them stay in
the National
NYA
school. Within a year the
was providing
^^^^^^,,,,''.
^^^^^^W
^'^'^'
"'\
aid
to half a million people.
Social Security.
Second New Deal was
the Social Security Act,
which Congress passed
in
August 1935. The
contained three major provisions.
unemployment insurance
First,
act
provided
it
for workers
their jobs. The funds for this insurance
who
lost
came from
on businesses. Second, the
a payroll tax
act pro-
vided pensions for retired workers over age 65.
The money
sources
!<
Another cornerstone of the
for these pensions
came from two
on employers and a tax on
a payroll tax
employees' wages. Third,
in a
?!I
^^^VP^^^^^^^^^^^^Î
The Social Security Act marked an unprecedented step in providing relief to the unemployed
and elderly. In this photograph, a man named John
Kenny fills out one of the first applications for a
social security
number.
shared federal-state
program, the act provided payments to the blind,
power." In response. Congress passed the
disabled, and elderly and to wives and children of
Revenue Act of 1935. Often referred to as

Wealth Tax Act. it sharply increased taxes on
male workers who had died.

At
first
the Social Security Act covered only
a limited segment of the
work
force.
Farmers and
the self-employed were excluded, as well as
whom
the
the
nation's richest people. Corporations had to pay
an "excess profits" tax
they
if
made an annual
profit greater than 10 percent.
year
later.
were
Congress increased corporate taxes again.
African American women. Coverage broadened
Business complained bitterly that the tax increase
over the years, however, and the Social Security
discouraged business expansion.
domestic workers, some 60 percent of
Act became the model for a wide range of public

social welfare programs.
Other programs.
Second
New
Underlying Roosevelt's
Deal was the president's belief
that the
government had not yet "weeded out the overprivileged and
leged."
the underprivileged, Roosevelt
issued an executive order in

the
up the underprivi-
effectively lifted
To help
May
1935 establishing
Rural Eiectrification Administration (REA).
REA
The
areas.
extended power lines into isolated rural
Within a few years, only
farm
in 10 lacked
Roosevelt also went after public
set
He charged
that
utility
many of them were
com-
able to
and
because they held
higher prices than their costs justified
thus
make excessive
profits
monopolies over gas and
the depression
remained on the
lingered.
full
WPA
or the
CCC
Some 9
capacity. Still.
Many
rolls.
remained closed or operated
tories
mil-
at far less
fac-
than
America had made some
progress. Since 1932 the national income had
jumped from roughly S43

billion
billion to
more than $80
and unemployment had dropped by nearly
electricity.
To reform
this
In
June 1936 the Democrats enthusiastically
nominated Roosevelt for
that tax laws
rich, declaring
had not done enough "to prevent an
unjust concentration of wealth and economic

24
many
first
time
since Reconstruction, most African Americans
ties to the
Roosevelt also went after the
second term. Labor
Republicans also endorsed him. For the
ment
the right to regulate interstate production,
unions, farmers, those on relief, and even
living in the North
CHAPTER
still
lion workers lacked regular jobs, and 3.5 million
system. Congress passed a law giving the govern-
transmission, and sale of gas and electricity.
702
By 1936
1936
three million.
electricity.
panies.
iHE ELECTION OF
Lincoln"
abandoned
Republican
to
their traditional
"the
party
party of
support the Democrats. The
Republicans nominated the capable but unexciting governor of Kansas. Alfred
M. Landon. The
Republican platform condemned the
New
Deal.
SELECTED
New
NEW DEAL PROGRAMS
Deal
Year
First
1933
Emergency Banking Act
Gave administration
1933
Farm Credit Administration (FCA)
Extended loans to farm owners to refinance loans.
1933
Economy Act
Aimed
1933
Civilian
1933
Federal Emergency Relief
1933
Agricultural
Provisions
right to regulate banks.
at balancing the budget.
Employed young men on public-works
Conservation Corps (CCC)
Provided
relief to
projects.
the needy.
Administration (FERA)
Adjustment Act of 1933
Paid farmers to reduce crops; funded by processing
(AAA)
tax later declared unconstitutional.
Constructed dam and power projects to improve
Tennessee Valley Authority (TV A)
1933
Tennessee Valley Region.
Home
1933
1933
Loaned money to home owners to refinance
Ovs^ners Loan Corporation
(HOLC)
mortgages.
Banking Act of 1933
Created FDIC and prohibited banks from
selling
stock or financing corporations.

Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation
1933
Insured deposits
in
individual
bank accounts.
(FDIC)
National Industrial Recovery Act
1933
Established
(NIRA)
Nf^ and
a series of fair-competition
codes for businesses.
(NRA)
1933
1933
Public
1933
Civil
1934
Securities and
1934
Federal Housing Administration (FHA)
Works
Administration
Regulated industry and raised wages and prices.
(PWA)
Set up public-works projects to increase
employment and business
Works
Year
Second
1935
Works
Administration
(CWA)
Exchange Commission
New
activity.
Provided federal jobs to the unemployed.

Regulated securities market.
Insured bank loans for building and repairing homes.
Deal
Provisions
Progress Administration
(WPA)
Employed people to do public works, research, and

artistic projects.
Promoted control and prevention of
Conservation Service
1935
Soil
1935
Rural Electrification Administration (REA)
1935
National Youth Administration
1935
National Labor Relations Act
Recognized
collectively; regulated labor practices.
1935
(Wagner-Connery Act)
Social Security Act
1935
Revenue Act of 1935 (Wealth Tax Act)
Increased taxes on the wealthy.
1937
Farm Security Administration (FSA)
Provided loans to help tenant farmers buy land.
1938
Agricultural
1938
(AAA)
Revenue Act of 1938
1938
Fair
soil
erosion.
Provided electricity to rural areas lacking public

utilities.
(NYA)
Provided job training and part-time jobs to students.

rights of labor to organize
and bargain
Provided unemployment benefits, pensions for the

elderly,
and survivor's insurance.
Increased government regulation of crop
Adjustment Act of 1938
production and payments to farmers.

Increased taxes on wealthy businesses.
Labor Standards Act
Established
and
minimum wage
maximum work week
businesses
in
interstate
of 40 cents per hour

of 40 hours for
commerce.
Source: Encyclopedi a of American History
RELIEF RECOVERY,
after he
reform
assumed
in
office
the Second
in
New
AND REFORM
Franklin Roosevelt
1933. These programs became the First
)roposed a wide
New
Deal.
Two
number
of
programs to aid
in
the nation's recovery
years later he outlined a broader program of social
Deal.
Which New Deal programs were aimed primarily
at helping farmers?
THE NEW DEAL
703

New
but called for few specific changes in
Deal
programs. The Republicans did promise to balance the budget and

returning
reduce federal power by
to
more power
by new
mainly
business
regulations and corporate
newspaper
taxes, conservative
editors,
Americans angered by high taxes
and rich
renewed
their
charges that Roosevelt ignored the Constitution.
They pointed
out that the
Supreme Court had over-
NRA, AAA. and
turned the
five other
key
New
Deal measures. American individualism, free

enterprise, and private property, they insisted, were
being abandoned for socialism.
Some even charged
falsely that the Social Security
Act would require
President Roosevelt entered the fight with

accepting renomination. he pledged to
on the course the
stay
smashing victory
New
Deal had
set.
He won
with some 28 million popular
votes to Landon's 17 million. Roosevelt carried

ever>' state but
Maine and Vermont
sided victory
more than
in
Democrats increased
the
most lop-
farmers,
power
that a solidly
him. Roosevelt
Democratic Congress gave
moved
to
"reform" the Supreme
Court. Angered that the Court had declared several
New
Deal measures unconstitutional.
Roosevelt called attention to the ages of the justices, labeling
them "Nine Old Men"
(six
were 70
or older), and accused them of being stuck in the
"horse and buggy" days in their thinking.

In Februarv' 1937.
two weeks
after his
second
inauguration. Roosevelt asked Congress to grant

the
power
to appoint
one new justice for each
of those 70 or older, up to six
Supreme Court needed "a
new
justices.
persistent infusion of
for
storm of protest across the nation. Critics

Democrats
this
as well as Republicans
charged
with the delicate balance of legislative, executive,
and judicial powers. Dorothy Thompson, a popular

political columnist,
as a
move toward
denounced Roosevelt's scheme
dictatorship:
elections to
come.
If
the American people accept this
last
audacity of the President without letting
The Democrats,
ful
forging a power-
coalition of groups
fited
from the
New
reelected Roosevelt
The negative
atti-
many memof the Supreme
tude that
bers
Court had toward New

Deal reforms is satiin the cartoon
Nine Old Men.
rized
704
CHAPTER
24
who
that
unprecedented "court-packing" would tamper
The
southern whites, city
many
new
blood." he argued. Roosevelt's proposal triggered a
dwellers, industrial workers, and northern blacks
would hold together
The
both houses
a century.
their majorities in
of Congress. The coalition that Democrats forged

in the election
Flushed with his triumph and convinced of the
him
everyone to wear metal dog tags!
great zest. In
f?OOSEVELT AND THE

SUPREME COURT
to the states.
Roosevelt's opponents
interests upset
bene-
Deal, easily
in 1936.
out a
yell
to high heaven, they have ceased
to be jealous of their liberties and are ripe

for ruin. This
is
the beginning of a pure per-
sonal government.
**
Congress resoundingly denied

Roosevelt's request. But this was
just
one battle
war
in a
FDR
that
would eventually win. The Supreme
Court soon upheld the Social

Security Act and the National Labor
Many Americans
Relations Act.
concluded that the justices had

decided to become more agreeable
to
prevent a drastic reform of the
Court
"A
itself.
switch in time saves
nine," people joked.
Over
the next
four years, seven justices died or
and were replaced by
retired
Roosevelt appointees.
By 1945
eight
of the nine justices were Roosevelt

appointees.
As unions became better organized

and membership grew, the number of
Roosevelt tried to
"pack** the Supreme
Court with six new
members in order to
protect his New Deal
strikes increased.
1937 sit-down
shown above. Workers for a

New York City vending company
(right) also went on strike later that
same year.
strike
is
programs.
Previously, different
The second new deal
AFL
and labor
represented different
craft
unions had
types of autoworkers,
When
the
Supreme Court declared
unconstitutional in
May
1935,
NIRA
the
down
struck
it
Section 7(a). which protected the rights of labor
Two months
such as electricians,
welders, or metalworkers.
Now
all
auto workers negotiated as a single
however. Congress
erful union.
And
passed the National Labor Relations Act, also
branches, the
CIO welcomed
unions.
called the
later,
Wagner-Connery
labor's right to organize unions
Act, to guarantee
and
continued
its
efforts to organize workers, includ-
ing those in such mass-production industries as

steel
fast
to please gruff,
AFL
in
had been trying
to unionize
company had been
efforts.
Meanwhile,
GM
abuses of power by management, and work
On December
led to a sit-down strike.
in various industries.
The new CIO unions included

skilled
and unskilled,
in a
all
workers
in
all
workers,
given industry. For
example, the United Auto Workers
sented
fighting the union's
workers were growing
increasingly frustrated with frequent layoffs,
Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO),

workers
factories,
United
speedups.
tried to unite
GM
Lewis and several
other like-minded labor leaders organized the
which
and
wave of strikes. One of the

was waged against General
the winter of 1936-37. The
but the
In 1935
AFL
resulted in a
Motors (GM)
UAW
both the
bitter strikes
move
did not
L. Lewis, the intimidating leader of the
Mine Workers union.
CIO
most
efforts of
shaggy-browed John
and automobiles. But the
enough
The organizing
the
The American Federation of Labor (AFL)
many AFL
African American,
immigrant, and female members.
to bargain for
wages and working conditions.
better
in contrast to
pow-
(UAW)
repre-
automotive plants.
31, 1936, this frustration
Instead of leaving the automotive plants,
workers occupied the factories and pledged
remain
until
management met
their
to
demands.
Wives, daughters, and female workers formed the
Women's
Auxiliary and the
Women's Emergency
THE
NEW DEAL
705
support of
to picket outside the plants in
Brigade
Many women
the union.
were
their lives
tell
changed by this experience. They soon took up
women
the cause of equal pay for nien and
in the
auto industry. Said one female activist:
44
I'm living for the first time with a defi-
nite goal.
woman
Just being a
enough anymore.
want to be
isn't
human
99
being with the right to think for myself.
Finally, after six

in
and granted the
weeks, General Motors gave
UAW
workers. Within eight months the

ship grew to
UAW
some 400,000. Owing
Wagner-Connery Act,
total
up from about 4 million
GM
the right to organize
in
member-
in part to the
A The depression
left
many
ple from Memphis, Tennessee, being transported to

Arkansas for a day's work in the cotton fields.
union membership shot
1936
to
some 9
million
a series of strikes
In
in 1939.
by cotton pickers
1937 Congress created the
Administration (FSA)
SS The Wagner-Connery Act

guaranteed the rights of labor,
increasing union membership
and
buy farms. The
FSA
also established
camps where
The Roosevelt administration recognized

that the soil conservation program did not do
enough to limit farm production. So in 1938
Congress passed a second Agricultural Adjustment Act. The government continued to pay
Deal also brought
Supreme Court
relief for
struck
farm-
down
farmers to withdraw land from production and to

also authorized the
practice conservation, but
Agricultural Adjustment Act in January 1936,
Department of Agriculture
Congress created another program
specific crops that could be brought to market
the
AAA,
the
the
prices high
to replace
new program aimed
to
it.
Like
keep farm
by cutting crop production. To avoid
each year.
the
rose.
Congress combined crop reduction with a
get
New
The Second
Deal also sought to
help tenant farmers, sharecroppers, and
migrant farm workers. The rise of the
Southern Tenant Farmers' Union had

brought a backlash of violence against
sharecroppers by landowners and authorities in the
members
secrecy.
South, forcing
to
Then
some union
conduct their activities

in
in
1936 the union organized
These members of the Southern

Tenant Farmers' Union are shown attending a union meeting. Both African
Americans and European Americans
belonged to the STFU.
CHAPTER
24
soil
con-
a legitimate governmental activity.
When
it
to limit the
amount of
harvests exceeded these limits,
government stored the surpluses
opposition from the Supreme Court, however.
servation plan
::
Security
the
ers.
706
Farm
low-interest, long-
medical care.
and farmers
New
make
migrant farm workers could find shelter and
The second new deal

When
to
in five states.
term loans to tenant farmers and sharecroppers to
activity.
The Second
African Americans
struggling to find work. This photograph shows peo-
Farmers cooperating
in this
until prices
program could
government loans based on the value of
stored crops.
their
All in
piled a
all.
mixed
New
Deal agricultural policy com-
record.
1933 to 1937. but
Farm income did
critics
farm prices not only hurt
American
was
pointed out that higher
helped
had some successes.
many farmers escape economic
saved homes, and increased the
fertility
disaster,
The Works Progress Administration quickly doubled the number of workers on
unemployment had declined and
As
who had
punish Democrats
to
/ÛSINESS SLUMP,
POLITICAL SETBACKS
Democrats
Second
in
New
who
Congress
Deal.
He
whom
again
dropped from government
because of the cut-
and 80
office!
scheme had backto
"purge" the
one member of Congress
New Deal
still
more Democrats who
programs. Adding to Roosevelt's
in the
House. Though the Democrats
still
maintained majorities in both houses of Congress,
employ those
their
margin was much narrower. Faced with
increasing criticism from

to
taxes from workers" paychecks further reduced the
end
to the
FDR decided
not
New Deal era.
SECTION
REVIEW
explain the significance of the following: Francis
New
all sides,
propose any new reforms in 1939, marking an
backs. In addition, withholding Social Security
Huey Long, Share-Our-Wealth, Second
did not support
dismay, the Republicans gained 7 seats in the Senate
in 1936. Unfortunately, private industry
to
near,
Deal (and
Roosevelt opposed won reelection.
opposed
and pubhc-works
was not yet strong enough
party. All but
Moreover, voters elected
government spending, Roosevelt had begun
New
actually urged voters to
Democrats out of
Democratic
plunged downward. Stung by criticism of exces-
IDENTIFY and
of
voted against his
however, so did his attempt
fired,
During 1936 and early 1937. the economy seemed
rolls
fall
industrial
plan) by opposing conserv-
Just as his "court-packing"
relief
the
midterm elections drew
the 1938
turn these
programs
about 3 million.
Roosevelt decided to reenergize the
the
Deal
By
1.5 million to
1938,
ative
New
payroll from
some
Supreme Court reform
it
its
production had increased.
conservation.
back on
increasing govern-
ment lending and spending. The Reconstruction
farm income; aided tenant farmers, sharecroppers and migrant

workers; and encouraged soil
cutting
pump by
Finance Corporation rescued troubled businesses.
The Second New Deal increased
sive
period of eco-
It
of millions
be improving, but in August 1937
unemployment
this
President Roosevelt and Congress again
of acres of land through conservation programs.
to
Republicans called
primed the economic
complained
about the large cost of farm subsidies. But the farm

legislation of the 1930s
rising.
com-
fiirm products to lose out in highly
economy. By the autumn of
nomic activity "Roosevelt's recession."
consumers but also caused
petitive foreign markets. Critics also
into the
1937. factories were closing and
from
rise
money
flow of
Deal,
Works
E.
Townsend, Charles
E.
Coughlin,
Progress Administration, National Youth
Administration, Social Security Act, Rural Electrification Administration, Wealth Tax Act, Alfred M. Landon,
Wagner-Connery
I.
Act, Congress of Industrial Organizations, sit-down strike,
MAIN IDEA What
charges did
some
critics level against
Farm Security Administration.
New Deal?
labor? How did
the
New
Deal
MAIN IDEA Why did Roosevelt try to "pack" the Supreme Court with six new members?
WRITING TO EXPRESS A VIEWPOINT Imagine you are a Democratic campaign worker
dur-
MAIN IDEA How
did the
Wagner-Connery Act
benefit
other Second
programs benefit agriculture?
ing the
1936 election. Write a campaign pamphlet aimed at the "Roosevelt coalition," explaining
why you
think
FDR
should be reelected.
IDENTIFYING VALUES How

and the
did criticisms of the
New
Deal reveal the values held by the
left
right?
THE NEW DEAL
707
FOCUS
How
Americans
did African
What
What
NEW DEAL ERA
THE
LIFE IN
fare during the
make
gains did Native Annericans
New
Deal era?
during the 1930s?
Dust Bowl have on the Southwest population?
effect did the
Mexican
Ifrican Americans, Native Americans,
Americans, and displaced farmers remained
among
the nation
's
poorest groups during the
depression years. They faced not only economic
hardship but also prejudice and

Deal, however, did
make some
The
hostility.
New
efforts to help
these groups.
A STRUGGLE FOR AFRICAN

AMERICANS
New
Thomas Hart Benton's
helping African Americans economically.
The
FERA
Under, 1939
and
later the
WPA
became
the
lynched
1933 alone. Fearing political backlash
in
from the South. Roosevelt did
little
to
support leg-
greatest sources of relief and work for African
islation that
American males. Some 200,000 young black men
Americans, such as a federal antilynching law
flocked to the
training,
whites.
CCC, where
though they were
The
TVA
were not allowed

the
TVA.
NRA
they found
strictly
work and
segregated from
employed black workers, but they

to live in the
codes often
model towns
set
built
by
lower wages for
blacks than for whites, a practice that led
African American leaders to call the
some
NRA
the
might bring
sponsored by the
civil equality for
NAACP.
African
Eleanor Roosevelt,
however, became a champion of
racial justice.
Black leaders often commented on Mrs.

Roosevelt's unusual ability to understand the strug-
gles of African Americans.

largely to
blame"
"We
for poverty
community, she once
said.
It
[whites] are
among
the black
was her goal
to see
"Negro Run Around" or "Negroes Ruined Again."
educational and economic opportunities open up
Social Security also discriminated indirectly against
for African Americans.
African Americans since most were
agricultural or
Interior Secretary
Harold Ickes,
president of the Chicago
domestic workers not eligible for benefits.
NAACP,
former
also tried to
programs
respond to the concerns of African Americans.
The depression
increased racial tensions in the country, especially
When the Daughters of the American Revolution

(DAR) refused to let the gifted black concert
South. Twenty-four black people were
singer Marian Anderson perform in their
The discrimination evident

was
reflective of social attitudes.
in the
708
It
Some
programs, however, were tainted by discrimination.
Ploughing
Deal programs succeeded to a large degree in
CHAPTER
24
in the
^ When
Marian Anderson
was denied the use
of concert facilities at Con(inset)
gave a free
concert from the steps of the
Lincoln Memorial on Easter
Sunday, 1939.
stitution Hall, she
Constitution Hall, both Ickes and Mrs. Roosevelt
education seemed slim, since the Mayesville school
reacted strongly. Roosevelt resigned her longtime
was
membership
a
member
in the
DAR,
remain as
stating that "to
implies approval of that action." She
and Ickes then arranged for Anderson

free concert at the Lincoln
attracted an audience of
Long before
some 75,000.
Presbyterian mission school and a series of scholarships, she eventually attended the
Institute in
become
Ph.D.
in
had brought
first
4 The
FDR named
who
New
more than 100 blacks
any other president since Ulysses
S.
to
Grant. These
legal scholars to educators, social workers,
ment
and
In
which became known
as the black
cabinet or the black brain trust. According to
Robert Weaver, their
let
still
me
Negro boy or
"common
mize the participation of blacks
girl
his [or her]
girls in Florida,
99
a four-year coeduca-
cause was to maxiin all
1935 she helped unite
all
national organizations for
African American
women
work with
this association,
became close
she
Administration.
with Eleanor Roosevelt,
Mary McLeod Bethune's journey

in
in Mayesville,
Washington began
in
to
1875
South Carolina, where she
15th of 17 children to farmers
once been slaves. The young
girl's
who had
chances for an
NAACP
and the Urban League. In
Division of Negro Affairs in the National Youth
bom the
worth.
African American groups, including the
Negro Women. Through her
was
without a
American student body.
New Deal." They met weekly at the home of Mary

McLeod Bethune, the dynamic director of the
^^^^
my
tional institution with a predominantly African
into the National Council of
prominence
in
which eventually evolved into
Bethune-Cookman College,
phases of the
beat
rest while there
Bethune became involved with numerous
evolved into the Federal Council on
Affairs,
not
1904 she founded a primary school for black
editors.
core group of African American govern-
officials
a single
vîll
Deal
major
appointees included a wide variety of experts, from
newspaper
is
drums of Africa
They
chance to prove
received
departments of the federal government, more than
Negro
heart.
economics from Harvard. Weaver was
one of many African Americans
Chicago. Bethune originally intended to
a missionary in Africa but soon found her
She once said of her decision:
African American to obtain a
high-level government jobs during the

era.
Bible
mission to be educating African American children.
this incident, Ickes
department on racial matters, including Robert
C. Weaver, the
just
Moody
prominent African Americans to advise
in several
his
to give a
Memorial, which
for whites only. But with the aid of a
insisted that
friends
who
Bethune be
appointed to work with the
NYA. Bethune
fought hard,
though not always successfully, to rid the
NYA
of
THE
NEW DEAL
709
racism. Although Belhune
NYA
after the
ended
work on behalf of
in
government service
and our
[religious] dances.
1944, she continued to
destroy
us; call
left
civil rights
and educational
opportunities for young African Americans until

her death
in
our ways bad or immoral or
something, and put

going to stop
They nearly
us.
the paper they are
in
**
1955.
In the 1920s
Luhan had shown
a white social
African Americans gained economic assistance and a voice in

government during the New Deal.
worker named John Collier the poor
But little progress was made

toward ending discrimination.
Defense Association, which fought
living condi-
American communities. Deeply

moved. Collier founded the American Indian
tions in Native
freedom and
Indians' religious
tribal property.
For
championed Indian reform
the next decade Collier

efforts. In
to protect
1933 President Roosevelt appointed
new commissioner
of Indian Affairs.
A NEW DEAL FOR AMERICAN
Collier as the
INDIANS
ernment's direction by revitalizing American Indian
Almost immediately Collier
life
As
the
New
Indians
Indian
Deal era began,
was very
life
bleak.
life
for
late
many American
1920s report on
and culture. "Anything
culture live on
itself,"
would be
less than to let Indian
a crime against the earth
ideas
Congress passed the
lems that plagued their communities. Inadequate
into law.
housing, poor health care, and malnutrition
Indian Reorganization Act of
many
left
of the nation's more than 300,000 Indians
Native Americans argued that their culture
had been stripped away by measures
Dawes Act
tribal
(see Chapter 14),
like the
which had ended
government and authorized the
sale of tribal
member of
New Mexico, described how
land to individuals. Antonio Luhan, a

the Taos Pueblo in
government policies and

Affairs commissioners
whelmed
1934. Reversing the
the
who
Bureau of Indian
enforced them over-
traditional Indian culture:
to revive tribal rule.
provided funds
tribal
who
had Commissioners against us
tried to stop
our ceremony dances
The
tried
act
to start
business ventures
and to pay for the college

education of young Native
Americans.
also
It
ordered Congress "to pro-
mote
the study of Indian
civilization
and preserve
and develop
We
Dawes
Act policy, the new law
easy prey for epidemics.
change the gov-
Collier declared.
To put these reform
across the country listed numerous prob-
tried to
Indian
arts, crafts, skills,
and
traditions."
The
Indian
Reorganization Act
encouraged Native
Americans to preserve their cultural

traditions.
Shown
here is Angelia La
Moose, a young girl
in the Flathead tribe,
wearing traditional
Flathead dress.
< This 1930 photograph

shows a home on the San
Xavier Indian Reservation
Arizona.
in
710
CHAPTER
24
complained
Critics
that Collier
had not
great dust clouds hundreds of miles out to sea.
One Texas farmer
obtained enough input from the tribes themselves

in
recalled:
formulating policies and that the programs
decreased the power of
two
Still,
women
in
some
thirds of the nation's Native
tribes voted to participate in the
tribes.
American
If
the wind blew one way, here
came the dark dust from Oklahoma.

Another way and it was the gray dust from
Kansas. Still another way, the brown
new programs.
New
Deal policies encouraged

Native Americans to reclaim and
dust from Colorado and
New
Mexico.
farms were buried.
And
the towns
revitalize their cultural heritage.
were blackened.
Little
To prevent
IN
future dust bowls, the
Department
of Agriculture started extensive programs
The STRUGGLE FOR A

PLACE
99
erosion control.
THE SUN
belt of
The most dramatic was
some 217
million trees that
in soil-
a shelter-
CCC
workers
planted. This windbreak stretched through the
Toward
the
claimed:
Great Plains from Texas to Canada.
end of the 1930s, a billboard appeared
on Route 66 just outside Tulsa. Oklahoma,
By 1939
that pro-
"NO JOBS in California. If YOU are look KEEP OUT!" The message was
The market
for migrant workers
amount of dried-out farmland
had decreased dramatically. But
ing for workclear.
the
save the
many Dust Bowl
it
farmers
was too
who had
late to
already
(continued on page 714)
on the West
Coast was glutted. The

sign
was directed
at
the
thousands of migrant
farmers from the Midwest
who
traveled to California
in the
mid- 1930s. Driven
off their land by the
forces of nature, they

sought a better
life in
the
The Dust Bowl.
In
Southwest.
the mid- 1930s a severe
drought struck the Great
Plains
the
Texas and
Oklahoma panhandles
and parts of Colorado,
New Mexico,
As
and Kansas.
the topsoil loosened
and dried, winds picked
up and turned
it
this 50-
million-acre region into a
Dust Bowl
1
wasteland. Throughout
the
Dust Bowl,
region
came
to
John Steinbeck's investigation of the plight of Dust Bowl
Other areas with

severe wind erosion
emigrants
Migration route
in
California's Central Valley for a San Francisco
newspaper served
as the basis for
The Grapes of Wrath.
as the
be called,
wind-borne dust clouds
darkened the skies
at
noon and buried fences

and farm machinery. Dust
crept into houses through
^he Dust ôwl, 1930s

ECOLOGICAL DISASTER
used to pasture
cattle.
During World
War
farmers planted wheat on dry lands that had been
Without the natural grass cover, wind picked up the
soil
during the drought years
and sent "black blizzards" across the country.
PLACE
Which
states experienced severe
wind erosion?
tiny cracks; ships reported
THE NEW DEAL
711
HISTORY
in
By DR. PAUL BOYER
the
JVlaking^
Photographing the
Depiression
any Americans at
were suspicious of the
first
New
Deal programs. The tradition of

self-reliance ran
deep
in
Administration (FSA), hired
more
photographers
American
document the
the
United States. President
relief
programs
might change their minds
saw the
the 1930s to
country and
lives
of ordinary
Americans.
No
Roosevelt believed that opponents of federal
in
travel across the
if
they
agency used photog-
more effectively than

FSA, whose staff amassed
sion.
FSA
than 250.000 images of
Roy
life
E.
during the depres-
Stryker. head of the
historical section,
bled an all-star
assem-
team of photog-
raphers that included Walker
raphy
Evans. Ben Shahn, Arthur
the
Rothstein, and
Dorothea Lange.
conditions
frightful
under which migrant farm
workers and
With
city
dwellers
lived.
Roosevelt's encourage-
ment numerous
cies, including
federal agen-
the
of the Interior, the
Department
Works
Progress Administration (WPA),

the Department of Agriculture,
and the Farm Security
Russell
Lee photographed
these carrot field v/orkers in

Santa Maria, Texas, waiting to
begin their day.
<
In Missouri, 1939,
Arthur Rothstein captured the mood of this

sharecropper's child after
the boy's family had been
evicted from their land.
712
:S
CH APTER
24
To make sure
his
photographers
were prepared, Stryker often

tutored them before sending
Migrant Mother is one of

Dorothea Lange's most famous
photographs of the depression.
them out on assignment. For

Other photographers,
example, former print journalist

Carl
Mydans was
set to "go
South and 'do cotton'" for the

FSA. Learning that
knew
virtually
nothing about the
subject, Stryker
Mydans
trip.
Mydans
postponed the
recalled
what hap-
pened next:
such as Dorothea Lange, were

already well grounded
economic forces that shaped

rural
1
Americans'
sat
down and we
talked almost
cotton.
and
and
the
all
day about
We went to
lunch
we went
we talked well into
night. He [Stryker]
to dinner,
talked about cotton as an

agricultural product, cot-
the
lives in
930s. Lange often traveled
for
weeks
at a time,
up to 14 hours a
We
in
understanding the social and
working
day.
One
of
her most famous photographs.

Migrant Mother, showed an
exhausted
single
mother
whose
children subsisted
chiefly
on vegetables they
scavenged from California

fields.
When
it
appeared
in
1936, Migrant Mother inspired
ton as a commercial prod-
Californians to defy powerful
uct, the history of cotton
growers' associations and
in
the South, what cotton
did to the history of the
U.S.A. and
how
it
affected
areas outside the U.S.A.
By the end of that evening,

I
was ready to go
off
photograph cotton!
and
99
insist
on decent, government-
programs. From 1936 to 1941,
FSA photographs were widely

in government pam-
published
phlets and
in
Time,
Life,
and
sponsored housing for seasonal
other magazines. The pictures
harvesters.
prompted an outpouring of
Migrant Mother was not

the only photograph to
fulfill
congressional and public sup-
port for federal

Today, the
Roosevelt's goal of gaining
support for government
relief.
FSA pho-
tographs are housed
in
the
Library of Congress and provide
an invaluable source of information for historians.
They are
detailed visual record of the
1930s that allows researchers
today to "see"
life in
depression
America. These photographs

have thus enabled historians and
citizens alike to step
to a crucial period
M Ben
in
back
our
in
time
history.
Shahn photographed
these rural West Virginia residents heading into Scotts Run to

obtain food from relief worl<ers
in
1935.
THE NEW DEAL
713
V When we moved
to
we would work
school. Sometimes we
California,
after
wouldn't go. "Following the
we
crops,"
missed much
school. Trying to get
enough money to
stay alive
the following winter, the
whole
family picking apri-
cots, walnuts, prunes.
We
were taken advantage
of quite a bit by the labor
contractor and the crew

pusher.
99
Mexican Americans also

faced job competition from
A Many Japanese Americans on the West Coast were also among

those who competed for work as migrant field laborers. These men
labored in sugar fields.
Filipino laborers. During the
1920s the Filipino population
of California had grown to
more than 30.000. Like MexAmerican migrants, most
ican
Packing their meager belongings
Filipinos woriced in agriculture. \Mien the depres-
headed west
sion hit both groups faced tough economic times,
on Route 66. bound for what they saw as a land of
but the Filipino workers attempted to combat
lost their land.
into battered old cars or trucks, they
promise
California and other
parts of the
Coast. There they hoped to find

crops.
Thousands of them made the
West
work picking
trek,
and since
decreasing wages by organizing. Throughout the

early 1930s the Fihpino
Labor Union launched a
series of strikes to protest
wage
reductions. In
many came from Oklahoma, they picked up the

nickname Okies. Once they reached the West
the
American Federation of Labor sponsored
the Field
Workers Union, a combined organization
CoasL however.
for
ihe\ found themselves in desper-
ate competition with other
farm laborers looking
for work.
936
Mexican
.-Vmerican
and Fihpino laborers.
The unions were

falling too
able to keep
wages from
much. However, as more Okies
arrived,
competition for migrant work increased. Thus Ufe
Competition for migrant work. Even

before the Dust
Bowl refugees
Mexican Americans often found themselves the
many New Deal
grams. For example, although the

segregate Mexican Americans,
that they v\ere harassed
CCC
pro-
officials,
denied
more often
families continued to seek
what
below S300
find as migrant farm laborers.
a year.
who
later
a noted labor leader, recalled growing
in a depression-era
714
Cesar Chavez,
CHAPTER
24
migrant family:
/Picturing the face of

the depression
little
1935 California survey found that the average

income of Mexican American families had fallen
became
Dust Bowl refugees moved to the

West, where they competed with
Mexican Americans and Filipinos
for migrant farm work.
did not
than non-Hispanics.
Man\
difficult.
some complained
by camp
clothing, and assigned to kitchen duty
work they could
remained
started arriving.
Mexican Americans had been having a hard time

finding work in the West. Like African .Axnericans.
victims of discrimination in
for all migrants
up
The grim experiences of migrants and others in

rural America provided rich subject matter for
documeniarv' filmmakers and photographers.
These artists created a memorable visual record
of the
New
Deal
era. Better
than any words could
do, their images of the slumped shoulders of
sharecroppers
Alabama; African American
in rural
Gordon Parks, who
later
became
filmmaker;
international photojournalist Margaret Bourke-
White; and Dorothea Lange, probably the

best-known of the
FSA
photographers.
Lange was one of the most talented

I
photographers of the depression
^^^^
Born
New
Jersey, she decided in
become
a photographer. After
Hoboken,
in
her late teens to
era.
studying the craft for several years, she set out to
Lange
tour the world and record her impressions.
was out of money by the time she reached San

Francisco, however, so she stayed and opened a
portrait studio.
When
A FSA photographer Carl

devastation of
soil
erosion
take pictures of the homeless
Mydans captured the

in
Kentucky
in
1936.
Lange began
the depression struck,
men wandering
streets of
San Francisco. Soon
the federal
government hired her
The Granger
the
staring faces of children,
and
the
human
California.
in
suffering of the era.
ers'
own words,
in the
migrants' poverty and suffering,

as well as their great dignity.
TVA
sur-
Lange's most famous picture.
rounding regions, while The Plow That Broke the
Migrant Mother (see page 713),
Plains portrays the devastation of the Dust Bowl.
is
Using few images of people, the films rely heavily
and
its
effect
on the
considered a masterpiece.
on background music and an unseen narrator to
During World War II,

Lange continued her documen-
enhance the visual images of the depression's
tary
impact on the landscape.
Japanese Americans
Farm
In the late 1930s the

nistration recruited a
Security
Admi-
included Walker Evans,
life.
These photographers
who
depicted
life
work by taking
in
California internment
magazine and traveled the world taking
pictures.
the time of her death in 1965, she ranked as
among
By
one of
the world's foremost photographers.
SECTION
IDENTIFY and
pictures of
camps. Later she produced photo essays for Life
group of photographers to
record American rural
REVIEW
explain the significance of the following: Marian Anderson, Robert C. Weaver,
McLeod Bethune, Antonio Luhan, John
York
farm-
1936 and 1937 the filmmaker Pare
The River depicts the
New
revealed the
Lorentz directed two documentary films on the era.
In
Collection.
Her pictures,
which carry captions
worried expressions of prematurely aged
women conveyed
the
photograph migrant farmers
to
unemployed men, the
to
Collier,
American
Indian
Mary
Defense Association, Indian
Reorganization Act, Okies, Dorothea Lange.
LOCATE
I.
and explain the importance of the following: Dust Bowl.
MAIN IDEA How

MAIN IDEA How
did the
New
Deal affect African Americans during the 1930s?
did the Indian Reorganization
LINKING HISTORY
AND GEOGRAPHY What factors caused the
WRITING TO DESCRIBE
Imagine you are an Okie migrating west
describing your experiences on the
ANALYZING How
Act benefit Native Americans?
West
Dust Bowl during the 1930s?
in
1939.
Write a diary entry
Coast.
did filmmakers, such as Pare Lorentz, and photographers, such as
Dorothea
Lange, serve as social critics during the 1930s?
THE
NEW DEAL
715
Section ^
THE
NEW DEAL AND THE ARTS
C U S
How did Federal Project No. aid writers and artists?
What were many novels like in the late 1930s?
What common themes were often heard and seen in music,
and paintings of the New Deal era?
I
9,n attempting to put Americans back to work,

administration did not forget about those
musicians, painters,
the late 1930s
began
the Roosevelt
who worked
The V/PA established a series of programs
to
plays,
employ
and other artists. Meanwhile
in the arts.
writers, actors,
literature in
to turn from escapist fantasies to realistic
portrayals of the depression, while musicians, playwrights,
and
1936 poster for
WPA
painters searched for uniquely American subject matter
New
IhE WPA PROGRAMS

All workers struggled with
York
production, Macbeth
City, carrying signs that read "chil-
dren NEED BOOKS. WRITERS NEED BREAD. WE

DEMAND PROJECTS."
unemployment
depression-era America, including

Without an audience that could afford
to
artists.
buy
Later that year, the
in
their
WPA
million to create Federal Project No.
gram
tried to
encourage pride
work, most of the nation's writers, stage actors,
by aiding unemployed
musicians, and painters lost their means of earn-
ing, theater, music,
ing an income. Like workers in other fields, they
The
WPAs
some $300
set aside
in
1.
This pro-
American culture
artists in the fields
and visual
of writ-
arts.
Federal Writers' Project (FWP)
sought relief from the government. In February
hired
1935 a few writers picketed federal offices
variety of works, including state travel guides and
in
some 6.600 unemployed
writers to produce a
histories of various ethnic groups. Others
conducted
oral-history interviews with hundreds of elderly for-
mer
slaves. Historians
slave
life.
American
Members
folklore
eventually
still
use these sources to study
of the project also studied
and wrote down
became
These
folktales.
the basis for the best-selling
Treasury of American Folklore (1944). The

eventually
won
in history,"
praise as the "biggest
literar>'
FWP
project
producing more than 1,000 books
^ Unemployed and striking actors picketed outside

the hotel where heads of the regional, state, and
national offices of the
716
CHAPTER
24
WPA met in July
939.
and pamphlets.
It
also helped launch the careers of
numerous writers who went on
to great success.
such as John Steinbeck and Richard Wright.
The WPA's Federal Theatre Project hired

unemployed actors, directors, designers, stagehands, and playwrights to encourage theatrical pro-
ductions.
It
entertained millions of Americans,
many
bringing productions to
small towns that had
never experienced live theater. The Federal Music

Project hired musicians to form orchestras and pre-
some 4.000 musical productions per month
sent
audiences across the country.
also hired music
It
down popular American
researchers to write
The Federal Arts
Project hired
artists
and designers
produce posters for
Deal programs and to teach
folk
unemployed
songs.
to
to
New
public schools.
art in
Others painted murals on public buildings con-
by the
structed
Some three years

Gone
with the
in
the planning,
MGM's
grossing film of 1939.
PWA.
Federal Project No.
As
employed
various writers and artists and
spread their work throughout
I
is
it
was
for the real Okies, Hfe in California
lonely and harsh for Steinbeck's fictional
migrant family. Like Gone with the Wind, however, Steinbeck's novel includes a hopeful note, as
the country.
the head of the family,

states,
"They
the people
JLlTERATURE
IN
THE LATE
ain't
Ma
Joad. optimistically
gonna wipe us
out.
Why, we're
we go on."
Other novels described the experiences of
1930s
ethnic minorities in the era. African
American
interest in romantic fiction continued
into the late 1930s.
of the decade
One
of the best-selling novels
was Margaret Mitchell's Gone with
Wind (1936),
the
production of
Wind was the most eagerly awaited and top-
during the Civil
sweeping story of the Old South
War and
Reconstruction.
Many
American
anthropologist Zora Neale Hurston wrote Their
Eyes Were Watching
God
(1937), which explores a
black woman's search for fulfillment in rural

Florida. Richard
black urban
Wright offered a grim picture of
life in
Native Son (1940), which
depression-era readers could relate to the turmoil
faced by the novel's main character. Scarlett
who
O'Hara,
Her
A Native Son by
Richard Wright
survives war and economic chaos.
uplifting closing line, "After
all,
tomorrow
is
another day," inspired readers of the 1930s.
By
the end of the decade,
many
writers
had
incorporated the experiences of the depression into

their
the
works. John Steinbeck, a writer employed by
FWP, produced
a gripping picture of the
depression era in The Grapes of Wrath (1939).
The
story follows the fortunes of a desperately poor
Dust Bowl family as they travel
4%
to California:
As the dark caught them, they
tered
like
clus-
bugs near to shelter and to water.
And because they were lonely

because
they had all come from a place of sadness
and
were all going to a new mysterious
.
place, they huddled together.
99
fWSTTl;
Their Eyes
Were Watching
God by Zora Neale Hurston

THE
NEW DEAL
717
chronicles the journey of a young African
American man
world where he can
lost in a racist
never succeed. Native Son explores several themes
haunted the 1930s, including class differences,
that
socialism, racism, and urban despair.
big-band style popular
style
its name from Duke Ellington's 1932 hit "Ii

Mean a Thing If It Ain't Got That Swing."
White conductor Benny Goodman helped popularize swing in the late 1930s. He also broke new
Don't
in
popular music by integrating his shows
with both black and white performers. Meanwhile,
930s
reflected the experiences of
the depression.
novels of the late
The
halls.
derived
ground
Many
dance
in
other bands, such as those of Count Basie and
Glenn
swing sound alive through-
Miller, kept the
outthe 1930's.
On
the theatrical stage, plays with social
significance
/Performing arts
new deal era
in
the
that
is,
plays that dealt with the
nation's labor and class problems
drew
large audi-
ences. Robert Sherwood's The Petrified Forest
(1935) attacked the "petrified forest" of ideas
American music of
to
the late 1930s increasingly tried
WPA
capture uniquely American sounds. As
down
researchers wrote
American folk songs

and folktales, com-
destroying America. Lillian Hellman's The Little
Foxes (1939) exposed the upper-class greed
many
By
believed was undermining America.
end of the decade, popular plays,
that
the
popular
like
music, focused increasingly on American traditions
poser Aaron Copland
and values.
used these themes as
Our Town
Two examples
Thornton Wilder's
are
(1938). a heartwarming
drama of
life
and
most
death in a small American town around 1900. and
popular compositions,
William Saroyan's The Time of Your Life (1939),
including Billy the Kid
which celebrates the
the basis for his
diversity of urban America.
(1938).
Interest in Afri-
can American music
NATIONAL THEATRE,
Dircctioo, B&pley Theatre
continued throughout
the
Black
1930s.
gospel, a cross between
ONE WEEK BEGINNING

MONDAY EVENING
FEBRUARY
jazz and traditional spirituals,
work of
A Paper fan depicting
African American comsinger Mahalia Jackson
poser Thomas A. Dorsey
whose songs included
"Precious Lord. Take My Hand"
and singers
such as Sister Rosetta Tharpe and Mahalia
Jackson. Jackson recalled that some ministers
THE LIHLE FOXES
the
i
ULLIAN HELLMAN
vMk
style of music:
end Frank Conroy
Patricia Collinge
STAGED
^miNC
MIt ^Hl MLIN
B^
DtslCNEII %\
tl>TIHt?4 DESIGNED
(Ip
I
m4*
IIT
HO \9LD B4)
VLINE BEBNSTEIV
AST
afVMrsM*)
*t
&BBIZ ICTCHZU.
JOaiC HAKKIOTT
COLLDIOE
CABL BENTOH RZID
DAN DCSTZA
TAU.CLAB BAKEBIAD
^^ BAKZB
CHABLM DDIOLI
EUOEKIA BAWL*
rBAJCI COOT
PATUCU
WUbam
new
SATURDAY
HERMXN SHI MLIN
TALLULAH BANKHEAD
objected to this
UATINBBS
WEDNESDAY AMD
\*M)
gained popularity
through
initially
Compuiy
Muufvr
EddBiid Ploha,
lUrthftll
Bn;uuii Hl>(nl
AleXMdrr Oiddnu
Horxct Oiddnu
gTKOPSIS or 8CEHES
They
didn't like the hand-clapping
and
of Uta pUjr IS lfa hriAg room of xhe

HoQje t null town 1b tb BoBth
ACT
the stomping and they said
we were
bringing
The ipnBff
of lO0
ACT
jazz into the
church and
it
wasn't dignified.
A wk Uttr
in
at
church one of the preachers got up
the pulpit and spoke out against me.
right up, too.
gospel music.
told
him
was born to
CHAPTER
24
BOrvlM
III
.
latf
aftaneon
Program from
Hellman's The
its
Lillian
Lillian
Little
rise in popularity, largely
because of the development of swing, a smooth
718
later
r:iaf
got
sing
99
Jazz continued
Two weekj
II
early
ACT
Once
Olid
Hellman
Foxes
Music folk songs, gospel,

and jazz and plays
socially significant and
traditional
reflected
uniquely American styles
and themes.
/iÂJNTERS EXAMINE LOCAL
CULTURE
Like American writers, painters recorded
memorable American images
a variety of
during the depression. Harlem
artist
Jacob Lawrence portrayed the daily lives
of African American heroes, such as

Frederick Douglass and Harriet Tubman,
while
New Mexico
artist
Georgia
O'Keeffe painted haunting images of the
Paintings of rustic scenes, such as Sugaring Off by Anna "Grandma"

Moses, were typical of regionalists and other folk artists of the
depression era.
southwestern desert landscape.
Perhaps reflecting the

focus on farmers' problems,
New
Deal's
many
artists
of the era looked to rural America for their subject

matter.
group of midwestem
artists
known
as the
Standing beside a sad-eyed
As
regionalists stressed local folk themes and cus-
toms. The regionalists included artists such as
Thomas Hart Benton of Missouri, John

Curry of Kansas, and Grant
These
artists
his
best
ideas
Wood
Steuart
art
lovers of
always insisted
is
interest in regional culture grew,
such as handmade quilts and woodcarvings.
of a
people
artists,
art,
Many
including the elderly painter
Anna "Grandma" Moses, became wellknown
dur-
ing this period.
"came while milking
cow." The most famous of the regionalist
paintings
in front
rediscovered the richness of American folk
obscure folk
of Iowa.
reminded urban
America's rural traditions.

that
Wood
woman
humble farmhouse.
American
regionalists, explored a diversity
probably Wood's American Gothic,
which depicts a stern farmer, pitchfork
in
painters, led by the
of local folk
hand.
SECTION
IDENTIFY and
life.
REVIEW
explain the significance of the follovîng: Federal Project No.
Federal Writers'
I,
Zora Neale Hurston, Richard Wright, Aaron Copland,

Thomas A. Dorsey, Benny Goodman, Robert Sherwood, Lillian Hellman, Thornton Wilder, Jacob
Project, Margaret Mitchell, John Steinbeck,
Lawrence, Georgia O'Keeffe, regionalists, Anna "Grandma" Moses.

I.
MAIN IDEA Why was Federal Project No. created?

MAIN IDEA What contribution did regionalists make to
I
American
painting?
COMPARING What common themes did music and plays of the 1930s share?
WRITING TO CREATE Write a promotional piece for The Grapes of Wrath, Their Eyes
Watching God, or Native Son that shows
ANALYZING How were

New Deal era?
how
Were
the novel reflects the experiences of the depression.
the experiences of African Americans expressed
artistically
during the
THE NEW DEAL
719
..
Southern Tenant
Farmers' Union formed.
Wealth Tax
Wagner-Connery Act
passed. CIO organized. Mary
McLeod Bethune helps form
National Council of Negro Women.
Indian Reorganization
Federal Project No.
Social Security Act,
Act, and
FDR
declares bank
Congress
Deal
measures.
holiday.
New
passes
CHAPTER
24
WRITING A SUMMARY
write a
summary
created.
Act passed.
1.
REVIEWING THEMES
did the
Roosevelt administration attempt to promote eco-
of the chapter.
nomic recovery?
2.
Number your
and
list
paper
to
5.
in
ond next to
2,
the order
line
above,
which
in
next to
first
might the
Supreme Court have declared some
Study the time
Why
3.
the sec-
New
Deal
measures unconstitutional?
Cultural Diversity
How
did writers and artists
of the 1930s reflect the ethnic
activity
and cultural
diversi-
ty of the nation?
below.
1
Aaron Copland composes
Billy
THINKING CRITICALLY
Analyzing Why did some
the Kid.
2.
CIO
3.
Richard Wright's Native Son published.
4.
FDR
5.
organized.
1 .
al
declares bank holiday.
2.
Act passed.
How
tified in
in
the
New
AND
Deal?
trying to "pack" the
Supreme Court?
Skills
How
Handbook entry on
WPA
did
sit-down strike
These residents of
2.
Frances Perkins
7.
Robert C. Weaver
relief line
Louisville,
to receive
aid.
subsidies
8.
John Collier
between the experiences of the people
Zora Neale Hurston
9.
Dust Bowl
the message on the billboard behind them?
5.
Wealth Tax Act
10.
Huey Long
How
2.
were the economic and social programs of

the Second New Deal different from those of the
3.
What
First
New
Deal?
steps did the
government take
in
the 1930s
to aid farmers?
4.
How
did the
New
Deal affect African Americans
and Native Americans?

5.
What
contributions did Pare Lorentz and
Dorothea Lange make to the
CHAPTER
24
New
in
the
WORLD'S HIGHEST STANDARD OF
the purpose of the bank holiday and the
Deal era?
1937.
in
contrasts can you see
3.
FDIC?
in
Kentucky, are waiting
What
4.
What was
pro-
Identifying the
graph below, taken by Margaret Bourke-White

6.
jus-
Why
Main Idea beginning on page 988. Examine the photo-
Deal
720
3.
Review the
following people or terms.

1.
New
you think that Roosevelt was

IDEAS
Explain the historical significance of each of the
New
Do
grams enrich American culture during the 1930s?
Deal?
IDENTIFYING PEOPLE
oppose the
or why not?
Mary McLeod
did
Bethune help maximize the participation of African
Americans
critics
Evaluating
conservative and liber-
line
and
FDR
Margaret Mitchell's Gone
with the
FDR
Second AAA passed.

Aaron Copland com-
"pack"
tries to
Supreme Court.
Farm Security
poses
Administration created.
Wind published.
GM
strike begins.
Billy
John Steinbeck's The

Grapes of Wrath pub-
the Kid.
Thornton Wilder's
Our Town opens.
lished. Lillian Hellnnan's
Richard Wright's
play The Little Foxes
Native Son
opens.
published.
1939
1937
AND GEOGRAPHY
LINKING HISTORY
Writing to Classify Create
Describing the effects of the Dust Bowl, John
New
the programs of the
a chart that classifies
Deal according to whether
they were designed prinnarily to help banks, farmers,

labor,
[restless] to
when
CIO was
the
Chicago
move; ten
nervousness."
Mexican American Jesse Perez worked for the meatin
under the beginning change.
moving over the country;
or business.
packing Industry
Steinbeck wrote: "The Western States are nervous
How
lation shifts in the
...
half-million
a million
million
did the
more,
more
people
restive
feeling the first
Dust Bowl influence popu-
Southwest?
1939, during a time
In
attempting to organize workers
in
the stockyards. Read the following statement, which
comes from an interview Perez
member
did at that time with a
What does
of the Federal Writers' Project.
Perez have to say about the company's treatment of
who
workers
joined the union during this time?
How
does Perez view the CIO?
Scene from the

The Grapes of
film
was first
wear CIO button; ever
to
Wrath, 1939
since I start wearing the button they start to
can butcher, but they don
pick. I
job.
So when
away.
We
to
talk all the time
do for
going
us,
what
the union
to raise
So every day they

behind
in the
the boys
and they
cooperatively.
work. They start speeding up
we working
day.
say,
like this.
we
ain
't
Four days
We
too fast, can't keep
The whole gang, thirteen men,
Bosses
standing for nothing

later they fire the
Building
works
provoke
project.
they
they don't play tricks like that.
99
is,
how workers
22, and
the 1920s.
new
and businesses
and why your project
terms of
relief,
New
public
will
will
be useful to
recovery, or reform.
CULTURE AND SOCIETY

in
In
the
chapters 21
1
920s.
strike
on that experience, imagine you are an
't
Your proposal should describe what
in
Building
.
in
on that experience. Imagine you are a
and 22 you explored U.S. society
CIO get ready.

.We know what
do, we don talk back, got to watch
before
chapters 2
economy
benefit,
2.
the bosses try to
In
U.S.
society
got work.
Now
THE ECONOMY
you examined the
the project
whole
We took the case in the

labor board and
now all who was fired
.
23,
Deal legislator Write a proposal for a

all stop.
gang, except two.
we
start saying
more and more every
told bosses
up.
wages,
a union coming.
it's
BUILDING YOUR
PORTFOLIO
we
all join right
stop speed-up. The bosses watch
know
me
I start telling the boys
have a union for them, almost

going
give
't
author
out
in
the 1930s. Write a short,
for your novel that describes the
realistic
passage
Dust Bowl's
effect
on your main character
THE NEW DEAL
721
1921-1941
Chapter 25
BETWEEN THE WARS
UNDERSTANDING
THE MAIN IDEA
After World
hoped
War many ArDericans

I
to focus
on matters at home.
Unfortunately, the depression touched
off global economic problems. The rise
of dictators
in
Europe
set the stage for
another war Dictators also
power
tries.
in
several Latin
Other countries
came
to
American counin Latin
America,
such as Nicaragua and Mexico,
attempted
to
reduce U.S. influence.
Washington
Conference begins.
Augusto Sandino
organizes revolt
Nicaragua.
in
Japan invades
Manchuria.
Adolf Hitler becomes
World War
chancellor of Germany.
starts.
II
World War
i:
LINK TO THE PAST
and the depression created chaos
Germany was required
Europe.
pay substantial war reparations, while
to
owed
other European countries

After the war
in
many Americans
the United States large war debts.
called for an
end to foreign
military involvements.
ne word
and
that
is
describes the whole feehng in
America
to-day,
disillusionment [disappointment]: disillusionment in the
leaders, disillusionment in the business
men, disillusionment
in poli-
wrote a friend to British prime minister David Lloyd George in
tics,"
January 1932. This feeling of pessimism arose from the economic

strains of the depression
War
I.
and the international chaos caused by World
Instead of bringing peace, the end of the
war ushered
in a period
of economic and political instability in Europe.
Many Americans
feared that involvement in European affairs
might draw the United States into another war. In 1937 the magazine
Christian Century estimated that "ninety-nine Americans out of a hun-
dred would today regard as an imbecile anyone

that, in the
who might
suggest
event of another European war, the United States should
again participate in
it."
In general, the United States
backed down from
military intervention in foreign countries in the 1920s and 1930s.
American
efforts
on the world stage focused on reducing weapons and
improving relations with Latin America.

Nevertheless, conditions brewing
in
Europe and Asia would soon doom
hopes for world peace. In
Italy,
Germany, and Spain, ruthless
dictators
came
to
to
power by promising
their countries great
make
through foreign
conquest. In Japan, militaristic dreams
of empire threatened U.S. interests in
China and the Pacific.
When
the
aggressor nations formed an alliance,

Nazi parade watchers, 1932
the stage
was
set for global war.
Antiwar sheet music,
940
BETWEEN THE WARS
723
Section
THE SEARCH FOR PEACE

c u
Why
s
did the United States pursue an isolationist foreign policy after
World War
I?
How
1
did the United States try to promote world peace

920s and 1930s?
How
after
war debts and reparations

World War I?
did
affect
in
the
European countries
\
Jl
"^^"~îr>^
f
\,^J^
\-fJ
*-lL|
rofounclly disillusioned by the Great War, the United States
?g:
sought to promote world peace during the 1920s. Fear of becoming involved in another
war caused Americans
to try to
m'-\
I'M
avoid
any
cost.
As
the world slipped into
an economic
depression and as dictators rose to
power
however
problems proved increasingly
isolation from the world's
difficult for the
in
Europe
in the 1930s,
United States.
FJSl iii
liXAIII
Peace
activists,
Isolationists did not
JLegacies of
world war
8 million people, including
more than
112,000 Americans, had died fighting
940
want
to cut off the
United States completely from the
rest
Over
J
i^lTrt
',
conflict at
affairs of the
of the world. They merely wanted to avoid
what Thomas Jefferson had called "entangling
in the
alliances" that could drag the United States into
Great War. Yet, because of the postwar chaos in
another war. Isolationists also supported U.S.
Europe and the founding of a Communist govern-
unilateralism, that
ment
action in foreign affairs.
in the
Soviet Union, Americans did not
believe that the war had
made
the world "safe for
democracy." The Women's International League

for
Peace and Freedom
doubts:
war
is
"War
to
summed up
end war has proved a
won. yet nowhere
is
the nation's
failure.
The
there peace, security
zations set
another foreign conflict.

life in
thy with
our
own
all. in
way.
"We
into
such as the League of
Justice (the
World Court).
to follow a policy of
1922. Such senti-
withdrawal from world
1920s and 1930s.
proposed
that the
United States join the World
Public opinion, however, ran strongly against
alliance with none," declared
partial isolationism, or
all
Court, created to solve international disputes.
ments led the United States
25
after the war,
Nations and the Permanent Court of International
and sympa-
in
CHAPTER
in international organi-
ask only to live our
in friendship
Senator Hiram W. Johnson
affairs, in the
up
membership
Presidents Coolidge. Hoover, and Roosevelt
Americans worried about being dragged
own
one-sided or independent
is.
Isolationism and unilateralism led the United

States to shun
or happiness."
724
t'w
membership. The Senate

ing in order to guard
The nations
its
that already
set strict
right to
terms for join-
make
belonged
treaties.
to the
World
Court rejected the Senate's terms, and the matter
was dropped.
To avoid being drawn into
ratio
States
European wars, the United

States pursued an isolationist
is.
Great Britain and the United
would be equal
in
naval strength, with a
large-warship tonnage of roughly 525,000 each,
World War
foreign policy after
of 5:5:3. That
while Japan would have some 315,000 tons. Italy

I.
and France would both be limited

tons.
^ROMOTING PEACE
known
This plan became
some 175,000
to
as the Five
Power
Agreement. Marveled one observer: "Secretary

Hughes sank in 35 minutes more ships than all the
Instead of joining international peacekeeping orga-
nizations, the United States used
diplomacy
to
admirals of the world have sunk in
centuries."
The Washington Conference produced other
Four Power
promote world peace. American peace groups
important agreements as well. In the
urged the U.S. government to bring world leaders
Treaty, Japan, Great Britain, France, and the
together to negotiate
their
disarmament, or
limiting
weapons. Jane Addams. Emily Greene Balch.
women's
Jeannette Rankin, and other leaders of the
movement played important

efforts.
For their organizing efforts
States and abroad, both
Balch
roles in these peace
(in
Addams
in the
United
1931) and
(in
United States pledged to respect one another's

ritory in the Pacific.
which included the nations
Power agreement
that signed the Five
as well as the Netherlands,
Portugal, Belgium, and China, guaranteed China's

territorial integrity
Open Door
1946) received the Nobel Peace Prize.
ter-
The Nine Power Treaty,
and promised
to
uphold the
policy.
Japan's navy minister. Admiral Kato
The Washington Conference.

ington. D.C.. beginning in
Wash-
In
November
1921, the
United States hosted an international conference on

naval disarmament and Pacific security.
Bom
in April 1862,
as
he had served
governor of
and
almost
New York
won the
1916 presidential election
Woodrow
against
new order
ated "a
Hughes had gone
cre-
He explained
Japan's support for disarmament:
Japan
is
to
spirit
nevy^
order of
of international friend-
ship and cooperation for the greater
of humanity
good
which the Conference has
brought about.
99
For a time the Washington Conference agree-
bed on
ments eased tensions

least partially,
himself the victor only to
Peninsula
wake and
Siberia
learn he
ready for the
the
thought
election night believing
office
of seapower."
had
Wilson.
After this crushing defeat
the nation's
that the conference
The meeting
was organized by Charles Evans Hughes, the U.S.

secretary of state.
Tomosaburo, declared
had
lost
most important
it
it
in Asia.
Japan withdrew,
at
from the Shandong (Shantung)
had invaded
in
1914 and from parts of
had occupied during the Russian
Revolution. In 1930 Japan's agreement to extend
by a scant 23
electoral votes
he
turned to the issue
of world peace. Ironically, he supported
American entry
into the
the brainchild of his old
League of Nations,
enemy Wilson.
At the Washington Conference Hughes

surprised the other delegates with his bold pro-
posal that the major powers scrap 78 large
warships amounting to almost
He
.9
million tons.
also called for a 10-year "naval holiday"
during which no battleships or battle cruisers
would be
built.
Hughes proposed
that the
United States,
Great Britain, and Japan scrap enough large
warships to bring their naval strength into a
Delegates from Great Britain, France, Belgium, Italy,

the Netherlands, Portugal, China, Japan, and the United
States attended the Washington Conference.
BETWEEN THE WARS
725
the lii>lida\ on warship construction
marked
the
Unsuccessful efforts. On
Ir,.^.:
April 6, 1927, the
World War
10th anni\ersar\' ot America's entry into

1.
..
high point ot postwar international cooperation.
the French foreign minister. Aristide Briand (ah-
ree-steed bree-ahn). proposed that France and the
United States enter into an agreement to outlaw war

as a
means of resolving
The U.S.
their differences.
secretary of state. Frank Kellogg,
made
a counter-
prop<isal that the pact include all nations. Sixty-two
countries eventually signed the Kellogg-Briand
Pact, which outlawed war "as an instrument of

national policy" but allowed countries to
in self-defense.
a carpet
to
war
Unfortunately, the treaty lacked pro-
visions for enforcement.

that the treaty
go
was "as
would be
to
One
U.S. senator remarked
effective to
These Japanese cavalrymen were photographed

Manchuria in December 1931, some three
months after the war between China and Japan
had begun.
in
keep down war as
an economic boycott of Japan. U.S. leaders
smother an earthquake."
refused to support sanctions against the Japanese.
Through diplomatic conferences

and international agreements the
United States worked for world
The
peace.
invasion and the worldwide economic depression,
failure of
diplomacy
tional agreements.
Japanese
to prevent
aggression marked the end of attempts
at interna-
Preoccupied by the Japanese
delegates of the League of Nations' 1932 World
The
pact's
weaknesses became clear
in
September 1931. Japan, whose military leaders

were gaining influence, violated
tional
all
agreeing to reduce weapons.
the interna-
agreements and invaded the Chinese
tory of
Disarmament Conference went home without
terri-
Manchuria (see map on page 739). This
invasion launched a bloody war between Japan
w.AR DEBTS AND REPARATIONS
and China. Although many Americans called for
The
issue of
war debts
In the late 1800s
weakened peace
also
efforts.
European investors had financed
U.S. industrial growth, making the United States a
debtor nation with respect
to Europe. After 1914.
however, the United States became
War
nation. At the start of World
money
to
government granted
$10
By 1920
billion to the
United States. The U.S.
in the
billions
more
owed more
the Allies
the United States should be
when
who had been
Suffragist
and peace
activist
Carrie
praised the Kellogg-
Briand Pact and lobbied Congress for
726
wiped
out.
David Lloyd
the British prime minister
United States did not from
make any
sacrifice
first
or contribution
remotely comparable to those of her
Chapman Catt
its
last
passage.
CHAPTER
25
than
that their debts to
the United States entered the war, said:
The
to
in credit to the
United States.
The debtor nations argued

George,
U.S. banks lent
I,
Great Britain and France so that they
could buy armaments
Allies.
a creditor
European Associates,
in life,
limb,
money,
material or trade, towards the victory
which she shared with them.
99
the debtor nations except
jected appeals from Great
to
cancel
make even
and
Italy
Finland could
ail their
war
a token payment.
Britain, France,
debts.
By 1934 none of
unpaid.
U.S. officials re-
America's efforts
However, the U.S.
government reduced the

interest rates
to collect the
on the loans
sowed resentment
in
Germany
the
Europe.
and canceled part of the
war debts
In
debts. Still, the only
way
economic
pay
their
created by the repara-
the Allies could
war debts
to the
United
hardships
made people espeWith his
tions
was
to collect repa-
cially bitter.
rations, or
damages, from
country near financial
States
defeated Germany. In
collapse,
Adolf
Hitler, a
1921 a reparations com-
young German
mission had set total
cian, hatched a plot to
German
reparations at
overthrow the German
132 billion gold marks
government in 1923.
The plot failed, and
The Gercondemned
($32
billion).
mans
bitterly
made most currency
During the 1920s rapid
inflation in
worthless. This
Germany
Hitler
woman
was
politi-
sent to jail.
the reparations as too
used several million-mark notes to start a
The next
harsh. Chancellor Joseph
breakfast
national plan temporarily
fire.
eased Germany's eco-
Wirth paid part of the

reparations
by borrowing money from Great
The German government
year, an inter-
also printed paper
Britain.
nomic
money,
German
crisis
by providing loans and extending
debt payments. Continuing
German anger
causing massive inflation as the value of the
over reparations, however, would help bring Hitler
German mark plunged.
to
In 1931, as the
Hoover declared
Europeans resented America's

efforts to collect war debts.
German anger over reparations
a year's
on reparation and war-debt
halt,
payments. The moratorium, however, only prolonged the
crisis.
Most of
the
helped Adolf Hitler gain support.
war debts remained
SECTION
IDENTIFY
Greene
later.
worldwide depression deep-
ened. President Herbert
moratorium, or
power 10 years
REVIEW
and explain the significance of the following: isolationism, unilateralism, disarmament, Emily
Balch, Charles Evans Hughes, Five
Power Agreement, Four Power
Treaty,
Nine Power Treaty,
Kellogg-Briand Pact, debtor nation, creditor nation, moratorium.
LOCATE
1.
and explain the importance of the following: Manchuria.
MAIN IDEA Why
did the United States partially
withdraw from world
affairs in
the 1920s and
1930s?
2.
MAIN IDEA What steps
3.
did the United States take to

did
work
for world peace?
war debts and reparations
affect
Germany and other
European countries?
4.
WRITING TO INFORM
Write an essay
5.
Imagine you are a delegate to the Washington Conference
in
1921.
outlining the goals and accomplishments of the conference.
ANALYZING Why was
the Kellogg-Briand Pact unsuccessful
in
resolving the conflict
in
Manchuria?
BETWEEN THE WARS
727
i^^H
RELATIONS WITH LATIN AMERICA
'
C U S
How did U.S. relations with Latin America change in the 1930s?
How did the Great Depression affect Latin American countries?
What role did the United States play in Nicaraguan politics?
How did the United States respond when Mexico took over the
Mexican
9,n the
industry?
oil
920s and 1930s the United States preferred to use eco-
nomic influence dollar diplomacy rather than military force

protect
its
America. For example, conflict
interests in Latin
het\veen the
to
Mexican government and
U.S. oil
companies was
solved through diplomacy. However, when U.S. interests faced

threats in Nicaragua,
America sent
in the
Woman
marines.
El
picking coffee beans
in
Salvador
force since 1915. However, in economic matters
Che GOOD NEIGHBOR
the United States often
behaved more
like
an over-
bearing landlord than a good neighbor.
While the United States tried to avoid war in

Europe, presidents Coolidge. Hoover, and
Roosevelt
all tried to
improve relations with Latin
American countries. Before

Hoover toured Latin America
to
his inauguration.
promote goodwill.
Franklin D. Roosevelt spelled out the
Neighbor policy
In
the
field
of world policy
bor
the neighbor who
good
I.
ments
large U.S.
companies increased
their invest-
banana, coffee, and sugar plantations
in
in
Central America and the Caribbean.
the 1930s the United States

pledged to reduce military
intervention in Latin America.
U.S. business investment
continued, however.
In
would dedi-
cate this nation to the policy of the
times negative, role in Latin America. After World
War
Good
inaugural speech of 1933:
in his
U.S. investors played a powerful, and some-
neigh-
resolutely respects
himself and. because he does so. respects the
y9
rights of others.
The
largest of the
the United Fruit
To back up
his
words, Roosevelt
in
1934
America and
millions
the Caribbean. In
Guatemala
United States had claimed the right to intervene
in
and employer. Besides establishing plantations.
years later he gave up the U.S.
United Fruit and other companies built roads and
affairs.
Two
claim to intervene unilaterally
in
Panama.
Roosevelt also withdrew marines from Haiti,

where they had been stationed as an occupying
::
Company, which owned
in Central
canceled the Piatt Amendment, by which the

Cuba's
728
of acres
American companies was
CHAPTER
25
it
was
the largest landowner, exporter,
railroads and controlled the ports and shipping

lines necessary to export their products.
tied these regions to the
They
also
world economy, though
U.S.
INVESTMENT
LATIN AMERICAN EXPORTS
IN
LATIN AMERICA, 1929

21% Mining
TO THE
U.S..
1920
1925
1920-1940
18%
Petroleum
23%
Agriculture
7%
Manufacturing
6%
Other
25%
Transportation,
communications, public
utilities
1930
Year
Total: $3,519 million

Source: Historical
ECONOMIC NEIGHBORS
Latin
profits
1929?
Statistics
American economies grew more closely linked

agriculture in
Approximately how much money did
to the
corporations and
wealthy Latin Americans.

In addition to their
that
economy
businesses invest
U.S.
in
the early
in
Latin
some
1900s.
American
plantation owners did not bother to har-
vest the 1930 coffee crop.
economic importance
in
Farm wages dropped
to
eight cents a day.
As workers
Latin America, the U.S. companies had political
made
to the U.S.
which five-year period did the value of Latin American exports to the United States decrease the most?
In
went mostly
power. They
1940
1935
lost their jobs, the
gulf between
American
Latin America's small class of wealthy landowners
landowners and politicians and often played a role
and the large class of poor landless people

widened. The U.S. diplomat Major A. R. Harris
in
alliances with Latin
governing the countries in which they operated.
The economic and
political
powers of the large
American companies earned them the resentment

of
many
commented on
between the
Latin Americans. Chilean poet Pablo
The
Neruda (nay-ROO-thah) wrote:
number
The
Fruit
Company,
reserved for
itself
streets.
Inc.
the most
the central coast of
my own
as the
its
one observes
...
is
the
of expensive automobiles on the

.
There seems to be nothing
its
barefooted attendant.
Roughly 90 percent of the wealth of the
land,
country
is
held by about one-half of
percent of the population.
territories
"Banana Republics."
thing
between these high-priced cars and the
the delicate waist of America.

rechrlstened
first
ox-cart with
succulent,
It
the inequality he noted
classes in El Salvador in 1931:
**
**
one
In countries throughout the region, the diffi-
"Banana republics" were countries run
largely to
serve the interests of the foreign companies that
grew bananas and other crops.
cult
1930s brought caudillos (kow-THEE-yohs) to
power. These caudillos were military leaders
who
used force to maintain order. In 1932 the caudillo
Maximiliano Hernandez Martinez brutally crushed

a revolt
The rise of dictators
by peasants
in El
Salvador's hard-hit
coffee-growing region. Thousands of peasants

were massacred.
The Wall
through Latin America. Worldwide depression
During the 1930s caudillos also came to

power in Cuba, the Dominican Republic. Guat-
meant lower prices for coffee, bananas, and other
emala, and Honduras. U.S. diplomats sometimes
Street crash of 1929 sent
shock waves
crops on which Latin American economies

depended. In El Salvador, coffee prices
fell
so low
denounced the caudillos' methods of staying
in
power: bans on opposition parties and restrictions
BETWEEN THE WARS
i:
729
the son of an Indian
woman
and
well-to-do
landowner.
After attending high school. Sandino supervised some of his father's landholdings. He fled his
hometown in 1920 to avoid arrest after he shot a
man
during a
in the leg
companies
fight.
worked
years, Sandino
During the next three
mechanic for U.S.
as a
Honduras and Guatemala.
in
began working for a U.S.-owned
oil
In
1923 he
company
in
Tampico, Mexico. There Sandino read about

Simon
Bolivar, the great hero of Latin
American
independence struggles.
In
1926, after his return to Nicaragua,
Sandino organized
Chamorro
Adolfo Diaz. He hoped
a revolt against
and Chamorro's successor,

to rid
Army
cooks buy produce from Nicaraguan vendors.

The baskets contain papayas and alligator pears.
U.S.
Nicaragua of the Americans,
viewed
and
as invaders,
Nicaraguans
to
whom
he
allow ordinary
to control their country's land
and
He planned to help workers and peasants

"exploit our own natural resources for the benefit
wealth.
on freedom of speech. However, the United States
of the Nicaraguan family
Sandino's army, which varied from as few as
often supported the caudillos. since they created
favorable environments for U.S. businesses.
30
to as
many
Although the Americans
used aerial bombing for the
Latin
American economies, caused

social unrest,
caudillos to
time against
destroy the army, which
many
in
first
Sandino's forces, they could not completely
and helped bring
power
proved a tough adversary
as 3.000.
for the U.S. Marines.
The depression wrecked
in general."
relied on sympathetic
farmers to feed and
countries.
house them.
The marines never
Z/NTERVENTION
defeated Sandino. The
NICARAGUA
IN
The United States played
large
role
war became
in
Nicaraguan politics throughout the 1920s and
United States
in
Chamorro (chah-
the midst of the
MAWR-roh) overthrew the government, sparking a
depression. In 1933
bitter civil war.
President Hoover
1930s. In 1925 General Emiliano
The United States refused

Chamorro.
In
May
He
also sent
to
recognize
1926 President Coolidge sent
the marines to protect U.S.
commercial
Henry Stimson,
official, to negotiate an
in
interests.
a long-time public
end
withdrew the
last
of
the U.S. troops.
year
later,
the
commander
of
Augusto Cesar Sandino
to the civil war.
the U.S.-trained National Guard. General Anastasio
Stimson brought the two sides together and they
Somoza. ordered Sandino's assassination. With

Sandino dead, organized resistance to Somoza and
negotiated a peace treaty in
May
1927.
More
important, Stimson called for the abolition of
his military evaporated.
Somoza
Nicaraguan armed forces. U.S. troops would then
Nicaraguan president
1936 and took over the
train a
new Nicaraguan National Guard
to maintain
Augusto Cesar Sandino (sahn-DEE-noh),

general
who opposed Chamorro.
Stimson's proposal. Born
CHAPTER
25
in
refused to accept
1893. Sandino was
in
forced out the
presidency the next year. With U.S. backing.
Somoza and
order after the withdrawal of U.S. forces.
730
increas-
ingly costly for the
other
members of
his family ruled
Nicaragua almost without interruption
until the
Sandinista revolution (named for Sandino) overthrew the dynasty in 1979.
The United States opposed

Sandino and trained the National
Guard, which helped bring
Somoza to power.
RELATIONS WITH MEXICO

The most severe
of the
test
came when Mexico's
Good Neighbor poHcy
president. Lazaro Cardenas
(KAHR-thay-nahs). began to nationalize, or assert
government control over, the country's

try
March 1938. Although
in
the
Constitution of 1917 proclaimed that

trolled all
19), U.S.
President Lazaro Cardenas (center) is shown with Britain's

(left) and Mexico's secretary of foreign
minister to Mexico
relations (right) shortly before diplomatic relations
indus-
oil
Mexico and Great Britain were broken
companies
in
May
Mexico.
Most Mexicans supported Cardenas's bold
to
own
When
the
Mexicans wor-
action against the oil companies.

ried,
however, that the United States might invade
working conditions, however. President Cardenas
Mexico to restore U.S. oil companies' property

With events in Europe and Asia looking
increasingly threatening, however, Roosevelt
nationalized the oil fields.
decided to maintain good relafions with Mexico.
companies hotly criticized the

Mexican seizure of their property. They pressed
He acknowledged Mexico's
foreign companies refused to meet the
Mexican
U.S.
oil
the U.S. State

tion.
demands of
workers for higher wages and better
oil
Some
Department
to resist the nationahza-
called for action to oust Cardenas.
Meanwhile, the U.S. ambassador to Mexico.

Josephus Daniels, argued for a compromise
between the Mexican government and the
panies.
He urged
Mexico's right
added
that U.S.
oil
rights.
own
resources and urged the
for fair compensation.
its
companies
to
to the
com-
in 1939.
com-
Roosevelt resisted
companies
calls
from
oil
for U.S. intervention
to protect their interests
companies should be compensated
in
Mexico.
lost.
SECTION
IDENTIFY
oil
Mexico agreed
promise and began payments
to control its oil resources but
had
right to control
reach an agreement with the Mexican government
the United States to recognize
for the property they
between
1938.
Mexico con-
and British firms had continued

oil
in
Mexican
underground resources (see Chapter
its
and operate
and explain the significance of the following:
REVIEW
Good Neighbor
policy, caudillos,
Hernandez Martinez, Emiliano Chamorro, Henry Stimson, Augusto Cesar Sandino, Adolfo
Maximiliano
Diaz,
Anastasio Somoza, Lazaro Cardenas, nationalize, Josephus Daniels.
LOCATE
I.
follov/Ing: El Salvador,
Nicaragua.
MAIN IDEA How did the United States hope to secure its interests in Latin America after World
War
MAIN IDEA What effect did the Great Depression have on Latin America?
IDENTIFYING CAUSE AND EFFECT How did the United States intervene in Nicaraguan
I?
politics
throughout the 1920s and 1930s?
WRITING TO PERSUADE
What was
the effect of this intervention?
Imagine you are Josephus Daniels
in
1938.
President Roosevelt recommending U.S. policy toward Mexico after the
Write
oil fields
memorandum
to
were
nationalized.
5.
EVALUATING Why
did
Augusto Cesar Sandino organize
a revolt against Diaz?
BETWEEN THE WARS
73
Section 3
THE ROAD TO WAR

C U
What led
S
to the rise of dictatorships after
World War
I?
How did other countries respond to German aggression?

What caused World War II?
How did the United States move closer to becoming involved
in World War II?
.merica's isolationist stand faced a severe test
came
and
to
power
in Italy,
Americans
J 930s.
Neutrality'
proved
fell before
German
when
Germany, Spain, and Japan

tried to stay out
difficult,
dictators
in the
of European
1920s
affairs.
however, as France and other nations
annies. Great Britain battled for
its life,
and
Japanese
Japan expanded
its
territoiy in Asia.
for the
women
war
in
raising
money
China
bloody clashes between Communists and Fascists
The rise of dictatorships
created a situation bordering on civil war. In
October 1922 Mussolini led an army of
Most European nations
World War
and social unrest. Disagreements over
faced
and unemployment, which caused
inflation
cal
after
politi-
how
to
ers,
his follow-
whose black uniforms gave them
Blackshirts. in a march on
the
Rome. With
and of
between Communists and conservatives. Right-
and Communists, the Fascists occupied the
power
to
the sup-
who wanted to strengthen Itah

businesspeople who opposed the Sociahsts
port of nationalists,
solve these problems led to violent clashes
wing military leaders came
name
city.
in several
countries by promising to end the chaos.
Mussolini
Although
in Italy.
Italy
on the winning side when World War
many
Italians felt they
had been
I
ended,
had not benefited from the
Treaty of Versailles. Thousands of Italian soldiers
selves
home after the war only to find themjobless. Many joined the Italian Communist
party,
which urged
returned
land and
Italian peasants to take
Communist workers to
the Communist
To smash
his
own
rise to
that a military-dominated
732
::
seize factories.
party and promote
power. Benito Mussolini founded
the Fascist party in 1921.
trol all
over
The
Fascists believed
government should con-
aspects of society. Beginning in 1921.
CHAPTER
25
Benito Mussolini (center), shown here with
followers during their

as
//
Duce
his
march on Rome, was known
(eel DOO-chay),
or "the leader."
The king appointed Mussolini prime minister

and granted him
ited
dictatorial
<
During the 1930s Nazi

one
shown here, appealed to
those who longed to see
posters, such as the
powers. Mussolini lim-
freedom of speech, arrested
political
oppo-
nents, and restricted voting rights. Acting on a
pledge to
make
Italy
Germany
an imperial power. Mussolini
sent Italian forces into the African nation of
map on page
Ethiopia in 1935 (see
guns.
The U.S. Congress,
banning
Such an embargo
to both sides.
more than
which continued
Italy,
Germany and
receive weapons from
drawn
fearful of being
into the conflict, passed a neutrality act
hurt Ethiopia
The
736).
dive-bombers and machine
Italian
arms shipments
its
as a
army proved no
small, poorly equipped Ethiopian
match for the
restored to
former position
world power.
to
from
oil
U.S. companies.
money
African Americans raised

relief
and medical aid
to the Ethiopians.
to
send
Thousands
of African Americans volunteered to fight
in
from the U.S. government
Ethiopia, but pressure
In
March 1936. German
the Rhineland (see
troops
map on page
moved
736).
Two
into
years
overran Austria. Hitler then turned
later they
forced Ethiopia to reject such support. This lack of
toward the Sudetenland (soo-DAYT-uhn-land), in
support convinced other fascist countries, such as
western Czechoslovakia, where more than three
Germany,
would go unpunished.
that aggression
million German-speaking people lived. Hitler
demanded
Germany.
Hitler in
1932 Adolf Hitler's
In
won more
became
National Socialist party, or Nazi party,
than 40 percent of the vote, and Hitler
chancellor the next year. While in prison. Hitler had

written
cially
policy.
blamed
authorized the destruction of Jewish property.
supporters, espe-
unemployed
November
9,
of their
citizenship and
1938, Nazi thugs burned
down
gogues and destroyed Jewish businesses.

as Kristallnacht, "the night of
claimed dictatorial powers.
Jews and non-Nazis from holding

and made
strikes,
military service mandatory. Nazi storm troopers,
On
syna-
Known
broken glass," the
violence provided a chilling preview of the
government, called the Third Reich
government positions, outlawed
as
government
German
Hitler
(the Third Empire),
known
official
German power.
ruined by inflation and the depression.
Hitler prohibited
became
He deprived Jews
the middle class and the
Hitler's
hatred of Jews,
laid out
The book won him many
among
Meanwhile. Hitler's anti-Semitism, or
which
Jews, intellectuals, and Communists for Germany's

decline.
demand.
Hitler's
Struggle),
Mein Kampf {My
his plans to restore
Czechoslovakia turn over the
that
region to Germany. Czechoslovakia refused
still
more-terrible fate that awaited European Jews and

others
who
fell
victim to Hitler's murderous rule.
Despite outrage
at
these events, however, most
Americans remained unwilling
Germany
to intervene in
or to encourage Jewish immigration.
Brownshirts because of the color of

crushed
their uniforms,
all political
opposition.
German
Hitler's tight control over
industry
Franco
in
Spain.
Spain did not escape the
spread of fascism. In the 1930s Spain faced bitter
strengthened the
economy and reduced unemployment, allowing him to rearm the country in viola-
political conflicts. In
tion of the Treaty of Versailles. Hitler declared:
church went into
ited the
power of
1931 a constitution that lim-
the military and the Catholic
effect.
It
called for such reforms
as universal suffrage, nationalization of public
The
buildup of the
armed forces
most important precondition

cal
power.
to be used
ing for
How
when
Is
it Is
new export
for
this political
won?
is
politi-
power
Maybe
possibilities,
maybe
In
the East.
99
utilities,
and land for peasants.
Their power threatened by the liberal reforms,

conservative military
fight-
conquest of new Lebensraum [space for

expansion]
the
men
united under the leader-
ship of General Francisco Franco. In July 1936 the

Fascist
army
officers tried to
overthrow the govern-
ment, starting the Spanish Civil
War
between
Fascists and Loyalists.
BETWEEN THE WARS
::
733
After almost three years of fighting. Franco
took over the national government with
and
Italian military aid.
German
The Soviet Union aided

drawn
the Loyalists, but Roosevelt's fears of being
European war kept the United States from
into a
II
sending
aid.
Individual Americans, however, did join the
fight against fascism.
Some 3,000 Americans
Abraham Lincoln Brigade, one of several international brigades made up of volunteers

who went to Spain. Ernest Hemingway, who cov-
joined the
Shown here
to fight a rebel
are Spanish Loyalists leaving Madrid

army advancing on the city.
ered the Spanish Civil War, expressed his support

for the Loyalist cause in the powerful novel
Whom
For
Militarists in Japan.
As German aggression
threatened Europe. Japanese expansion loomed in
the Bell Tolls (1940).
map on page 739). Although Japan had

moved toward democracy in the 1920s, the leaders
Asia (see
of Japan's military forces remained independent
THE SPANISH
of the government. These military
WAR
CIVIL
to lessen Japan's reliance
men wanted
on foreign imports,
reduce the influence of Western countries
After the Spanish Civil
to
War, many Loyalists
Asia, and to promote Japanese expansion throughout Asia.
remained bitter over
The creation of a Japanese empire in Asia

would give Japan direct control over territories that
the failure of Western

nations to support their
produced rubber, petroleum,
cause. In 1940 Julio Alvarez del
Worsening economic conditions
Vayo, a wartime diplomat for the defeated
ened the appeal of the
Spanish Republic, charged that this lack of

its
was
able, for a time, to
she
buy arms. Republican
Spain had no great powers at her side to supply

her with
doned
men and
munitions.
to their fate,
Alone, aban-
the Spanish people
fought for nearly three years against the armed
might of the totalitarian
My one
desire
to
is
Spain a certain
in
liberty
and
dignity of
at domination
a rapid naval buildup.
On
July
7,
1937.
Japanese and Chinese troops clashed near Beijing

(Peking). This incident soon developed into a full-
scale war. Japan occupied northern
China and
launched devastating bombing raids against

Chinese
cities.
Although the League of Nations
and the United States condemned Japan's actions,

they failed to check Japanese expansion.
states.
show what
it
would
have meant to the Western democracies to have
had
Japan strength-
militarists" position.
Washington Conference pledges, the Japanese
began
whom
in
and limber.
imperial ambitions. In 1934 and 1935, breaking
their
from Russia, from
iron,
Japan's 1931 invasion of Manchuria signaled
support had cost the Loyalists the war:
wlpart
in
ally
ready to defend the
Europe against
and oppression.
If
all
attempts
In
Germany, Spain, and

Japan, postwar problems brought
military dictators to power in the
920s and 1930s.
Italy,
Republican
Spain had not been defeated, the present war
[World War
No,
failed.
It
it
II]
would never have begun.
The response to fascism
was not Spanish democracy that
was the other democracies who
to save democratic Spain, as they will
learn to their cost.
99
The spread of fascism
in
Asia and Europe caused a
failed
one day
shake-up
in international
The most
surprising of these realignments
shift in
diplomatic relationships.
cerned about curbing the Japanese,
734
CHAPTER
25
was
the
U.S.-Soviet relations. The Soviets were con-
who had massed
troops
nearby Manchuria. Hoping "to avert the
in
FORTUNE'S 1939 SURVEY ON WAR:

WHAT SHOULD THE U.S. DO?
Japanese danger," Soviet foreign affairs commissar
Maksim
mended diplomatic fences with

November 1933. after years of
between the two countries, the United
Litvinov
the United States. In
hostility
States formally recognized the Soviet Union.
The
In
fascist
1936 the
and
became known
as the
now
3%
their ties.
Fight with Allies
when Germany
alliance. The two coun-
of Europe trembled
rest
formed a military
Italy
tries
powers also formalized
Fight with Allies
Axis powers, which
if
13.5%
they are losing
Send supplies to
later
Allies
20%
Germany
but not to
included Japan.
Roosevelt called for European leaders to meet
Sell
supplies to both
29%
sides cash and carry
and resolve their conflicts peacefully. Hitler and

Mussolini joined British prime minister Neville
No
25%
aid to either
Chamberlain and French premier Edouard Daladier

(dah-lahd-yay) at
four leaders
pact giving
Munich
The European
September 1938. The

Help Germany
.001%
the
leaders had opted for a policy of
appeasement, or giving
to
in
Munich Conference signed a

Germany control of the Sudetenland.
at
in to
avoid larger conflicts.
demands
Many
9%
Don't know and others
in an effort
wrongs created by
remedy what he considered

But
the Treaty of Versailles.
other politicians, such as Winston Churchill of
Great Britain, feared that appeasement would only
encourage Hitler to take more
other nations in Europe sped up their rearmament.
30
Source: Fortune
ON THE BRINK
but
Most Americans wanted the
many were unsure what
magazine conducted
and
territory. Britain
25
Percent
estimated Hitler's expansionist goals, believing that

Hitler sought only to
20
15
10
politicians under-
this
role the
survey of popular opinion

wanted the
U.S. to
Allies
to
win the war,
United States should play, fortune
remain totally neutral
in
1939.
What percentage
in
Americans
of
the war, either by selling
supplies to both sides or by refusing to aid either side?
European leaders tried to

appease Hitler to avoid war.
By 1937
President Roosevelt had
convinced that the United States must
Most Americans denounced

the Axis powers, but isolationism
American
pacifists
the actions of
remained strong.
religious groups such as the
Mennonites and the Society of Friends (Quakers)
and organizations such as the Committee on the
Cause and Cure of War

reject
war
as a
urged U.S.
means of solving
leaders to
conflicts.
Congress from 1935 to 1939 expressed Americans'
The
neutrality laws (1) prohibited
the shipment of U.S. munitions to warring nations,

(2) required
warring nations that bought goods
from America
ships,
and
to transport these
(3) forbade
goods
Americans
in their
all
Americans endorsed
to travel
on the
neutrality.
Many
urged the United States to help the nations under

attack. If
America allowed aggression
to
tine, or isolate,
to quaran-
expansionist countries. Most
Americans, however, were not yet ready to accept

U.S. involvement in the quarantine. Proof of this
position
came
in
December 1937, when Japanese

Panay and three
planes attacked the U.S. gunboat
River (Chang Jiang). Several U.S. citizens were

killed,
and many were wounded. Yet a public opin-
ion poll
showed
that
54 percent of Americans
thought the United States should withdraw from
China rather than risk becoming involved
in a war.
own
vessels of warring nations.
Not
resist aggres-
October he urged other countries
U.S. oil tankers on China's Yangtze (yang-see)
series of neutrality laws passed by
desire for peace.
sion. In
become
go unpun-
w.AR!
U.S. public opinion slowly changed, however, as
German aggression
continued. In
March 1939,
ished, they warned, the United States might one
Hitler's armies occupied all of Czechoslovakia.
day fmd
Hitler also proposed to
itself
surrounded by powerful enemies.
annex the Polish port
city
of
BETWEEN THE WARS
735
German and Italian Expansion, 1935-19^1

EXPANSIONIST DICTATORS
Europe
for
Hitler's
and Mussolini's aggressions brought war
to
most of
ANOKOCEAJW
the second time in the 20th century.
'"^
('.b-.t-.
PLACE Why
was Poland a
likely target for
German
AtlAMTK
attack?
OOAM
D
monw
OCtAM
Afc*fÂ
Danzig (DAN-sig). but the Poles refused.
In addition.
Mussolini's troops invaded Albania on April
Awakening
at
long
last to their
common
Great Britain and France announced that a

attack
7.
peril.
German
upon Poland would mean war and called on
the Soviet
Union
to join
them
in resisting further
aggression. Instead, on August 23. 1939, the
days
later.
Great Britain and

II
had begun. Soviet troops, meanwhile, invaded

Poland from the
east,
occupied the independent
nations Estonia. Latvia, and Lithuania, and
demanded
Finland.
the right to establish military bases in
When
Finland refused, the Soviet Union
attacked the small nation and soon annexed part
Nazi Germany. This surprising union came about
of
because of a secret clause
which the two nations agreed
On September
1.
1939,
Poland
German bombers
and armored divisions crashed across the border
CHAPTER
25
its
territory.
in the pact in
to divide
between them.
:;
Two
France declared war on Germany. World War
Soviet Union signed a nonaggression pact with
in part
736
into Poland.
Allied
appeasement
German
German
failed to halt
aggression. In 1939 the

invasion of Poland
sparked World
War
II.

to
pay for needed war materials. Roosevelt pro-
posed
United Slates lend or lease arms and
that the
other supplies to the British and the other Allies.
Congress passed the Lend-Lease Act

1941.
It
and other supplies
tanks,
in
March
appropriated S7 billion for ships, planes,
The United
to
non-Axis countries.
States took
its first
step toward involvement
the
growing European conflict by
extending aid to the Allies.
in
CONTINUING AGGRESSION
While Hitler carried on
his blitzkrieg (BLiTS-kreeg),
or "'lightning war." against Poland, the French mobi-
May
Uzed. In
940,
German armored
divisions, sup-
ported by fighter planes and bombers, crashed

through the Maginot Line, a Line of defenses along
arra>p*3I5*l/fs_-_
"IN
AV ATIO>rHF.RE OF
'iriTlAI,
TKIST'
the French border with
Germany. The Germans
occupied France: the Netherlands. Belgium,

This 1939 cartoon satirizes the lack of trust
between Germany and the Soviet Union, even after
the two nations signed the nonaggression pact.
Luxembourg (known
as the
Low
Countries);
Denmark; and Norway.
Germany
established a puppet government in
France headed by Philippe Retain (pay-tan) and
Roosevelt took steps to aid the European
headquartered in the town of Vichy (viSH-ee).
French organization known
Some three weeks after the

German invasion of Poland, he urged Congress to
amend the neutrality act that barred the export of
Resistance continued to oppose the Germans. In
munitions. After a six-week debate. Congress
a committee called ""Free France,"
countries under siege.
agreed on a compromise. The
any nation
new law allowed
secret
the
London. French general Charles de Gaulle headed
which organized
opposition against the Germans.
With the
buy munitions from the United States
to
but required that the goods be shipped on foreign
as
alone.
fall
On May
of France. Great Britain stood
10. 1940,
Winston Churchill
vessels.
The European conflict loomed as a major

issue in the 1940 election. Both candidates
Roosevelt, who sought a third term, and
Republican Wendell Willkie
America out of the

September
as
it
3.
promised
to
keep
conflict. In a radio talk
on
1939, Roosevelt pledged: "As long
remains in
my power
no blackout of peace
Roosevelt
won
in the
to prevent, there will
United States."
his bid for an
third term. In spite of his public
peace, however, he
be
unprecedented
promises to pursue
became increasingly alarmed
by Japanese and German aggression. He began
to
view American involvement as unavoidable and

started a
campaign
to prepare U.S. defenses for the
likely conflict.
By
the
end of 1940. U.S. supphes flowed
A
to
Great Britain. The British, however, had httle cash
Members
after the
fall
that hunted
of the Resistance continued to fight the
of France. This French
down German
girl
Germans
was part of a patrol
snipers in Paris late
in
944.
BETWEEN THE WARS
737
î^fe
Mi^SS
wm
met
Churchill
Newfoundland
secretly
off
agreed to a series of principles for international
^^^^^^^^^^^^H
Known
relations.
agreement
as the Atlantic Charter, the
pledged that the United States and
( 1 )
Great Britain would forego
combat
choose
for
to
shown rushing to their

German bombers somewhere over
planes to fight
pilots are
expansion, (2)
territorial
affirmed their respect for the right of every nation to
own form
its
of government, and (3) called
freedom of international trade and equal access
âi.:-
A RAF
of
coast
the
August 1941. The two leaders
in
raw materials for
all
countries.
Once
the
war was
over, the charter declared, aggressor states should be
disarmed, and
all
nations should
work together
to
French territory.
rid the
became prime
With
minister.
world of fear and want.
a rare gift for leader-
ship, Churchill rallied the British:
44
us
The growing threat

knows
Hitler
that he will have to break
or lose the
in this island
v\/ar.
Let us
from japan
therefore brace ourselves to our duties,
As war raged
and so bear ourselves
in Asia. In July 1941.
that,
if
the British
Europe. Japan added to
its
conquests
Japanese troops occupied
Commonwealth last for a

thousand years, men will still say, "This was
French Indochina (see map). President Roosevelt
their finest hour."
States and approved an embargo on shipments of
Empire and
its
**
immediately froze
gasoline,
On
June 10
declared war on France and
Italy
Great Britain. In August. Hitler unleashed his
bombers against Great
Britain.
British Royal Air Force

to
in
combat
the
German
The outnumbered
(RAF) flew day and
machine
areas under
its
in the
tools, scrap iron,
Japan. Japan retaliated by freezing

control.
As
and
United
steel to
U.S. assets in
all
a result, trade between the
United States and Japan practically ended.
As U.S.
night
grew
blitzkrieg.
Japanese assets
all
resistance to Japanese aggression
stronger, Japan's
war leaders
secretly planned
an attack on the United States. Even as the plan
went forward, however, a Japanese peace mission
Tensions mount
visited
in
In the face of continuing
German
Italian
submarines were turning
United States had made China eligible for lend-lease
ships.
later,
Roosevelt issued
"shoot-on-sight" orders to U.S. warships operating in the North Atlantic "safety zone"
had established
to
In
in
America
1939. U.S. warships also began
accompany merchant vessels as far as Iceland.

November. Congress voted to allow U.S. mer-
chant vessels to enter combat areas. Roosevelt
armed
the merchant vessels and provided
them
with gun crews.
With the United States moving rapidly toward
undeclared war with Germany, Roosevelt and
738
:{
CHAPTER
25
China. To help
prevent further Japanese expansion in China, the
patrol the Atlantic, notifying British warships of
(3) cease all aid to
line needs,
the spring of
April, U.S. airplanes and naval vessels began to
German
few months
and
attacks. U.S. aid
By
the North Atlantic into a graveyard of ships. In
the location of
20, 1941. this
unfreeze Japanese assets, (2) supply Japan's gaso-
to the Allies gradually increased.
German and
On November
mission demanded that the United States (1)
the atlantic
1941.
Washington.
aid earlier in the year.
The United
States
had no intention of accept-
ing the Japanese demands. However. U.S. diplo-
mats kept up the appearance of continuing

negotiations with Japan to allow more time to prepare U.S. defenses in the Pacific.
By
this
time the
United States had succeeded in breaking the secret
code used
to
send messages between Tokyo and
the Japanese mission in Washington. D.C.
Americans knew
that the
The
Japanese planned
strike, although they did not know where. The

challenge was. as Secretary of War Henry Stimson
wrote in his diary, "how we should maneuver them
into the position of firing the first shot without
allowing too
much danger
to ourselves."
Japanese expansion, 193119^1

A PATH OF
CONQUEST
solve the country's
Japan's military leaders believed that conquering neighboring lands would
economic problems.
SECTION
REVIEW
IDENTIFY
and explain the significance of the following: Benito Mussolini, Fascist
Adolf
Nazi party, Brownshirts, anti-Semitism, Khstallnacht, Francisco Franco, Spanish
Hitler,
party, Blackshirts,
Civil
War,
Axis powers, Munich Conference, appeasement, Winston Churchill, nonaggression pact, Lend-Lease
Act, blitzkrieg, Maginot Line, Atlantic Charter
LOCATE
and explain the importance of the following: Ethiopia; Rhineland; Sudetenland; Munich,
Germany; Yangtze River (Chang Jiang); Albania; Poland;

I.
Finland; French Indochina.
MAIN IDEA What policy did European countries follow in negotiations with Hitler? Why?
MAIN IDEA What factors led to war in 1939?
MAIN IDEA What step brought the United States closer toward involvement in the war?
WRITING TO EVALUATE Imagine you are an American reporter in Europe during the 1920s
and 1930s. Write an article that accounts for the rise of dictatorships after World War
I.
HYPOTHESIZING How
might events
in
Europe have been different
if
European leaders had not
decided on an appeasement policy with Hitler?
BETWEEN THE WARS
739
CHAPTER
25
Washington
Conference
Benito
Augusto Sandino
Kellogg-
Mussolini takes
begins.
power
organizes revolt
in Nicaragua.
Briand Pact
proposed.
in Italy.
REVIEWING THEMES
WRITING A SUMMARY
summary
write a
1.
2.
3.
Number your
and
paper
to
5.
Study the time
list
in
ond next to
the order
first
and so on. Then
2,
line
what ways did countries

World War I?
after
Economic Development What economic and

political problems emerged after World War I?
Democratic Values How did the fascist dictatorships
which
in
next to
in
Europe
limit civil liberties?
the sec-
complete the activity
THINKING CRITICALLY
1. Analyzing How did Benito
Mussolini rise to
power?
1.
Spanish Civil
2.
Washington Conference
3.
Lazaro Cardenas nationalizes Mexican
begins.
2.
begins.
4.
Kellogg-Briand Pact proposed.
5.
World War
oil fields.
3.
starts.
II
In
above,
below.
War
Global Relations
promote world peace
of the chapter.
Evaluating What were the goals of Japan's

tarists?
Why
empire
in
did they
effect did the
Munich Conference have on events
in
a Japanese
Asia?
Synthesizing
How
neutrality change
Assessing Consequences What
want to create
mili-
did
American approaches to
between 1935 and 1941?
Europe?

IDENTIFYING PEOPLE
AND
IDEAS
1.
unilateralism
Emily
3.
Five
lowing cartoon, entitled
2.
Editorial
What
6.
nationalize
7.
Adolf Hitler
8.
Khstallnacht
Greene Balch
Power Agreement
4.
caudillos
5.
Augusto Cesar Sandino
9.
10
is
New
Kind of Pump Priming.
the cartoonist's message?
Pump Prinung New
Stjlc
nonaggression pact
Winston Churchill

1.
What
factors encouraged the
growth of
ism
the United States after
World War
in
events
abandon the
2.
Why
Why
in
and
Latin
did Lazaro
did
5.
740
political role did
the United
America?
Cardenas nationalize Mexican
some European
appeasement toward
oppose
What
oil
1938?
fields in
4.
I?
policy?
What economic
States play
3.
isolation-
the 1930s convinced U.S. leaders to
in
leaders favor a policy of
Hitler?
Why
did others
it?
What were
the provisions of the Atlantic Charter?
Why
adopted?
was
it
CHAPTER
25
fol-
l?.S'^.Ca-><. 1^98'
Lazaro Cardenas
FDR announces Good

Neighbor
nationalizes
German
Mexican oil Fields.
troops move
Germany
Jewish property
policy.
Adolf Hitler becomes
into the
chancellor of
Italy
Germany,
invades
Japan invades
Manchuria.
Ethiopia.
destroyed during
Rhineland.
Spanish Civil
War
Kristallnacht.
begins.
FDR
elected to
third term.
signs
nonaggression
pact with Soviet
Union. World
passed. Atlantic
War
Charter signed.
II
Lend-Lease Act
starts.
^
1
1930
1940
1935
American friend describing the events during that
commanders felt this series

German attack. Study the map
below, which shows the German invasion of France in
940. How did the German army defeat this French
period.
strategy?
Germany. French
Writing to Describe Imagine you
military
of forts would repel a
are a Loyalist
during the Spanish Civil War. Write a letter to an

President Roosevelt's proposal of the Lend-Lease Act
aroused fierce debate
in
Congress. Read the following
GREAT
O^^
"- ,^
Dunkirk-
BRITAIN
"- ,-
excerpt from isolationist Burton K. Wheeler, a

Republican senator from Montana,
passing the measure.
What
who
argued against
reasons does he give for
ieppe^
,=^
Rouen
^^
stand?
his
44
Never before have
the
Paris^^'^
American
people been asked or compelled
to give
trasbourg
so completely of their tax dollars to any foreign nation. Never before has the Congress
of the United States been asked by any

President to violate international law.
YOUR
^~J BUILDING
PORTFOLIO
Never before has the United States given to

one man the power to strip this nation of its
defenses.
Approval of this legislation means war,

open and complete warfare. I, therefore, ask
the
it
American people before they

accept
Was the last World War worthwhile?
.
1.
we should lend and

lease war materials. If it were, then we
should lend and lease American boys.
President Roosevelt has said we would be
repaid by England. We will be.
Our boys
If it were, then
will
be returned
returned
returned with minds warped
and
of high-powered
shells.
the
and
ence, imagine your assignment
new
political
that
compares the
among
similarities
and differences
around the world.
Imagine you are a diplomat at the
appeasement toward Germany's Adolf

speech might mention
sive
its
on that experi-
to evaluate the
trends of the 1930s. Create a chart
fascist dictators
WAR
is
convincing the Allies to abandon their policy of
99
of fixed fortifications to protect
Chapter 23 you
1938 Munich Conference. Write a speech aimed at
scream and shriek
I,
In
of the Great Depression. Building
2.
twisted by

After World War
France built the Maginot Line,
line
GLOBAL RELATIONS
portrayed a journalist examining the global effects
in caskets,
maybe; returned with bodies maimed;

sights of horrors
cooperatively.
domestic
policies,
Hitler.
Your
Kristallnacht, Hitler's repres-
German
aggression into the
Rhineland and Austria, and your opposition toward

a
granting the Sudetenland to Hitler.
border with
BETWEEN THE WARS
74!
Chapter 26
1941-1945
AMERICANS
IN
WORLD WAR
II
UNDERSTANDING
THE MAIN IDEA
In
December 1941
bombed
the Japanese
Pearl Harbor, bringing the
United States into World
Americans and
War
II.
their allies battled the
and
Axis powers on land in Europe
North Africa and on sea

Atlantic, Pacific,
By August
945
the
in
and Mediterranean.
the Allies defeated the
Axis powers, but only after heavy

casualties
ê
and
of two Japanese
atomic bombing
cities.
GLOBAL RELATIONS How

might nations coordinate
civilian
and military resources to win a

global war?
CULTURAL DIVERSITY
Why
might wartime patriotism
lead to increased discrimination

against certain groups?
TECHNOLOGY AND
SOCIETY What
political
and
moral concerns might a govern-
ment take
into account
when
developing a potentially destructive
technology?
1941
Japanese attack
Pearl Harbor.
1942
1943
Bataan Death
Zoot-suit riots
D-Day
March occurs.
break out.
begins.
1944
invasion
1945
Japan
The German invasion of Poland
IIHK TO THE PAST
much of Western Europe had
1940,
expanded
its
1939 launched World
in
its
fallen to
War
II.
By
Germany, while Japan
hold on Asia. For a time, the United States maintained
neutrality. Lend-lease aid to the Allies, beginning in 1941, however,
marked an important step
involvement
in U.S.
hortly before 8:00 a.m. on
in
December
the conflict.
7,
1941, the message
"Tora! Tora! Tora!" was radioed to Japanese carrier ships approach-
ing Hawaii.
The
meaning
signal "Tora,"
"tiger,"
launched the long-
planned Japanese air-and-sea attack on the U.S. naval base

Harbor.
The
heart of America's Pacific Fleet
more than a hundred U.S. planes

Within seconds
was anchored
there,
ended
after the attack
less than
and nearly 200
two hours
aircraft
began, explosions from
later,
sailors
bombs
When
the
almost 20 American warships
had been destroyed.
American dead were 1,103
and
lined nearby airfields.
and torpedoes turned Pearl Harbor into a blazing inferno.

assault
Pearl
at
entombed on
Among some
the Arizona
2,400
when
the
battleship sank.
The bombing shocked and united Americans. Ann Hoskins,
Connecticut newspaper owner, noticed that before the attack "there was
great tension and feelings
between people not
to inter\'ene.
But the
minute Pearl Harbor happened, there was

utter unity."
The next
day, a
somber
President Roosevelt described
December
7 as "a date which
will live in
infamy" and
called
on Congress for
a declaration of
^r,^
,^ ^
''M^^^^^^^^KfW^^^^ ^L'%
war
against Japan.
Aftermath of Japanese
attack on Hawaii,
94
All'
Force
AMERICANS
IN
officers, Hawaii,
WORLD WAR
94
II
743
Sect ion
1
1
1
^j^^j
EARLY DIFFICULTIES
What
In
U S
obstacles did the United States face
which three battles did the
when
Allies halt Japan's
it
first
entered the war?
advance
in
the Pacific?
What were two major turning
points
in
the western theater
of operations?
What forms
did Allied cooperation take?
eeply angered by the bombing of Pearl Harbor, Congress
and
the
American people overwhelmingly supported President
Roosevelt's call for
war on Japan as
and
Italy,
war against Japan. Great
well.
On December
11,
Britain declared
Japan's
allies,
Germany
declared war on the United States, and Congress rec-
ognized a state of war with those two nations. World War
now
II
had
vastly expanded.
Army
nurses evacuated from Bataan
faced a long, drawn-out fight on several fronts,
XIS
ADVANTAGES
including Western Europe, the Pacific, the

Mediterranean, and Northern Africa.
When
powers had two big advantages.

Italy,
Second, Germany was better prepared for
the United States entered the war, the Axis

First,
Germany,
and Japan had already secured firm control of
the areas they had invaded.
The United
States thus
war. Since 1933
By
had been rearming and building
and military training centers.
the mid- 1930s, the Nazis had converted
of the
#V
it
airfields, barracks,
German economy
contrast, the United States
pare for war until 1940.
#^
called for
more money
most
to military production. In
had not begun
when
to
to pre-
President Roosevelt
be devoted to military
production. Even then, however, the country's

preparations were limited.
When the United States entered

the war,
fighting
it faced the problems of

on many fronts and a
lack of preparation.
^ Three U.S. sailors in Chicago read about the

Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor.
744
;:
CHAPTER
26

Hitler, Mussolini,
hoped they could win
leaders
the United States
could mobilize
Pearl
and the Japanese war
Harbor
44 We
fighting
the contlict before
two-ocean war
enormous resources. After
its
the
have just one year to cut off Russia
from her American
supplies. ...
If
we
don't
succeed and the munitions potential of the
manpower
war will enter
United States joins up with the

potential of the Russians, the
a
phase
win
it
in
with
which
we
The day
after the
only be able to
shall
**
difficulty.
WAR
Japanese attack on
Pearl Harbor, Emperor
Hirohito made a speech
that was relayed around
the world. In it he laid out
Japan's reasons for declaring war on the
United States and Great Britain:
one Hitler aide warned:
attack,
JAPAN DECLARES
44 19
#3 oth America and Britain
aggravated the disturbances
in
East Asia.
have
.
These two powers, inducing other countries to
w.AR IN THE
follow
PACIFIC
increased military preparations on
suit,
Japan's assault on Pearl Harbor was only part of a
They have
of Our Empire.
obstructed by every means Our peaceful com-
giant offensive throughout the Pacific region. In
merce, and fmally resorted to a direct severance
December
the Japanese launched attacks
[cutting off] of
eral other
American
all sides
on sev-
on the Philippines,
islands,
and on various British possessions. By the end of
Guam, Wake
the month, Japan controlled

the British colony of
Hong Kong, and
Island,
Thailand.
The year 1942 brought more Japanese

ries. In Januar}'.
Japanese forces took Manila, the
capital of the Philippines.
The next month, they
overran the British naval base

the Battle of the
American,
(see
victo-
at
Singapore, and in
Java Sea. they crushed a
British.
map on page
fleet
of
have
We
economic
relations.
waited and long have
We
hope that Our Government might

situation in peace. But
Our
Patiently
endured,
in
retrieve the
adversaries
[enemies], showing not the least spirit of conciliation,
have unduly delayed a settlement.
Our Empire
for
its
existence and self defense
has no other recourse but to appeal to arms and

to crush every obstacle in
path,
its
yy
Dutch, and Australian warships

746).
By
April. Japan
had con-
quered most of the Netherlands East Indies, with

its
supplies of
materials.
oil, tin,
rubber, and other vital
The Japanese were
British out of
war
also driving the
ment
at the
hands of the Japanese: prisoners were
beaten, shot, or prevented from drinking water.
Burma.
In the Philippines a small force of
Americans
The bravery of
the Filipino defenders at Bataan
and Filipinos under General Douglas MacArthur,
inspired thousands of Filipino
commander of U.S. Army
in the
mounted
troops in the Far East,
a heroic but hopeless resistance against the
Japanese.
After
the
surrender
MacArthur's forces withdrew
Filipino
Bataan
forces. In
Americans
By
of Manila,
to the
armed
the
poised to strike west
of 1942, the Japanese were

at India,
and east through Hawaii
was ordered
United States. At
vowed,
"I shall return."
Fighting against overwhelming odds, the

hungry, sick, exhausted survivors
on Bataan surrendered
in April.
who remained
Japanese soldiers
to enlist
in California joined the fight.
summer
Peninsula across Manila Bay. In March, MacArthur

to Australia but
Americans
1942 alone some 16.000
at the
south
at Australia,
Pacific coast of the
this crucial point,
however, the
Allies succeeded in halting the Japanese advance

in the Pacific.
The U.S.
Pacific Fleet,
commanded
by Admiral Chester Nimitz. helped turn the
tide
forced the some 70.000 survivors to march
with three battles.
way to prison camp.

Some 10,000 died on what came to be called the
Bataan Death March (see map on page 771).
Coral Sea, off the northeastern coast of Australia.
Japanese force on
U.S. and Filipino soldiers received brutal treat-
New
The
through the jungle on their
first battle
its
began on
way
May
7,
1942, in the
to attack Port
Moresby,
Guinea, seized Tulagi (too-LAHG-ee) Island,
AMERICANS
IN
WORLD WAR
II
i:
745
one of the Solomons. But before the Japanese force

could reach
destination, a joint British-American
its
naval force intercepted
damaged a Japanese
it.
Planes from U.S. carriers
carrier and destroyed one car-
The Battle of the Coral

Sea was an important victory for the Allies.
rier
and several
aircraft.
Although the Allies

the Japanese
lost a carrier, the battle
The second naval
Shown here
Bataan Death March

Thousands died on the march to a
Japanese prison camp.
TURNING POINT
in
II
The
momentum
Which group
in
One
unit
succeeded
in
occupying two of the
Aleutian Islands, near Alaska. This
move was
the Pacific, 19^1-19^5

in
the
Pacific
war went
Midway, which cost Japan four aircraft earners and most of
Kfl REGION
took place early
in
April 1942.
WoHd Wat
battle
June 1942. Japan, seeking to crush the U.S.

Pacific Fleet, launched a two-pronged attack.
are American and Filipino soldiers
at the start of the grueling
stopped
advance on Australia.
its
of islands did the Allies largely
to the Allies after the
skilled
bypass
Battle of
naval pilots.
in
their drive toward japan?
PACIFIC
CHINA
ki.r.M^J'
Narni^ng^
-;
YELLOW
OCEAN
gL_^~ 'Tokyo
^^JVHiroshima
\agasaki
Sf^
30 N
-Shanghai
MIDWAY
Iwo Jima
Okinawa
j^^j.
M
w
/
,,-
TAIWAN
Hong
ig Kong
April-June 1945
Midway
a Feb.-March 1945
CyHAlNAN
Philippine Sea
BATAAN
June 1944
>rV^^""^
'FRENCH
INDOCHINA
Saipan
June-July 1944
/PHILfPPlNE.
Guam
>^s.^.^ri9îii*
Dec. 1941
July-Aug. 1944
MALAYA
CAROLINE
June 1942
^^ Wake
-^41
'^"^.
Pearl Harbor
Dec. 1941
"ii^.
I.
Dec. 1941
IS.
TKUK
ADMIRALTY
IS.
TARAWA
La
Gilbert
Equator 0'
I.
Nov. 1943
'
0javaSea_ -|
\,^
wr--^_^.-Cêb.-March 1942
OCEAN
Scale vanes with latitude
Scale at Equator
..000
2.000 Miles
J-
>A
130= E
1.000
2.000 Kilometers
AUSTRALIA
Miller CyKndrical Proitctio"
746
::
CHAPTER
26
The
stopped the Japanese
Allies
Pacific offensive in the battles
of Coral Sea, Midway, and
Guadalcanal.
Righting in Europe and the

mediterranean
By
the time of the attack
on Pearl Harbor, the
Axis powers, which now included Hungary,

Romania, and Bulgaria, firmly controlled much
Although U.S. forces won the Battle of Midway

in June
942, the islands did not escape damage.
Japanese bombers hit military installations,
including the oil tank shown here.
I
of the western theater of operations
Europe and
the lands around the Mediterranean. Yugoslavia
and Greece had been occupied, and southern
Europe was firmly under the Axis boot.

Throughout most of 1942. the Axis powers
racked up one victory after another.
designed to divert American ships to the north

while the Japanese carried out their second offensive, an attack
on Midway, two small islands
The Germans and

on many different
their allies scored victories
fronts.
German submarines,
or
U-boats, controlled the Atlantic Ocean, sinking
northwest of Hawaii. The United States, however,
AUied
knew of
ting off British supply lines. In the first half of
the Japanese strategy because
American
militar\'
and merchant ships and nearly
German U-boats sank almost 500
experts had broken the Japanese fleet code.
1942,
Nimitz was therefore able to assemble U.S.
the eastern seaboard of the United States.
craft carriers
air-
and destroyers north of Midway
fend off the Japanese attack.
to
June
6.
Union
into the Soviet
Americans and Japanese clashed from June 3

U.S. fighters, dive-bombers, and torpedo
German
In Europe.
to
after their initial attack in
Germans advanced,
As
many
industrial centers as well as rich grainfields in
the
map on page
the Soviets lost
down many enemy
of 1942. the Germans pushed toward the
planes.
The American
Midway proved
crucial.
victory
Japan
lost
of southern
not only ships and planes but also a
number of
many of whom had taken part in the
Pearl Harbor attack. The battle provided the
They
skilled pilots,
Stalingrad
Americans with valuable experience
mobihzed
in naval air
(now known
as Volgograd;.
its
The
city
For months the men.
its first
1942. American marines
the United States
defending the city suf-
August
fered a nightmare of
offensive. In
waded ashore
at
Guadalcanal, another of the Solomon Islands. For

six desperate
months, with a heavy loss of
life,
they clung to a toehold around the airport,

repelling Japanese attacks
from the
air,
and
the sea,
November
the Japanese sent a
huge
fleet to
battle.
fleet
had
Afrika Korps in
North
Africa-
North Africa.
forces
had
launched an invasion
1940.
Erwin Rommel (left) was

commander of the German
starvation.
When
in
British
inflict
heavy damage on
The
the Italians, Hitler sent
German Afrika
Korps under commander Erwin Rommel.
Guadalcanal was secure. The tide of battle in
the Pacific
In
Italian
and
defeated the Japanese in a bloody
the Solomons, hoping to regain Guadalcanal.
American
shell fuê
troops later began to
the surrounding jungle.

In
oil fields
defenses.
women, and children
successfully launched
summer
also laid siege to
based strike force.
Midw ay.
748). In the
Russia.
warfare and gave people confidence in the carrier-
After the Battle of
June
1941.
the Ukraine (see
Battle of
ships off
troops had penetrated far
planes sank four Japanese aircraft carriers and shot
at the
cut-
finallv turned in the Alhes' favor
in the
AMERICANS
IN
WORLD WAR
II
747
World War II in Europe, 19^2-19^5

DESERT FOX
in
748
eight weeks. By
::
Aher being banered
Hay
CHAPTER
at El Alamein,
943 Afnca was cleared of Axis
: 6
Rommel
forces.
retreated
some 1,250
miles to Tunisia
Army
Soldiers in Britain's Eighth
in
defensive positions during the Battle of El
are shown here
Alamein. This battle stood in marked contrast to

the highly mobile fighting characteristic of the war
in
North
Africa.
T Soviet forces laid siege to Stalingrad for
months before the German army surrendered

February 1943. Shown here
city shortly after
Rommel, known
it
was
is
in
part of the ruined
liberated.
as the Desert Fox, had
advanced
44
Anti-aircraft battalions, air-force regi-
Alamein, Egypt, by July 1942. His
ments and
signalling units
troops were ready for a final thrust at the Suez
entirely of
women. When
Canal and the
reached the
as far as El
oil fields
European designation
of the Middle East (the
for Northeast Africa
Southwest Asia). At the same time. Axis
and
side the
were made up
the battle
women
city itself,
fought along-
yy
men.
aircraft all
but forced British naval craft out of the Mediter-
The Allied
ranean. In order to reach Egypt, the Middle East,
Stalingrad broke the
and India. Britain had
advance. Said British prime minister Winston
to
send
its
ships thousands of
miles around Africa.
Churchill: "Before
Despite the British forces' transport problems,
was Rommel who suffered most from

men and supplies. The British, led by
it
shortages of
General Bernard Montgomery, turned
advantage. In October,
victories at El
this to their
Montgomery
attacked,
tory.
After Alamein
Alamein and
momentum
of the Axis
Alamein we never had
we
a vic-
never had a defeat."
Setbacks for the Axis powers at

El Alamein and Stalingrad were
turning points
in
World War
II.
pushing Rommel's Afrika Korps steadily westward

out of Egypt and into Libya by
November. The
British victory in the Battle of El
Alamein helped
turn the
comer
for the Allies in
North Africa.
Another turning point came

1942,
when
the Soviets attacked
in the fall
German
of
troops in
A LLIED COOPERATION
How
had the Allies managed
erful offensives
Stalingrad. Throughout a terrible winter the
aters
Germans hung
harness
der.
Trapped
and
little
in
on. forbidden by Hitler to surren-
in the ruined city
with few supplies
food, the Axis troops finally surrendered
February 1943. After the Battle of Stalingrad,
less than
one third of the original German force of
almost 300,000 remained alive. Galina Utkina, a
Russian woman, recalled the crucial role Soviet
women
played
in defeating the
Germans:
mounted by
to
overcome the pow-
the Axis in both the-
of the war? The ability of the United States to

its
human and
the Allied effort.
industrial resources helped
Through the lend-lease program
the United States shipped vast quantities of

tions to
its allies.
aid totaled
By
the
muni-
end of the war. lend-lease
more than $50
billion.
Of
this vast
sum,
over 60 percent went to Great Britain.
Allied cooperation, which involved joint

strategic planning, also helped turn the tide. Just
AMERICANS
IN
WORLD WAR
II
i:
749
iui>
ULcks
on Pearl Harbor,
ihc assault
.itici
Churchill and RiH)sc\ell met
in
Washington. D.C.,
together \\ith iheir lop military
The two
technical aides.
commanders and
leaders and their staffs
agreed that defeating the Axis powers
would
he the first Allied priority.
in
Europe
For the time
being. Allied strategy in the Pacific would be

defensive rather than offensive.
To formali/e
26
their alliance, representatives of
.Allied countries, calling
themselves the United
Nations, met in Washington. D.C.
On
January
1.
1942, they signed the Joint Declaration, which had
been drafted by Roosevelt and Churchill. In

Allies (1) promised full military and
cooperation
in the
war
make
of them would
effort, (2)
the
it
economic
agreed that none
Chinese leader Chiang Kai-shek (left), President

Roosevelt (center), and British prime minister
Winston Churchill (right) are shown at the Cairo
Conference
November
in
1943.
a separate peace with the
Axis powers, and (3) endorsed the war aims out-
At Cairo
lined by Roosevelt and Churchill in the Atlantic
Throughout the
war Churchill and Roosevelt
met several times. At Casablanca. Morocco,

Januan. 194.^. the two leaders agreed to
demand
in
the
unconditional surrender of their enemies. In other

words,
to
the Axis
if
November
in
1943. Roosevelt and
Churchill met with Chiang Kai-shek of China.
Charter (see Chapter 25).
powers gave up, they would have
do so on the Allies' terms. Churchill and
The
leaders outlined Allied strategy against Japan and
made
plans to restore Japanese-held territories after
the war. At Tehran. Iran, shortly afterward.
Roosevelt and Churchill met for the
first
lime with
Soviet leader Joseph Stalin. Stalin gave his support

for Allied
war
plans.
Roosevelt also agreed that the Allies should attack

Hitler
on a second front
in
Cooperation among the Allies

took the form of lend-lease
order to relieve pressure
on the Soviet Union (the
first front).
The
Allies
exchanges, joint strategic
decided to open the second front by invading south-
way of North Africa and
ern Europe by
Mediterranean island of
war aims.
SECTION
IDENTIFY and
agreement on
planning, and
the
Sicily.
REVIEW
explain the significance of the following; Battle of the Java Sea. Douglas MacArthur,
Bataan Death March, Battle of the Coral Sea. Battle of Midway, Erwin Rommel. Bernard Montgomery.
Battle of
El
LOCATE
Alamein. Battle of Stalingrad, unconditional surrender, Joseph
Stalin.
and explain the importance of the following: Pearl Harbor, Guam,
Thailand. Bataan. Coral Sea,
Midway
Islands, Guadalcanal.
2.
MAIN IDEA Where did the Allies stop the Japanese Pacific offensive?
MAIN IDEA What two German setbacks were turning points for the
3.
CONTRASTING What advantages
1.
did the Axis
Wake
Ukraine, Stalingrad,
El
Island,
Hong Kong,
Alamein, Casablanca.
Allies in
World War
powers have over the United States
II?
at the begin-
ning of the war?

4.
WRITING TO INFORM
Write
memorandum
Imagine you are a participant
in
one of the
early vy^rtime conferences.
to the Allies, giving examples of cooperative efforts that could help
them
win the war.

5.
LINKING HISTORY
the Battle of
750
::
CHAPTER
26
Midway
AND GEOGRAPHY What was the significance of the American

for both Japan and the United States?
victory at
Section 2
THE HOME FRONT

c
How
s
the
United States mobilize for war?
did
Why were Japanese

What
Americans interned during the war?
make
gains did African Americans and Mexican Americans

during the war?
What
changes did World
A,although World War

Asia,
and North
Africa,
II
War
II
bring for
was fought on
American women?
the battlefields of Europe,
American farms and factories also helped
win the war. As the United States mobilized
its
resources for combat,
the entertainment industry helped sustain morale.
Americans the war resulted
in
confinement
in
For Japanese
remote camps.
For African Americans, Mexican Americans, and women,

conflict brought both
new
opportunities
and reminders
the
that
Seamstresses making
discrimination
and
inequality
still
existed in
American
society.
flags
and banners
end of December we had forty-two." To
OBILIZINGFORWAR
vital orders,
fill
these
union leaders agreed not to organize
strikes during the war.
After the Japanese attack at Pearl Harbor plunged

the United States into war,
a peacetime to a
wartime economy. Engineer R. W.
Danischefsky noted
came
7,
in:
1941]
America switched from
how
quickly factory orders
production boom. The
United States
soon became the Allies" biggest armaments suppher.
Between 1940 and 1945, U.S. war
plants pro-
"At the time of Pearl Harbor [December
duced millions of planes, tanks, jeeps, and guns.
we had
Shipbuilders produced thousands of ships, creating
five projects in Michigan.
By
the
a powerful navy and merchant marine.
War production helped
economic
create an
boom. The number of jobless workers,

2.5 million in 1942, sank to fewer than
still
over
700,000 in
1944. Earnings nearly doubled between 1939 and

1945. People
who had
stood in breadlines a decade
After the bombing of Pearl Harbor, many existwere converted to wartime production. The Firestone Tire & Rubber Company, for
example, made antiaircraft guns, tank and submarine parts, and gas masks, as well as tires for all
ing factories
military vehicles.
AMERICANS
IN
WORLD WAR
II
751
DEFENSE EXPENDITURES, 1940-1945

earlier
now worked overtime and brought home
fat
90-1
pa\ checks.
The boom
More
than four million workers
work
find
also led to vast population shifts.
in
left their
homes
to
war-industr> factories in other states.
70-
O
15
5040-
out a li\ing on farms flocked to the centers of
shipyards on the Gulf and
Pacific coasts and factories in the
30"5
20-
10-
Midwest and
0-
West. The West especially witnessed phenomenal
federal
government spent
43%
16%
1940
economic and population growth during the war.
The
80%
60-
Sharecroppers, tenant farmers, and others eking
wartime production
194!
69%
1
^1
1942
1943
Note; Percentages represent the portion of the

budget spent on defense.
wartime spending helped the West become a major
World War II.

American farms also achieved marvels of
1944
1945
Year
billions of dollars to
build western factories and military bases. This
86%
82%
80I/)
total federal
Source: Histoncal Stavstics of the United States
industrial region after
productivity. Although
many
went
w ar or
ot'\'
to fight in the
factories, productivity
agricultural workers
to
work
in
wartime
remained high. During
war years U.S. farmers produced enough

food to supply the .American people and the
the
DEFENSE PREPARATIONS
prepared
itself for
war by boosting
The United States

the defense budget,
increasing technological research, and organizing industry. By

the end of the war,
more than 80 percent
of
all
government
spending went toward defense.
money
did the U.S.
About how much
government spend on national defense
during the years 1942 to
1945?
Allies overseas.
Government expansion.
Mobilizing for
order to pay for the war. the government increased
almost one million
by more than 10 limes the number of .Americans
in
1940
to nearly three million
by 1945. The Office of War Mobilization

coordinated
in
(OWM)
government agencies involved
all
producing and distributing civilian goods.
powerful director. James
Its
Byrnes, was some-
F.
The War Production Board (WPB)

directed the conversion of existing factories to
wartime production and superv ised the building of
new
plants.
The
WPB
assigned raw materials to
industry, including scrap iron
recyclable
tin,
aluminum, and
from factories and
fats
(used in bullets)
from homes.
The
\\
PB
(and later the
OWM)
also coordi-
nated the production and distribution of consumer
goods. For instance,
parachutes.
The
it
WPB
diverted nylon to
making
even regulated clothing
styles in order to save fabric: canceled for the
duration of the war were cuffs on men's trousers
and pleats
in
women's
skirts.
After the war began, the government conserved

valuable resources by establishing rationing
programs. Students at Wilson Senior High in

Washington, D.C., are shown learning how to
use the latest ration book.
CHAPTER
26
also extended
who had
to
its
control over the economy. In
pay income
tax.
The new taxes
included most middle- and lower-income groups

for the first time.
The
rest
of the
money came from
borrow ing. mainly through w ar bonds.
The
times called the "assistant president."
752
Directing the economy. The government
w ar led to a greatly expanded federal government.

The number of federal employees grew from
sale of
war bonds also helped the
government deal with another major concern

keeping inflation down.
When incomes
remain
high but few consumer items are available for

people to buy. prices go up and inflation
Selling
results.
war bonds offered one way of siphoning

dow n.
off excess income, thus keeping inflation
The government took other anti-inflationary

One was rationing, which reduced
steps as well.
how much people
consumer demand by limiting
The armed
services
actively recruited
receiving vaccinations,
could buy. The measure also cut civilian pur-
WAAC
chases of products needed for the war effort.
emerge with
Rationed items included gasoline, heating
bags containing
their uniforms.
tires, coffee, sugar,
fuel,
meat, butter, and canned
women
After registering and

recruits (below)
duffel
goods. The government also tried to keep wages
and prices down. At
first
froze wages, but
it
government allowed
the cost of living rose, the
wages
when
by 15 percent.
to rise
Raising an army. Along with
increased pro-
duction and expanded government controls, gearing up for
war meant
recruiting soldiers. In 1940,
before the attack on Pearl Harbor, the United

States passed the Selective
Training and Service
Act, which provided for the
first
American
of
all
history.
peacetime draft
The law required
men between
in
the registration
ages 21 and 35 (age hmits later
extended from 18 to 37). Local draft boards deter-
mined
fitness
and deferred men for family,
reli-
gious, or health reasons.
Of
the
some
armed services during

thirds
ing
members of the
World War II, about two
15 million
were draftees and the
rest volunteers, includ-
more than 300.000 women.
Women
enrolled in
Women's Auxiliary Army Corps (WAACs),

Women's Airforce Service Pilots (WASPs), or auxthe
iliary
branches of the navy (WAVES), coast guard
(SPARS), and marines. They worked

office work, drove vehicles,
as nurses, did
and ferried planes
The urgency of the war effort convinced

who had led the nation since
1933, to run for an unprecedented fourth term. As
President Roosevelt,
aide. '"God
in
find
men for active duty.

While most women military personnel
served on the home front, women in the Army
Nurse Corps (ANC) and Navy Nurse Corps
(NNC) tended wounded soldiers overseas. Eunice
Hatchitt. a nurse who served at Bataan, described
with
order to free
the terrible conditions
and heavy casualties:
campaign drew
the 1944
date
it
knows
near. Roosevelt told an
don't want to [run], but
won
necessary." Roosevelt
little
was
may
the nomination
opposition; his vice-presidential candi-
a Missouri senator. Harry S.
Truman.
The Republicans chose Thomas

governor of
New
Dewey,
E.
who had won fame
York,
as a
prosecuting racketeers.
district attorney for
However, he lacked Roosevelt's charisma and

experience and was defeated by an electoral vote
of 99 to Roosevelt's 432.
Days and nights were an endless
mare,
until
it
seemed we
any longer. Patients came
night-
couldn't stand
in
by the hun-
dreds, and the doctors and nurses
worked
continuously under the tents amid the
and heat and dust.
We
it
flies
had from eight to
nine hundred victims a day.
**
t^ ROMOTING THE WAR

As
it
mobilized the nation's resources, the gov-
ernment also worked
to
was especially important

war,
when
keep morale high. This

in the early
Allied troops faced
days of the
many
setbacks.
The United States mobilized for

war by increasing production,
The government encouraged
expanding government control of

the economy, and raising an army.
programmers responded by urging
part.
the
media
to
do
Moviemakers, songwriters, and radio
participation in the
war
their
station
all-out
effort.
AMERICANS
IN
WORLD WAR
II
753
Mo\
ic slats
On
ad\ciiiscd uar bonds and trav-
the whole.
Convinced
World War
that the
II
enjoyed broad
cause was
most
eled overseas to entertain the troops. Hundreds of
support.
war movies poured out of Hollywcxxl. Some
Americans put up with shortages, planted "victory
ot ie films,
such as So Proudly We Hail
army nurses
in the
Philippines
the war. Striking a lighter note
built
patri-
about
support for
uere comedies
like
Bob Hope's Caught in the Draft. A few films, such

as Wake Island and Report from the Aleutians,
just,
gardens" to conserve food, and bought millions of
war bonds. Many
dollars worth of
displayed
window banners with a

one
for a loved
in the service, a
memorate a death
in
families proudly
star
a blue one
gold one to com-
combat.
offered realistic views of combat. Most, however,
romanticized American and other Allied soldiers
and stereotypically portrayed the Japanese as

treacherous, the
Germans
and the
as fanatical,
By and
Italians as cowardly.
Radio stations broadcast both war news and

entertainment. Radio correspondents such as
Edward
R.
Murrow and
Eric Sevareid gave on-the-
scene accounts of war-ravaged Europe.

eral agency, the Office
controlled the flow of
of
fed-
War Information (OWI),
war news
Wartime musical
A new
hits
at
included
"Remember
the biggest hits of the period
did not deal directly with the war. African
American musicians
including trumpeter Dizzy
Gillespie, sax player Charlie Parker, and piano
player Thelonious
large.
World War
II
did not produce the kind
of home-front intolerance that erupted during World
War
tion
I.
One
tragic exception
was
the forced reloca-
and imprisonment, or internment, of Japanese
Americans
living
on the Pacific
September
coast. In
1945. U.S. State Department adviser
Eugene Rostow
called internment "a tragic and dangerous mistake"
home.
Pearl Harbor" and "Praise the Lord and Pass the
Ammunition!" But
2APANESE AMERICAN RELOCATION
Monk popularized
new
and argued
that "its motivation
and
impact on
its
our system of law deny every value of democracy."
When
Pearl Harbor was
bombed, about
119.000 people of Japanese ancestry lived
in
Washington, Oregon, and California. Of these,

about a
third, the Issei (ee-say),
had been
bom
in
Japan and were regarded by the U.S. government
form of jazz, called bebop, or bop. Also popular
as aliens ineligible for U.S. citizenship.
were
the Nisei (nee-say), had been born in the United
such
sentimental
songs
as
"White
Christmas," which expressed Americans" longing
were thus American
rest.
citizens.
People of Japanese ancestry had long suf-
for a return to peace.
The war
States and
The
also affected popular radio serials.
fered racial discrimination in the United States.
Radio stations abandoned spy and sabotage pro-
Laws prevented Japanese immigrants from becom-
Some even
ing citizens, and prejudice restricted the kinds of
effects, such as wailing
jobs they and their descendants could hold and the
grams
for the duration of the war.
banned certain sound

sirens, to
avoid alarming listeners.
neighborhoods where they could
live.
This painting of the internment camp at Heart

Mountain, Wyoming, was done by Japanese
American
artist Estelle Ishigo.
"4
Toyo Miyatale photographed
this
scene
the early days of World

War II. With their belongings piled high
on the sidewalk, Japanese Americans wait
for the buses that will take them to a
relocation assignment center.
in
754
::
Los Angeles
in
ND
MN /
Heart
Mineta
watched
his
away
taken
<
fearfully
neighbors being
for questioning by
He
the FBI.
5D
Mountain
young
recalled bitterly
had done nothing;
that "they
ATI-
the only thing that they
'*
NE
'TopM
CO
done was
OK
born
of
Ten years old when
his
Japanese ancestry.'"
AR
Rohwer
^,^_
family was uprooted, Mineta
Jerome
wore
Japanese American
Population, 1940
Cub Scout uniform
his
on the
train,
would show
More than 10,000

1,000 to 10,000
AMERICAN CITIZENSHIP
Less than 1,000
About two thirds of the 127,000 people

ancestry living
Relocation
camp
be
to
MO
KS
Granada A
NM
had
_V
it
his loyalty to the
United States. After six

months in a barracks at the
Santa Anita racetrack in
Japanese
of
hoping that
the continental United States were
in
American-born and thus
U.S.
southern California, Mineta's
citizens.
family was interned with
Japanese American Relocation
some 10,000 others at a

hastily built camp at Heart
INTERNEES
Mountain. Wyoming. "These
interned
in
By September 1942 some
camps located
10
LOCATION
population
in
in
Which two
Japanese Americans were
relatively isolated,
states
undeveloped areas.
camps were
all
barbed wire,
guard towers, searchlights,"
had the largest Japanese American
1940?
recalled Mineta.
"They were
concentration camps. There's
no question about
When war
hysteria.
There was no evidence of disloyahy on
the part of
any
sentiments
among some
Issei or Nisei.
Strong anti-Japanese
vocal pohticians and resi-
dents of western states, however, persuaded the

federal
government
to
remove people of Japanese
became an insurance
politics in
Utah, and other
an
until
1945
Court
in 1944.
states.
camps
Wyoming.
in
Here most were imprisoned
action upheld by the
agent, and
went into local
San Jose. In 1974 he was elected
to the
House of Representatives, where he served on

eral
sev-
committees and introduced legislation seeking
reparations for Japanese
descent from the West Coast. In February 1942

they were ordered to detention
it."
After the war Mineta attended college,
came, prejudice turned into near
American
internees.
Like most other internees, Mineta deplored
what had happened, but
his patriotism
never
wavered:
Supreme
Despite the color of our hair and
despite the shape of our eyes, the U.S.
Because of prejudice and war

hysteria, Japanese Americans
ing on the West Coast were
interned in relocation camps.
our country.
ber
liv-
how my
was
remem-
parents
reminded us of that
Just before
skin,
fact.
our family
was evacuated, my
Relocation profoundly disrupted the lives of
father
Japanese Americans. They were forced to leave

hurriedly, abandoning or selling their
businesses
at
rock-bottom prices.
ter
homes and
$400
a Nisei from San Jose, California.
the day of the Pearl
said,
"No
matis
99
Patriotism, and the desire

to disprove accusations
One imprisoned Japanese American was
On
government
million.
Norman Mineta,
your home."
estimate later put Japanese American property

losses at
what happens, thh
Harbor bombing, the
alty,
the
inspired
camps
of disloy-
many young men
to volunteer for
in
mih-
tary duty (in segregated units).
AMERICANS
IN
WORLD WAR
II
755
One
Nisei cDinbat team, the 442nd. fought in
President Roosevelt wanted to prevent the march,
which Randolph predicted would bring 100.000
Europe and became one of the most decorated

units in the armed services. Several thousand
protesters to the Capitol.
Japanese Americans also served
after Roosevelt issued an executive order forbid-
in the Military
Randolph called
in
defense plants and
the order, the
government created
Intelligence Service as interpreters and translators
ding racial discrimination
government
the Pacific.
off
it
offices.
To enforce
Employment Practices Committee

(FEPC). The FEPC investigated companies to
the Fair
The march on Washington

For African Americans, World War
II
make
brought both
sure that
all
qualified applicants, regardless
of race, were considered. The committee, however,
continued discrimination and greater opportunities.
lacked enforcement powers and could not prevent
Many
the
blacks
moved
into better-paying industrial
jobs and played a key role
About
in the military effort.
a million black soldiers served in the
armed
women
in the
forces, including several thousand
Women's
Auxiliary
their protests,
Army
Corps. However, despite
African Americans continued to
widespread abuses.
Americans
still
had
In addition,
African
to struggle for equality in
pay
and promotion.
As
in
northward
World War I, many blacks moved

work in war plants. In crowded
to
they faced discrimination in housing.
cities,
serve in segregated units and until 1943 were kept
Resulting tensions sometimes led to outbursts of
out of combat. Blacks were usually restricted to
violence against African Americans. In Detroit in
The millions of black Americans
in the labor
force in the 1940s also played an important

front role in the
war
effort.
not hire blacks or
And
But they had
Many war
a hate strike
home-
to strug-
to protest the
promotion of African American
workers. White residents of one Detroit neighbor-
plants
would
hood
as jan-
newly constructed Sojourner Truth Housing
despite labor leaders' no-strike pledge,
some white workers staged

strikes," to
violated the
would employ them only
gle to gain acceptance.
itors.
some 25.000 white workers
wartime no-strike pledge and staged
1943,
menial work.
strikes, called "hate
keep black workers out of high-paying
Project. In June of the
same
from moving
into the
year, 25 blacks
and 9
whites died in several days of rioting after a fight
between blacks and whites
at
Belle
Isle, a
popular
Detroit park, spread to other parts of the city.
factory jobs.
In 1941, before the
tried to prevent blacks
Despite these incidents, most African
United States entered the
war, African American labor leader A. Philip
Americans supported the war. Educator and
Randolph planned a march on Washington, D.C.,
rights activist
to protest discrimination against
black workers.
Mary McLeod Bethune noted
civil
that
African Americans "feel that the fight against fas-
cism
their fight too,"
is
"that their persecution
because they realized
would be even worse
under Hitler."
The zoot-suit riots

For Mexican Americans, as for blacks. World War
II
brought both opportunities and problems. More
than 300.000 Mexican Americans served in the

military,
and 17 earned the Congressional Medal of
Honor. The 88th Division, an
known
as the
elite
combat
unit
"Blue Devils," consisted mostly of
Mexican Americans.
African Americans served with distinction during

the war. These pilots at a training center in
Tuskegee, Alabama, study a

aloft in 1943.
756
::
CHAPTER
26
map
before going
Mexican Americans
also helped meet
home-
front labor needs. University of Texas history
professor Carlos E. Castaneda served as assistant

to the
chairman of the
FEPC
and worked
to
.*î-^
^^4
African Americans and
Mexican Americans
won
better factory
jobs during the war but
continued to face widespread discrimination.
ROSIE THE RIVETER

During the depression, the government
discouraged women, especially mar-
women, from working. The gov-
ried
ernment now urged them
to enter the
job market to replace departing ser-
use the rapid-firing Garand
win the war

against fascism. One government
These Mexican American infantrymen are being trained to

rifle at a U.S. Army camp. Because
many of these soldiers spoke Spanish, army trainers gave
instructions In both English and Spanish.
vicemen and
poster
showed a woman worker
danna and
improve working conditions for Mexican

Americans
in Texas. In
FEPC
1945 the
ordered a
company to discontinue its hiring

and promotion practices that discriminated
major Texas
oil
"I'm Proud
part."
my
FEPC
actions,
and the
women
lion.
Women worked
men
in a host
Americans moved from the Southwest

centers in the
Midwest and on
the
Under a 1942 agreement between
to industrial
West Coast.
the United States
and Mexico, thousands of Mexican farm and

road workers
to
work
known
in the
as
braceros
rail-
came north
Southwest during World War
to
symbol of
1944 the number of
to
the labor force increased
up jobs
many factories opened

Mexican Americans. Many Mexican
me
banread:
do
my
patriotic
defense workers.
pressing need for workers,

to
The caption
husband wants
the Riveter," the
From 1940
a result of similar
overalls.
in
Advertisements and a popular song pro-
moted "Rosie
against Hispanics.
As
to help
in
women
in
by more than four mil-
war plants and replaced
of jobs ranging from newspaper
Many of these new

women who were taking
home for the first time. Many
reporting to truck driving.
workers were married

jobs outside the
women
tional
already in the paid
work
force left tradi-
"women's work" as domestics and other

work in factories.
service jobs to
II.
But prejudice and discrimination against

Hispanics in jobs, housing, and recreation
ties
caused
bitter resentment. Relations
cially hostile in
facili-
grew espe-
Los Angeles. Mexican American
youths had adopted the fad of wearing zoot

suits
long
jackets,
pegged
trousers,
World War
increased women's
participation in the paid labor
force and allowed them to move
II
into traditionally
male
jobs.
and wide-
brimmed hats. In the summer of 1943, sailors

roamed the city attacking zoot-suiters in what
came to be known as the zoot-suit riots. The government eventually clamped down on the sailors,
but not before they had viciously beaten many
Women's
participation in the
war
effort
gave many of them a new sense of pride and

worth.
One woman
aircraft
worker
self-
finally felt a
sense of achievement after feeling "average"
at
other jobs:
Mexican Americans.
citizens"
the attacks
committee
were motivated by
committee also placed

police,
later
racial prejudice.
partial responsibility
who had responded
arresting
newspaper
determined that
The
on the
to the riots
by
Foremen
from other departments
come to my machine to ask me to do some

work for them if have time because they
I
say I'm the best countersinker
in
the vast
I've at last
become
Mexican Americans, and on biased
building!
reports.
not better than average, but the best!
At forty-nine
AMERICANS
IN
99
WORLD WAR
757
These young women worked

in a war plant.
as
welders
Vultee Aircraft was one of the
number
first aircraft
plants to
women
workers. These Vultee

workers are preparing a Vengeance Dive-Bomber for spray
employ a
painting
large
of
August 1942.
in
government study
in
1942 praised
women
workers, noting that factories "were practically
unanimous
in reporting that
wartime federal agencies did
years,
equal treatment for
on the whole the work
men
women and women
than
over 40 found few employers
willing to hire them. Although Frances Perkins,
long a supporter of
women
workers, continued to
head the Department of Labor during the war
that
war were temporary.
IDENTIFY
as
Fair
Employment
1.
MAIN IDEA What
Practices
E.
manager of
a shipyard pre-
are willing ... to
the future."
"masculine" jobs,
emergency
office per-
The message was
clear:
women were
helpers, not as competition.
REVIEW
and explain the significance of the following: James
Thomas
in traditionally
wanted
SECTION
Selective Training and Service Act,
women who
lend a hand with the war will be the
sonnel of
was
many women as well as

most of the jobs women held during the
dicted that "these
for the same work. African American
it
by
widely assumed
men
to enforce
little
workers.
women's achievements,
In spite of
women was considered equal to that of

men." Nevertheless, women encountered discrimination. Women workers continued to be paid less
done by
women
F.
Byrnes,
War
Production Board.
Dewey, internment, Norman Mineta, A.
Committee, braceros, zoot-suit
Philip
Randolph,
riots.
steps did the United States take to shift from a peacetime to a wartime
economy?
2.
3.
MAIN IDEA How did World War change life for American women?
HYPOTHESIZING Why did the United States forcibly relocate and imprison Japanese
II
living
4.
Americans
on the West Coast?
WRITING TO EVALUATE Imagine you are either an African American or a Mexican American
during World War
Write a letter to your representative in Congress, evaluating the gains you
II.
have
5.
made
IDENTIFYING CAUSE
during
758
:!
during the war.
CHAPTER
World War
26
II?
AND EFFECT What did
How
did
the U.S. government
most Americans respond
do to keep morale
to the government's actions?
high
DEFEAT OF THE AXIS POWERS

c u s
What did the Allied offensive in North Africa achieve?
How did the Allies gain final victory in Europe?
What was the chief objective of Allied assaults in the Pacific?
Why and when
did Japan surrender?
A.,merican supplies and troops began

war by
late 1942.
But
it
to
make a
difference in the
would take over two more years of hard
fighting to defeat the Axis powers. The Allied invasions of North

Africa, Italy,
German
and France and
cities forced
the fierce
Germany
to
bombardments of
surrender
in
May
1945.
In the Pacific, meanwhile, the United States seized Japanese-
held islands, including the Philippines. Atomic attacks

devastated Japan, and
it
surrendered
in
August 1945.
Liberation of Paris,
Axis surrender
Allied attacks
mediterranean
in
the
in
North Africa.
944
In
November 1942, after the British had driven the

Germans and Italians into Libya, another Allied
force landed in French Northwest Africa in an
The
Allies agreed soon after Pearl
would open up
Harbor
that they
a second front against the Axis
ers in order to relieve pressure
At Churchill's urging, they focused

the Mediterranean region
pow-
on the Soviet Union.

this attack
what Churchill
the "soft underbelly" of the Axis territory.
on
called
invasion code-named Operation Torch (see
map
on page 748). General Dwight D. Eisenhower
commanded
the invasion force,
which consisted
As the
Morocco and
of American and British soldiers.
soldiers
established beachheads in
Algeria,
Allied planes and ships cut Axis supply lines
from
the
Italy.
Then, during the winter of 1942-43,
one from the west

began squeezing the
two Allied land forces
and the other from the east
Axis troops into a trap between them.

Several fierce battles took place in Tunisia.
Finally, in
May
1943, the Axis force of
some
^ "We are out to win the war In the quickest and

most economical way," U.S. Army chief of staff
George C. Marshall (right) declared in 1943.
Marshall was photographed with General Dwight
D. Eisenhower
in
North Africa
AMERICANS
in
June 1943.
IN
WORLD WAR
II
759
men
much
trolled
also ga\e
The
surrendered.
25().0(X)
rience, especially in
con-
Mediterranean. This victory
ot the
American
now
Allies
trix^ps \aluable
amphibious
VICTORY
EUROPE
IN
combat expe-
During the months of fighting
assaults.
Mediter-
in the
ranean region, the Allies were waging campaigns
The conquest
of
on several other fronts as well. Although they
North Africa
faced a determined enemy, they eventually
gave the Allies increased control

over the Mediterranean.
The
invasion of
gateway
Nonh
Italy.
it
.Alnca offered a
of Sicily. Allied lead-
to the Ilahan island
ers decided to invade
overcame
next in order to clear the
Axis forces out of the central Mediterranean and

acquire a launching pad for an invasion of the
Italian
winds and
Battling high
difficult seas,
almost
half a million troops landed in July 1943 and sub-
king
named
over a month. The Italian
in a little
resistance.
Sea and air assaults.

German U-boats continued to
toll
of Allied ships,
new prime minister
to replace
Mussolini and ordered Mussolini's
Benito
arrest.
Germans, however, were determined not
The
waves
to detect
base for him in
September the
Italian
to attack the
Anzio
page 748); but
down
the Allies
first
Rome, they landed

1944 (see
Januan.
in
their attack failed,
for months.
march
Axis capital
into
Not
until
to
map on
and they were
Rome, which became
the
British forces then
began
dri-
of troops from more than 25

countries. After
bitter
months of
mountain warfare,
German occupiers
were finally defeated.
Mussolini was captured
the
'^
American
destroying
in late April
by
German
chiefly at night, dropping their
general area of a given target.
aircraft concentrated
on precision bomb-
By 1944. bombers rained tons

of explosives on German factories, supply lines,
and miliiarv centers. Many German civilians died
ing in daylight raids.
in these raids.
The
invasion of France.
Victory in the
Battle of the .Atlantic and air assaults
ving slow ly north. They were joined by small units
A^
in the
at
undermining the morale
at
June 1944 did
to fall.
American and
bombs
and
campaign of
people. British Royal Air Force
(RAF) planes flew
invaded southern Italy
outflank Nazi troops near
German
of the
later the
intensified their
bombing aimed
government signed
Germans. Although the Allies took Naples on

October I. they soon bogged down. Hoping to
pinned
They
Two
days
1943 was an important year
In the air. loo.
military production
an armistice with the Allies.
convoys and
the Atlantic.
strategic
up
set
underwater objects. The Allies
air-bombed German U-boats and submarine

yards. By 1944 the .Allies had won the Battle of
to surren-
Italy.
the south at
until
important factor was the
also developed fast escort ships for
Germany and then
.Allies
An
in the Allies" favor.
for the Allies.
In
and supplies. Not
lives,
1943 did the Battle of the .Atlantic begin to turn
der the peninsula. They took Mussolini to

northern
In the Atlantic.
take a staggering
refinement of sonar equipment, which uses sound
mainland.
dued Sicily
all
and shot
Italian partisans.
on Germany
pa\ed the w ay for Operation 0\erlord the longawaited Allied invasion of German-occupied
France.
Commanded by
General Eisenhower,
had involved years of planning. The Allies put

place a system of
dummy
clues to convince the
would lake place near
installations
Germans
and
it
in
false
that the invasion
Calais.
Instead, the Allies landed to the south, in
Normandy. On D-Day. June
6. 1944. neariy
5.000
troop transports, landing craft, and warships car-
ried some 150.000 American. British, and

Canadian soldiers across the English Channel.
Overhead, planes dropped close

troops and
bombed
to
23.000 airborne
roads, bridges, and
German
troop concentrations. Sergeant Ralph G. Martin
< World War

Victory Medal
760
::
CHAPTER
26
li
recalled that "evervthing

the landing
made
in
was confusion" during
pounding
surf:

and
plies
Germans launched
to regroup, the
their
heavy snou. they drove against
last counterattack, in
the Allies in the thickly
wooded Ardennes region
of Belgium and northern France, pushing them west-
ward
to create a
dangerous bulge
Allied lines.
Bulge, some 200,000
In the resulting Battle of the
Germans attacked an
in the
initial
American force of
around 80.000. Because many of the regular troops
had been transferred

fighting
ULLIED ARMIES LAND IN FRANCE

HAVRE-CHERBOURG AREA;
GREAT INVASION IS UNDER WAY
The Granger
Co'tecocxi.
The New York Times announced the

invasion of France on June
6,
under a
cliff
York
Allied
of the inva-
before advancing inland.
front,
leaderless,
were mixed
up,
many
of
them
most of them not being where
they were supposed to be. Shells were
coming
in all
cles with
soldier
battalion pursued the
Germans, remem-
we were moving
times
By January 1945
it
was clear
met
at the
plan for the postwar peace. At the conference the lead-
and occupy Germany and out-
lined plans for a
new
international peace organization.
get-
Last days. During
Allied bombers continued to blast
exploding.
**
some
hitting mines,
trial
The Germans had
fortified the
elt.
Yalta Conference to
come
the time,
that the
offensive had failed. In Februan. Roose\
Churchill, and Stalin
At
fast.
more than 100 miles a
ting hit; supplies getting wet; boats trying to

in all
and
remembered.
bered that "the Germans were retreating so
ers agreed to di\ ide
the time; boats burning; vehi-
nowhere to go bogging down,
clerks, mechanics,
American
and the Allies pushed the Germans back.
German
Units
of the
Artillery-man Francis Tsuzuki. whose Japanese
day."
4%
much
Allied generals rushed reinforcements to the
American
944. After landing at
Normandy, these American members

sion force rest
New
was done by "cooks,
radio operators," one
"^^ AV THE
to other areas,
Normandy
months of 1945,
the early
German
indus-
and population centers, including Dresden,
Leipzig, and Berlin.
One of the most
and controversial
attacks
hit
devastating
Dresden
in
beaches with concrete bunkers, tank traps, and
Februar>\ This beautiful old city, of httle strategic
mines. But the Allied disinformation campaign had
value,
done
job. Hitler refused to send reinforcements,
war-torn areas. In one massive two-day attack.
beheving that the main invasion would occur else-
Allied bombers caused the worst firestorms of the
where. Although the Allies met determined opposi-
war. Total civilian deaths have been estimated at
tion,
its
they penetrated 15 miles into France in less
than a week. Aided
b\'
was packed
v\ith
refugees fleeing from the
between 30.000 and 60.000.
the French Resistance, the
Allies drove steadily eastward.
They
liberated Paris
on August 25. 19-W. By early September they had

landed over two million troops in western Europe.
Another Allied force drove northward through

France from the Mediterranean. Meanwhile. Soviet
troops pressed
Germany from
A German
Germany's
the east.
counterattack. Although
situation
was grave.
give up. In September 1944 the
Hitler
Germans launched
their first V-2s. long-range rockets
in
would not
aimed
at cities
England and Belgium. Once launched, these
bombs could
not be shot
down
without causing
considerable damage.
the
By September 1944 the Allies had crossed

German border. As they paused to bring in sup-
The Allied bombing of Dresden, Germany, killed many civilians

and left many famous buildings in ruins. Shown here is the damage
to the Zwinger Museum, which housed a priceless art collection.
AMERICANS
IN
WORLD WAR
II
761
March. Allied troops from the west
In
crossed the Rhine and drove into the heart of
Germany. By
then. Soviet troops occupied
much of
Eastern Europe. Churchill wanted the Allies

to
push east as
far
because he worried
lay
claim
who
fast as possible
Russians might
they
territories
to
Ei.senhower.
and as
that the
later
But
seized.
did not want military strategy
determined by political considerations, halted the
Allied advance
the Elbe River in April.
at
The Soviet army agreed
to halt
momentarily east
in his
Makin
Because of
difficult.
landed there, according to Sergeant
John Bushemi, had to wade
beach "in the
in to the
face of murderous Japanese
fire,
with no protec-
Almost 1,000 marines lost their

and some 2,000 were wounded before the
tion."
was
lives,
island
secure.
The next important
series of landings
bunker deep under the ruins of Berlin. As
Here Americans captured several key bases from
Mack Morriss
city,
German armies
described the grim
"There
fallen city:
all
mood
come
ended
Germany surrendered
The next day, known as
to catastrophe."
unconditionally on
V-E (Victory
a brutal
more than
May
7.
Europe) Day. marked the formal
in
war
that
had held Europe
which they bombed the Truk

ters
of the Japanese
By
of the
a feeling that here has
is
not only a city but a nation, that here a titanic force
for
troops easily took
a coral reef encircling the island, the
who
marines
Army
746).
Tarawa Island proved more
targeted the Marshall Islands, north of the Gilberts.
over Europe stopped fighting. American sergeant
end of
Island.
in the Gilbert Islands
April 30, 1945, Hitler committed suicide
Soviet troops occupied the
has
November 1943
in
map on page
(see
of Berlin.
On
an island-hopping offensive
In the central Pacific,
began
in its grip
the
1944, Americans advanced
Islands. In June, under cover of
intense air and naval

riers,
bombardment from nearby
car-
landing craft swept in to the beaches of Saipan.
The Japanese, determined
to take a stand, sent out a
big fleet to stop this offensive. In the resulting Battle
of the Philippine Sea, the United States

sive victory,
five years.
summer of
Mariana
to the
Islands, the headquar-
fleet.
won
a deci-
downing hundreds of Japanese planes
while only losing some 80 U.S. planes.
After winning the Battle of the

Atlantic and
Saipan and
bombing Germany,
Guam
fell in
July and August,
respectively. U.S. victories here
the Allies invaded France.

Germany surrendered in May
crucial.
1945.
the islands of Japan.
The
were especially
islands provided airstrips from
Reconquering the Philippines.
/^ ACIFIC OFFENSIVES
In the Pacific, as in the western theater of opera-
Guinea-Philippines campaign
tions, the Allies
The planned
went on the offensive by 1943.
attack
(1) air, land,
on Japan had two components:
and naval forces would seize
Japanese-held islands
up
air
retake
in the central Pacific
and
when
New
Guinea and then the Philippines. The
was
to
come
within
striking distance of Japan itself
Philippines,
^V^V
commanded
îMii
son
1880,
of
distin-
guished
general
graduating
a policy of
first in his
class
MacArthur
attack and seize only certain strategic Japanese-
served
held islands, rather than try to recapture
Philippines and
of them. Japanese garrisons on bypassed
islands
would be
cut off from supplies and
troop reinforcements.
CHAPTER
26
from
West Point, young
i.sIand-hopping. This meant that troops would
all
the
in the
was wounded
twice in Worid
War
I.
From
began their
in
earlier
U.S. forces.
MacArthur
Arthur MacArthur.
early as 1942, the
American high command had adopted
Allies
Douglas MacArthur, who had
After
Island-hopping. As
the
set
bases there; (2) combined forces would
ultimate objective, of course,
::
Despite
these setbacks, Japanese resistance proved just as
fierce
762
which
American bombers could launch missions against
New
June 1943.
evacuated the
wmhanging
Wags
During World
War
Americans served
Native
II
in
the NAVAJO code talkers
"chicken hawk" meant dive-
needed for decoding and
bomber
encoding messages by
bird"
several
in
meant
"iron fish"
Armed
branches of the U.S. armed
the code; "humming-
new code,
Navajo "Code Talkers"
first
them to
went
fall
play a unique role in
the Signal Corps, the communi-
1942
coding and sending classified
On
the
basis of the success of a
few
military information.
in
the
in
the
Navajos often had to work

especially
Code
Signal
Marines, intelligent, industri-
commanders
decided
in
one
ous, efficient,"
officer
reported that the Navajos'
wrote. Another remarked,
methods reduced the time
"Were
it
not for the Navajos,
the Marines would
Corps
never have taken
March 1942
to organize a unit
"The
proved to be excellent
code work, the
Marine
lines.
Navajo Code Talkers have
Pacific.
after the
lines, U.S. field
in
dangerous conditions
behind enemy
of
Talkers arrived on the front
Native American army groups

in
into action
Soon
cation units responsible for
Japanese movements, the
the
forces. Their languages allowed
As
radio operators tracking
fighter plane; and
meant submarine.
with this
half.
Iwo Jima."
com-
By August
posed entirely of
The marines
943
200 Navajos
nearly
were
participating
believed that the Navajo
Code
Talker program,
Navajos.
in
language would be unfa-
and by the war's end
miliar to the Japanese,
more than 400 had
and thus would provide
served
an unbreakable code.
Signal
the
the Marine
in
Corps. Their
They quickly assembled
codes completely
a group of Navajo sol-
the Japanese and were
baffled
diers for the job.
never broken. Though
The new unit

devised and memorized
the Navajo
a special Navajo dictio-
nary containing 4 3
mili-
tary terms. For example,
the Navajo
word
for
Talkers
Corporal Henry Bake,
operating a portable radio set behind front
tions to the
lines in
the Solomon Islands
part in the attack on the
Bonus Army
this veterans' protest.
Communists were behind
After serving as a military
in
were
943.
effort
invaluable.
hesitate to disagree with his superiors.
In
the
Philippines,
Allied drive to recapture the
MacArthur
led U.S.
and Australian
troops in a series of landings along the north coast
New
Guinea. By
of
MacArthur was
reached the western end of
sum-
war
absolute loyalty from his subordinates, he did not
adviser in the Philippines for several years,

recalled to active duty in the
small part of the Allied

forces, their contribu-
marchers of 1932 (see Chapter 23), justifying the

violence by claiming that
and Private
George H. Kirk (right) were two members of

the Navajo Code Talkers. They are shown
1919 to 1922 he was superintendent of West Point.
He took
Jr., (left)
Code
made up only
late July
1944 they had
this large island. Allied
mer of 1941. Eventually he was given command of
forces also took smaller islands nearby, such as the
Army units in the Pacific.

many respects, MacArthur was an excellent strategist. No one doubted his courage. But he
was also arrogant, and though he demanded
Admiralty Islands.
all
U.S.
In
By
and with
the fall of 1944, with

its
newly won bases
New
Guinea secure
in the
Marianas, the
United States was ready to invade the Philippines.
AMERICANS
IN
WORLD WAR
II
;:
763
Allied forces poured onio the beaches of the island
Japanese civilian morale sagged, but the
October. The Japanese navy's counter-
country's military leaders refused to surrender. In
of Leyte
in
attack led to the Battle of Leyte Gulf, the last,
February 1945, when marines attacked Iwo Jima
largest, and most decisive naval engagement in the
only 750 miles from Tokyo
Pacific.
who
The
cruisers.
From
this
two
battleships,
no
system of tunnels and bunkers. The Battle of Iwo
time on. the Japanese
fleet
Jima lasted nearly a month. Some 4,000 marines
longer seriously threatened the Allies.
Allied troops, aided by Filipino guerrillas,
fanned out over the islands of the Philippines.

bitter opposition, they entered Manila
were
in
February 1943 and subdued most Japanese
said
MacArthur. "but
we
finally
little late,"
killed, while the
Japanese
On
April
the largest landing force in
from Japan. Allied soldiers drove the Japanese

of
Island-hopping and the reconquest of the Philippines brought

the Allies within bombing distance of Japan's cities.
more
Pacific history invaded Okinawa, about 350 miles
forces to the southern lip of the island.
came."
lost
than 20.000.
Overcoming
defense forces within weeks. "I'm a
they met strong resis-
and several
a disaster for the Japanese,
was
battle
lost four carriers,
tance. U.S. marines struggled to take Mount

Suribachi, which the Japanese held with a strong
Okinawa was perhaps
The Battle
the bloodiest of the
Pacific war. with U.S. casualties estimated at
49.000 and Japanese losses
at
over 100.000.
Meanwhile, a 700-plane squad of kamikaze, or
damaged
cide planes,
13 U.S.
(Kamikaze
destroyers.
sui-
is
Japanese word meaning
VICTORY
IN
"divine
THE PACIFIC
w ind.")
By
April
early
These Pacific victories gave the United States
1945, however.
bases to launch B-29 bombers against the
ican victory in the
Japanese
home
islands. In a series of devastating
night attacks. U.S. planes hit most of the country's
major
cities.
The worst
raid,
over Tokyo
1945. created firestorms that destroyed
in
March
much of
was
Pacific
But
Amer-
near.
President
Roosevelt
did
not live to see

the end of hostil-
the citv.
ities
A few
hours after U.S. Marines captured Iwo Jima, naval

landing crafts delivered tons of supplies to the island. The
slippery volcanic ash made it difficult for marines to keep their
footing while carrying the heavy crates.
with Japan.
The world was

stunned when he
died suddenly on
April 12.
of
many Americans. A weeping

Sergeant Graham Jackson
The new
president. Harry
S.
The sudden death
President Roosevelt shocked
plays
"Going
Home" on
his
accordion as the president's

casket passes by.
Truman, wrote
candidly about his
bewilderment:
know what
did not
reaction the
country would have to the death of a man
whom
they
all
practically
worshipped.
was worried about the reaction of the
Armed
Forces. ...
had
a great
and
Stalin.
knew
the President
many meetings with Churchill

was not familiar with any of
these things.
99
Within weeks, however, Truman faced a grave

decision. Should the Allies invade Japan or use
a
764
CHAPTER
lb
fearsome new weapon, the atomic bomb?
Germany's surrender had freed Allied

forces for the
war
in the Pacific,
but
Japan remained a formidable opponent

with a well-trained army and strong
defenses
despite
repeated Allied
bombings.
The United
new weapon
States'
had been developed by the top-secret
Manhattan
Project,
whose
The
1942.
scientists
bomb
had been working on a
since
scientists successfully
bomb
Alamogordo,
16. 1945. The
very next day. Truman met with
tested their
New
at
Mexico, on July
Allied leaders
On
Berlin.
at
Potsdam, south of
demanded
July 26 they
Japan's unconditional surrender,

which Japan
rejected.
to gi\ e the order
atomic weapons against Japan.
On August
bomb was dropped. The watch

shown was found in the wreci<age, its hands
atomic
Truman decided
to use
This aerial photograph shows the

devastation in Hiroshima after the
frozen at
8:
the exact time of the explosion
6 a U.S. plane called the
Enola Gay dropped an atomic

on Hiroshima.
It
flattened a
bomb
huge area
of the city and killed more than 75.000 people.
offered to surrender. Despite the unconditional sur-
United States dropped the sec-
render demand, the Allies accepted a big condition:
Three days
later the
ond atomic bomb on Nagasaki. The Japanese
mated
both
that the total
bombs
esti-
number of deaths caused by
including those who died

poisoning was 240,000.
later
from
the
emperor could remain on
his throne.
surrender was signed on September

the battleship Missouri in
2.
The formal
1945. aboard
Tokyo Bay.
bums and radiation
day before the bombing of Nagasaki, the
Soviet Union had declared war on Japan and began
an invasion of Manchuria. The Japanese soon
After the U.S. atomic bombings

of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan
surrendered in August 1945.
SECTION
IDENTIFY
REVIEW
and explain the significance of the following: Dwight D. Eisenhower, Battle of the Atlantic,
D-Day, Battle of the Bulge, Yalta Conference, island-hopping, Battle of the Philippine Sea, Battle of Leyte
Gulf, Battle of
LOCATE
Iwo Jima, Battle of Okinawa, kamikaze, Harry
Gilbert Islands, Marshall Islands, Mariana Islands,
New
S.
Sicily,
Truman, Manhattan Project.
Anzio, Normandy, Dresden, Elbe River,
Guinea, Leyte, Iwo Jima, Okinawa, Hiroshima,
Nagasaki.
I.
MAIN IDEA What did the Allies accomplish through the military campaign in North Africa?
MAIN IDEA What events forced Germany to surrender in 1945?
GEOGRAPHY: LOCATION How did the Allies attempt to regain control of the Pacific? What
was the
overall aim of this military strategy?
WRITING TO EXPLAIN Write an essay that explains when and why Japan
USING HISTORICAL IMAGINATION Imagine you are a soldier on either
Pacific front.
mentioned
in
Write
a diary entry that describes conditions
you experienced
surrendered.
the European or the
in
one of the
battles
the text.
AMERICANS
IN
WORLD WAR
II
765
Section ^
THE PRICE OF VICTORY
FOCUSsome
of the costs of World War 11?

What were
What was the Holocaust? How did it affect European Jews?
What were the international consequences of World War II?
A,ifter years of struggle and sacrifice.

victory for the Allies. But the price
was
World War
high.
The
II
ended
toll in lives
and property was without precedent. Most alanning was
knowledgefully revealed only

that Hitler
had
after the defeat
tried to exterminate all the
in
the
ofGennany
Jews of Europe.
Along with peace came many uncertainties about the future.
Soviet civilians
hundreds of
'OSTS OF THE
WAR
ruins. Beautiful
to rubble,
The United
Stales and
its allies
cities,
achieved their war
mourn dead
from London
soldiers.
Tokyo, lay
to
in
churches and palaces were reduced
and priceless w orks of art had gone up
smoke. Millions of people lacked
in
heat, electricity,
aims. Germany's murderous Nazi regime was
running water, adequate food, or means of travel-
destroyed. Japanese expansion in Asia was halted
ing from one place to another. In
and the nation's mihtarv warlords overthrown. But
mile upon mile of field and forest had been
the toll in death, suffering, and destruction
was
There
11
the world has ever
was
the
most devastating war
known. When
it
finallv ended.
regions,
reduced to utter desolation.
appallingly high.
World War
some
is
no way of estimating the value of
property loss, but two examples indicate

extent. In Diisseldorf.
homes could
Kiev and Minsk in
cent of
completely
Germany, more than 90 pernot be lived
the Soviet
The
cities
Union had
to
of
be
lives than
any other con-
history and brought untold suffering to
civilians.
lion
in.
rebuilt.
The w ar took more

flict in
its
According
noncombatants
to
one estimate, some 30 mil-
lost their lives
from bombing,
shelling, disease, or starvation. Millions
more were
mjured. were weakened by malnutrition, or
lost
everything they owned. The Soviet Union and
^ Britain's Coventry Cathedral was one of many

churches virtually destroyed by bombing attacks
during the war. This ceremony was held among
the church ruins in February 1941.
766
:!
HAPTER
26
When
DEATHS
WORLD WAR
IN
Germany
occupied
France and other countries of
II
Western Europe, and attacked Poland
Country
ALLIED
Military
Deaths
Deaths
Civi lian
and the Soviet Union,
POWERS
British
Commonwealth
France
Poland
373,372
92.673
213,324
350.000
123.178
5.675.000
27.000
9 .000
292.131
6,000
,000.000
7.000,000
305,000
1,200,000
Philippines
United States
Soviet Union
Yugoslavia
0,000
the
290,000
camps
Romania
ALL
1941
in ghettos. In
specifically for the purpose of
the deliberate
242,232
152,941
genocide
,300,000
672,000
tion of an entire people. Hitler
300.000
200,000
WARS
World War
II
of the Jewish question."
had an enormous
children died from
causes directly related to the vâr, and untold numbers lost their
Major
homes and
livelihoods.
Which country had the highest
overall casualties?
camps
death
were
Auschwitz (owsH-vits). Treblinka.

and Majdanek.
and
mination program the "final solution
women, and
global impact. Tens of thousands of men,
annihila-
senior Nazi officials called this exter-
Source: Encyclopedia Britannica
WAR TO END
and isolated
Germans began constructing
780,000
this
new phase one of

In many regions spe-
rounded up Jews and shot them.

Elsewhere, Jews were forced into
200.000
Italy
fl
its
squads of German soldiers
3.500,000
Hungary
Japan
war against
Hitler's
utter savagery.
cial
cities
Germany
THE
extended
people entered a
10.000
Bulgaria
Now
Jews.
POWERS
AXIS
it
control over additional thousands of
all in
Poland. Here
Jewish men, women, and children
were transported
cars,
as
marched
shower
in sealed railroad
into
rooms disguised
facilities,
and gassed.
Their bodies were then cremated. All
China were especially hard

U.S. civilian losses
hit.
As
in
were relatively
World War
light. In
I,
eco-
told,
some
six million
two
Jews
Jewish population of Europe
thirds of the
perished.
nomic terms, armaments and other military costs

probably totaled over S 1
World War
trillion.
more
deaths and destroyed more
property than any other war
II
resulted in
In history.
The holocaust
No
other wartime civilian deaths caused
more
hor-
Nazi Germany's
ror than those of the Holocaust,
systematic slaughter of European Jews. Before the

war. Hitler had forced Jews out of most professions
and had stripped them of their
civil rights (see
Chapter 25). The Nazis' goal was a Germany that
was Judenrein
at first
of
all
free of Jews.
The Nazi
authorities
encouraged emigration, and about two thirds
German and Austrian Jews
tries.
Many
oned
in
of those
left their
who remained were
coun-
impris-
concentration camps such as Dachau
(DAHK-ow) and Buchenwald (BOO-kuhn-wav^/ld).
A
in
These survivors of the large concentration camp

Evensee, Austria were photographed in May
1945 after their liberation by U.S. soldiers.
AMERICANS
IN
WORLD WAR
II
i:
767
The
Na/is' pitiless slaughter extended to other
peoples, too. Other victims, numbering
in
the
A NEW BALANCE OF POWER
millions, included Gypsies. Poles, the mentally dis-
Com-
abled, religious dissidents, and homosexuals.
munists, ScK'ialists. and other political and religious

the Nazi regime faced imprisonment
opponents ot
and death as well.
When
the Allies liberated the death
they found thousands of starving survivors.
Auschwitz and then
to
first
One was
Romanian-b<im writer Having been
Elie Wiesel. a
sent
camps,
to
was an emaciated youth of
Buchenwald. he
16
when
freed.
Hospitalized for two weeks, he recovered. His writings.
the time of the Yalta Conference, the political
balance of power had clearly shifted. The United

States had confirmed
its
strongest nation.
western European
war.
allies,
The Soviet Union,
in spite
of the devastation
had undergone, emerged from the war as a

mighty force. For the next several decades,
it
the United States and the Soviet Union, as
superpowers, would dominate the world.
Much
of the Soviet Union's new power was
based on the
i\(>rs:
Its
position as the world's
notably Great Britain, had been weakened by the
howe\er. express the deep psychological scars
on ci>nccntration camp sur\
left
By
territor>'
it
had occupied
in
Eastern
Europe during the war. At the Yalta Conference,
44
One
day
gathering
myself
in
site wall.
all
was
my
able to get up. after
strength.
wanted to see
the mirror hanging on the oppoI
had not seen myself since the
ghetto.
From
The look
at
in his
into mine, has never
accept the Soviet occupation of Poland in return

for Stalin's
this
some
critics
blamed Roosevelt and Churchill
agreement
in to Stalin's
later
became
public,
for
demands. But with Soviet
me.
troops in control of Poland, they had
eyes, as they stared
Furthermore, Roosevelt wanted to assure Russia's
left
me.
99
The Holocaust took the

Jews
free elec-
When
entry into the
By
six million
vague promise of eventual
tions.
giving
the depths of the mirror, a
corpse gazed back
Roosevelt and Churchill had secretly agreed to
lives of
two thirds of
European Jewry.
little
choice.
war against Japan.
the end of the war. the Soviet
Union had
absorbed the Baltic nations of Estonia. Latvia.

Lithuania, and parts of Czechoslovakia and
Romania. After Japan's surrender, the Soviet Union

also took control of former Japanese territory,
Why
were the Nazis able
monstrous genocide? They
built
to carry out the
on a long history
w hich
lie
north of Japan. Defeated Japan
also lost Inner Mongolia. Manchuria, and the islands
Middle Ages. A barrage of Nazi propaganda

against Jews whipped up this anti-Semitism.
of Taiwan (Formosa) and Hainan to China.
in
countries occupied by the
Nazis assisted or failed to prevent the Nazis from
Among the many consequences

of World
War
sending their Jewish fellow citizens off to the
were the emergence of two superpowers and
death camps. Others, however, heroically worked
territorial realignments.
to save
Jew ish
lives.
Another factor underlying the Holocaust was

the lack of direct action by the Allies.
reports of
1
94
1 .
ated.
mass exterminations surfaced
Although
as early as
the Allies belie\ ed the reports to be exagger-
As
a result. Allied nations did not open their
doors to greater numbers of refugees or attempt to

destroy
rail lines that
led to the death camps.
British prime minister Winston Churchill (left).

President Roosevelt (center), and Soviet leader
Joseph Stalin (right) met at Yalta

territorial divisions after the war.
Z\
Island,
of anti-Semitism in Europe stretching back to the
Some non-Jews
768
including the Kuril Islands and half of Sakhalin
CHAPTER
26
in
1945 to discuss
II
against attacking civilians had already been broken
Commentary
by Nazi rocket attacks and by the Allied firebomb-
They contend
President Franklin Roosevelt approved research on

the
Hamburg, Tokyo, and other
ing of Dresden,
Bomb
Using the Atomic
development of an atomic bomb
gations
after Albert
if
that
Truman
bomb
he failed to use the
millions to build
dropped the
to
after
spending
argue,
Truman
it.
Above all, these scholars

bomb not only to end
warned him in 1939

Germany might be working on such a weapon.
But by early 1945, with Germany defeated, some
Manhattan Project scientists opposed using the
Einstein and other scientists
that
cities.
feared postwar investi-
the
war but also
demonstrate America's atomic might and thus
strengthen America's postwar position in dealing
bomb against Japan or urged a demonstration of its

powers first. Nevertheless, with President
Truman's approval, atomic bombs were dropped
with the Soviet Union. "The dropping of the
on two Japanese
as the first
alties.
much
with massive civilian casu-
cities,
Was Truman's
atomic bomb," one historian argued, "was not so
action justified, or
was
it
major operation of the cold diplomatic
Other historians, however, point to Japan's
Truman defended
his decision
by noting
wartime
The
Japan's refusal to surrender unconditionally.
American invasion of Japan. He also linked
bomb
We
that top military leaders in
opposed the peace overtures and
home
islands.
simply do not know, these historians
bomb
played
insist,
in
end-
ing the war.
historians have questioned
They
fiercely
to the bitter-end defense of
what precise role the atomic
repaid manyfold."
explanations.
and
favored a desperate defense of the
the
"The Japanese
Truman. "They have been
to Pearl Harbor.
began the war," said
atrocities
Okinawa. They note
Tokyo
atomic bomb, he claimed, had prevented a costly
Some
World War,
war with Russia."
grave error?
atomic
the last military act of the second
While the debate over Truman's decision

all historians agree on its long-range
Truman's
point out that the U.S. had bro-
ken the Japanese secret code, so Truman knew
continues,
effects: a
that
deadly nuclear arms race. In the postwar
by way
years, the United States, the Soviet Union, and
of Moscow. These scholars also note Stalin's pledge
other nations built vast arsenals of nuclear
Tokyo was sending out urgent peace
at
Yalta to enter the
feelers
war against Japan within
months of Germany's surrender

early August. Victory
was
weapons and
three
nations
possible, these historians
argue, without the dropping of the atomic
missiles.
bomb and
after the risk of
would develop nuclear weapons
remained, and massive quantities of radioactive

waste threatened environmental safety. Truman's
without a U.S. invasion.
These historians suggest several reasons for

Truman's decision. They point out
1945 had consequences few
fateful decision of
anticipated at the time.
that the barriers
SECTION
IDENTIFY
Even
global nuclear war faded, the danger that smaller
words, by
in other
REVIEW
and explain the significance of the following: Holocaust, genocide,
Elie
Wiesel,
superpowers.
LOCATE and
explain the Importance of the following: Kuril Islands, Sakhalin Island, Taiwan, Hainan.
2.
MAIN IDEA Why was World War

MAIN IDEA How did the Holocaust
3.
ASSESSING CONSEQUENCES Summarize
4.
WRITING TO DESCRIBE
Imagine you are a soldier
death camps. Write a letter
home
1 .
5.
II
TAKING A STAND Do
war the world has ever known?
the most devastating

affect
European Jews?
the international consequences of World
that describes
who
has helped liberate
what you saw
you think the United States was
War
II.
one of the German
there.
justified in using
the atomic
bomb
against Japan? Give reasons for your answer.
AMERICANS
IN
WORLD WAR
II
769
Bataan
Japanese
battles of Coral Sea, Midway,
Allies sign Joint Declaration.
Death March occurs.

offensive in
CHAPTER
and Guadalcanal.
Japanese attack
Pearl Harbor.
26
Allies stop
Rommel
defeated at
Battle of El Alannein.
eview
1942
WRITING A SUMMARY
lead to increased discrimination against Japanese
Americans?
summary
write a
3.
of the chapter.
Technology and Society What
political
and
moral issues did the development of atomic
Number your paper
and
to
5.
list
Study the time
2,
the order
in
ond next to
weapons
first
line
next to
above,
which
in
I
the sec-
THINKING CRITICALLY
1
activity
2.
below.
1
Allies sign Joint Declaration.

3.
2.
D-Day
3.
Zoot-suit riots break out.
4.
FDR
5.
Japanese attack Pearl Harbor
raise?
Analyzing What actions did the Allies take to

win the war in Europe?
Synthesizing What were the final costs and
consequences of World War II?
Evaluating Why was the atomic bomb used
invasion begins.
against Japan?
AND
Douglas MacArthur
2.
Battle of
3.
braceros
4.
War
5.
Norman
Midway
Production Board
Mineta
Cause and
6.
D-Day
7.
island-hopping
8.
kamikaze
genocide
9.
was the United
What
States
the
Pacific.
Skills
Handbook entry on
Effect beginning
the poster below, which was issued by the U.S. gov-
ernment during World
War
II.
lize
drawn
into
World
What
government take to mobimedia do to keep
did the
What
gains did African Americans, Mexican
Americans, and
4.
5.
How
How
women make
during the war?
did the Allies win the Battle of the Atlantic?

did the Nazis carry out the Holocaust?
REVIEWING THEMES
1.
2.
770
Global Relations How did the

resources to win World War II?
Cultural Diversity
CHAPTER
^^.
^^
.%^'
.^'
N^
morale high?
3.
26
How
cause-and-effect
SBmmEMM
advantages did the Axis Powers have
steps did the U.S.
for war?
What
relationship does the poster suggest?
over the United States at the beginning of the war?
What
Identifying
on page 989. Then study
ElieWiesel
10.

II?
in

Review the

1.
a time line listing the
IDEAS
2.
the Pacific?
important battles and other events leading to the

Allied victory
IDENTIFYING PEOPLE
How
in

effect of
the Allied victory at the Battle of Leyte Gulf?
War
effect did the use of this
dies.
Assessing Consequences What was the
1.
What
weapon have on the war
did
Allies
pool their
wartime conditions
Allied leaders
meet
Allies capture
at Casablanca,
Rome. D-Day
begins. Japanese navy defeated at Battle of
conquer North Africa. Zoot-suit

riots break out.
FDR reelected president. Allied and

German troops clash at Battle of the
Leyte Gulf.
Germans launch V-2
meet
at Yalta. Allies win batIwo Jima and Okinawa. FDR

dies. Germany surrenders. U.S. drops
atomic bombs on Hiroshima and
Nagasaki. Japan surrenders.
Allies
invasion
Cairo, and Tehran. Soviets defeat

Axis troops at Stalingrad. Allies
tles of
rockets.
Bulge.
I
1944
1945

After the war, survivors of
German concentration
camps began to reveal to the world the horrors

excerpt from The Holocaust Kingdom
by Alexander Donat,
suf-
Read the following
fered by Jews and other prisoners.
963), written
Then
about what
a survivor of Majdanek.
write an essay expressing your feelings
you have read.
44
Usually they were taken there [to the
gas chamber] at night, but once I saw the

operation
crack
broad daylight.
in
wall
in the
Through a
we saw a long procession
of living skeletons slowly emerging from

Barrack Nineteen on their way to the gate.
It was the way we would look in another
two, four, or six weeks:
ended.
it
Majdanek was an
was
the
way
it
all
industrial factory
for producing corpses: death, the destruction
of the greatest number of prisoners
the shortest time at the lowest cost
Majdanek 5 purpose.
something
Life
in
was
was treated as
essentially worthless; in
Death was our constant

companion and not a terrible one, for quite
often one wished passionately for it. It was
life that was terrible, the long, agonizing
process of parting from it after it had been
shorn of dignity. Life in Majdanek was
fact, contemptible.
reduced
to its basic elements.
LINKING HISTORY
99
AND GEOGRAPHY
After Allied forces on the Bataan Peninsula surren-
dered
in
20 Kilometers
10
Lambert Conformal Conic Projection
April 1942, the Japanese ordered
BUILDING YOUR
PORTFOLIO
Hi

cooperatively.
GLOBAL RELATIONS
1.
25 you portrayed a
rience, imagine
zation
in
In
chapters 23 and
journalist. Building
you are a
member
on that expe-
of a peace organi-
the United States. Write an essay on ways
to resolve international conflicts without war.

2.
WAR
mat
at the beginning of the war. Building
In
Chapter 25 you portrayed a
diplo-
on that
experience, imagine you are on a government
com-
mittee examining the effects of the war. Compile
them to
statistics that illustrate
the effects.
assemble at Mariveles and then march to San

Fernando.
3.
CULTURE AND SOCIETY
north by
22,
and 24 you explored U.S. society
March
in
From there the prisoners were shipped

Study the map of the Bataan Death
the next column. About how far did the
train.
prisoners have to march to reach San Fernando?
you are a
War
they travel by train?
their final destination?
Why
is it
What was
not possible to assess
chapters 21,
in
the 1920s
and 1930s. Building on that experience, imagine
About how
far did
In
ing
II.
woman
Create
your
factory
worker during World
a series of journal entries express-
feelings
about
life
on the home
front.
the difficulty of the journey from this map?
AMERICANS
IN
WORLD WAR
II
771
^
U N
Îmencan jC^tets
Songs
of the Cities
The Roaring Twenties was an era of cities, when economic prosperity
and technological innovations

Cities continued to
War
led to a
expand throughout
boom
in
skyscraper construction.
the Great Depression
and World
Harlem Renaissance poets Claude McKay and Jean Toomer,
II.
novelist Sinclair Lewis,
and Japanese American writer Toshio Mori
A Jean
capture the dynamic growth of the cities in the following selections.
Level with
A Song of the Moon
It is
new America,
The moonlight breaks upon the city's domes,

And falls along cemented steel and stone,
To be
Upon
And
in
unchanging monotone.
the clothes behind the tenement,
That hang
like
Linking each
ghosts suspended from the
flat
lifted,
new American,
as the wheat of our bodies.
To matter uniquely
I
Upon
spiritualized by each
To be taken as a golden grain
the grayness of a million homes,
Lugubrious'
my countrymen,
Right-angled to the universe.
McKay
by Claude
Toomer
would
Upon
lines,
to each indifferent,
give
my
man.
to see inscribed
life
the arch of our consciousness
These aims: Growth, Transformation, Love,

That
Incongruous- and strange the moonlight shines.
we
might become heart-centered towards
one another.
no magic from your presence here.

Ho, moon, sad moon, tuck up your trailing robe.
Love-centered towards God, dedicated to the creation
Whose
Let
There
is
silver
seems antique and so severe
new
eyes see this statue
Let old eyes see

spill
your beauty on the laughing faces
Of happy
And through
flowers that bloom a thousand hues.

Let
Waiting on tiptoe
in
the bay.
Let this be quarantine to unbend dreams.
Against the glow of one electric globe.
Go
of a higher type of man. growing up to Him.
all
Wall Street and the Loop,^
it in
this clearing
pass checks
who
house
may.
the wilding spaces.
in
To drink your wine mixed with sweet
drafts of
dews. J*
streets in
downtown Chicago
downtown
2 Chicago's
1
melancholy
2 not
harmonious
From
From
The
l^lue
Meridian
by
ISabbitt
Sinclair Lewis
by jean Toomer
The towers
The
The
sweep
prairie's
city's rise is
in flat infinity.
perpendicular to farthest
star,
where the two directions intersect.

At Michigan Avenue and Walton Place,'
1
772
stand
UNIT
of Zenith aspired above the morning
mist; austere [simple]
limestone, sturdy as
They were neither
towers of
cliffs
steel
and cement and
and delicate as
citadels
silver rods.
nor churches, but frankly
and beautifully office-buildings.
The mist took
on the
pity
fretted [eroded] struc-
on the porch or
sit in
the shade and read the news-
The day is
Yokohama
paper The day
is
shingle-tortured mansard,' the red brick minarets
cold. All right,
all
[towers] of hulking old houses, factories with stingy
are here. Here, here, they cry with their presence just
tures of earlier generations: the Post Office with
its
and sooted windows,
wooden tenements colored
mud. The
of such grotesqueries,- but the
city
center,
was
full
were
clean towers
like
them from the business

hills were shining new hous-
thrusting
and on the farther
And when
is
question.
one of the skyscrapers the wires of the

Associated Press were closing down. The telegraph
operators wearily raised their celluloid eye-shades
and Peking. Through
the building crawled the scrubwomen, yawning, their
[lines]
immensity of
low
The dawn mist spun
Cues
of men with lunch-boxes clumped toward the
old shoes slapping.
tile,
new
glittering
away.
and hol-
factories, sheets of glass
shops where
worked beneath one
five
roof, pouring
The
whistles rolled out
"*
in
and
Today young and old are

grounds to see the
in
a city built
it
seemed
for giants.
The
Alameda
at the
3 river in
Alameda
on
sluggers stand
.
their heads?
It's
Yokohama, and the
in Lil'
"Oh, gee," he
home
he
says.
we
run,"
say.
says. "Big league
"What
He
again?
sure
is
we say.
Tomorrow is
a school day, tomorrow is a work

tomorrow is another twenty-four hours. In Lil'
Yokohama night is almost over. On Sunday nights the
peaceful and quiet.
is
Something
All of a
is
happening to the Etos of the block.
sudden they turn
new Oldsmobile
in
Eight!
their old '30 Chevrolet
They follow
living-room set and a radio and a
On
this
new
country.
stakes.
we
have
.
and morning, noon, and night

just as in
Sundays the whole family
It
it is
to Fleishhacker
may be to Golden Gate
the sun
housewives
sit
roll
out, the
2.
it is
in
did not strike
oil
or win the sweep-
it
may any
day.
What
in Lil'
Yokohama,
then?
when
come out
the house
cloudy or raining
What
features of the city does Claude
McKay
describe?
What
are the three things Jean
Toomer wishes
city
Why
else?
dwellers to
aspire to?
3.
How
does
Sinclair
Lewis describe Zenith's buildings?
What do
you think he means to show by contrasting the old and new
on the porch or
with this and that, and the old

are
They
Nothing of the kind happens
do you think he wants the moon to shine somewhere
Boston,
walk around the yard, puttering
men who
the
and Emeryville.
is
in
Cincinnati, Birmingham, Kansas
When
with a
coat of
as the young-
twenty-four hours every day
City, Minneapolis,
good!"
scouts ought to size him up."
"Sure,"
though
our community,
on regularly
late
"But Slugger knocked another
Pool or to Santa Cruz.
yokohama
Yokohama,
the great
dinners commence. Someone who did not go to the

game asks, "Who won today?" "San Jose," we say.
goes for an outing. Sometimes
by Toshio Mori
call
is
southpaw
hit that
Park or to the ocean or to their relatives
In Lil'
San
paint for the house.
harmonious
4 grassland of southern Africa
sters
vs.
game
great Northern California
Sunday evening
It is
for a
*X*
Southwest Asia
From il'
ball
game: Alameda Taiiku
big
a sloping roof
2 things that are not
it
just as
from San Jose? Will the same southpaw make the
new
1
perhaps forever,
roll,
under way. Will Slugger Hironaka
block
greeting
chorus cheerful as the April dawn; the song of labor
Yokohama's
day,
out the honest
wares that would be sold up the Euphrates

across the veldt.^
men
thousand
Lil'
does the weather.
In
after a night of talking with Paris
Lil'
another matter; but the news belongs here
polished steel leaped into the glare.
of
when the teachers call the roll.

people among people are sometimes
the
missing from
Jose Asahis.
The people
right.
it.
as the youngsters
homes they seemed for laughter and tranquillity.

Over a concrete bridge fled a limousine of long
sleek hood and noiseless engine. These people in
evening clothes were returning from an all-night
rehearsal of a Little Theater play.
Below the bridge
curved a railroad, a maze of green and crimson lights.
The New York Flyer boomed past, and twenty lines of
es,
hot. All right, they like
buildings?
4.
Why
does Toshio Mori describe the
Japanese American neighborhood of
daily activities of
Lil'
the
Yokohama?
AMERICAN LETTERS
773
Stiâtegies for
How to
RECOGNIZING
Recognize
Propaganda
PROPAGANDA
ropaganda
is
form of mass
Look,
1.
listen,
and read care-
Analyze the message
communication designed to
fully.
sway people's attitudes and
being conveyed, noting the use
actions.
It
of emotionally charged words.
appeals primarily to
emotion, not reason, using
Also examine any imagery:
lan-
propaganda can be
guage, symbols, and images.
Propaganda
favored by totalitari-
is
an regimes, which use
Recognize the technique
2.
used.
to control
it
visual.
technique
Identify the
the hearts and minds
being employed (such as card-
of their people. But propaganda
stacking or name-calling).
is
not always used for sinister
Consider the purpose. Ask
3.
purposes. Democracies employ
yourself:
Who
message and
propaganda to discredit their ene-
why? Decide who
is its
what reaction
interest groups use
provoke.
in
lobbying
meant to
it is
election.
The
in
it
campaigning for
following techniques
are often used
in
one
became Hitler's propaganda

in commemoration of
minister)
German
World War

During World War the U.S.
II
side of a story.
Examples include the selective
We
patriotic posters
used emotional appeals to encourage people to buy
ing of opinion as fact.
World War
Name-calling
column pictures
attaching
offensive labels to
opponents
war bonds. The

Poland.
II
poster
a
a negative light.
in
the next
women
all
with her
children.
The
words
gave a man!" are meant
"I
think of the
who grow
.
those
upon the
picture and the
We
repetition of
who
gave their
statements instead of
make them
if
they
The government
Germany might be
involves begging
paganda techniques to recruit
cause merely
women
it is
technique
popular. This
relies
on peer pres-
Endorsements
nials
"it's
the
woman's war.
theme
too.
"
by famous people
tions of factory labor, read:

"Millions of
The
or
women
find
war work
Germany is
anew in
.
of the
dead marches with you. you
storm troop
1.
What
2.
What
the cause.
um
cleaner."
is
soldiers, into a
**
the message of the
excerpt? At
pleasant and as easy as running a
sewing machine, or using a vacu-
We greet
The army
for freedom!
gov-
respect for the celebrity to
'
approach and one-sided descrip-
Propagandists hope that peo-
UN T
of your blood.
which used the bandwagon
urge support of a cause.
ple will transfer their liking
dawn
better future.
who
Let sound the march-beat
that
ernment brochure of the time,

are testimo-
dawning!
beginning to glow
for the nation's defense
industry, sounding the
sure to conform.
is
you. dead ones.
Bandwagon
because
day
also used pro-
support for
do
not buy war bonds.
real
arguments.
774
feel guilty
lives
altar of the future
to play on workers' emotions and

to
Retaliation! Retaliation!
catchy, but often empty,
the
in
think of
established again.
is
two
pale
graves of Flanders and
so that
them in
Sloganeering
in
tions that follow.
niques to build support for the
war For example,
use of statistics and the parad-
to cast
died
Then, on a separate
sheet of paper, answer the quesgov-
million
is
who
soldiers
I.
ernment used propaganda tech-
propaganda:
Card-stacking means presenting just
1927 by Joseph Goebbels (who
the
for or against legislation, and

politicians use
Read the statement below, made

in
later
intended audience and
mies and to gain citizen support

for particular policies. Specialit
sending the
is
Practicing
the Strategy
whom
is it
aimed?
clues identify this pas-
sage as propaganda?

CULTURE AND
in
SOCIETY
duct a debate with representa-
American society

plete

historical
concepts involved.
changed
rapidly
around the issue of
highlights the issues
Shows might
news of the
in
book review from the
1930s, or
from the
between
chapters
economic trends
920 and 1940. Your
designed
RELATIONS
create a design for a
The world experienced
al
severe economic,
political,
and
unemployment, consumerism, the
up to World
Deal.
Videodisc Review
In
War
II.
portfolio materials
Using the
you designed
Further Reading
Anderson,
Jervis. This
Was
1900-1950. Farrar
Cultural Portrait,
American
Straus Giroux (1993). Story of
life in
the years
images that best
illustrate
the

a script to
Harlem
the
first half
of the 20th
Berenbaum, Michael. The World Must

Know: The History of the Holocaust
/n
the Ur)ited States Holo-
caust Memorial
Museum.
Little,
Brown
witness history of the Holocaust.
class.
chapters 25 and 26,
(1993). Pictorial and eye-
war memoriWorld War

II.
Memorials might commemorate

soldiers, prisoners of war, victims
of the Holocaust, or civilians

killed in
the war.
Stan.
Histories
for Victory. Pictorial
99
).
Overview of the
World War on
Americans on the home front.
effect of
II
Cook, Haruko Taya, and Theodore
New
Press
Accounts of war's
effect
Cook, japan
century.
as Told
in
in
to the victims of
Cohen,
Harlem: A
between 1920 and 1945. Choose
brought
tragedy to millions of
GLOBAL
social unrest in the years leading
New
II
people around the world. Using
mural might portray the effects of
depression, or the
World War
and 24, create a mural
that depicts the
WAR
women workers
Deal. Using the portfolio

in
other parts of the world.
920s, a
940s.
in
day, a jazz
presentation from the
economy moving through

the
program that
government attempted to get the
21, 22, 23,
how
the future to the rise of dictators
an interview with
New
chapters
21, 22, 24, and 26, create a radio
include
the
in
World
Debates should center
II.
United States should respond
The excesses
Great Depression. The federal
from several nations about
the 1940s. Using the portfolio
THE ECONOMY
1920s helped trigger the
tives
global relations after
War
of the period.
of the
from the 1920s to
chapters 23, 25, and 26, con-
(1992).
at
War.
F.
on the Japanese.
McElvaine, Robert
S.
The Great
Depression: America, 1929-1941.
Times Books (1984). Overview of

the Great Depression.
REVIEW
775
DECADE OF CONTRASTS
1950-1960
THE POSTWAR YEARS

1945-1952
THE SIXTIES
J^>
1960-1970
,^
>-*?**
Z4^
-*-
-^Âi
posti/i/nr
America
1945-1975
C/ie United States emerged from world
War II as
the world's most powerful
The affluence and optimism of the

period was tempered by the sense of
nation.
uncertainty brought by the Cold

the nuclear age.
And in
War and
the midst of
prosperity, widespread poverty existed.
Disfranchised citizens also raised

questions about the reality of the
American dream, and disillusionment

underscored the debate over the Vietnam
Wan By
the mid-1970s,
many Americans
were questioning cherished perceptions
about their country.

^
'%l
'J
iSBliL'
iTi IP ilk. ^
1 ~ B|tijS|i^^Hte^.^^^^^H
i*-
-^
^..r'^^'^î^^
"H m. W^v^ E
Chaptei'
SO "
WAR IN VIETNAM
1954-1975
yvi.
^>.
American teenagers, 1950s
1945-1952
Chapter 29
THE POSTWAR YEARS
UNDERSTANDING
THE MAIN IDEA
After
World War
II
mariy nations
struggled to rebuild their war-torn
economies.
In the
United States,
wartime production led
a postwar
to
boom. On the international

ever, tensions
front,
how-
between the United
States
and the
1950,
in
Soviet Union grew. In
the midst of the increasing
threat of nuclear disaster, the Korean
War
erupted.
GLOBAL RELATIONS What

international and domestic prob-
lems might a rivalry between
two powerful nations
create?
TECHNOLOGY AND
SOCIETY How
might a soci-
ety respond to the development
of a potentially destructive
technology?
DEMOCRATIC VALUES
How
might individuals be
affect-
ed by a government's limitation
of
civil
liberties?
1945
1947
1948
1950
1
Nuremberg
Truman Doctrine
Racial discrimination
North Korea
U.S. occupation
trials begin.
proposed.
banned
Invades South
Korea.
of Japan ends.
In
in nnilitary
federal hiring.
and
The Churchill-Roosevelt Atlantic Charter of 1941 had called

::
LINK TO THE PAST
free world in
which
own
nations were able to choose their
all
for a
governments. The agreenient, however, did not end imperialism.
took World War
II
to end Japanese imperialism in Asia
European colonialism
in Asia, Africa,
and the Middle
he United States emerged from World
Americans
realized,
however, that with
this
War
new
General Douglas
Mac Arthur
"to preserve in peace
in
and to weaken
East.
II
role
lenges. Praising the "brave millions [of soldiers]
a world power.
came new
In their fight against fascism,
chal-
homeward bound,"
September 1945 urged
what we won
It
all
Americans
in war."
American
soldiers
had helped
lib-
Nazi concentration camps. Leon Bass,
erate the surviving victims of
an African American soldier, believed that the Nazi death camps and
the Holocaust had important lessons to teach Americans: "If this
could happen anywhere.
could happen
[in
pen
could happen to black folks in America." Horrified by
to
me.
It
Germany],
it
It
could hap-
the Holocaust and inspired by their advances during the war,
many
African Americans took up the fight for civil rights with increased
energy.
The lessons learned from World War

cult to put into practice
II,
however, proved
diffi-
because of postwar economic chaos and the
threat of an all-out nuclear
war
between the United States and

the Soviet Union. Despite the
creation of a
new
interna-
tional organization to
promote peace, SovietAmerican tensions escalated and
new
conflicts
broke out. By 1950

the
United States
was involved
Returning U.S. soldiers, 1946
in yet
another war, this time

in Korea.
Soldiers with captured Nazi flag
THE POSTWAR YEARS
779
Section
HEALING THE WOUNDS OF WAR

>
How were Germany

What
did the
Why was the
and Japan governed after the war?
war crimes
trials
accomplish?
United Nations founded?
Jflany Americans gained confidence from

and
the victory
the Allied victory.
showed us what we could do
Melville Grosvenor, a magazine editor. Americans
United States had
was dealing with

the
to take
the
suffering
now
in the world.
a leading role
human
world,
in the
summed up
realized that the
One urgent
and political chaos
war The United States worked with
"
"The war
task
resulting from
the other Allies to restore
peace
by occupying Germany and Japan and by creating a new international
United Nations
flag
organization, the United Nations.
An American
in the asphalt, rubble, rubbish, rats."
Occupation rule
GI noted
that in the area
around Tokyo, "there was
practically nothing left: the rubble did not
After the war
Germany and Japan
wartime governments shattered.

Hildegard Knef, described a
lay in ruins, their
A German
actress.
German town "without
houses, without windowpanes. without roofs; holes
like
much."
19^5
75
150 Miles
NORTH SEA
75
i*^
^^.
Aw
/NETHERi-'.
Japanese American soldier remarked
of the devastation: "Tokyo was

people were living
in holes
ZONE
flattened,
and
for food."
With the fighting

faced the task of
rebuilding their governments, economies, and cities
under the watchful eyes of the Allies.
150 Kilometers
Aiimuthjl Equal-Area Projectton
The occupation
BRmSH
all
with corrugated roofs.
Germany and Japan now
They were desperate

over.
Allied Occupation Zones,
even look
Germany.
The
first
overseas conference that President Harry
-^ SOVIET
.Berlin
of
Poland
Truman attended
after Roosevelt's death
S.
the
Potsdam Conference in July 1945 laid the foundation for Germany's postwar status. Truman.
Churchill (later replaced by new prime minister
Clement Attlee), and Stalin met in Potsdam.
Germany,
to
approve the details of
pation of Germany.
The
their joint occu-
leaders divided
into four occupation zones.
The
Germany
British, the
French, and the Americans each took control of a
zone
in the
western, industrialized part of
Germany. The Soviets agreed
780
CHAPTER
27
to control the poorer.
defeated Japan, occupying the island nation from
1945 to 1952.
In addition to helping rebuild the
Japanese
economy, the United States worked
to
end
Japanese militarism and to create a democratic
government. During the occupation Emperor

Hirohito remained in the imperial palace, but he
became merely a figurehead. Supreme Commander
Douglas MacArthur,
and the new
his staff,
Japanese congress ran the country.
Under MacArthur's
lized
new
more than
direction,
Japan demobi-
five million troops
and adopted a
The
constitution in 1947.
constitution set up a
democratic system of government, which extended
women
voting rights to
of church and
and established separation
The
state.
constitution abolished the
Japanese army and navy and prohibited Japan from

ever again becoming a military power. Although
the constitution bore the clear
influence,
it
won
support from the Japanese people.
The Japanese
946 photograph shows Emperor Hirohito
(top) in the Japanese Diet, or legislature, in Tokyo.
Hirohito unveiled the new constitution and announced the transfer of his power to the Japanese
people and the abolition of the armed forces.
This
nomic reforms
rural, eastern zone.
The four powers
also set
up
occupation zones in Austria and agreed to administer

jointly the city of Berlin,
deep
German
zones, the occupying powers pledged to crush the
German
agreed to resettle
trans-
German
joint occupation of
The government
up
huge corporations run by single
families that had monopolized the Japanese econ-
and economic reforms
political
laid the
foundation for Japan's tremendous postwar eco-
nomic recovery.
SS After World War II the Allies

occupied Germany and Japan
and set up new governments
in
these countries.
industry. In addition, the Allies
refugees.
The conference attendees recognized
Germany would
that the
require coop-
The war crimes trials
However, Soviet occupation of much of
Eastern Europe created tensions

Stalin
One program
also allowed labor unions to organize and broke
the zaibatsu, the
Nazi party, reestablish local governments, and
eration.
in this period.
ferred land to Japanese farmers.
in the Soviet zone.
In order to bring stability to the
rebuild
also undertook important eco-
omy. These
more
stamp of American
demanded
among
the Allies.
that the Allies recognize Soviet-
backed Poland's claims
to
occupied during the war.
German territory
The other Allies
it
had
After the war the Allies also addressed the issue of
war crimes. All agreed
that convicted
German war
criminals must be punished for starting the war
reluc-
and for the Holocaust. By the same token,
grew increasingly concerned
Japanese war criminals were to be punished for the
about Soviet expansion in Eastern Europe. Another
mistreatment of prisoners of war and for other
tantly agreed but
source of tension was the Soviet Union's

for
demand
atrocities
immediate reparations from Germany.

the
The occupation
of Japan. Postwar Japan
also faced massive challenges in
rebuild. Its
economy
its
attempts to
lay in shambles,
committed
in
Bataan and China.
known
as
because they took place
in
The German war crimes
and
Nuremberg
trials
trials
Nuremberg, the former rallying place of

Nazi party
began
in
November
Hitler's
1945. Before an
international military tribunal, witnesses gave
Hiroshima and Nagasaki had been devastated by
chilling accounts of
atom bombs. The United States administered
torture
Nazi
atrocities, including the
and murder of millions of Jews, Gypsies,
THE POSTWAR YEARS
;:
78
Tokyo war crimes trials, an

more than 20 war
In the
interna-
tional tribunal tried
Seven were sentenced
leaders.
to death, including Hideki
Tojo. the wartime premier.
Many Americans, shocked by
the evidence
of war crimes, argued that more
German and
Japanese officials should have been punished.

Nevertheless, the judges observed legal procedures
and
avoid acting vengefully. In
tried to
als did set
fact, the tri-
important precedents for international
law and the conduct of war. The chief lesson was

that nations
Nuremberg trials brought German

justice. Hermann Goring, commander of the
and individuals can be held account-
Allied judges at the
war criminals
to
German
air force
stand on
May
now
is shown on the witness

committed suicide in jail.
during the war,
He
13, 1946.
later
Many
able for their actions during war.
countries
accept the principle that war crimes cannot be
excused on the grounds
that those responsible
were
"just following orders."
and others. Marie
Vaillanl, a concentration
camp
War crimes trials
survivor, testified:
Germany
in
and Japan established the
princi-
ple of individual responsibility for
we
had one wish
of us
would escape
For months, for years
only: the wish that

alive, in
order to
some
the world what the
tell
Nazi convict prisons were
was the systematic
beings as slaves and to
could
In
wartime conduct.
work no more.
like.
There
The united nations
human
when
they
them
urge to use
kill
During the war. the Allies had met several times
**
map
out strategies to defeat the Axis Powers. In
September 1946 the tribunal
announced
its first
verdicts.
The court
DECISION-MAKING BODIES
OF THE UNITED NATIONS
had tried 21 Nazi leaders on four

charges: planning the war. committing
war crimes, committing other crimes
Body
Function
General Assembly
Sets policies.
against humanity, and conspiring to
commit
ers
the crimes. Eleven Nazi lead-
were sentenced
received
jail
to death;
seven
In
Security Council
Resolves diplomatic, military,
and
sentences; and three were
Economic and
acquitted.
political disputes.
Deals with human welfare and

fundamental rights and freedoms.
Social Council
other trials held in the U.S.
occupation zone, thousands of former
Nazi officials were tried and jailed,

fined, or barred
from public
However, manv Nazis
International
Court of Justice
Handles international
Trusteeship Council
Supervises territories that

are not independent
Performs routine administrative
Secretariat
work
Adolf Eichmann. the architect of the

Jewish extermination program; Josef
legal
disputes.
office.
including
of the
Sources: Encyclopedia of American History; Funk
&
UN.
New
Wagnalls
Encyclopedia
Mengele (MENG-ge-luh). Auschwitz's

"Angel of Death"; and Klaus Barbie,
MULTINATIONAL COOPERATION
established in order to give every
known
as the "Butcher of
his cruel acts in that
;:
for
French city
member
The United Nations was

nation a voice
official
languages
English.
monitoring military aggressions between nations?
ANALYZING
five
Russian, French, Spanish, and Chinese.
CHAPTER
international
The General Assembly includes over ISO countries and uses
concealing their identities and fleeing
America.
in
affairs.
escaped immediate prosecution by

to Latin
782
Lyons"
to
Which body
of the United Nations
is
responsible for
1944. delegates from the United States. Great
China met
Britain, the Soviet Union, and
Dumbarton Oaks, an
estate in
at
Washington, D.C.
There they worked out a proposal for a postwar
economic cooperation. Eleanor Roosevelt, who

served as a U.S. representative to the
UN
helped shape the Universal Declaration of
and
Human
Rights, explained:
international organization called the United
Nations (UN). Through the UN. the Allies hoped
by working together to
to continue their alliance
promote world peace.
San Francisco
to
draw up
the Charter of the
to write the
only to preserve existence, but to
which
all
make
document. The charter estab-
lished six bodies: (1) the General
Assembly
All
countries shape policy. (2) the Security
Economic and Social Council.
life
worth
is
considered and where
and security
be sought for
the secretary-general
UN. As permanent members
insisted that
fail
UN proposed.
to
the Senate
will
**
Early critics of the
Security Council, the United States, the Soviet
Soon afterward,
all.
to
of the
Union. Great Britain. France, or China could veto
any action the
their interests can be
(4) the
justice
headed by
an organization where
International Court of Justice, (5) the Trusteeship
Secretariat
peoples throughout the
Council to administer territories, and (6) the

administer the
living.
world must know that there
in
Council to address military and political problems,

(3) the
people are secure unless
they have the things needed not
United Nations. The delegates took just eight
weeks
No
want.
from 50 nations met
In April 1945. delegates

in
Security requires both control of the
use of force and the elimination of
overwhelmingly
because
enforce
it
it
was doomed
had no
its
UN
own
to
power
real
decisions.
Nevertheless, most Americans
A Eleanor Roosevelt
chaired the UN Human
Rights Commission
from 946 to 1951.
She helped draft the
1
approved American membership
in the
UN. More
than 60 percent of Americans approved of U.S.
membership.
On October
United Nations Day. the
now observed as
officially came into
24.
UN
when the 29th country approved the UN

charter. The UN established its headquarters in
New York City. Trygve Lie (TRiG-vuh lee) of
Norway served as the UN"s first secretary-general.
From the outset, UN delegates realized that
existence
were
as optimistic as President
Truman, who noted
Universal Declaration
the
Human
only road to enduring peace.
in
1948.
"This charter points
There
is
no
down
Rights
other."
The United Nations was founded

to pronnote peaceful cooperation
annong the nations of the world.
SECTION
IDENTIFY and
1945:
of
building world peace required both diplomatic and
trials,
in
REVIEW
Potsdam Conference,
zaibatsu,
Adolf Eichmann, Josef Mengele, Klaus Barbie, Hideki Tojo, United Nations, Trygve
Nuremberg
Lie,
Eleanor Roosevelt.
i.
2.
3.
4.
MAIN IDEA What principle did the war crimes trials in Germany and Japan establish?
MAIN IDEA What was the purpose of the United Nations?
COMPARING How did the Allied powers govern Germany and Japan after World War
WRITING TO DESCRIBE Imagine you are a Japanese American soldier in Tokyo in 1946.
II?
a letter
5.
home
that describes conditions
ANALYZING Why
addition to
its
in
Write
Japan after the war.
do you think the United Nations
deals with
economic and
social issues in
peacekeeping efforts?
THE POSTWAR YEARS
783
Section 2
THE CHALLENGES OF PEACE
FOCUS
How
did the
American economy
fare after the war?
How did the Taft-Hartley Act affect unions?

What were the most important issues in the
1948 election?
D,'uring the difficult transition from war to peace, Americans were

apprehensive. Returning veterans were "worried sick about post-war
joblessness,
"
women workers feared they would
American, Mexican American, and

lose the
Many African
according to Fortune magazine.
economic gains they had made during the war
Homecoming, 1945
To ensure economic growth. Congress also

Employment Act of 1946. The act
The problems of
passed the
promised
demobilization
that the
government would promote
employment and production.

At war's end, troop ships headed home. By mid1946 over nine milhon servicemen and
women had
been discharged. The troops received a hero's wel-
come, but
the
Could
their return also sparked concern.
economy absorb
all
new
these
government soon cancelled $23
workers'?
The
billion in military
contracts, hitting hard the shipyards, munitions factories, aircraft plants,
and
It
to help
prevent a depression
war-weary veterans make the
difficult
Congress passed the

Servicemen's Readjustment Act of 1944. comtransition to civilian life.
monly known
as the
GI
Bill
of Rights. The act
provided pensions and government loans to help

veterans
Under
businesses and buy
start
the
received
Gl
Bill,
money
homes or
farms.
thousands of veterans also
for tuition, books,
and living
expenses while they attended college.
Under the Gl
financial aid to
trial training.
Bill, many veterans received

pursue a college education or indus-
Howard Timian
shown here studying
784
CHAPTER
27
of
to
counsel the
president on economic policy.
Despite widespread fears, the postwar depression never materialized.
Employment remained
high, as plants that had been
bombers began
to
making tanks and
produce consumer goods. With
world agricultural output shattered by the war, U.S.
Americans now began spending

and
also established the
Council of Economic Advisers
food exports also remained high. In addition.
militarv' bases.
Postwar measures. To
full
Milwaukee
is
for an engineering course.
the
money
saved from their wartime paychecks.
they had

control of the mines. United
Mine Workers"
presi-
dent John L. Lewis retorted: "You can't dig coal
with bayonets." After the courts slapped heavy

tines
ers
on the union, though. Lewis ordered the min-
back to work.
railway workers,
When
confronted with striking
Truman threatened
to
end the
strike by drafting the strikers into the army.
Faced
with Truman's threat, union leaders negotiated an
end
to the strike.
To reduce
A. Philip Randolph and Eleanor Roosevelt are
Congress
shown here at a 946 rally at Madison Square

Garden to save the Fair Employment Practices
Committee. Congress later abolished the
committee.
I
the strength of organized labor.
under Republican control

passed an antiunion
1946 elections
This law,
courts to
since the
bill in
1947.
known as the Taft-Hartley Act. allowed

end some strikes, outlawed closed-shop
agreements (which required union membership for
Not
ever.
all
was rosy on
the
economic
front,
how-
Government measures encouraged employers
to give priority in hiring to veterans.
The
fears of
many women. African Americans, and Mexican

.Americans were realized as they lost their jobs to
employment), restricted unions'
were not
the
political contribu-
and required union officers
tions,
bill,
but Congress passed
The
to
swear they
Communists. President Truman vetoed

it
over his veto.
Taft-Hartley Act stirred angry debate.
reluming veterans. During the war these workers
Conservative supporters argued that the law cor-
had been encouraged to take jobs
rected unfair advantages granted to labor in the
factories. African
in vital
defense
Americans had been protected
from job discrimination by the Fair Employment

Practices Committee.
Soon
after the war.
however.
Many
workers were also
With the
lifting
hit
opponents denounced
The
act
it
24). Prolabor
as a "slave labor law.'"
hmited the
tactics
unions could use.
Despite these restrictions, however, organized
Congress abolished the committee.
tion.
Wagner-Connerv Act (see Chapter
hard by infla-
of most wartime price con-
labor continued to
years.
make some
For example,
in
gains in the postwar
1948 General Motors and
(UAW)
Meat prices zoomed so

some markets began selling horsemeat.
Blaming the Truman administration. angr\' con-
the United
sumers called the president "Horsemeat Harry.""
provisions for such benefits as retirement pensions
trols in
1946, prices soared.
high that
Automobile Workers
contract tying
increases.
wage increases
Union contracts
also
signed a
to cost-of-living
began
to include
and health insurance.
Despite fears of a depression, the

American economy prospered
after the war, though inflation
hurt many workers.
Labor unrest. As
took matters into their
inflation
own
Taft-Hartley Act placed a
unions.
worsened, people
hands. Workers
sacrificed during the depression
The
variety of restrictions on labor
who had
and the war now-
craved a better standard of living. Freed of their
wartime no-strike pledge, millions of workers

walked off the job
serve
most
to
some wartime
strike-filled
win wage increases and
to pre-
price controls. In 1946
the
year in U.S. history after 1919
almost five milhon workers walked the picket
lines.
President Truman, though a backer of labor
unions, opposed these strikes because he feared
4 The
Men
cartoon Three
on a Horse
appeared on February
24, 1953. Union leaders John L. Lewis,
Walter Reuther, and
George Meany ride

toward the TaftHartley Act, hoping
they would disrupt the economy. In April 1946,
when some 400.000 coal miners went on strike,

Truman ordered the army to establish government
to axe
some
of
its
restrictions on
labor unions.
THE POSTWAR YEARS
785
When Truman
XhE
948
election
report's
did not immediate!) act on the
recommendations. African .American
leader A. Philip Randolph threatened to launch a
By 1948
inflation,
high taxes, and labor unrest had
Truman. His approval
erixled public support for
rating stixxl at 35 percent in

6()
March, down from
percent the previous year. "To
err
is
Truman."
people joked. But Truman was determined to prove
wrong. His stand on
his critics
.\frican
civil rights for
Americans became an important issue
in
campaign of
1946 African American
Truman
stained
Civil Rights.
to take action against the
American
society.
most African Americans
racism that
They pointed out

in the
In
groups urged
civil rights
that
1948 Truman issued executive orders banning
Philadelphia.
The committee's
ment
contracts.
White southern Democrats were outraged
at
at
Truman's
votes "won't be for Truman. They'll be for some-
body
else.
The Democratic convention.
And
many
in
areas
selected to be Truman's running mate. The
Democrats hoped
786
CHAPTER
27
to appeal to the
former
New
tinued to be lynched,
city ethnic groups,
Democratic platform called for repeal of the Taft-
and .African Americans. The
often ignored. Efforts to
Hartley Act: an increase in federal aid for hous-
battle these conditions
ing, education,
met
security benefits.
wall of white
and agriculture: and broader

It
rights plank.
party.
these reports, set up the
the convention. Declaring
Committee on
N.A.ACP argued:
15
to
The
Civil
militarv.
civil rights issue split the
Democratic
Southern delegates threatened to walk out of
"LET
EM WALK."
examine the
members included
violence.
social
also included a strong civil
December 1946
Truman, distressed by
The
report
The committee
The
There
is
no room
... for
Those Democrats who
in
report also
to racial segregation in interstate
compromise.
say the
Misled by early returns, the Chicago Daily

Tribune published an early election-night edition
announcing Dewey as the winner.
Jr.
measure and to end discrimination
transportation.
the nomi-
a crime that local courts
urged Congress to pass an aniih nching law and an
end
Truman from winning
Deal coalition of fanners, unionized workers, big-
ing discrimination against black veterans and an
called for an
Despite
bluster, southern opposition
African Americans con-
civil rights abuses, includ-
and the
going to be re-elected."
Senator Alben W. Barkley of Kentucky was
Rights." appeared in October 1947.
federal agencies
ain't
and discrimination in
housing and employ-
The committee's repon. "To Secure These
anti-poll-tax
He
nation at the Democratic convention in July.
Americans: General Electric's president
Ku Klux Klan
actions. Senator Olin Johnston of South
Carolina angrily warned that the South's electoral
did not prevent
Charles Wilson: and Franklin Roose\elt.
increase in
dis-
in schools and buses
Channing Tobias, director of the Phelps-Stokes

Fund, which supported educational opportunities
documented w idespread
employment
African American demands for civil rights and
African American lawyer Sadie .Alexander: Dr.
for African
also took steps to end
in federal
Blacks throughout the
Rights
issue.
He
hiring.
and
crimination by companies working under govern-
In
in
In July
nation faced segregation
resistance.
Convention
the military
Senator Johnstons
ment.
here are African American demonstrators outside the convention hall at the 1948 Democratic
if
worked.
South were pre-
vented from voting through the use of poll taxes.
A Shown
tactic
racial discrimination in the military
the 1948 campaign.
The Committee on
disobedience
civil
remained segregated. The
the

Election of
President's
recommenda-
tion of such a
"stab
program
is
19^8
UNEXPECTED WINNER
a
Truman got
popular vote, but had a solid majority
in
slightly
less
than 50 percent of the
the electoral college.
the back" of the
in
REGION
South are saying they do
which area of the United States was Truman's
In
support weakest?
not choose to abide by the

Constitution.
saying
They are
that the
also
whole
section of our nation

believes as they do.
know
it is
**
not true!
We
After bitter debate the dele-
gates adopted the civil rights

plank. Southern delegates stormed
out of the convention.
formed the
They
States' Rights party
nicknamed the Dixiecrats

which called for continued
The Dixiecrats
nominated Governor J. Strom
racial segregation.
Thurmond of South Carolina

their presidential candidate.
as
These
explosive divisions were an opening skirmish in a mighty struggle
against racism that
sweep over the
The
would soon
nation.
gulf widens.
different issue caused
percent of the popular vote to Dewey's 45 percent.
another break within the Democratic party.
Black voters helped Truman carry several key
Troubled by Truman's antilabor actions in 1946,
states.
former vice president Henr>' Wallace and other
ally supported
eral
New
Dealers
left the
lib-
Democratic party
to
found the Progressive party. This group, which
was not related
Truman, proving
that the political
coalition that
had supported Franklin Roosevelt
the 1930s
held.
still
in
to the Progressive party of the
early 1900s. called for an extension of the
New
and labor issues

splintered the Democratic party.
Truman, however, ran a tough
campaign and won the 948
Civil rights
Deal and for friendly relations with the Soviet

Union. The American Communist party supported
the Progressive party.
With the Democrats' votes

the Republicans
Workers, farmers, and ethnic voters gener-
split three
were confident of
victory.
New
ways,
nominated Governor Thomas
Dewey
as their presidential candidate
and Earl Warren, the
of
election.
They
York
popular governor of California, as Dewey's run-
The fair deal
ning mate. Opinion polls and most newspapers

predicted a
Dewey
Heartened by his victory. Truman urged Congress
victory.
But Truman ran an energetic campaign,

attacking the conservatism of the Republicans and
the radicalism of the Progressives.
As he
criss-
to
continue Roosevelt's
New
Deal reforms.
Proclaiming that "every segment of our population

.
has a right to expect from our government a
Truman proposed new reforms, which
crossed the country, criticizing the "do-nothing"
fair deal."
Republican Congress, crowds began to chant,
he labeled the Fair Deal. Truman's Fair Deal pro-
"Give 'em
posed
hell,
Harry." In one of the great upsets
of U.S. political history,
Truman won, gaining 49
full
employment, higher minimum wages, a
national health insurance program, affordable
THE POSTWAR YEARS
;:
787
HARRY
S.
in office
TRUMAN
I94S-I9S3
1884-1972
Harry
Truman was known to be
S.
who
an honest politician
spoke
his
II
always
considered
HarrvS Truman
Truman wrote
critic
who
review of a
had written
defend
daughter Margaret.
IS
calling the critic "a frustrated old
man who never made
Postage 8 cents
never met you. but
if
own
abilities as
after
he
left
office he told an interviewer.
"I
wasn't one of the great Presidents;
a success."
the president informed him that

"I
and others, he
Many years
president.
addition to
In
his family
often downplayed his
by the president's
recital
his
While Truman was quick to
harsh
opinion strongly sup-
daughter.
music
a letter to a
response inappropri-
ported Truman's defense of
Once
but impressed others.
this
ate, public
mind. His very direct man-
ner of speaking shocked many people,
need a new nose." While some
you'll
do
but
had a good time trying to
be one."
'
'
/
housing construction, aid
to farmers,
success amid an increasingly conservative post-
expansion of welfare benefits.
Most Republicans, and even conservatives

Truman's own
party,
Overall, though, the Fair Deal had limited
and the
in
opposed the president's pro-
gram. Nevertheless. Truman managed
to
push
war
political climate.
Congress failed
the Taft-Hartley Act or to pass a civil rights
Most of
the
New
Truman's cabinet
1952 Congress extended social security benefits to
ness leaders and military
federal
programs
electric
power, and
to
Congress also expanded
pressing concerns that had international implica-
promote flood control, hydro-
tions: conflict
effect did the
communism.
REVIEW
end of World
end of the war
affect
Bill
of Rights.
Employment
Act, Council of
Rights, Sadie Alexander, Dixiecrats.
War
restrictions did the Taft-Hartley
did the
with the Soviet Union and almost
hysterical fears of
and explain the significance of the following: Gl
MAIN IDEA How
little
issues also unfolded against the backdrop of other
irrigation.
MAIN IDEA What

MAIN IDEA What
men who had
enthusiasm for the Fair Deal. These domestic
Economic Advisers. Taft-Hartley Act. Committee on Civil

Thurmond. Henry Wallace. Thomas Dewey. Fair Deal.
I.
disappointment, leaving busi-
minimum
raised the
SECTION
IDENTIFY
in
hour, and appro\ed
some 10 million more people,

wage from 40 to 75 cents an
to clear slums.
II
J.
Strom
have on the U.S. economy?
Act place on unions?
women,
African American, and Mexican American
workers?
WRITING TO INFORM
Write
a magazine
Imagine you are a
commentary
788
CHAPTER
political
that outlines the
ANALYZING What convinced

federal jobs?
bill.
Dealers had resigned from
through some of his reforms. Between 1949 and
programs
to repeal
correspondent covering the 1948 election.
most important
Truman to desegregate the
issues in the campaign.
military
and to end discrimination
in
Section 3
m..-y*-
-'-''
THE COLD WAR BEGINS

C U S
What caused the Cold War?

What did the United States hope
^^
^mv9
to accomplish through
the Marshall Plan?
What
effects did the
'oon after World
Cold
War II,
War have
-ii_x*^/^
on American society?
Sk^-
the wartime alliance between the
United States and the Soviet Union collapsed. The two

countries, at
odds because of competing global objectives

ri^^B
and different economic and political systems, fought over

control of Europe
and access
atomic energy.
to
\'
i^.'^.^f^^jta^ê^
Berlin
airlift,
The
horror
system,
An
intense rivalry between the United States and
the Soviet
Union began
after
World War
II.
With
once-mighty Germany, Japan, and Great Britain
left to
economic,
atomic bombs.
American "imperialism" and U.S.
capitalists'
"oppression" of the laboring masses. The Soviets
pointed to racial discrimination in the U.S. to
to
be
known
as the
political
on the
threat of all-out
The
its
Soviet propagandists endlessly denounced
discredit America's boasts of freedom and
waged mostly on
rather than
and
envy and
capitalist
United States and the Soviet Union
Their competition for global power and influence,
which came
industrial might,
its
struggle for international dominance.
ruins, only the
were
in
its
and economic fronts
war was always
origins of the
political,
democracy.
Soviet expansionism after World
Cold War, was
battlefield. Nevertheless, the
Cold War lay
in
fueled American mistrust. During World
profound
and philosophical differences
War
War
II
II
the
Soviets had taken over the Baltic states of

Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia.
present.
large areas of Poland and
Then they captured
Romania. By war's end
the Soviets also controlled Manchuria.
between the two nations. Most Americans, com-
After the war, Stalin
made
clear his determi-
mitted to the principles of democratic government,
nation to maintain Soviet influence in Eastern
individual freedom, and a capitalist economy,
Europe, claiming the need for a buffer zone of
deeply opposed the Soviet system.
"friendly nations"
Founded on Communist ideology, the Soviet

system included a state-run economy, one-party
rule,
to
suppression of religion, and the use of force
crush opposition. Until his death in 1953, dicta-
tor
Joseph Stalin ruled the Soviet Union with an
iron hand.
'\'
.^S^St'flh-
powerful America with
at
1948
Stalin looked with a mixture of
roots of the cold war
*-',/*
der.
He
on the U.S.S.R.'s western bor-
stripped eastern
cent of
its
Germany of some 40
per-
industrial equipment, installed
pro-Soviet governments in Poland and Romania,
and worked
Communist rule throughout Eastern Europe. The countries under Soviet

control became known as satellite nations.
to establish
THE POSTWAR YEARS
789
Stalin's actions, the United
Concerned about
and France solidified their
Stales. Great Britain,
West Germany and revised
CDHlrol ot
its
indus-
The United States also pressured Stalin to

withdraw Soviet forces from Iran, the oil-rich
The deadlock over

ATOMIC weapons
tries.
Middle Fastern nation
had occu-
that the Soviets
pied during the war. In April 1946 Stalin finally
agreed to w ithdraw his troops.

In
February of the same year, however, Stalin
had made
of World
tough speech
War
the "Declaration
by Supreme Court justice
111"
William Douglas
dubbed
proclaiming that capitalism and
communism could ne\er
Winston
coexist.
The United States and the Soviet Union soon

became locked in a dispute over the control of
atomic weapons. This standoff terrified many
Americans, who feared a nuclear war. Most people
shared lawyer David E. Lilienthal's 1946 assess-
ment
that "the
awful strength of atomic power
directly affects every
man. woman, and child
world." Recognizing this
commission
to
draw up
fact, the
nuclear arms early in 1946.
March with an equally tough
At the commission's
in
speech delivered
Churchill
in Fulton, Missouri.
declared that a Soviet "Iron Curtain has descended
resentative Bernard
of a special
UN
in the
created a
first
meeting, U.S. rep-
Baruch called for the creation
agency with the authority
to
across the Continent." isolating Western Europe
inspect any nation's atomic-energy installations.
from Soviet-dominated Eastern Europe. Churchill
This proposal,
called for closer cooperation between Great Britain
impose penalties on countries violating interna-
and America
tional controls. Until such a plan
to
check Soviet power.
Churchill's speech was well received in
Baruch
known
said, the
as the
Baruch Plan, would

was
in place.
United States would not reveal
Washington. At the time. George Kennan. a State
any atomic-energy secrets or give up
Department
weapons. At the time. American physicists were
and Soviet expert, advised
official
similar action.
Kennan argued
that the Soviet
its
atomic
developing more-powerful nuclear bombs.
Working feverishly on
Union's long-term aim was to defeat capitalism
its
own bomb,
the
and expand the Soviet sphere of influence. He
Soviet Union rejected
believed that the Soviets would be persistent, yet
ment provisions. With neither country willing
when there were few

risks. Kennan explained how American foreign
policy could thus stop the spread of communism:
compromise, hopes for international control of
cautious, expanding only
The
institutions of the
Western world
some-
is
inspection and enforce-
bomb
counterforce at a
vigilant application of
series of constantly shifting geographical
and
political points.
forward to
The Russians look
a duel of infinite duration.
99
Kennan's containment doctrine, which aimed

contain, or restrict, Soviet expansion,
basis for U.S.
Cold War
strategy.
became
to
the
Many Americans,
unwilling to return to the appeasement policy of

the 1930s, applauded Kennan's stand against
communism.
origins of the Cold War lay
U.S.-Soviet global competi-
The
in
economic and
systems, and mutual
tion, conflicting
political
distrust.
CHAPTER
27
to
1946 the United States conducted

tests in Bikini Atoll in the western
Pacific Ocean. These tests were intended to measure the effects of atomic bombs on warships.
Soviet pressure against the free
thing that can be contained by the
all
In July
atomic
790
a plan for the control of
Churchill. Britain's wartime prime minister,
answered Stalin
UN
-?o.Ui
When the Soviet Union tested

bomb in 1949. fears of a nuclear-
atomic energy died.

its
first
atomic
arms race became reahty.

Despite the failure of the Baruch Plan, the
however,
nuclear weapons. Atomic-energy scientists and U.S.
for Peace
program
that
a pre-
more massive foreign-aid
to the
soon followed.
in controlling
peace organizations, such as the

League
Greece and Turkey. This action was only
aid
lude,
United States achieved some success
International
sentiments. Congress soon voted $400 million to
Women's
and Freedom, urged
Containment
Europe.
in
European economies were
II,
Germany produced only 45
in
War
After World
shambles. In 1948
percent of the goods
it
to establish civilian, rather
had produced before the war. To make matters
than militarv'. control of atomic energy. Responding
worse, the winter of 1946-47 brought the worst
government
the U.S.
to these appeals.
the
Congress
in
Atomic Energy Act. The
August 1946 passed

act set
up the Atomic
blizzards in
loomed.
some 50
years. Starvation
Some Americans
and chaos
believed that the United
Energy Commission (AEC) under civilian control to
States should help Europe.
oNersee nuclear weapons research and to promote
desperate economic conditions would
peacetime uses of atomic energy.
Its
main
activity.
Europe more vulnerable
however, became supporting the government's

nuclear weapons program.
They feared
that
such
make
to Soviet influence.
Secretary of State George C. Marshall
shared
this
Born
belief.
Uniontown,
in
Pennsylvania, in 1880. Marshall graduated from

Virginia Military Institute and joined the army.
Containment around
the world
During World War
of staff during World
civil
first
took shape
war had broken out
rebels battled the
military
in
Greece, where a
in 1946. Communist-led
Greek monarchy, which
relied
and financial support from Great
In early 1947.
on
Britain.
however, the British announced that
they could no longer continue their aid to Greece.
Without aid
it
seemed
likely that Greece's pro-
Western government would
fall to
the
Communists
and the country would come under Soviet control.
War
II.
he
attended the Casablanca, Yalta, and
Potsdam conferences.
After the war Marshall served
toward the Soviet Union. The U.S. con-
tainment policy
he served under
General Pershing. As army chief
As prospects for U.S.-Soviet cooperation dimmed,

the Truman administration pursued a more aggressive policy
envoy to China
Truman appointed him sec-
briefly as a U.S.
before
retary of state in 1947. In a speech
Harvard University on June
5.
1947, Marshall warned that
if
at
steps
were not taken soon, Europe
faced "economic, social, and

political" collapse.
He then
called for a major U.S. effort to
promote European recovery "to
Containment
the
same
the Mediterranean. At
Union pressured Turkey
permit the emergence of

cal
up sole control of the Dardanelles, a narrow
which
exist."
President
Truman knew
would give the Soviets
free institutions can
At the same time, Marshall warned
attempt to block recovery or exploit Europe's diffi-
would threaten
March
12, 1947,
States to support free peoples
the
Truman
who
are resisting
would face strong
American opposition.
After Marshall's speech.
Congress for $17 billion
in
aid for
Europe. Truman's request sparked heated debate
throughout the United States. Supporters argued
communism by
attempted subjugation [conquest] by armed
that
ing Europe's economic health and
known as the
made no mention of the Soviet
Union, though clearly Truman had devised it with
the Soviets in mind. Agreeing with Truman's
U.S.
This statement, which became
Truman asked
economic
minorities or by outside pressures."
Doctrine,
any
culties for political ends
in the
declared: "It must be the policy of the United
Truman
that
dominant position
Suez Canal. In a somber speech
before Congress on
in
that control of this area
eastern Mediterranean and

security of the
politi-
and social conditions
linking the Black Sea and the Mediterranean.
to give
strait
in
time, the Soviet
such aid would contain
economy
as
restor-
would help
the
Europeans purchased American
goods and military hardware. Opponents said the

United States could not afford to "carry Europe on
its
back."
THE POSTWAR YEARS
79
power, opposed
this action.
Soviets suddenly blocked
On
June 24. 1948, the
all
roads, canals, and
railways linking Berlin and western Germany,

cutting off shipments of food, fuel, and other crucial supplies to the city.
The Soviets hoped
to
drive the Western powers out of Berlin and to
German governpawn in the Cold War
delay the formation of a West

ment. Berlin had become a
chess game.
The
British
and the .-\mericans responded
the Soviet action with the Berlin airlift.

ne.xt
Over
to
the
10 months. U.S. and British planes carried
more than two million tons of food and supplies
to
the people of West Berlin. As one Berliner

recalled, the airlift became a lifeline to the rest
cargo of sugar transported under the

is unloaded from the S.S. Araby
London in February 1949.
The
first
of the world:
Marshall Plan
in
Early
in
the morning,
up, the first thing
we
whether the noise of
A
1948.
the
turning point in the debate came early in

when pro-Soviet Communists overthrew
government of Czechoslovakia. Jolted

in
was
listen
to see
aircraft engines could
be heard. That gave us the certainty that
were not
alone, that the
world took part
into
freedom.
action by the coup. Congress passed the European
Recovery Act, or Marshall Plan,
did
when we woke
in
**
whole
we
civilized
the fight for Berlins
April 1948.
The plan, based on Marshall s recommendations,

provided some S12 billion in aid to Western
The success of
the Berlin airlift proved a
huse embarrassment to the Soviet Union. In
Mav
Europe over the next four years. For

his efforts Marshall
won
the
Nobel
VOU ABE lAVm6
Peace Prize
in
IK AMHBCAi SKW
BU BttOTE 3
1953.
vous
The
s^
Marshall Plan
aimed to contain the
spread of communism
by easing economic
hardship in Europe.
RISIS IN
BERLIN
The non-Soviet zone of Germany

grew stronger as
a result
of the
Marshall Plan. In early June 1948.

Great Britain. France, and the United
States
announced plans
their occupation zones
the formation of a
to
combine
and support
new West German
government.
The
Berlin
deeply fearful
792
A
The Soviets,
of renewed German
airlift.
As tensions mounted, American
military police
in
Berlin
warily faced their Soviet counterparts across the dividing line
between the
Allied
and Soviet zones.
Europe After World War

NEW
it
RUSSIAN EMPIRE
conquered
in
II
The Soviet Union dominated that part
of
Europe
the war.
LOCATION
Which nations were members
of the
Warsaw
On May 9 the
known as West
Pact?
Under
1949 the Soviets lifted the blockade.
Federal Republic of Germany,
Germany, was founded.

set
In response, the Soviets
up the German Democratic Republic
Germany
East
The division of
in the Soviet zone.
Germany would last for more than 40

result of Cold War rivalries.
years as a
to
defend the others
crisis the
in
alliance.
United States shifted
Europe from economic recovery
its
attention
to military pre-
paredness. In April 1949 nine Western European
Iceland in a military alliance called the
NATO.
North
known
event of an outside
submitted the treaty for
agreement would allow the United States

act of
to
go to
Congress. Concern over this
issue had helped keep the United States out
of the League of Nations. This time, however,

fear of Soviet expansionism
outweighed other
concerns. In July 1949 the Senate ratified

the treaty.
nations joined the United States, Canada, and
Atlantic Treaty Organization, or
treaty,
nation pledged
Senate ratification, debate focused on whether the
war without an
After the Berlin
NATO
member
in the
When Truman
attack.
same
The Western
the terms of the
as the Atlantic Pact, each
In 1951
became
As
its
the
General Dwight D. Eisenhower
supreme commander of
contribution to
NATO,
NATO
forces.
the United States
THE POSTWAR YEARS
i:
793
This U.S. cartoon,
entitled Banner of
the Non-Soviet Union
(1949),
NATO
in
shows that
was formed
response to Allied
House Committee on Un-American

(HUACj, originally established in 1938
allegiances of
members of peace
responding to charges that Hollywood was riddled
movie
industry.
known
writers,
Europe and gave
answer
massive military aid
were blacklisted
its
came
to
be called the
try
HUAC's
and saw
investigated people in
group of film directors and
Hollywood Ten, refused
questions and went to
denied work
jail.
to
They
in the film indus-
their careers destroyed.
Freedom, argued
4%
in
1949
that the hearings violated
rights:
danger of
Fully recognizing the
fascist
and communist totalitarianism, the League
The cold war at home
believes that such forces can be best
The Cold War had important consequences within

a result of
The hysteria generated by HUAC spread

quickly. One group that spoke out against HUAC.
the Women's International League for Peace and
democratic
Cold War pres-
sures, the United States streamlined
HUAC
as the
stationed troops in
Pact.
As
and labor unions. In 1947,
eral political groups,
European
The Soviet
Union responded in 1955 by forming its own military alliance with other Communist countries in
the United States.
lib-
aggression.
allies.
Warsaw
organizations,
fears of Soviet
to
Eastern Europe. This alliance
HUAC
held a series of hearings to question the political
with Communists,
Qrv^t
to investi-
gate fascist groups in the United States.
the
Th
Activities
its
military to
allow for peacetime rearmament. In July 1947
opposed by open discussion and by the

strengthening of our
own democratic
procedures, rather than by attempts at

direct control.
**
Congress replaced the War Department with the
Department of Defense, combining the leadership
Because of the league's support
of the army, navy, and
cau.ses, the
air force
under the Joint
FBI investigated
Chiefs of Staff. In addition. Congress set up the
tion
National Security Council (NSC)
gation scared
to advise the
and several of
its
many
for progressive
the national organiza-
local chapters.
potential
The
investi-
members away.
president on strategic matters and established the Central Intelligence
(CIA)
Agency
to gather information overseas.
Another Red
scare. The Cold War

also aroused fears of communism at home.
Although Truman opposed communism
abroad, some Republicans accused him of
allowing Communists
in the
American gov-
ernment. Responding to such charges.
Truman
1947
set
up the Loyalty Review Board
to investigate all federal
the end of 1951,
employees.
more than 20,000
in
By
federal
workers had been investigated, some 2,000
had resigned, and more than 300 had been

fired as "security risks." In
most cases the
government did not allow dismis.sed employees to respond to the charges against them.
Meanwhile. Congress cracked down
A delegation of Hollywood personalities attended a

meeting of HUAC on October 27, 947. Humphrey
Bogart, Lauren Bacall, and Sterling Hayden were among
I
on the Communist
party.
Communist crusade
794
CHAPTER
27
in
Leading the
anti-
Congress was the
those present.
HUAC
investigations had a similar etYeci on labor
many
unions and
The search
political groups.
HUAC
for spies.
also investi-
gated indi\ iduals accused of spying for the Soviets.

In
1948 W'hittaker Chambers,
ber of the
Communist
being a
Communist
Hiss, a
New
Department
party,
spy.
Department documents
mem-
II
accused Alger Hiss of
Chambers
Deal lawyer
in 1936.
who had been
who had
told
HUAC
that
joined the State
had given him secret State

to pass
on
to the Soviets.
Hiss denied the charges, but persistent questioning by
HUAC
member Richard Nixon,
young
Escorted by a U.S. marshal
Republican congressman from California, revealed

apparent inconsistencies in Hiss's testimony. In
(left), Julius
shown on March
Ethel Rosenberg are
8,
and
1951,
awaiting the result of their trial on charges of

conspiracy to commit espionage.
1950 Hiss was convicted of perjury (lying under

oath) and sentenced to five years in prison.
Another notorious spy case also helped
fuel
domestic fears of communism. In 1951 a U.S. court
required party
convicted two Americans. Julius and Ethel
ter
Rosenberg, of giving the Soviets atomic-energy
strict
secrets during
World War
II.
tims of anti-Communist hysteria. Despite worldwide
on
in
with the federal government.
It
also
imposed
controls on immigrants suspected of being
period as one of the bleakest in American history.
however, the Rosenbergs
their behalf,
were executed
organizations to regis-
Communist sympathizers. The anti-Communist

hysteria of these years shattered many lives and
careers. Today many historians look back on this
Defenders of the
Rosenbergs claimed that the tw o were innocent vic-
protests
members and
June 1953. Historians have found
War anti-communism
evidence for the guilty verdict against Julius
Cold
Rosenberg but agree that the death sentences were
to efforts to expose alleged
extreme reactions in the nervous Cold
Communists
the United
States, creating a climate of
War climate.
Other anti-Communist measures included the
in
fear and suspicion.
Internal Security Act. passed in 1950. The act
SECTION
IDENTIFY
led
REVIEW
and explain the significance of the following: Cold War,
satellite nations,
George Kennan,
containment, Baruch Plan, Atomic Energy Act, Truman Doctrine, George C. Marshall, Marshall Plan,
Berlin
airlift,
NATO, Warsaw
Committee on Un-American
LOCATE
of
I .
Pact, National Security Council, Central Intelligence Agency,

Activities,
Hollywood Ten,
and explain the importance of the following: Greece, Turkey, Dardanelles, Federal Republic
Germany (West Germany), German Democratic
Republic (East Germany).
MAIN IDEA What factors gave rise to the Cold War?

MAIN IDEA What was the purpose of the Marshall Plan?
impact did the Cold

Hiss
trial
or the
trial
SYNTHESIZING How
War
have on U.S. society?
Imagine you are a court reporter at either the Alger
of Ethel and Julius Rosenberg.
the significance of one of the

5.
House
Internal Security Act.
Write
a letter to a friend
abroad explaining
trials.
did the U.S.
government put George Kennan's containment doctrine
into practice?
THE POSTWAR YEARS
795
Sect ion 4
M
L^
C U
THE COLD WAR TURNS HOT
Why did Israel and Arab nations go to war?

How did Communists come to power in China?
What
led to the division of Korea?
\^ho fought
IV,
if
in
the Korean
War?
War II had weakened
rid
nations on their colonies
;'.t
ctropean
and spheres of influence
in the
Middle East and Asia. After the war these former colonies
struggled to set up their ohti governments. The United
States
became involved in
the conflict between Israel
ami
several Arab nations in the Middle East. Concerns over

the spread of communism led the United States to support
the Sationalists in their struggle against the

in
China.
By 1950 Cold War rivalries drew
States into outright
Communists
the United
war in Korea.
us. sokfcrs
y"W, DOLE EAST TENSIONS

after
World War
II.
ben-goohr-YAWN). bfxn in Plonsk. Russia,
tensions flared in
1900&
Idealistic
Zioaist acti\iiies. be weiN to the United States
MediterrmeaD claimed by both lews and Arabs.

Since World War I. Great Britain had ruled
raise
money and
and determined. Ben-Gur.
Palestine, a region at the eastern end of the
recruit volanteers
amon^
ir.c
American Jewish coinniDnit>

During World War
II.
Ben-
m Mid Mr UmUe to resohv oooftici-
Gorioa supported the .Alhed
m^ dams ova the teniior\. Britain

m 1947 nmed the problem o%êr to
organize Jewish resistance in
the Uniied Natkns.
The
UN
came
op viA a plan
into two states
to divide Palestine
other for Arabs
iciected
but Arabs
for
Palestine. .After the war. Ben-
GurioD helped de\ elop land,
one for lews, the
tle
reset-
Jewish refugees, and organize
:a\'ext activities
gainst Bridsfa aid
\ribiule.
Tbe proposal was a victor

Ikmasm the movement calling
for a lewish
stn^
gle against Hitler but continBed to
ihepraposaL
homeland
Wiih the UN"s decision
to
-.vide Palestine. Great Britain
in Pdestine
Zionist leader Da\id Ben-Gorioo
in
'.-
sailed to Palestine in 1906. Expelled in 1915
Piksdne under a Leôe of Nacioos
796
Korea. I9S2
1886. had fought for just this onbDome since

eari>
Soon
in
agreed to give up
David Bcn-Ourion
resion.
On Slav
its
oootrol of the
14. 1948. die last
of

counted on an impressive arsenal bought
with the milhons of dollars that poured
Israel in
in
in part
from the
June 1948
American Jewish community.

Territory Israel gained
SYRIA
by January 1949
Territory Israel held
after 1949 armistice
Boundary of
Mandate
948 war broke out between

Israel and Arab nations over the
In
British
of Palestine,
1922-1948
f^
disputed territory of Palestine.
Capital city
In an effort to
the war, the
UN
end
sent a
mediator, Count Folke
Bernadotte of Sweden,
the
to
Middle
East.
Bernadotte negotiated a
shaky cease-fire, but

within months he was
assassinated by Israeli
extremists. In 1949 a
second UN mediator,
American diplomat
the
Ralph Bunche, persuaded

both sides to accept an
armistice. For his efforts
Bunche won
the
Peace Prize
in
the first African
Nobel
1950
American
to receive that honor.
The 1949 agreement gave

tory than the earlier
40 Kilometers
'
9stael,
memory
of the
Holocaust and
common
Gaza
Strip,
river divides the
The Arab
countries, however,
still
recognize the state of Israel. Also
Israel
Which
it
while
refused
left
unre-
solved was the fate of the Arabs remaining in
cause.
PLACE
partition plan had, but
plan gave Egypt control of the
to
the struggle to create a Jewish state unified the Israelis in
terri-
divided Jerusalem into Arab and IsraeH zones. The
River.
The
more
Israel
Jordan took over the West Bank of the Jordan
19^9
SUCCESS STORY
UN
Ralph Bunche
West Bank
and the hundreds of thousands of Arabs
had fled or had been driven out of
who
Israel.
from Jordan?
Before the
ized, Israel held
territorial
its first
agreements were
final-
parliamentary elections in
January 1949. Ben-Gurion became prime minister,

the British forces withdrew.
Ben-Gurion and other
Jewish leaders promptly proclaimed the
Truman and
new nation.
of Israel. Both
ognized the
The Arab
Israel, since
states,
new
state
Stalin immediately rec-
a post he held almost continuously until 1963. At

his death in 1973,
they wanted Palestine to remain an
UOMMUNIST VICTORY IN CHINA
states of
Egypt, Lebanon, Jordan (called Transjordan until
While the
1949), Syria, and Iraq attacked Israel. Although
lated after
vastly
outnumbered
in the Arab-Israeli war, Israeli
Ben-Gurion 's overall command cap-
tured and held
as the
however, did not recognize
Arab country. Armies from the Arab
forces under
Ben-Gurion was hailed
chief architect of the state of Israel.
much of
Palestine. Israeli soldiers
conflict
between Arabs and
World War
II,
Israelis esca-
tensions also
came
to
The seeds of the conflict were

1920s. Chiang Kai-shek's
Kuomintang (KMT), or Nationalist party, batded the
a head in China.
planted
in
the
THE POSTWAR YEARS
797
Mao Zedong's
helped cement
THE ARAB
RESPONSE
leadership of the
Chinese Communist party and led
ment of a strong base
Musa Alami, an Arab
to the establish-
in the north.
Chiang's attacks on the Communists kept him
lawyer and diplomat
from devoting
from Palestine, pro-
Japanese aggression. By the early 1930s the
moted
Japanese controlled Manchuria. Inner Mongolia,
Palestinian
nationalism and unity
among
and parts of northern China. To prevent the loss of
the Arab states
more Chinese
olished a book,
the Arab-Israeli war, A:
The Lesson of PalesVn,
lich
of
examined
the causes of the war:
KMT
released
the
the disaster.
British
were the prime causers of
They were assisted by the
Americans and the Russians.
We
him only
Communists
after
and entered
selves face to face with the jews,
battle with
them to decide the
of what the
British,
Russians had done,
win the
he agreed to join forces with
was
within our
still
into
in spite
We worked on
totality,
reforms that
peasants,
defend Palestine.
Communist
.
China
own and only those
in
The natural
result
of all
this
was disaster
**
and the loss of Palestine.
poor
support for the Communists
their army.
States,
which had long supported
countr>'.
to see
During and
China become
World War
II
after
economic and military
aid.
in
KMT. Truman
sent
1946 to arrange a
George Marshall
to
truce, but neither side
would compromise.
areas adjacent to the jews entering the battle at

.
of north-
instituted to give land to
the United States sent
under the
all
pre-
including troops, to China to unite the country
without a general command, our
its
Communists had
the
11
defense disjointed and our affairs disordered,
all.
Mao
won more
The United
to
a local basis, without unity, with-
every town fighting on
II.
At war's end. however, the conflict resumed.
During World War
and recruits for
power
fight.
failed to
World War
west China. This effective resistance, plus the
the Americans, and the

it
1936 and
in
against the Japanese. This coopera-
Chiang, did not want
The Arabs
out
future;
and
Chiang
vented the Japanese from controlling
found our-
group
territory to the Japanese, a
soldiers kidnapped
tion continued throughout
m^he
stopping further
full attention to
Although Chiang had helped modernize

China by building
his
railroads, roads,
and
factories,
government was becoming increasingly
unpopular. The fight against the Japanese had
wrecked the Chinese economy, and the Chinese

people faced soaring inflation. Chiang seemed
Chinese Communists.
northern China, and
parts of southern
KMT
forces held most of
Communist
soldiers controlled
and central China. But
when Japan invaded Manchuria,

Communists declared a truce
the
in 1931.
KMT
and the
unresponsive to these economic problems. In

addition.
Chiang made no
to help the desperately
authoritarian government that
banned
Japanese.
ties.
broke
Chiang
to
mounted. Mao's forces gained
when he
control of most of the country
the
truce
by 1949.
final battles against the
Realizing
Communist-controlled areas of
the south.
The
Chiang and
KMT forces were
From 1934 to 1935

some 100.000 Communists
marched nearly 6.000 miles to
northern China.
Long March,
CHAPTER
27
Known
this
as the
exodus
his
defeat.
his
army
retreated to
the island of Taiwan, off the
successful.
798
other political par-
all
As opposition
1934. however, Chiang
launched what he hoped would
be the
reform
he presided over an increasingly corrupt and
and joined forces against the
In
efforts at land
poor peasants. Moreover,
coast of southeast China.
Chinese Communists
Nationalist forces kidnapped
Chiang Kai-shek in 1936. This

photograph of Chiang with his
wife was taken after his release.
lished the
China.
The
estab-
Peoples Republic of
Dismayed
Communist
by
the
victory, the United

States continued to recognize the
Nationalists as China's legal goveiniiient.
The Chinese
Security
on the
UN
granted
to
seat
Council,
Chiang's Taiwan government after
War
World
remained
II,
in
Nationalist hands until 1971.
SSin 1949, after a

long struggle with
Nationalist forces,
Chinese Communists
under Mao Zedong
won control of China.
The KOREAN WAR

Meanwhile,
political tensions rose in
Korea, a peninsula jutting southward
from the northeast corner of China.
The Japanese had ruled Korea from

1910
1945 but had been driven out
to
by Soviet and American troops
end of World
War
Allies divided
Korea
II.
In
into
two
set at the
Farthest Chinese/North Korean
advance, Jan.
parts
North Korea and South Korea

the border
at the
1945 the
1951
with
between the two countries

Farthest North Korean
38th parallel. Soviet forces

50
occupied the North, and American
UN
This division was meant to be

1
War
advance, Sept.
1950
Conic Projection
troops held the South.
temporary, but Cold
Pusan,
100 Kilometers
forces
Communist
forces
s^^^'
tensions
34=
cemented
In 1948
it.
South Korea
North Korea and
up separate govern-
set
ments, each claiming to rule the
Communist North
Kim II Sung, became
OiacE
Tfie
CHINESE INTERVENTION
Korea, led by
Manchuria, the Chinese entered the war and invaded Korea.
as the People's
Korea.
Kim's
Communist
Republic of
government,
U MOVEMENT
it
most indus-
expanded education and established
formal equality for

President
itself the
women. South Korea, under
far north of the
forces
would cross the Yalu River
into
38th parallel did the UN forces advance?
Syngman Rhee (siNG-muhn
ree). called
the Soviet-trained northern forces.
By 1949
both the
United States and the Soviet Union had pulled their

troops out of Korea.
The
pullout
left
only the two
Korean armies tensely facing each other across the

38th parallel.
Republic of Korea. The southern republic
faced economic and political instability after World
War
UN
dictatorship, redistributed
Although Kim's government limited freedom
of speech,
How
Fearing
land to poor peasants and nationalized

tries.
Korean War
entire country.
known
i.0'
II.
Anxious
Communists
as
that
South Korea not
fall to the
China had, the United States
built
up the South Korean army as a counterbalance
to
After World War
Korea was
divided into Soviet and American
occupation zones. In 1948 North
Korea and South Korea established separate governments.
II,
THE POSTWAR YEARS
799
The war
begins.
Alicr repeated clashes
bet\seen North Korean and South Korean
would be emboldened
our
to override nations closer to
<iu n shores."
Korean army invaded South Korea on
the North
June 25. 1950.

icy
troops,
perceived
may have encouraged
American
shift in
pol-
the invasion, r.arher that
Bitter fighting. Acting under the UN resolution. Truman ordered U.S. air and ground forces
command
under the
into action
speech defining America's "defensive perimeter"
MacArthur. Truman also ordered the U.S. Seventh
against the spread of
communism
in Asia.
This
perimeter, an imaginary line stretching from
Alaska
to the Philippines, did not include Korea.
Thus
appeared
it
that the
United States would not
In
an emergency session the
Security
Council called for an immediate cease-fire. (At the
time the Soviets were boycotting the Security
Council over
its
refusal to admit
Communist
China, so their delegate was not on hand to veto

the
UN
resolution.)
Two
days
later,
Korean forces and
for
Truman
come
to
to
Someone
enemy] saw
of us
to fall.
Communist
in
UN
South
antelopes.
MAJOR EVENTS OF THE COLD WAR
us.
colonel
all
States and the other by Soviet Union.
1948
U.S.
$ 2
1
Congress approves Marshall Plan to provide some

to Western Europe over next four years.
billion in aid
Soviet Union blocks routes between Berlin and
Germany. Western powers meet blockade with
West
Berlin
and [the
on top
right
down on us.
don't know who
.
didn't
can."
we ran like
know our officers.
know
us.
**
We
lost everything
the North Koreans had overrun
of South Korea. The U.S. and South
Korean forces were backed

two zones, one occupied by United
flare,
They were
firing
hills,
By August
nearly
green
fired a
We
didn't
had.
Event
into
into a small area
Pusan. in southeast Korea (see
On September
15. 1950,
map on page
around
799).
however, MacArthur
launched a powerful counterattack. Coming ashore

at
Inchon, near the 38th parallel. MacArthur's forces
swept inland, recapturing Seoul (sohl). the capital
airlift.
North Korea and South Korea
of South Korea. At the same time, a strong

army,
United States and Soviet Union recognize
1950
Israel.
attacked from the south. Caught in a huge trap.
air,
Chinese Communists win control of China.
fled north across the 38th parallel, with
Korean
War
begins
when North Korea
invades South
Warsaw
in hot pursuit.
By
October the
UN
forces
army had
Korea and China.
Pact signed.
STRUGGLE FOR SUPREMACY

Union fought to establish
But again the
political
ANALYZING
How
some 300.000 troops
side, send-
across the Yalu. Chinese
The United States and the Soviet
supremacy across the globe through both
foreign minister
why China had
Zhou
Enlai (joh enly) explained
intervened:
The
U.S. imperialists have
hostile attitude
2 7
November.
did the United States attempt to counteract
the influence of the Soviet Union?
CHAPTER
tide turned. Late in
China entered the war on North Korea's

ing
diplomatic and military means.
800
late
UN
reached the Yalu River, the boundary between North
Sources: Encfclopedia of American History: Encyclopedia of World History
mM
well equipped and supported from the
North Koreans surrendered by the thousands. Others
China enters Korean War.
955
now
NATO formed.
Korea.
UN
establish separate
governments.
1949
solfirst
day and night
All
leaders
we
Korea divided
recalled his
"Get out the best way you
said,
They
Year
the
Some
South Korea's defense.
later explained: "I felt certain that if
Korea was allowed
One
back.
fell
Raymond Remp,
Sergeant
encounter with the North Korean army:
South
North Korea an "aggressor" and calling on
members
Soviet-made tanks was
their
U.S. and South Korean troops

dier.
U.S. -sponsored resolution branding
however, the onslaught of North
first,
overwhelming. Outgunned and outmanned. the
Korea. That same day. the Security Council

adopted
in resisting
North Korea's aggression.
on June 27,
Truman pledged U.S. support
President
UN
assistance, the United States
and South Korea played the major role
At
UN
Although 15 other
Fleet to protect Taiwan.
members contributed
defend South Korea against invasion.
1945
of General Douglas
year Secretary of State Dean Acheson had given a
towards us
adopted
while paying
lip
service to non-aggression and non-
From the information we
intervention.
they wanted to calm China
first
occupying North Korea, they

attack China.
Outnumbered and with

ously extended, the
perate fighting and
cold.
UN
forces
come
to
their lines dangerfell
heavy losses
MacArthur"s troops
and after
will
**
got,
back. After des-
in the bitter
winter
finally established a sta-
ble defensive line near the 38th parallel.
During the Korean War, UN

forces
mainly U.S. and South
Korean soldiers fought North
Korean and Chinese troops.
The great debate.

involved.
MacArthur
coast,
bomb
With China now
called for a major expansion
He proposed
of the war.
In September 1950, U.S. soldiers used hand grenades

remove the remaining North Korean forces from Seoul.
to
blockade China's
the Chinese mainland, and "unleash"
Republican leaders
unconditional surrender
China. This plan stirred fierce public debate.
MacArthur from
would bring victory
in
Korea
and overthrow the Chinese Communists.

Opponents argued
bring the Soviet
trigger
World War
President
that an attack
Union
into the conflict and
in chief
mander of the
By
the
upsetting
of the military.
Truman removed
General
his post in April 1951.
as
com-
UN forces.
summer of
1951. the war had settled
into a stalemate. Bitter fighting continued, but

tle territory
Truman strongly opposed
thereby
Matthew Ridgway replaced MacArthur
on China could
III.
Truman's plans for peace negotiations. As com-
mander
it
He also delivenemy demanding
Congress.
in
ered an ultimatum to the
Chiang's Nationalist forces to invade mainland
Supporters said
mountainous
changed hands. Combat

terrain
became
American death
in
lit-
Korea's
intensely frustrating
mounted. Under these
MacArthur's plan because he did not want the
as the
war in Korea to lead to another world war.

MacArthur, however, refused to accept the
circumstances American public opinion gradually
Korean War as a limited
would soon become
conflict. Publicly criti-
MacArthur appealed
cizing the president.
to
toll
turned against the war. The Korean conflict

a
major issue
in the
1952
presidential election.
SECTION
IDENTIFY
to
REVIEW
and explain the significance of the following: Zionism, David Ben-Gurion, Ralph Bunche,
Chiang Kai-shek, Long March,
Mao Zedong, Kim
II
Sung,
Syngman Rhee, Dean Acheson, Douglas
MacArthur.
LOCATE
and explain the importance of the following: Palestine,
Taiwan, People's Republic of China, 38th

1.
2.
3.
4.
Gaza
Strip,
West
Bank,
Pusan, Seoul, Yalu River.
MAIN IDEA Why did war break out between Israel and Arab states in 1948?
MAIN IDEA How did the end of World War affect Korea?
MAIN IDEA What forces fought in the Korean War?
WRITING TO EXPLAIN Write an essay explaining how the Communists gained
II
China
5.
parallel,
Israel,
in
control of
1949.
HYPOTHESIZING How do
you think the Korean
War would
have proceeded
if
MacArthur had
been allowed to expand the war into China?
THE POSTWAR YEARS
801
Employment Act and

Atomic Energy Act
Potsdam Conference
held. Nuremberg trials
begin.
UN
CHAPTER
27
passed. Coal miners go
charter
on
Korea divided
drafted.
investigates
movie
industry.
1946
1947
REVIEWING THEMES
WRITING A SUMMARY
summary
HUAC
appointed.
Baruch Plan proposed.
evf
write a
Committee on
strike.
Civil Rights
two zones.
into
Japan adopts new constitution.

Taft-Hartley Act passed.
Truman Doctrine proposed.
NSC and CIA established.
1.
Global Relations What
international and
domestic tensions resulted from the conflict
of the chapter
between the United States and the Soviet Union?
Number your
and
paper
to
Study the time
5.
list
in
ond next to
2.
2.
the order
first
in
next to
line
above,
which
3.
ment's response to Cold
the sec-
I,
Technology and Society How did the development of atomic energy affect the United States?
Democratic Values How did the U.S. governlimitations
activity
on
civil
War
pressures lead to
liberties?
below.
1.
Committee on
2.
Israel declares its
3.
4.
Truman Doctrine proposed.

North Korea invades South Korea.
5.
UN
Civil Rights
appointed.
THINKING CRITICALLY
independence.
on the time
Cause and
line,
and
Problem Solving What
2.
World War to make the

transition from war to peace?
Analyzing How did the Taft-Hartley Act attempt
ernment take
charter drafted.
Identifying
1.
use to win improvements?
3.
Synthesizing What were the main causes of the

Cold War?
IDENTIFYING PEOPLE
AND
II
to place restrictions on the tactics unions could
in
steps did the U.S. gov-
after
IDEAS
How
did the
Cold
War
get played out
Korea?
in
1.
United Nations
6.
satellite
2.
Trygve Lie
7.
George Kennan
3.
Gl
8.
Atomic Energy Act
4.
Sadie Alexander
9.
David Ben-Gurion
comes from an address by J. Edgar

Hoover warning of the dangers of communism.
5.
Dixiecrats
Mao Zedong
What
Bill
of Rights
10.
nations

1
How
2.
Why
did
postwar fears of
materialize?
What
How
did African
the late 1940s?
Allies
depression never
effect did the lifting of
price controls have

3.
wartime
on the economy?
Americans work for
What
What
They
to
[the
weaken America
organized than were the
Communists] are seeking

just as they did
when
they were aligned with the Nazis. Their goal
is
**
How
did he win the

diplomat
in
are an American
China during 1946. Write a
memorandum
to President Truman, explaining the reasons for the
did China enter the
CHAPTER
Nazis.
Party of the United
factors caused public support for President
of North Korea?
802
far better
is
rights in
1948 election?
Why
The Communist
States ...
effect did these actions have
Truman to plunge by 1948?

5.
clues identify this passage as propaganda?
the overthrow of our government.

civil
on the 1948 election?

4.
Propaganda on page 774. Then read the excerpt

below, which
44
work with other

World War II?
did the United States
to restore peace after
27
Korean
War
on the side
mounting opposition to Chiang Kai-shek
War
II.
after
World
Racial discrimination
tary and
in
banned
in mili-
federal hiring. Marshall
Plan passed. Berlin airlift begins.

Israel declares its independence.
Truman
Dixiecrats formed.
NATO established.
Alger Hiss convicted
Middle East agreements reached.
of perjury. Internal
Communists
gain
control of China.
elected
Security Act passed.

North Korea invades
and Ethel
Rosenberg
U.S. occupation
convicted.
of Japan ends.
Julius
South Korea.
president.
I
1949
I
1952
1950
LINKING HISTORY
Communists spread to every

level of government. In 1946 President Truman nominated David Lilienthal to head the U.S. Atomic Energy
Refer to the
Attempts to
find alleged
Commission. During
Senator Kenneth D. McKellar of Tennessee accused
Lilienthal's
Communist
eloquent reply below,
sympathizer.
how
In
did he defend
himself against the charge?
44
/ believe
and I conceive the

.
the state or
institutions
any other
and Arab
which
THE COLD WAR Imagine that you

UN conference in San
institutions
are a
U.S. delegate to the
Francisco
.
BUILDING YOUR
PORTFOLIO
or cooperatively.
1
of the individual.
Any form of government, therefore,
and any other
effect did
Israeli
boundaries?
territorial
the fundamental proposition of the
integrity
What
Complete the following projects independently
Constitution of the United States to rest
upon
797.
the 1949 armistice have on both
confirmation hearings,
Lilienthal's
the nominee of being a
AND GEOGRAPHY
map on page
in
945.
Write
exalt
above the
U.S. Senate, detailing
that
importance of men, which place arbitrary

power over men as a fundamental tenet
of government are contrary to that

conception, and, therefore, I am deeply
call
memorandum
world conditions
in
to the
1945
for the formation of an association of
world nations and urging
U.S. participation in
such an association.
[belief]
opposed to them.
The communistic
form of government falls within this category.
The fundamental tenet of communism is that the
state is an end in itself and that therefore
the powers which the state exercises over
the individual are without any ethical standard to limit them.
.
That I deeply disbelieve.
our daily
tice is this: that
may
we practice
it
the things
while
we must prac-
we seek fervently
to
and anti-democratic
forces in the country, we do not at the same
time, by hysteria
and other unfortunate
.
we
in.
shows
soldiers through
programs designed to help them
find civilian jobs, attain
college educations, or
own
3.
their
own homes.
CIVIL
RIGHTS
Committee on
Civil
C^*
\1
Rights.
Research and
why
the committee was
formed,
who
its
mem-
bers are, and what
documented
it
"^"<tA^fV^t^
Iff
has
in its official
'WIPE OUT DISCRIMINATION"
report, "To Secure
besmirch [soil] the very cause that
believe
a chart that
assisting returning
prepare a radio piece on
ferret out the subversive
tactics,
is
reporter covering the
lives.
And among
the U.S. government
Imagine you are a
trials that
ahead, provided only that
lie
in
surmount any
how
I deeply believe in the capacity of

to
Department of Labor Prepare
democracy
THE GOVERNMENT AND THE

ECONOMY Imagine you are a member of the
2.
These
Rights."
99
THE POSTWAR YEARS
803
1950-1960
Chapter 28
DECADE OF CONTRASTS
UNDERSTANDING
THE MAIN IDEA
Though the Korean War came
end, the Cold
1
War continued
to
in
an
'nt'^^lEsSs
the
950s, increasing Americans' fears of
communism and
nuclear
war
Meanwhile most Americans

enced economic
experi-
prosperity, leading
white middle<lass Americans to
away from
cities into
move
suburbs. Popular
culture, including television, encour-
aged conformity, but some groups

challenged the practices of American
"-
society, especially discrimination
against African Americans.

PIliillinSSBKIS
CEIIIIliiltf
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT How might an economic boom

growth and
TWl64-fri-36
affect population
residential patterns?
CULTURAL DIVERSITY
How
can people demonstrate
diversity in a society that
empha-
sizes conformity?
DEMOCRATIC VALUES
How
might a group of people
seek to change laws that

discriminate against them?
1953
1954
1955
Korean
Supreme Court
War ends.
ruling
in
Brown
issues
v.
Board of Education.
1957
Montgomery bus
On
boycott begins.
published.
the
Road
I960
U-2 incident
occurs.
The end of World War

::
LINK ro the past
II
renewed Americans' optimism about the

was caught up
future. Soon, however, the country
the Soviet Union. President Truman's
commitment
in
a Cold
War
with
to contain the
spread of communism led the United States into the Korean War and
heightened suspicion that there were Communist spies
in
America.
sz
n 1952, after 20 years of Democratic rule in the White House,
Americans chose Republican Dwight D. Eisenhower for president,

echoing the campaign chant
"We
Like Ike." The Eisenhower

conflict in
many
However, the emergence of new leadership
in the
which occupied much of the 1950s, saw continued

parts of the world.
era,
Soviet Union raised hopes for a thaw in the Cold War. At
home
the
1950s brought widespread economic prosperity. The United States
had long been the world's

lions of middle-class
leading
many
to
American
Americans enjoyed a
move away from
life
most productive
richest,
was not
nuclear-war fears disturbed
cities
all rosy,
much
and
nation.
Now
mil-
rising standard of living,

rural areas into suburbs.
however. Cold
War
tensions and
of the nation. Moreover, economic
prosperity was not shared equally. Rural residents, African

Americans, Hispanic Americans, and Native Americans continued to
endure poverty and prejudice. By the mid-1950s, however,

a
new
generation of African Americans started to achieve
some
suc-
cesses in the long struggle for the
equality
promised
of
opportunity
in the Fourteenth
Amendment.
United States airman at
Watching
3-D movie, 1953
Atlanta Terminal Station, 1956
DECADE OF CONTRASTS
805
Section
COLD WAR FEARS

C U S
How did the outcome of the Korean War affect Korea?
What led to Senator Joseph McCarthy's downfall?
How did President Eisenhower handle threats to U.S. interests
in Iran,
How
(xm
Guatemala, and Egypt?
did the U-2 incident affect the
the
campaign promise
his
to
election,
end the Korean
Dwight D.
conflict.
But
Cold War continued, generating fears of nuclear weapons and stir-
ring suspicions that

life.
1952 presidential
after his victory in the
Eisenhower kept
arms race?
On
the
Communists had
infiltrated every
part of American
world stage the Eisenhower administration developed an
aggressive policy to fight the spread of communism, while taking steps to
Eisenhower campaign
improve diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union.
bumper
sticker,
1952
Stevenson also could not match Eisenhower's
The general vs. the egghead
patriotic appeal.
Eisenhower reassured voters
America would remain strong throughout
As 1952 began.
Truman found himself
War. The hero of World
War
confronted with a host of problems. The Korean
communism and end
Korean War.
War had ground
Eisenhower received 55 percent of the popular
President
to a
bloody stalemate, and peace
talks
were making
their
chance to break the Democrats* 20-year hold
little
progress. Republicans
saw
and swept the
the
electoral count
II
442
promised to
that
Cold
the
resist
triumphant
\
ote
to 89.
on the White House by choosing popular World
War
II
hero General Dwight D. Eisenhower as
their presidential candidate. Conservative senator
Richard M. Nixon of California served as his

running mate.
lunch with his old
Truman, recognizing
port even within his
for reelection.
own
that
he had
little
sup-
pany. decided not to run
The Democrats
selected
Governor
Adlai E. Stevenson of Illinois as their candidate.
Stevenson defended the Fair Deal and Truman's

foreign policies.
him
mon
as an
Some
"egghead"
than hair."
806
Many
voters, however,
viewed
as an intellectual out of touch with the
people.
CHAPTER
28
During the I9S2 presidential election, Dwight

Eisenhower had promised voters, "I shall go to
Korea." Eisenhower fulfilled the promise a month
after his presidential victory. Here he is shown eating
com-
jokingly referred to Stevenson
"someone
with more brains
army
outfit.

Republican senator from Maine. Smith was born
Korean war ends,
the small mill
fear continues
1897.
When
town of Skowhegan, Maine,
He stepped up bombon North Korea in May 1953 and
peace negotiations moving.

ing raids
dropped ominous hints

weapons,
if
On
would use nuclear
that he
neces.sary. to
end the
Korea into two nations.
Communist North Korea and anti-Communist

South Korea, roughly
prewar dividing
whether
U.S.
this
38th parallel
at the
Some Americans
line.
outcome
in a distant
the
questioned
war
justified
losses some 54.000 dead and 103.000
wounded. More than
1.5 million
Koreans had also died
in the conflict.
after the war.
in
After four
full
Chinese and
For years
terms
won
house. Smith
in the
1940, voters chose her to
his congressional term.
seat in the Senate in 1948,
becoming
woman
the first
to be elected to both
conflict.
July 27. 1953. negotiators agreed to an
armistice that divided
complete
in
her husband. Republican congressman
Clyde Smith, died

The new president quickh fultllled his promise to
end the war. Eisenhower used mihtary force to get
in
houses
of Congress. Sixteen years
became
she
later,
woman
the first
seek the Re-
to
publican nomination for

president.
Senate
When
in
she
the
left
1973. her col-
leagues praised her as a
"woman
of courage." Smith
once said of public service:
^^M
U.S. relations with China and North
Korea remained strained.
It must
The armistice
Korean
ended the
tliat
War created two
be a complete dedication
to the people and to the nation with
recognition that every
full
nations
divided at the 38th parallel:
that constructive criticism
North Korea and South Korea.
human being
and consideration,
entitled to courtesy
is
is
not only
to be expected but sought, that smears

are not only to be expected but fought,
The Korean
conflict heightened the fears of
that
some
that
communism was
honor
gaining ground in the
bought.
is
**
to be earned but not
United States. This anxiety continued even after

the
war ended. Many Americans became con-
vinced that spies and Communist sympathizers
were everywhere. Joseph McCarthy, a U.S. senator
JVlcCARTHrS DOWNFALL
from Wisconsin, helped fuel these suspicions.

Senator McCarthy came to public attention
in
1950.
when he claimed
Communists who worked
to
have a
at the State
employees
lost their
labeled as "security risks."
of
known
Department.
In
1950 Smith and several other senators issued the
"Declaration of Conscience," which
hate and character assassination." While she never
mentioned McCarthy by name, everyone knew she
McCarthy used
Subcommittee on Investigations
his
to
wage war
"Communist sympathizers" in the

government. With almost no supporting
was
referring to him.
McCarthy questioned
and ruined the reputations

government workers.
of
communism and
the
Many
of hundreds
others joined in the con-
refused to criticize McCarthy.
Most of
from the
arts
the critics
who
did speak out
came
or the media. In The Crucible (1953).
playwright Arthur Miller drew parallels between
the patriotism
of
McCarthyism and
terrified
1692.
On
power of the Soviet Union,
caster
Edward
Americans,
Few
demnation, however. Even President Eisenhower
against alleged
evidence.
condemned
turned the Senate into "a forum of
dozens of
list,
position as chairman of the Senate Permanent
federal
who had
those
jobs after being
Although he never produced the

federal
list
supported his crusade.
McCarthy's popularity and ruthlessness made
many politicians wary of challenging him. One

who did. however, was Margaret Chase Smith, a
tactics.
Murrow
the
the television
"We
R.
Salem witchcraft
program See
It
trials
of
Now, news-
Murrow questioned McCarthy's
cannot defend freedom abroad,"
cautioned, "by deserting
it
at
home."
While some viewers praised Murrow. others bombarded him with hate mail.
DECADE OF CONTRASTS
807
McCarth\"s Loninmicc
1*^54
In
m\t.-siigated
charges thai Communists had gained a fcxnhold
in
day a vast television
Army. Each
many as 20 million people,
tuned in to the Army-McCarthy hearings. In the
circus-like proceedings. McCarthy repeatedly
interrupted and ridiculed witnesses. One victim ot
this treatment complained that McCarthy "acted
like the gangster in a B movie rubbing out someone who had got in his way."
the U.S.
audience, sometimes as
Television exposure of McCarthy's bullying

tactics. contra.sted
ior of
with the calm, dignified behav-
army chief counsel Joseph Welch, soon
when Welch
McCarthy
criticized
charges, the audience in the hearing

into applause.
few months
a vote of 67 to 22
later,
the 1950s schools across America held air-raid

one, though such measures would
have been of
turned public opinion against the senator. At one

point
In
drills like this
little
value
in
an actual nuclear attack.
for his wild
As concerns about nuclear war grew,
room broke
the Senate
condemned McCarthy
by
government launched
fears.
for con-
campaign
the
calm public
to
The federally sponsored book How
to
duct unbecomin2 a senator.
McCarthy's behavior
during the Army-
THE NUCLEAR
ARMS RACE
McCarthy hearings cost

him public support.
The
testing of increas-
ingly powerful
and
destructive nuclear
weapons by the United
N UCLEAR ANXIETY
States and the Soviet
Americans' fear of nuclear war height-
ened as the Soviet Union and the
Union
the 1950s alarmed
in
national leaders around the world.

In April
954 Jawaharlal Nehru, Prime
Minister of India, voiced his fears:
1
United States raced to develop more-
powerful nuclear weapons. In 1950
American
scientists began work on a

hydrogen bomb, or H-bomb, which
they said would be 1.000 times
more
bomb
powerful than the atomic
dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki
World War
II.
The
first
H-bomb
1952 completely vaporized

island in the Pacific.
later,
the Soviet
H-bomb.
Some
Union
small
its
own
[The United States and the
pions
a bottle,
in
killing
the risk of
808
;:
faster.
CHAPTER
two scor-
each capable
the other but only at

his
own
The atomic clock

and
which
every respect were far beyond those of
in
any weapons of destruction known to man.
We know that its use threatens the

man and civilization as we know
little
28
*J
life.
ticks faster
is
in
the world
There
about these
their dreadful consequences. But
not enough.
We must endeavor
with faith and hope to promote
seek to bring to a halt this

to be the
doubt about the deep and wide-
weapons and
concern
existence of
it.
can be
like
weapon and each of
effected test explosions, unleashing impacts
spread concern
Soviet Union] are
are
these countries has during the last two years
cautioned:
we
test in
of the creators of the atomic bomb,
of
the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics,

told, possess this [nuclear]
Robert Oppenheimer. one
J.
United States of America and
in
nine months
tested
Vhe
menace of total
all efforts
drift to
that
what appears
destruction.
**
Changing
AMERICANS GO UNDERGROUND
'ags
'
ÊUTiiiemTLe
As Cold War tensions and
During the
1950s many
children
learned
Americans' fear of a Soviet

nuclear attack increased
1950s, a
civil
the
in
defense craze
swept the United
about
States. In 1951
the Federal Civil Defense
Administration began a campaign

to educate the public on
do
in
what to
civil
defense
* STAR OF
through the
"Duck and
Pamphlets,
f^ CIVIL DEFBNSE ADMINISTRATION
Cover" program.
films, television
fishing
"Duck and Cover" program

children
all
encouraged
for
boat 85 miles away from
the test site developed radiation

sickness. People realized that
citizens
to protect themselves. For
one would be
example, the Survival Under
attack.
Nuclear Attack booklet urged:
civil
"The
defense
dig, die,
You can
an atom
live
bomb
raid
training in
order to do
secrets of survival
are:
know the
TRUE DANGERS.
ble.
to
bomb's
yourself
Americans' fear increased

U.S. Bravo
hydrogen- bomb tests
Ocean
in
the
revealed the
far-
reaching effects of nuclear
fall-
Pacific
out.
The crew of a Japanese
$90,000 on
his
luxury shelter.
Some people
also pur-
chased guns to keep out anyone
who
tried to enter their shelter
during a
This survivalist
raid.
the Family
home bomb
shelters.
Did they represent unbridled
do-it-
shelters. Ufe
ethics of
mag-
and dangerous
individualism?
But before
resolved, the
project. Shelter manufacturers
passed.
also sprang up, selling their con-
States, the Soviet Union,
crete and steel igloos at county
Great
fairs for
about $ ,500. The

1
cal shelter
contained
first-aid kit,
cal toilet,
bomb
Schoolchildren went through air-raid
typi-
flashlights, a
battery radio, chemi-
and two-week supply
shelters.
drills in
their desks to protect
One
Austin, Texas, spent
in
shelter as a father-and-son
how to live through a nuclear attack.

Some Americans put these recommendations to
themselves from radiation.
man
little
azine even presented building a
gestions on
which they crawled under
some had
but
chairs,
view led many to question the

like
Survive an Atomic Bomb, for example, offered sug-
use by building backyard
and
the comforts of home.
missiles,
promoted
home
only metal bunk beds or cots, a
one
constructing backyard
Fallout Shelter
KNOW
were furnished with
shelters
all
So some Americans began
dig,
Pamphlets
99
954 when the
No
and with
and vegetables) and water Most
table,
fallout shelters.
it.
THE STEPS YOU CAN TAKE TO

ESCAPE THEM.
die,
one
of food (mainly canned meats
"are to
evacuating would not be possi-
or special
The
official said,
warning of incoming
and
Geiger counter, protective clothing,
safe in
no
a nuclear
alternatives,"
or get out."
wanted to
through
you won't have to have a
|
^
a nuclear attack.
shows, magazines, and the
in
THE OFFICIAL U.S CiV/L DEFENSE

FILM "duck and COVER"^
While
sibility,
In
this issue
civil
could be
defense craze
1963 the United
and
Britain signed a treaty
ending above-ground nuclear

testing.
The
fear of fallout di-
minished, and
demand
for
bomb
shelters rapidly decreased.
a nuclear attack
remained a grim pos-
by-product of
already posed threat.
radioactive fallout
nuclear explosions
American and Soviet H-bomb
tests
had spewed
tons of radioactive material into the atmosphere.

In
1957 Congress held a special hearing on the
dangers of radioactive
fallout.
Defense
officials
DECADE OF CONTRASTS
809
J7IGHTING COMMUNISM ABROAD
THE NUCLEAR THREAT.

1955-1960
The Eisenhower administration viewed nuclear

arms and technology as central to the governments priority of ending Communist expansion.
M 20.000-1
if
18.000-
^1 United States
^1
16.000-
12.000-
liberation of all nations that had fallen under
51
10,000-
Soviet control since 1945.
'5.
vi
ut
14.000-
Secretary of State John Foster Dulles called for the
8,000-
United States
6.000-
aggression and not back
4.000-
3
u
3
Soviet Union
2.000-
0-
1
1
i^L L
I
1956
1957
going
1955
1958
even
Communist
meant
"The
ability
brinkmanship
war
is
the
rested on the threat of massive
of nuclear weapons.
less confrontational
With the discovery
than Dulles's policy might have suggested. Instead,
United States and the Soviet Union spilled over into a
he pursued U.S. aims by more covert
nudear arms
means and by diplomacy.
fl
aim. the
if that
to the brink of war.
retaliation, including the use
of atomic power, the competition for supenonty between the
race.
In
secret
which year was
the gap between the stockpiles of the United States and the
Covert war and the CIA.
Soviet Union the greatest?
tested his co\
Shortly after
mier
en approach
coming
to
power
Mohammad Mosaddeq
Eisenhower
Cold War
to the
in
95
in Iran.
Iranian pre-
(MAWs-ad-dek) nation-
claimed nuclear testing was perfectly safe, but
alized British-owned oil fields in Iran. After
many
Eisenhower took office he suspended aid
scientists
argued that radiation released
during the tests presented a serious danger to the
fearing that nationalization
environment and possibly increased the risk of
Western
cancer
in
human
beings. Soon the fear of radiation
led to an organized
ing. In
campaign against nuclear
test-
1957 a group of Americans, including well-
known doctor Benjamin Spock. organized

Committee
SANE
for a
a year
urged the United States
SANE
members
in
had grown
to
some 130 chapters
The arms
to
begin negotiations
tests.
Within
American Shah of
that countn.
American
(ri-ZAH pal-
this interference in Iranian
In
feelings in
1954 Eisenhower ordered another covert
October
United States had often intervened in the past. In
satellite.
In
where the
iv^ ...a^^^Taft^*
M The
Explorer
policy of
brinkmanship was
toon. Secretary of
State John Foster
Dulles
is
shown push-
/,
ing Uncle
the
improve education
sati-
rized in this 1956 car-
1958
same year Congress appro\ed
priated millions of dollars to
Sam
brink of war.
in
and foreign languages.

r- :"'
Reza Pahlavi
action, this time in Latin America,
National Defense Education Act. which appro-
CHAPTER
plan, called
satellite
nology by establishing the National Aeronautics
science, mathematics,
The
having Mosaddeq
feared that this launch
and Space Administration (NASA).

into orbit. That
in
sowed seeds of anti-American
urged Congress to expand American space tech-
first
to organize a military
leader.
uh-vee). While Eisenhower achieved his goal of
Soviets in technological development. Eisenhower
sent the
Iran.
removing Mosaddeq.
proved the United States was falling behind the
NASA
would endanger
arrested and replaced with the young pro-
affairs
in
CIA
Operation Ajax. succeeded
across the country.
Sputnik into orbit around the earth
to Iran,
purchases. Eisenhower also authorized
a covert action b> the
more than 25.000
Union launched the
Many Americans
oil
coup against the Iranian
race surged on. however, especially
after the Soviet
1957.
the
Sane Nuclear Policy (SANE).
with the Soviet Union to end nuclear
SS
down
Eisenhower, however, proved
WAR
fulfill this
to confront
necessary art." Dulles said. This policy of
Year
810
To
to get to the verge without getting into
I960
1959
Source: Nudear Weapons Databook
HEATING UP THE COLD
way
the
all
would have
*-"
to the
1954 ihe Guatemalan

Jacobo Arbenz
president.
Guzman, took possession

of uncultivated sections
of Guatemala's largest
plantations
including
kM^'^
those of the American-
owned United Fruit

Company to redistrib-
ute
among
0*'<
the rural poor.
United Fruit
^^
SOUTH
KOREA
pany executives accused

the
JAPAN
Communist
of being a
sympathizer. Eisenhower
CIA
called on the
army
gather a small
oust .Arbenz.
in
Beriif
\
to
^^
Adak
1954 and installed
new pro-U.S. government, which quickly

a
iF
Midway
Unalask^P-
re\ersed .Arbenz "s reform
up
HolyL^^r
T>^
ALASKA
North
\ Pole
" Ballistic
MipFj-
,r.^
I'-
"V ^
/--i^,
15
leflavik
AZORS^La:
So
Goose
ATLANTIC
..^.CANADA
OCEAN
Pearl
Hartwr
ment throughout Latin
..'
^yT.
/"
PORTUGAL
-'^"f'farlyWaJWnq'^'"
OCEAN
.
^Za'agdJa
/Danish)
r-'&eslrom^^
Guatemala
bitter resent-
(French)
KINGDOM
itELANO
G^S^":!!^',
PACIFIC
program. But American
stirred
'
.-
HNLAND /**'7^^Vl. NATo'^f RANCE

sweden^/no^;^ hc
^ .
.uNrrED
ARCTIC
OCEANy-^^
the capital
inter\ention in
ALGERIA
"''^'''^^>Sy^^^^^
'GiRiAtif''^^^jf^^
to
The CLA-led
bombed
May
/Korean War
'^950-195
Yokosuka'
Guatemalan president
forces
Com-
HAWAII
.America.
^CHQ
NORADHQ_
The Suez
some
cases.
crisis.
^___
In
si^^âTSpacrSorvwISicilyitHn
Rooseyelt Roads
Eisenhower
used diplomacy rather

than covert actions to
influence foreign policy.

In
ÛNITED STATES
1955 the American
United States and
j-^^^x^î
x-."\
j
MEXICC
allies
~^ky'
Soviet Union and allies
GUATEMALA
1954
Major
U.S.
base
government offered Egypt

North American Defense System
I (NORAD) Warning line or system
financial help to build a
large
dam
at
Aswan on
the Nile Ri\er.
Point of conflict
1,000
However.
when Egyptian leader

Gamal Abdel Nasser
also
Cold
CONTAINMENT
to prevent the spread of
promised
aid.
Nasser then
Political status as of
960
War Defenses
the Soviet Union, the

its
2,000 Kilometers
Azimuthal Equidistant Projection
sought assistance from
United States canceled
2,000 Miles
1,000
ff
LOCATION
The United States ringed the globe with alliances and military bases
in
an
effort
communism.
What system
did the United States put into place to provide the
first
warning
of a Soviet attack?
seized the Suez Canal, a
foreign-owned waterway
that linked the
Mediterranean and Red seas (see
map on page 905). Egypt would use canal

Aswan Dam, Nasser declared.
tolls to
build the
Nasser's nationalization of the canal posed
many problems,
including a threat to the Western
oil trade.
Egypt also refused
to allow ships
bound
for Israel to pass through the canal. Late in
October 1956,
Israel
launched an attack into
Egyptian territory toward the Suez Canal. Great

Britain and France, claiming they
were protecting
DECADE OF CONTRASTS
8!
the canal, sci/ctl the Mediicrrancan
waterway
lew days
threatened war
if
draw from Egypt
or
uk-
The Soviet Union
once.
States faced the ditficiill choice
of either supporting
and Israel
oi
the three nations did not with-
at
The United
later.
ciiii
its allies
Britain,
France,
siding with Egypt and the
Soviet Union. In the end. Eisenhower supported a
UN
resolution calling for an immediate cease-fire
and the withdrawal of the invading troops. He

explained:
44
If
the United Nations once admits that
international disputes can be settled by
we
using force, then
will
have destroyed the
foundation of the organization and our best
hope of
establishing a
world order.
99
A On November 2,
Grudgingly, Britain, France, and Israel withdrew
and the
their forces,
crisis eased.
The Soviet Union's support of Egypt during

Suez
the
among
1956, Hungarian rebels in

Budapest triumphantly waved the tricolored
Hungarian flag atop a captured Russian tank. Two
days later Soviet troops occupied the main square
in
front of the
House
of Parliament,
this
crisis bolstered the Soviets' position
Arab nations. To counter Soviet
the
influence in the Middle East, the president issued
responded with crushing force.
the Ei-senhower Doctrine in January 1957. offer-
heavily armed Soviet troops
ing military aid and in
some
American
instances
troops to any Middle East nation seeking help in

resisting
where
photograph was taken.
Communist
Hungarian
capital. Budapest,
A new
revolt within days.
On November 4,
moved into the
and smashed the
pro-Soviet government
imposed martial law and executed or imprisoned
aggression.
the rebel leaders.
Throughout
Eisenhower used the CIA to protect U.S. interests in Iran and

Guatemala. In the Suez Crisis, he
relied on diplomacy.
their struggle the
worried, however, that intervention in Eastern
Europe would lead

Soviets.
to all-out nuclear
He condemned
in
Eastern Europe. At
time that the Suez
crisis
the
same
was unfolding, an equally
dangerous situation was developing
in
Eastern
Europe. In February 1956 Soviet leader Nikita
Khrushchev stunned
denouncing
died
his predecessor.
Joseph Stalin,
who had
many ruthless crimes. Observers

move signaled a new era of reform
that this
for the Soviet
Union and Eastern Europe. Later
in
1956, Polish reformers tested Khrushchev by call-
the
He
did.
however, help
ease immigration laws to allow more Eastern
European refugees into the United

result,
some 40.000 Hungarians
States.
As
fled to the United
States after the uprising.
by
1953, for
in
hoped
political observers
war with
the Soviets' actions but
refused to aid the rebels.
Uprising
Hungarian
from the West. Eisenhower
rebels pleaded for help
To some obser\ ers Eisenhower's
lack of sup-
port for the rebels indicated a retreat from DuUes's

talk
of liberating Communist-controlled countries.
But most of the American public supported

Eisenhower,
whom
they reelected by a landslide
against Adlai Stevenson in
November
1956.
ing for greater political freedom.
Inspired by the
example of Poland, thousands
of Hungarians took to the streets
demand
in late
October to
reform. Moderates seized control of the
Hungarian government and called for a Westerndemocracy in their nation and for Hungary's
style
secession from the
812
CHAPTER
28
Warsaw
Pact.
Khrushchev
HOPES
RAISED,
HOPES DASHED
Near the end of the decade, the United States and

the Soviet
Union moved
to
improve
their diplo-
matic relations. In 1959 Vice President Nixon
DWIGHT
D.
in office
EISENHOWER
1953-1961
1890-1969
Dwight Eisenhower
army
built his
career slowly.
He graduated from
West
1915 and worked
Point
in
an Army camp in
during World War
Africa
chairman of
in
power and
second world wars he moved

D.
in
EISENHOWER
the Philippines, becoming a mas-
visited the Soviet
came
to the
ernment was
/)
c>-7 ^c^
Union and Premier Khrushchev
United States. Touring Iowa farms,
dios, the jovial
and Hollywood movie
stu-
media. In Des Moines he jokingly told reporters,
"We have
beaten you to the moon, but you have
agreed to meet
at a
He and Eisenhower
summit conference
in Paris the
May
weather-research plane that had strayed off course.
But the captured
pilot,
Francis Gary Powers,
admitted he had been on a spying mission.
Khrushchev refused
summit unless the United
to
go ahead with the
States halted such spying
missions and apologized for past flights.

Eisenhower promised
that the
U-2
flights
1960, however, just before the Paris
would
stop but did not apologize. Khrushchev refused to
meet with Eisenhower again. The brief thaw
following year to discuss arms reductions.

In
set up to be
ing alone."
Khrushchev charmed the American
beaten us in sausage making."
of great
operated by any one act-
North
Pittsburgh steel plants,
company
don't believe this gov-
said. "I
charge of Allied
in
resources." As presi-
"No man can be a Napoleon

modern war," the president
once
ter organizer and coordinator.
military forces
"the
ship.
DWIGHT
around the globe, from Panama to
In
became,"
military habits of shared leader-
and
first
now
dent, Eisenhower continued his
Throughout
the years between the
1943, "he
U.S.6'P0 STAGE
Pennsylvania
I.
in
a British colleague explained,
Cold War had come
in the
to an abrupt end.
conference was to open, Khrushchev announced

that an
plane
At
first
American U-2
had been shot down
American
a high-altitude
spy
over the Soviet Union.
officials insisted that
it
was
The U-2
incident halted arms-
reduction talks between

Khrushchev and Eisenhower.
SECTION
IDENTIFY and
REVIEW
Dwight
D. Eisenhower, Adiai
E.
Stevenson,
Joseph McCarthy, Margaret Chase Smith, hydrogen bomb. Sputnik, National Aeronautics and Space
Administration, National Defense Education Act, brinkmanship, Eisenhower Doctrine, Nikita Khrushchev.
LOCATE and explain the importance of the following: Iran, Guatemala, Suez Canal.
MAIN IDEA How did the armistice that ended the Korean War affect Korea?
I.
MAIN IDEA What effect did the U-2 incident have on relations between the United
2.
States and
the Soviet Union?

3.
4.
COMPARING What various tactics did Eisenhower use to protect U.S. interests abroad?
WRITING TO PERSUADE Imagine you are a reporter covering the Army-McCarthy hearings.
Write a commentary explaining why Senator McCarthy should be removed from
5.
EVALUATING What actions

fears of nuclear
office.
by the Soviet Union and the United States heightened Americans'
war?
DECADE OF CONTRASTS
813
THE AFFLUENT SOCIETY
focus
What
was the economy
like in
the 1950s?
How did the population shift during the decade?

What was early television programming like?
How did the work force change in the 950s?
I
0,itring Eisenhower's presidency a rapidly growing economy

brought prosperity
left
to
many Americans. Newly prosperous
the cities for the suburbs, while the rural
urban areas
in
poor flocked
whites
to
search ofjobs. The growth of the suburbs and the
spread of television helped create a consumer culture that
many
of the poorer members of society could not enjoy. Changes

the workplace
and
the
in
work force also helped transfonn
American society during the 1950s.
Advertisement
for
Deal era
ODERN REPUBLICANISM
securit>'
intact.
Under
TV
dinner
his administration, social
and unemployment benefits expanded, and
minimum wage increased. Eisenhower estabDepanment of Health. Education, and
the
President Eisenhower took office in 1953 deter-
lished the
mined
Welfare, under the supervision of Texan Oveta
to
change the federal government. He
pledged to cut the bureaucracy, to curb what he

called the "creeping socialism" of the
to balance the budget,
and
to
New
Deal,
reduce government
Gulp Hobby. The president also supported
to that
time. This approach to domestic affairs,
which
Eisenhower described as "consenative when
regulation of the economy.
comes
In the first year of his presidency.
jobs and pared billions of dollars from the
To reduce government
influence over the economy, he cut govern-
ment farm subsidies and turned over

federally
owned
coastal lands for
to
human
Eisenhower cut thousands of government
federal budget.
the
up
largest increase in educational spending
Y-
money and
beings."
liberal
when
became known
it
as
comes
it
to
modern
Republicanism.
Providing funding for social pro-
grams, defense, and other government

obligations undermined Eisenhower's
pledge to balance the federal budget.
private development.
But despite his pledge to curb

"creeping socialism.** Eisenhower
left
the basic social and
programs of the
814
::
CHAPTER
28
New
economic
Deal-Fair
4 As
secretary of Health, Education,
and Welfare, Oveta Gulp Hobby
lob-
bied for legislation providing for a

national polio vaccination program.
the eight budgets he presided over
Only three of
were balanced. Furthermore, during

office the federal debt
S291
his years in
grew by about 9 percent,
to
billion.
The "GOOD" YEARS

For
many Americans
economic
prosperity.
was
the 1950s
decade of
The post-World War
II
spend-
ing spree that began in the late 1940s continued into
the 1950s.
Defense spending, triggered by the
Korean War. also boosted growth
Unemployment and
percent.
By
the
in the early 1950s.
inflation rarely
edged above 5
time considered S3.000-S 10.000 annually.
Never before,
their
in
New York
neighborhoods. Here, Puerto Rican boys play in

the game room of the Good Neighbor Church and
Community Center located in Manhattan.
mid-1950s more than 60 percent of
Americans were earning a "middle-class" income,

at that
Puerto Rican immigrants developed strong
community organizations
the popular
media declared, had so
tuted the single largest group in the rural-to-urban
movement.
Great
In a continuation of the
War I
Americans left
Migration, which had begun during World
many people enjoyed such prosperity. "This is a

new kind of capitalism," declared the Reader's
the South for the industrial cities of the North.
Digest, "capitalism for the many, not for the few."
This northward
movement peaked
in
the
good times, how-
mid-1950s, with the African American population
1957 study found nearly 40 million
of some northern cities growing by about 2,000
Not everyone shared

ever.
(see Chapter 20), African
in the
Americans living below or near the poverty
line of
each week.
the
Wide-scale unemployment caused many
suf-
Puerto Ricans to leave the island for the main-
fered from poor nutrition, inadequate medical care,
Some 40,000-50,000 migrated annually in

the 1950s. About 70 percent of Puerto Rican
migrants settled in New York City. Many
Mexicans also moved to the United States in
$3,000 for a family of
Almost half of
four.
nation's poor lived in rural areas,
where they
and lack of education.
The
950s saw rapid economic

expansion and prosperity for
many, but the prosperity was not
1
land.
order to find work. While most immigrants from
evenly distributed.
Mexico had previously
settled in rural areas, the
new immigrants tended
to settle in cities such as
Los Angeles, Denver, El Paso, Phoenix, and San

Antonio.
P EOPLE ON THE MOVE

The 1950s was
decade of geographic mobility.
suburbs that devel-
to the
many
cities in
of American Indians also
the
1950s.
But
moved
unlike
to the cities in
other
migrants, Indians did so under fed-
At the same
eral pressure.
To promote the
poor rural citizens migrated to the
assimilation of
American Indians
opers built around the nation's

time,
percent of Hispanic
in cities.
Relocation under pressure. Thousands
Millions of newly prosperous whites, especially
young couples, moved
By 1960 about 80
Americans were living
search of a better
cities.
into
life.
mainstream society, the
Eisenhower administration supported pas-
The urban communities.

who moved
rural residents
poverty found
nomic
status.
little
Most of
the
improvement
By 1960 more
in their eco-
than 20 million city
dwellers were living in poverty.
While large numbers of poor

flocked to the
cities.
sage of the Relocation Act of 1956. The act
to the cities to escape
rural whites
African Americans consti-
^ In 1958, American Indians protested when

the federal government seized reservation
land for a power project in Niagara Falls. This
Tuscarora boy was photographed as he
walked the picket line.
DECADE OF CONTRASTS
815
urged Nati\c Aincncans

It
even
assist
up relocation otiices
set
destroy tribal
Gerald
One
o{'
lo
in
newcomers. Many feared
deplete the reservations
move
ti>
To hasten relocation, the government
urban areas.
major
cities to
that this
would
future leaders and
cultures. Oglala Lakota
activist
adopted
policy of termination in
Termination involved ending on
basis the reservation system and most federal
funding for Native Americans. Various tribal

groups launched protests and lawsuits against the
leather recalled:
termination policy, considering
44
The relocation program had an impact
on our
government
at Pine
[South Dakota]. Many people
Ridge
who
could
have provided [our] leadership were lost
because they had motivation to go

reservation to find
employment or obtain
816
CHAPTER
28
99
it
an attempt to
wipe out Native American communities.
By 1958
the
Eisenhower administration backed down, say-
ing
it
would no longer support
legislation "to ter-
minate tribes without their consent."
off the
an education. Relocation drained off a lot of
our potential leadership.
1953.
a tribe-by-tribe
The suburbs.
the cities,
moved
to
As more poor migrants
many more-prosperous
the suburbs. By the end
settled in
city residents
of the decade.
Americans went on
between
buying spree, purchasing
and seven million new automobiles
tlve
and an array of household appliances each year.
With an increase
consumerism came a
in
ris-
ing emphasis on conformity. Suburban neighbors
worked hard
to
make
to
"keep up with the Joneses,"
sure that they had as
that
is,
many modem conve-
niences as their neighbors. Scholar Henry Steele
Commager
American
above
noted
values:
conformity.
all,
life,
total
population
these suburbs
third of the
Many
lived in the suburbs.
of
more Americans could afford
because
in part
purchase homes.
to
It is,
is."
it
baby boom. The
to
an emphasis on child rear-
on the role of mothers. Popular
ing, focusing
magazines, advertisements, and self-help books

depicted the ideal wife and mother as a full-time
were planned communities.
Suburban growth took off
affected
loyalty?
the uncritical and
It is
largely because of the
baby boom also led
one
new
Children became an important focus of sub-
urban
Americans
the
is
unquestioning acceptance of America as
This cartoon satirizing life in the suburbs

appeared in The New Yorker in 1954.
close to 60 million
how conformity
"What
homemaker who devoted
all
of her energy to
making her family happy (and buying
all
the lat-
to these
popular
Veterans had access to low-interest mortgages
est
from such government agencies as the Veterans
images, however, the number of working mothers
Administration (VA) and the Federal Housing
actually increased during the 1950s.
Administration (FHA). Private savings and loan
of the decade, some 39 percent of
associations, too, offered mortgages
easy terms. In addition, the
on
relatively
Highway Act
of 1956
greatly
expanded the nation's highway systems,
making
it
commute
easier for suburban residents to
The growth of suburbs was
also spurred
by an
expanding population. During the depression and

II
years,
children ages 6 to 17
the
worked
all
By
end
the
women
with
wages outside
for
home.
While
it
common
had long been
mothers
for
of poor families to work for wages, an increasing
number of women
to jobs in the cities.
World War
household gadgets). Contrary
in the
work
force were middle-
class mothers. Despite the popular media's
image of
the typical middle-class family as a stay-at-home
many people had postponed
getting married or starting a family. After the war.
Americans began
to get
married
at earlier
in greater
numbers than they had
They
had more children. The soaring
also
ages and
for generations.
MATERIAL STANDARDS
OF LIVING, 1940-1955
CHANGES
birth rate
accounted for more than 90 percent of the
IN
Households Owning
1940
1955
71.0%
30-million increase in the population during the

1950s.
The decade, many
rienced nothing less than a
obser\êrs said,
50.0%
0.0%
Refrigerator
44.0%
94.1%
Washing Machine
46.0%
84.1%
baby boom.
Poor whites, African Americans,

Hispanic Americans, and
American Indians moved to the
many middle-class
Americans moved to the suburbs.
cities,
Automobile
Television Set
had expe-
iA
76.
Clothes Dryer
0.0%
9.2%
Vacuum Cleaner
38.0%
64.3%
while
Sources: The Overworked American;
An Economic
"THE GOOD LIFE"
CONSUMPTION AND CONFORMITY

way
many Americans lived. Seemingly secure in their
jobs and confident of increasing incomes.
Suburbanization and prosperity changed the
956
Statistical Abstract;
History of Women in America; The Proud Decades
After
World War
American consumers rushed to buy the
II
many
latest in
modern
conveniences.

experienced the greatest increase
in
Which item
ownership?
DECADE OF CONTRASTS
817
Peale assured Americans
them overcome
fear
book
in his best-selling
The Power uj Positive Thinkinî
that
God
could help
and feelings of weakness.
Further, in these frightening
Cold War
years,
America's piety underscored the contrast with the

atheistic Soviet Union. In this spirit.
Congress
added the phrases "In
God We
God"
currency and the Pledge of
to the nation's
Trust" and "Under
Allegiance, respectively.
The
stereotypical
"happy housewife" was

often used
in
The golden age of television
'J
1950s
Television helped to reinforce both consumerism
advertisements to sell
household products to
female shoppers.
and mythical images of American
life.
By
of the 1950s, 46 million households owned
one television
the
end
at least
set.
Advertising played a major role in television
some
wife supported by a well-employed husband,

families needed a second
income
middle-class consumer culture.
women were
held by these
jobs
w ith
Many
Just as the reality of
programming. By 1960. advertisers were spending

SI. 6 billion trying to convince viewers to
buy
their
of the jobs
products. Often one business would sponsor a
part-time or low-level
show, such as General Electric Theatre and Kraft
long-term career potential.
little
flicted with
to share in the
Television Theatre, so that viewers immediately
working mothers con-
media images of
the suburban house-
wife, so too did the reality of domestic
life.
connected the program with
monopoly on advertising
company. This
many compa-
also gave
program content. During
nies great control over
Though advertisements portrayed the full-time

suburban homemaker as happy and satisfied,
many experts argued that isolation at home made
women "bored stiff." especially after their
children left home. Indeed, many stay-at-home
their suspected political beliefs.
suburban mothers longed to pursue career oppor-
Show of Shows, and The $64,000 Question
tunities
once their children were older. Writer
Benita Eisler recalled:
the height of
actors and writers fired from
such
as the
over with" was our
promise to a future deferred.
We
would
World
Series. Your
shared the airwaves with serious dramas
gram of
it
shows because of
Sporting events, comedies, variety programs,
and quiz shows
early years of television.
For our generation of housewives and
mothers, "getting
McCarthyism, some sponsors had
the decade
was
in the
The most popular
the
comedy
pro-
Love Lucy,
starring Lucille Ball
and Desi Arnaz. Thousands of
fans tuned in every
week
to witness
Lucy's slap-
stick antics.
"do something" with our college education

(or finish
it)
when we
"got out from under"
diapers, formulas, car pools.
99
Church attendance soared
In 1993, TV Guide magazine rated the / Love

Lucy show as the best sitcom in television history.
in the
1950s.
Religious worship promoted social stability in
these unsettled postwar years. For uprooted
Americans streaming
to the suburbs,
church
mem-
bership provided a sense of belonging.
Atomic
gion.
fear also spurred the upsurge of reli-
The young evangelist
Billy
crusades drew vast audiences
818
Graham, whose
in the
1950s, often
warned of
the nuclear danger in urging
to turn to
God.
CHAPTER
28
Americans
The Reverend Norman Vincent
^hen
in
modern
hailed as a
One
DDT and
cides
has surfaced.
kill
elm leaves
was
miracle
dichiorodiphenyltrichloroethane
(DDT).
and children exposed to
Michigan town that sprayed
fell in
the
When
fall,
And
have been found
guins and seals
the
they
in
whales
in
pen-
in
Antarctica and
coast of
off the
DDT
traces of
removed
were eaten by worms, which
Greenland
were then eaten by
robins.
from any application of the
early spring, almost
all
robins
similar pesti-
DDT
beetles attacking
the town's elm trees.
fertiliz-
the 1950s.
insecticide in particular
ronment. Carson cited a
DDT to
I he production and use of
chemical pesticides and

ers soared
PESTICIDES
01/1/
promised farmers
the city
in
By
chemical.
the
As
were dead.
Today, views
areas far
on the use of
a result, in
1972 the
Environmental Protection
increased crop yields and
DDT and
reduced labor expenses.
changed dramatically. Public
domestic uses of DDT, and by
Consumers would
opinion and that of the scientific
the mid-1980s the agency had
benefit as
community now
well with higher quality food at

a
lower cost. These modern
made
firmly stand
behind many of Carson's ideas.
dream come
But amid
scientists,
chemi-
research
and environ-
mental groups are
the
all
experimenting with a
Carson, a
praise, Rachel
Now the
cal industry,
true.
on
a ban
addressing pesticide pollu-
tion a priority.
seemed to be
chemicals
a
Agency (EPA) ordered
other pesticides have
former biologist with
variety of natural bio-
such as
the U.S. Fish and
logical controls,
Wildlife Service, asked,
fungi,
"What
"beneficial" insects, to
has already
silenced
Carson died
spring
in
coundess
towns
in
America?"
In
962 Carson sent the
world a
sage
startling
efforts.
A Workers spray pesticides on fruit trees.
Silent
generation of
the indiscriminate use of pesti-
DDT,
wildlife
killed
television
Since the 1960s, possible evi-
Americans to work toward
dence of cancer and other
ing ecologically safe pesticides
health problems
and polluted the envi-
Though
Her concerns
and warnings inspired a
She warned that
cides, particularly
grew
in popularity,
it
in field
workers
sion, African
many
and
American
actors took over the roles;
but to
white, middle-class, suburban experiences.
stereotypes of the black community.
solved.
if
shown
at all,
was
Working women, ethnic
inner-city life rarely appeared.
was usually
in a
One of
way
problem
all
When
they did,
'n
'
it
that reinforced stereotypes.
the era's
life,
Andy. The show began as a radio pro-
gram with two white men creating

black characters.
viewers, the characters reflected white
The
NAACP
launched a protest against the program. Others

joined in the protest, and in 1953
left
the
air.
In
Amos
''
1966 the network banned
it
Andy
from
being shown in reruns.
most controversial programs
was the popular comedy about black urban
Amos
but
minorities, and
find-
fertilizers.
proved a very selective mirror, showing primarily
Poverty,
in
964, too soon to see
the results of her
mes-
her book
in
Spring.
and
destroy harmful pests.
the voices of
all
bacteria,
When
the
the voices of
show moved
to televi-
Television provided a variety of
programs but often reinforced

stereotypes of ethnic groups,
women, and American
life.
DECADE OF CONTRASTS
819
increased from 1950 to the 1960s, the farm popula-
Changes
Many
the workplace
in
of the social
ID shifts in the
shifts in
work
America were
force.
related
Large corporations
prospered during the decade as some 5,000 companies
merged
from 23 million
tion shrank
to form larger organizations.
to 15.6 million.
As the number of manufacturing and farming

jobs decreased, professional and service jobs
increased. Huge new corporations required a multitude of
managers, supervisors, and clerical work-
Furthermore, the spending spree of the 1950s
ers.
created millions of retail jobs.
Automation.
American
factories
were also
changing. Throughout the 1950s companies intro-
duced machines
that
could perform industrial oper-
ations faster and more efficiently than
human
workers could. This process of automation greatly
increased productivity. But automation also

reduced the number of manufacturing jobs.
Many
Many
of the newly
created service jobs were in occupations tradition-
by women, such as nursing, teaching,
ally tilled
and clerical work. By 1960, women

made up about one third of the total work force.
But many women continued to earn much less than
men in the same fields, and few received promotions to management jobs.
retail sales,
workers began to fear an automated future, as one
The new union
popular song noted:
style.
Changes
in the
work
force also influenced organized labor. Boosted in
%%
walked, walked, walked into the
foreman's
To
I
looked him
in
peaking
nomic
I
got:
at
His eyes turned red, then green,
to
suddenly dawned on
There was
Where
robot
sitting in
me
AFL
do
political,
so. they
in the
1955,
in
mid-1950s,
18.5 million in 1956.
get their fair share of eco-
prosperity, union leaders
economic,
CIO
and
in
abandoned
and social reforms
wages and
efforts
in favor
benefits. In order
sought accommodation, rather than
confrontation, with management. George Meany.
the seat
the foreman used to be.
some
of achieving gains
then blue
It
at
To help workers
the eye and said,
"What goes?"
And this is the answer
And
by the merger of the
union membership grew steadily
office.
out what was what.
find
part
**
AFL-CIO's
the
never led a
Automation also affected America's farms
new machinery boosted production while reducing the labor force. While farm productivity
was
president, boasted that he
strike. Further,
he said he had no
had
inter-
reforming society. His only goal, he stated,
est in
as
first
to ensure
for his
"an ever rising standard of living"
members.
Many
unions fought for and
won
guaranteed
annual wages and cost-of-living adjustments

automatic pay raises linked to the rale of inflation.
In return, unions
made concessions, such
accepting automation plans or changes
in
as
work
rules or production levels.

In the late
1950s newspapers reported cor-
ruption and links to organized crime
union
officials.
Congress attempted
among some
down
to crack
on union corruption by passing the LandrumGriffin Act of 1959. which banned ex-convicts
^"'' --^'
V-'-^l''^\ '^.m^ P
\
from holding union

tions of officers,
offices, required frequent elec-
and regulated the investment of
union funds. The negative publicity hurt union

membership, which steadily declined
A.-.
A
Ford Motor Company closed its Somerville, Massachusetts,

in 1958. Over 1,000 employees were directly affected by
plant
the decision.
820
CHAPTfB
28
The work
after 1957.
force changed through

automation, an increase in professional and service jobs, and a
new approach by union leaders.
Mrban renewal
The changing work force also alTected those moving to the cities.
Automation had ehminated many
of the semiskilled jobs traditionally taken by city
newcomers. Skilled workers often found
way
to better jobs
that their
was blocked by discrimination.
Nowhere was discrimination more obvious

than in housing. Prevented by poverty and by dis-
criminatory real-estate practices from
moving
into
newer neighborhoods, African Americans,

Hispanics, and Native Americans were generally
limited to
crowded tenements and old housing
the poorest neighborhoods. Eventually,
these neighborhoods provided a sense of
nity for those
who
in
however,
commu-
lived there. Local stores,
churches, and social clubs gave structure to the

lives
of those struggling to adjust to the
New
one resident of El Barrio,
cities.
As
York's Puerto
Rican neighborhood, observed:
44
This
is
our neighborhood.
We con-
sider this part of the city to be ours.
The
A A poor family crowds
stores, barbershops, restaurants,
small
butcher shops, churches, funeral parlors,

everything
Latino.
is all
tenement
officials,
however, saw only
To improve
inner-city
urban
housing, the federal government proposed
city buildings
with
to replace old,
new
run-down
inner-
ones. Across the country the
government bulldozed older urban neighborhoods
to
housing
for
units.
some 417,000 low-income public

Most of these units were cramped
apartments, so small, one resident said. "You feel

like
you
can't breathe."
The new
high-rise buildings
also had a cold, impersonal atmosphere.
of community that people had
felt in
The sense
the old neigh-
borhoods was gone.
SECTION
IDENTIFY and
New York City.
**
neglected, shabby buildings.
renewal programs
into the kitchen of a
Harlem,
make way
Government
in
REVIEW
Oveta Gulp Hobby, modern Republicanism,
Relocation Act, termination, Highway Act, baby boom, automation, George Meany, Landrum-Griffin
Act, urban renewal.
I.
MAIN IDEA How did the American population shift during the 1950s?
MAIN IDEA What changes occurred in the work force during the 1950s?
IDENTIFYING CAUSE AND EFFECT Why are the 1950s considered boom
American values
affected by the
WRITING TO EVALUATE
for
5.
TV Guide
some
Imagine you are a television
that assesses the portrayal of ethnic groups,
HYPOTHESIZING What
years?
How were
economic boom?
critic
during the 1950s. Write an article
women, and
effect did discrimination In housing have
families
on
television.
on ethnic groups?
Why were
ethnic communities upset with urban renewal programs?
DECADE OF CONTRASTS
821
Section 3
VOICES OF DISSENT
FOCUS
Why
Board of Education decision and the

Montgomery bus boycott major turning points for the civil
were the Brown
v.
movement?
rights
some
What did the Central High School crisis demonstrate about

white southerners' attitudes toward desegregation?
How
did teenagers rebel against the conformity of the 1950s?
A,.Ithoiigh politics and popular culture
1950s emphasized con-
in the
formity, a few voices spoke out against the system. African Americans,
tired
of segregation and discrimination, launched the
movement
Beats,
to
demand equality. Meanwhile
and a new
of rebellion
style
civil rights
writers, including the
of music called rock
'n'
roll
sowed
the seeds
in teenagers.
Rebel Without a Cause
movie poster
dangerous railroad
travel a long distance over
fiROWN
V.
BOARD
tracks to get to an all-black school.
Arguing on Brown's behalf.
The
NAACP
segregation
had long waged a campaign against
in
education, a practice upheld by the
Supreme Court's 1896 "separate but equal" doctrine in PlessY
NAACP
v.
Ferguson (see Chapter
had been able
to
segregation psychologically
lawyer
that suggested
damaged African
American students by lowering
their self-esteem.
The
13).
open some all-white
Thurgood Marshall (center) discussed
legal
universities and graduate schools to African
strategies for fighting school segregation cases
American students by demonstrating
with other
that in
most
NAACP attorneys
in
cases separate educational facilities for black stu-
for whites only. But the Court continued to maintain that segregation in
In
and of
itself
was
954.
^SiBH
dents were far inferior to the facilities established
legal.
1952 a group of cases that challenged
segregation in public schools
came before
the
Supreme Court in the form of Brown v. The

Board of Education of Topeka. The case
involved Linda Brown, a young African
American student from Topeka. Kansas.
Segregation
in
Topeka's schools prevented her
from attending an all-white elementary school a

home. Instead, she had to
short walk from her
822
NAACP
Thurgood Marshall introduced data
CHAPTER
28
^râi*?;
r-1iil
Marshall's arguments greatly influenced the
May
Court's ruling, which was issued on
17, 1954.
Written by Chief Justice Earl Warren, the unani-
mous decision declared
civil rights
ter
of the
that
may
and minds
in a
a feeling of inferiority
unlikely ever to be undone. ...
In
the
NAACP
In the late
moved
44
Montgomery chap-
office in the
that segregation generated
affect [children's] hearts
movement, holding
began working
way
1950s Parks
where she
to Detroit,
John Conyers
for
Congressman
in 1967.
She has
continued her commitment
field
and has won
of education the doctrine of "separate but
civil rights action
equal" has no place. Separate educational
numerous awards, including
99
are inherently unequal.
facilities
NAACP's
to
the
Spingarn Medal, rec-
ognizing the "highest or noblest
Many Americans
praised the decision as a
long overdue step toward ending segregation

Scholar Allison Davis hailed
entirely.
vation of
American industry because
more
ate
would
cre-
skilled black workers:
"The survival of
seems
its
the United States
depend upon
to
devel-
oping the ability of millions of our citizens whose

capacities
states
segregation.
Many
moved
quickly to end school
white southern leaders, how-
ever, reacted to the decision with alarm.
ernor of Virginia, for instance,

legal
means
at his
gated schools in his
command
state.
vowed
The gov-
African Americans organized a boycott against the
bus system. The
boycott while the
The
MIA
who was new
end
NAACP
and Parks fought her
chose as
Jr.,
its
spokesperson Martin
a 26-year-old Baptist minister
to the
town.
An
energetic and charis-
matic speaker. King could inspire large audiences.
His ability to
move people helped hold
American community together
deliberate speed."
civil rights
to continue the
conviction in the courts.
to use every
district courts to
Montgomery Improvement
leaders, persuaded the community
Because of the resistance
all
for violating the city's segre-
gation laws. In protest. Montgomery's 50,000
Luther King,
1955 calling on the federal
school segregation "with
and conviction
maintain segre-
to
from the South, the Supreme Court issued a ruling

in
Parks's refusal to give up her seat led to her

arrest
Association (MIA), a group of local
have been crippled by segregation."
Some
American.
as the sal-
it
it
achievement" by an African
the African
as the bus boycott
dragged on for months.
White
The MONTGOMERY BUS BOYCOTT

NAACP
next aimed
at
ending segregation on
southern transportation systems, beginning their

efforts in
leaders
Montgomery, Alabama. Local
had been looking for a
test
NAACP
case to chal-
lenge the practice of forcing African American

izens to ride in the
1955,
Rosa Parks,
them with
back of buses.
cit-
On December
1.
a black seamstress, provided
their case
when
she refused to give up
vigilantes attacked
bombed
Many
the houses of
boycotters
jobs. But
that Parks
would receive a
leaders.
lost their
peaceful protest worked. In
November 1956
Supreme Court declared both
the
the
Alabama segregation laws
the
end of the
year,
to
civil rights
Martin Luther King.
leader
the
Montgomery and
unconstitutional.
Montgomery had
new
mother was determined
MIA
respond to violence with more violence. Finally, the
H|
l*^
King and other
King urged the black community not
bus system, and the
Born in 1913 in Tuskegee,

Alabama, Rosa Parks moved to the
Montgomery area at a young age. Her
and beat boycotters and
including Rosa Parks
her bus seat to a white passenger.
IJLLiI
every method from intimi-
dation to physical violence to break the boycott.
White
The
racists tried
By
a desegregated
movement had
Jr.
The successful struggle of thousands of

Montgomery blacks to win their basic human
rights marked a blow to racism
and to the
good education. Montgomery did not have a high
general fear of standing up against those in
school for black students, so her parents sent her to
power engendered by Cold War hysteria
the laboratory school at
Alabama
State College.
Because discrimination prevented her from finding

a job that
matched her education, she found work
as a seamstress.
She also became involved
in the
America. Not surprisingly, Martin Luther King.
Jr..
Communist by many who

movement. Some southern whites,
was accused of being
opposed the
in
however, reluctantly accepted
that
change had
to
DECADE OF CONTRASTS
823
in the
South to announce
would comply with
it
the
Rrtiwn decision.
Little
begin
in
Rock's desegregation plan was
set to
September 1957 with the admission of nine
black students to the all-white Central High School.
Ho\\e\er. Governor Or\al Faubus. about to embark
on a bid for
came
reelection,
The
regation plan.
out against the deseg-
night before school
was
to start,
he ordered the .Arkansas .National Guard to surround
He
Central High.
did so. he claimed, to protect the
school from attacks by armed protesters. "It will not
be possible to restore or to maintain order ...

In response to a 1956 court ruling, Dallas buses
were ordered to end segregation. Shown here is an
employee of the Dallas Transit Company removing
forcible integration
is
carried out
schools of this community." he
No
a separate seating sign from the rear of a bus.
vk
tomorrow
if
in the
amed.
danger existed, but Faubus's claims
real
panicked everyone. Elizabeth Eckford did not

receive a message that instructed the black stu-
come. As a South Carolina newspaper declared.

"Segregation
going
is
it's all
but gone.
South can't reverse the trend." Even
The
so. other
white southerners fought to delay change for as
dents to stay home.
mob
the school, a
When
she attempted to enter
of angrv whites and a line of
armed National Guardsmen met
her.
She described
the ordeal:
long as possible.
When
Brown v. Board of Education and

the Montgomery bus boycott
nnarked the first steps toward
ending segregation in the South.
in
front of the school. ...
know what to
didn't
guards
I
got
let
do.
some white
in.
When
Just then the
students through.
walked up to the guard
[them]
who
tried to
had
let
squeeze past
him, he raised his bayonet, and then the
other guards moved

the crowd] started
SHOWDOWN IN LITTLE ROCK
Lynch
her'."
in.
yelling,
Somebody
[in
"Lynch her!
99
Despite the Supreme Court rulings, school desegregation in the South
moved
slowly.
By
the
end of
1956-57 school year, the vast majority of
the
southern school systems remained segregated. In
Arkansas, however, school
desegregation was progressing with relatively

tle
opposition.
Two
lit-
of the
three southern school districts that
tion
began desegrega-
1954 were
in
in
Arkansas. The Little Rock

school board was the
first
Elizabeth Eckford bravely walked

aJone through a crowd of angry, jeering whites before she was turned away
from entering Little Rock's Central
High School.
824
r H A
P T
For nearly three weeks the National Guard

prevented the students, now
Rock Nine." from
known
as the "Little
enterins the school. Then, under
sought to expose what one called the "crack
window" of society.
A number of novelists depicted
in the
picture
the experi-
ences of those facing poverty and discrimination.

In
Ralph Ellison's Invisible
African American
man
Man
(1952), an
searches for his place in a
society at once both hostile and indifferent to him.
His struggle reflects that of
many people
out of
left
mainstream society:
On November 4, 1957, leaders of the Arkansas

branch of the NAACP appeared in court to fight
an ordinance forcing them to turn over confidential records. State president Daisy Bates (second
from the left) played a central role in helping the
Little Rock Nine integrate Central High School.
court order. Faubus
When
removed
mob
uids
rioted.
"disgraceful occurrences"
at
an invisible man. ...
and
mind.
am
am
Other
critics
of
liq-
99
attacked suburban society and
on
the corporate mentality of America. Harvard econ-
Deploring the
omist John Kenneth Galbraith warned privileged
Central High,
Americans
in
The Affluent Society (1958)
were ignoring pressing social issues
troops to Little
of material possessions and comfort.
some 1,000 federal

Rock. On September 25, 1957,
finally entered Central High.
Mills,
midst of the Little Rock
crisis,
that they
in their pursuit
Sociologists William Whyte, C. Wright
under the troops' fixed bayonets, the Little Rock
In the
man
understand, simply
President Eisenhower ordered
Nine
might even be said to possess a
invisible,
because people refuse to see me.
the National Guard.
the nine attempted to enter the school
September 23. the white
I am
substance, of flesh and bone, fiber and
and David Riesman
porate system.
Whyte
criticized the
new
The Organization
in
cor-
Man
President Eisenhower signed the Civil Rights
(1956) and Mills in White Collar (1951) argued
Act of 1957. This
that the
act, the first civil rights
since Reconstruction,
made
it
law
a federal crime to
prevent qualified persons from voting.
It
also set
up the federal Civil Rights Commission to investigate violations of the law.
follow-up law,
passed in 1960, strengthened the courts' powers

to protect blacks'
voting rights. But prejudice and
discrimination remained a fact of
African Americans.
life for
Much remained
to
most
need
to
conform
in a large corporation
wiping out the independent
Riesman argued
spirit
that the country
silent revolution against
was facing "a
work" because work no
longer had meaning for people.
Americans were beginning
The Beats,
was
of workers.
Many younger
to agree with him.
a small but influential
group of
writers and poets, challenged both the literary
be done
before they could claim victory in the struggle for

civil rights.
The Central
High crisis In Little

Rock showed that some southern
whites were not willing to comply with desegregation.
UESTIONING CONFORMITY
While the African American community
in the
South was challenging segregation, other groups
were beginning
to question the
American culture
of consumption and conformity.
One such group

who
included a handful of writers and scholars
Ralph Ellison received the National Book Av/ard

his novel Invisible
in
1953 for
Man.
DECADE OF CONTRASTS
825
conventions of the day and the
middle
Allen Ginsberg's
class.
life -styles
of the
poem "Howl."
for
to satirical
MAD, which
magazines, such as
dedi-
cated itself to making fun of everything associated
way of
Many
instance, raged against the nuclear threat and the
with "the American
conventions of corporate America. The Beats
worried that reading such magazines would

antisocial behavincrease juvenile delinquency
wrote as they lived

or revision.
without form,
One of
the
plot,
planning,
best-known Beat works.
life."
parents
ior
by the young.
was
Several of the most popular films of the
written in a continuous three-week-long session at
decade reflected images of juvenile delinquency
On
Jack Kerouac's novel
the typewriter.
the
Road
(1957),
Kerouac celebrated the search for
individual identity and the rejection of
One
sentence
in the
the Beat philosophy:
going
till
we
stability.
and young, angry rebels frustrated with

their
anger was directed not

of society
at
in general. In the
novel caught the essence of
thing, but at
"We
film The Wild One, a character asks the
gotta
go and never stop
all
Often
life.
any one particular

1953
young
gang leader played by Marlon Brando what he
get there."
rebelling against.
Brando
snarls back.
is
"Whadda ya
got?" This image of the rebel with no direction
A "SILENT GENERATION"?
Despite
into a
Indeed,
was reinforced
starring
many parents' fears, the Beats never grew

mass movement among young people.
many observers dubbed
the middle-class
1955's Rebel Without a Cause,
in
James Dean, Natalie Wood, and
as teenagers
Mineo
Sal
confused about the values of their
Many
suburban families.
teenagers could identify
with that confusion.
youth of the I95()s the silent generation because
of their seeming willingness to conform to con-
sumer culture without
protest. Despite the
outward
The rock
rebellion. Many teenagers
tried to
escape the conformity of suburbia through a new
appearance of conformity, however, many young
type of music called rock 'n'
people were beginning to question society and to
of black rhythm and blues produced a raw sound
rebel in subtle ways.
very different from
many
teenagers claimed
as their
Literature and films. Many young people
jockey Alan Freed coined the term rock
discontented with suburban

literature
and films.
Some
life
found meaning
identified with
in
Holden
Caulfield. the main character of J.D. Salinger's
The Catcher
in the
Rye (1951). Disgusted by the
hypocrisy of the adult world, Holden declared
it
"crumby" and "phony." Other young people turned
1951.
when he
aimed
at
it
roll.
This reworking
tunes of the day, and
own. Cleveland disc

'n
roll in
'
started a rhythm-and-blues
young white audiences. Soon
show
the sound
caught on across the country.

Elvis Presley, a truck driver from
Tennessee, emerged as rock's leading

his sullen
good
looks, wild
Memphis,
talent.
With
body movements, and
blues-influenced vocal style. Presley

sent shock
middle
waves through
class.
the white
African American musi-
cians such as Little Richard,

Berry, and Fats
Domino,
Chuck
as well as
Hispanic performers like Ritchie

Valens, profoundly influenced early
rock
'n' roll.
Many
parents immediately dis-
liked rock 'n'

it
roll.
Some
critics called
immoral. Others simply dismissed
4 Teenagers tuned to Dick Clark's

American Bandstand to listen to the
latest rock 'n' roll records and watch
the newest groups perform.
826
CHAPTER
21
it
Buddy Holly shared
as useless noise, pointing out that the lyrics of
many popular rock songs did
seem
not
to
any sense, such as in the Silhouettes' 1957
make
waves, and often the stage,
"Get
hit
the air-
with noted black
artists.
While
southern officials were wor-
a Job":
ried about sending black
WW
and
Sha da da da
white teenagers to school
Sha da da da da
together,
Bah do
teens were listening to the
Bah yip yip yip yip yip yip yip yip
same radio
Mum mum mum mum mum mum
sneaking off to attend the
Get
Rock
a job.
99
same
'n' roll also
ing to break
down
upset
many
many
of those same
stations and
Teenagers challenged conformity

through literature, films, and
rock *n' roll.
people by seem-
the walls of racial segregation.
White rockers such as Presley, Jerry Lee Lewis, and
SECTION
IDENTIFY and
Thurgood
Faubus, "Little
v.
The Board of Education ofTopeka,
Rosa Parks, Montgomery Improvement Association, Martin Luther King,
Rock Nine,"
tion, juvenile delinquency,
LOCATE
REVIEW
explain the significance of the following: Brown
Marshall,
Elvis Presley
integrated concerts.
Civil Rights
rock
Act of 1957, Ralph
Ellison, Beats,
Jack Kerouac,
Jr.,
silent
Orval
genera-
'n' roll.
and explain the importance of the following: Topeka, Kansas; Montgomery, Alabama;
Little
Rock, Arkansas.
I.
MAIN IDEA What
impact did the decision
bus boycott have on the

2.
MAIN IDEA What
civil
rights
did events
in
Brown
v.
Board of Education and the Montgomery
movement?
in Little
Rock show about
attitudes of
some southern whites
toward school desegregation?

3.
RECOGNIZING POINTS OF VIEW What arguments
did
members
of the
civil
rights
movement
use to help overturn the "separate but equal" doctrine?

4.

who
5.
expresses
his
Write a short story
involving a teenage character
or her view of 1950s society.

Improvement Association
in
1956.
them to continue the boycott
Write
Imagine you are a

a speech
member
of the
Montgomery
you would deliver to the community urging
against the bus system.
DECADE OF CONTRASTS
827
Army-McCarthy
elected president.
H-bomb
First
held. Invisible
CHAPTER
Man
Korean
Supreme Court
War
issues ruling in
Brown
ends.
published.
Love Lucy
debuts.
/
28
hearings held.
test
Board
V.
of Education.
4r
I
1952
WRITING A SUMMARY
2.
summary
3.
and
to
5.
in
ond next to
2,
the order
first
this
the sec-
Americans
during
decade?
THINKING CRITICALLY
activity
1
Analyzing What
strategies did President
fight the spread of communism?

were
these
strategies used?
Where
Evaluating What events contributed to
Americans' fears of nuclear war? How were these
Eisenhower use to
1.
U-2 incident occurs.
2.
Montgomery bus boycott
3.
First
4.
Army-McCarthy hearings
On the Road published.
H-bomb
begins.
2.
test held.
held.
fears reduced?
3.
How
did the launch of
Sputnik affect the United States?
AND
IDENTIFYING PEOPLE
Synthesizing What was the popular image of

mother's role
did this image conflict with reality?
IDEAS
6.
brinkmanship
7.
termination
Mohammad Mosaddeq
8.
Thurgood Marshall
Eisenhower Doctrine
9.
"Little
5.
Landrum-Griffin Act
0.
Beats
Rock Nine"
opposed to the forced
Much

did the
end of the Korean
3.
What
What
How
affect
affect
Korea
4.
5.
economic prosperity of the l9S0s
What were some

backs
How
McCarthyism?
events brought about McCarthy's downfall?
both domestic
in
life
and the workplace?
of the major successes and set-
ending segregated education
did literature, films,
and music
in
the 1950s?
REVIEWING THEMES
Economic Development How were population
shifts affected by the economic boom of the 1950s?
CHAPTER
28
in
the
has been aimed basically at
integrity.
This
is
racial
especially true in the fields of
mingling of the races
and
strife.
many
The
is
bound to bring discord
closing of such institutions
in
cases would be the sensible alternative to
the emotional, social, and physical upheaval
which would follow on the heels of forced race

mixing.
99
affect middle-
class teenagers in the 1950s?
I.
education and recreation, where indiscriminate
factors led to the rise of
did the
reasoning.
preserving domestic tranquillity as well as
War
and the United States?

2.
in
of the legislation enacted

.
Then
integration of schools.
analyze the excerpt for a fallacy
Southern states
How
fol-
lowing excerpt, written by a white southerner
3.
4.
Reasoning on page 220. Examine the
Fallacies in
boom
baby
2.
How
society during the 1950s?
in
828
did Native
fight discrimination
which
in
next to
above,
line
below.
5.
some people
did

Study the time
list
How
the 1950s?
of the chapter.
Number your paper
Cultural Diversity
attempt to rebel against the conformity of

write a
1954

the important events of the
this period.
time
civil
line that lists
rights
movement
in
AFL merges
sputnik launched.
with CIO.
Suez
Montgomery
bus boycott
begins.
crisis
Federal troops ordered
occurs.
On
Soviet troops invade
to Little Rock.
Budapest, Hungary.
Road published.
Explorer
the
i
1958

'n' roll
UNIONOF
music of the 1950s often reflected a
desire to break away from old traditions and be
'
SOVIET
SOCIALIST
REPUBLICS
more
-J
daring.
"Roll
occurs.
+
1956
Rock
U-2 incident
launched.
Read the following
Over Beethoven"
How
and Tchaikovsky?
reflect rebellion
44
Well,
from Chuck Berry's
lyrics
(1956).
do the
4'
Who
lyrics
--T
VV-l_
Bay
ALASKA
of the song
^^^ÂN
/slands
Hawaii
little letter,
KAUAI
NIIHAU
Honolulu^
'
to
/-'**S_
Prudhoe*
"fiirbanks*
gonna mail it to my local D.J.

Yes, it's ajumpin little record I want
my jockey
are Beethoven
and a break from the past?
I'm gonna write a
AD/-TI/- OCEAN
,-./-C/ A/
ARCTIC
'^'
JAAUI
^f
LANAl"^*
KAHOOLAWE
play
^^
20 N
^^Hilo
Roll over Beethoven, I gotta hear
it
again today
You know
my temp 'ratiire
the juke
My heart
's
's
risin
'
and
PACIFIC
box blowin a fuse

'
beatin
'
rhythm and
my
OCEAN
soul
keeps a singin the blues

'
^0
/v
Roll over Beethoven
and
Tchaikovsky the news.
500
tell
1,000 Kilometers
99
Alaska and Hawaii
W^^^^^^^f
S^M
w^ lA^^^Î
BUILDING YOUR
PORTFOLIO
cooperatively.
THE COLD WAR In Chapter 27 you served

UN conference delegate. Building on that
experience, prepare a speech outlining UN goals.
1
as a
2.
Chuck Berry
CIVIL RIGHTS
In
Chapter 27 you were a
reporter covering the Committee on
LINKING HISTORY
AND GEOGRAPHY
Alaska and Hawaii became the 49th and 50th states

of the union, respectively,
the next column.
What
two areas might have

during the Cold
War?
in
1959. Study the
map
lent
Building
on that experience, develop an outline of
the
civil
rights
3.
POPULAR CULTURE
in
strategic advantages of these
support for their statehood
Civil Rights.
movement from 1945
to I960.
Imagine you are a
magazine editor. Create a photo essay that reflects

cultural changes
in
the 1950s.
DECADE OF CONTRASTS
829
T
1960-1970
Chapter 29
THE SIXTIES
UNDERSTANDING
THE MAIN IDEA
The
960s marked a decade of great
char)ge
in
America. The promise of
Presider)t John Kennedy's administration
was cut short by
new
But the
his assassination.
president,
Johnson, ushered
in
Lyndon
major
social
reforms trough the Great
programs, while
finally
civil
Society
rights leaders
gained some ground
in
the
struggle for equality. Their success
inspired other groups, including
middle<lass
women and
some
college stu-
dents, to challenge traditional society.

might foreign policy decisions
undermine domestic programs?
DEMOCRATIC VALUES
How
might protests help expand
democracy?
CULTURAL DIVERSITY
What
are
some
institutions
traditions that might
under
fire
and
come
by groups questioning
conformity?
I960
John
F.
Kennedy
elected president.
1962
Cuban
missile
crisis erupts.
1964
1968
Freedom Sunnmer
Martin Luther King,
launched.
Jr.,
assassinated.
1969
Woodstock
Music Festival
occurs.
During the Eisenhower era the Cold War
LINK TO THE PAST
domestic front the
civil rights
On the
momentum from
intensified.
movement gained
the Supreme Court ruling on school desegregation and from the
Montgomery bus
success of the
boycott.
By the end of the
/950s,
the popular culture's emphasis on conformity and consumerism
came under attack from
the Beats and rock
sz
'n' roll.
man
n 1960, voters chose the youngest
ever elected president,
the 43-year-old John F. Kennedy, to succeed one of the oldest presi-
dents up to that time, the 70-year-old
brought a
spirit
of youth and hope to the nation
the dramatic changes of the 1960s.
tinued
its
Dwight Eisenhower. Kennedy
The
a spirit reflected in
civil rights
movement con-
success, winning expansion of voting rights for African
Americans and further breaking down the walls of segregation
in the
South. Other groups, such as Mexican Americans, Native
Americans, and women, also pressed for fairer treatment.

Throughout America the generation raised
after
World War
started
II
to question traditional society through organized protests, music,
and
the creation of a counterculture.
On
crisis
the foreign front, the
when
Cold War reached
the United States and the Soviet
its
most dangerous
Union came
to the
brink of nuclear war in Cuba. Afterward, both nations worked to

ease tensions between them. During this period, the United States
also increased
the
Vietnam
its
involvement
America and Vietnam. As
in Latin
conflict shifted funding
from domestic programs, such
Lyndon Johnson's Great Society reforms, discontent
as President
grew within American society.
By
end
1960s,
of
much
that
the
the
of the idealism
began the decade was
lost in the
wake of violence
and division.
March on Washington
for
civil rights,
963
African dashiki,
youths
in
the
worn by American
960s
THE SIXTIES
i:
83
NEW FRONTIER
THE
FOCUS
How
did the
Kennedy administration
try to boost the
What was the purpose of flexible response?

What events sparked the Cuban missile crisis? How
economy?
did the crisis
change Soviet-American relations?
/'^resident Eisenhower
brought fresh vigor
be a ''new frontier
's
to the office,
"
On
43 -year-old John
successor, the
F.
Kennedy,
promising that his administration would
the domestic front, he boosted the economy,
mostly by increasing spending on defense and space exploration.
Internationally, he first stood firm against the Soviets, then tried to ease
President John
Soviet-American tensions. In November 1963, Kennedy's presidency
ended suddenly and
tragically, its bright
promise largely
unfulfilled.
As
A NEW BEGINNING
Nixon
F.
Kennedy
and Jacqueline Kennedy

in
1961
expected, the Republicans chose Richard
as their presidential candidate in the
upcom-
ing election. His solid performance as Eisenhower's
As 1960 began, many voters were looking for

someone to inject new life into the White House.
Republican party members. Trying to appeal to a
Economic recession
wide variety of voters, he dow nplayed
in the late 1950s,
coupled with
the Soviet Union's advances in space technology,
led
many people
falling
behind
its
to fear that the
country was
vice president had
in
won him wide
support
among
his past roles
conservative causes such as the investigations of
the

Senator John
counterparts.
F.
Activities.
Kennedy of Massachusetts
eventually emerged as the Democratic candidate.
The Irish American Kennedy promised to "get

America moving again." Voters were impressed
with his charm, wit. good looks, and war record.
But as a
to the
Roman
Catholic, he faced falling victim
same prejudices
that
presidential bid in 1928.
had hurt Al Smith's
To neutralize concerns
about his religion, Kennedy assured voters that

he believed firmly
and
in the
separation of church
state.
^ The second of four televised debates between

Senator John F. Kennedy and Vice President
Richard Nixon took place on October 7, I960.
832
CHAPTER
29
Nixon
led in the
Election of
polls until the first of
I960
four televised debates.
INTERESTED VOTERS
Tired and gaunt after an
voters cast their votes.
Nixon seemed
illness.
and
nervous
before
PLACE
In
the highest turnout since
Which candidate won
1908, 64 percent of eligible
the most states?
uneasy
cameras.
the
Kennedy, on the other

hand, appeared
fident,
con-
fit.
and relaxed. The
was
elecfion
Ken-
close.
nedy and his running

mate. Lyndon B. John-
son of Texas, defeated
Nixon and
his
running
mate.
Henry
Cabot
Lodge.
Jr.,
chusetts,
of Massa-
by a margin of
fewer than 120,000 popular votes. Their elec-
was more
toral victory
decisive 303
to 219.
(Democratic)
Kennedy was
ilectoral
Popular
%of
Vote
Vote
Popular Vote
Kennedy
the
Nixon
youngest person ever
(Republican)
Kennedy
303
34,226,731
Nixon
219
34,108,157
Byrd
elected president. His
IS*
candidate
*Six unpledged Democratic electors in Alabama,
Democratic eleaors
theme
49.5
official
Byrd
youth helped provide

the
Not an
49.7
to his inau-
Oklahoma voted
in
Mississippi,
and
all
8 unpledged
Republican elector
in
for Senator Harry F. Byrd of Virginia.
gural address:
Let the
word go
forth
torch has been passed to a

of Americans.
The
the devotion which
endeavor
who
will light
serve
Americans
can do for
it.
that the
new
generation
energy, the
we
faith,
so,
my
defense and space programs top priority. This

1961 Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin had com-
all
pleted the
fellow
ask not what your country

you ask what you can do
for
your country.
an increase in government spending, giving

emphasis reflected Cold War concerns. In April
bring to this
our country and
And
help revive the economy, the president called for
99
that the
first orbital
space
flight,
sparking fears
United States was falling behind
space race. In
late
May
1961 Kennedy responded
by challenging the nation
to
"commit
achieving the goal, before this decade
landing a
man on
the
in the
moon and
itself to
is
out. of
returning
him
safely to earth."
The domestic frontier
By
the end of 1961. inflation
was down, but
young, well-
unemployment was still relatively high. Kennedy

hoped to keep inflation down and further the
educated men. including his brother Robert as
recovery by getting labor and business to agree to
attorney general. These advisers shared the belief
informal
Kennedy stocked
that
his cabinet with
government should
offer solutions to national
wage and
price controls. Businesses
been granting higher wages
to
had
workers and then
and global problems. Since Kennedy had once
passing the costs on to consumers in the form of
compared these problems
higher prices. Kennedy urged businesses to limit
to a
agenda became known as the
One of
"new
New
frontier." his
Frontier.
the first domestic challenges that
Kennedy faced was stimulating
the
economy. To
prices in return for workers agreeing to fewer

raises.
in
When
1962
after
pay
U.S. Steel dramatically raised prices
workers had agreed to accept small
THE SIXTIES
833
JOHN
F.
in office
KENNEDY
1961-1963
1917-1963
Throughout
John
F.
his
career
in
swimming,
politics,
through most of
Kennedy always
looked younger than
his years.
World War
On
II
his adult
back injury after
Congress he was mistaken for
sank.
Once, while he was
a page
life.
During
he suffered a severe
several occasions after he entered
boy.
image hid the
severe physical pain he suffered
Kennedy presented an image
of youth and vigor.
his athletic
his naval vessel
For the rest of
his
life.
Kennedy would endure extreme
a senator, a
guard tried to stop him from using a

special telephone with the warning:
of Addison's disease. His brother
one
for the Senators."
i^^_-
Kennedy responded
ing to cancel
in anger, threaten-
government contracts with the com-
pany. U.S. Steel soon withdrew the price hike, but
weakened Kennedy's already
the incident further
were days of intense
ever,
shaky relationship with the business community.
he seldom displayed
commission
report,
completed
while the number of working
had increased
in recent years,
in
discrimination in hiring and received less pay than
men
for the
same jobs.
increased
the basis of ability to

position,
space and defense programs.
tion
also had problems getting coopera-
from Congress.
coalition of southern
meet the requirements of the
and without regard
to sex."
The commis-
sion report also led to passage of the
Act
Kennedy
issuing an order
requiring the civil service to grant jobs ".solely on
federal spending, especially

in
1963. noted that
women in America
women still faced
The president responded by
Kennedy helped stimulate the
economy through
how-
signs of physical strain.
and
as football, sailing,
raises.
least
the days that he spent on
physical pain." Publicly,
in
sporting activities such
pay
half of
this earth
Although Kennedy was

frequently photographed
effects
Robert once recalled that "at
UNITED STATES
"Sorry, mister, these are reserved
this injury
and from the
pain
from
in
June 1963. which made
employers
to
pay female workers
it
Equal Pay
illegal for
less than
male
workers for the same job.
Democrats and conservative Republicans in
Congress blocked about two
thirds of the president's
grams. Early
in
domestic pro-
1963 Kennedy proposed
a $13.5 billion reduction in personal
and corporate taxes
to boost
consumer
spending and business investment.

Congress, however, was not convinced
that tax cuts
were wise. As 1963 drew
a close, the tax-cut proposal

tied
up
to
remained
in the Senate.
One area of domestic policy that

Congress did support involved
V'omen's rights. Kennedy appointed a
presidential commission to examine
the status of
834
:i
CHAPTER
29
women
in
America. The
On June 10, 1963, President Kennedy signed into law the

Equal Pay Act, which required that women receive pay equal
to that of
men
for performing the
same
job.
Kennedy AND
THE COLD WAR
Kennedy
follow the Cold
In foreign affairs
tended to
War
policies of his prede-
cessors.
As
World War
II
veteran, he shared Eisen-
hower's belief
in the
need
for military strength: but
unlike his predecessors.
Kennedy did not want

rely primarily
on the
to
threat
of nuclear weapons to deter
Communist expansion. He
preferred to have a range
By 1967 some 10,200 Peace Corps volunteers worked in rural commuthroughout the world. Shown here is Molly Heit, a schoolteacher in
Peru who taught her students how to earn extra money by weaving
nities
of options open in case

of international crises
strategy
called
simple tapestries for tourists.
flexible
response. To expand the

nation's options, the
Kennedy administration con-
corrupt politicians, and few Latin American
tinued the nuclear arms buildup started under
leaders had enacted reforms.
Eisenhower and strengthened conventional
writer. Victor Alba,
forces.
government established special
In addition, the
military units like the Green Berets to assist

nations struggling to
combat communist
on
its
failure
in
Latin American countries:
rebels.
We
oligarchic
ety of options for dealing with

international conflict.
We
knov^
who
killed
governments of
know who
the Alliance: the

Latin
bothered to
America.
have defended
let
And we know
it if
them know
anyone had
that
it
also supported nonmilitan,' options
and needed defenders: the people.
Communist expansion. Economic
supplied the poison: the
bureaucrats and technicians.
who would
to prevent
Latin American
mobilize the poor majority
inability to
Flexible response offered a vari-
Kennedy
One
blamed the program's
existed
**
aid to
developing countries, he realized, could serve to

strengthen their societies and block Soviet intervention.
Toward
this end.
he introduced a number
XhE BAY OF
PIGS
of assistance programs designed to help the devel-
oping nations of Africa. Asia, and Latin America.
Latin America was a special target for aid from
Foremost among these programs was the Peace
the United States because the Soviet
Corps, which sent volunteers
work
to
for two
years in developing countries.
The president
there. In
also introduced a
expand economic aid
to Latin
had recently gained
program
to
America. The
Alliance for Progress offered billions of dollars

in aid to participating nations. In
exchange for
money, the countries were expected
a foothold
1959 an uprising led
by Fidel Castro succeeded
in
overthrowing the Cuban dictator,
Fulgencio Batista.
Many Amer-
icans applauded Castro's success,
develop
believing he would bring dernoc-
democratic reforms and encourage capitalism.
racy to Cuba. Castro, however,
By
quickly estabhshed a Communist-
The
alliance
was
to
a disappointment, however.
Union
1963 most of the money that had been given to
style dictatorship with strong ties
participating countries was in the hands of
to the Soviet
Union.
Fidel
Castro
THE SIXTIES
IS
835
When
Kliiik'cIn
lonk
onicc. a plan lo o\crthrow
Castro was already
in the
works. The plan called for
Cuba by
an invasion of
of anti-Castro
grt)up
Cuban refugees
trained and
financed by the Central

Intelligence
Agency (CIA).
Kennedy gave
the green
light for the plan to proceed.
The invasion was
When
disaster.
the nearly
1.500 rebels canie ashore

at
Cuba's Bay of Pigs on
April 17. 1961, they were
quickly pinned
Cuban
forces.
down by
The U.S.
A To halt the flow of refugees into West Berlin, East Germans set up
blockades along subway and elevated rail lines and cut off key crossing
points between both sectors. This photograph shows one view of the
naval and air support that

the rebels expected never
materiali/.ed
Berlin Wall in
October
1961.
at the last
minute Kennedy vetoed

any direct U.S. involvement. Equally damaging,
days American and Soviet soldiers eyed each other
the invasion failed to spark a popular uprising
nervously across the barbed wire.
among
Cuban
the
people.
It
took Cuban
forces less than 72 hours to crush the invasion and
some 1,200 surviving
take
Kennedy accepted
responsibility for the
failed invasion, but his gesture did little to quiet

criticism.
the
One American journalist complained
Bay of Pigs had made
that
the United States look
"like fools to our friends, rascals to our enemies,
and incompetents
to the rest."
The invasion
also
it
became
clear that the real goal of Khrushchev's ultimatum

fulfilled.
The
of East Germans,
who
had been
rebels prisoner.
full
Tensions gradually eased when
military
had
fled to the
barrier
had halted the exodus
during the
West through Berlin
1,000 per day. In time the East
summer of
1961
a rate of
some
at
Germans replaced
the barbed wire with a wall of gray concrete and
watchtowers. The Berlin Wall became the most recognizable symbol of the Cold War.
drove Cuban leaders closer to the Soviets.
The missiles of October

Che BERLIN
CRISIS
After Berlin. Khrushchev continued to try to test
The Bay of Pigs convinced Soviet leader Nikita

Khrushchev that Kennedy was weak and could be
intimidated. During a summit meeting in June
America's commitment
1961, Khrushchev issued an ultimatum: the West
provide him with defensive weapons. The Soviets
must recognize the sovereignty of Communist East

Germany and remove all troops from West Berlin.
Kennedy refused, saying that he intended to
complied and also offered offensive weapons
honor the United States" commitment

West
when
Berlin.
The
the East
situation
worsened
Germans threw up
in
to
defend
mid-August,
a barbed-wire
barrier across Berlin, cutting off traffic between
E^st and West Berlin. Kennedy responded by sending
more American troops
to the city.
The Soviets
also bolstered their military forces there. For a few
836
CHAPTER
29
the
Cold War's greatest
to containment, leading to
crisis.
To ward
off another
invasion, Fidel Castro asked the Soviet
Union
to
nuclear missiles that could reach major cities of the

eastern United States.
CIA
buildup
in
officials
monitored the Soviet arms
Cuba throughout
the
But they did not grasp the

buildup until October 14,
summer of
full
1962.
extent of the
when an American U-2
spy plane photographed numerous missile launching pads near the
Cuban town of San
Cristobal.
Additional U-2 flights over the island located
more
at
missiles,
On October
blockade of Cuba
American missiles from some foreign
22 Kennedy ordered a naval

to
Soviet weapons.
Soviets
to
Cuba. Kennedy also secretly agreed
of which appeared to be aimed
all
the United States.
remove
He
demanded
also
the missiles.
Over
the next
on the horizon.
it
a historic turning point in
relations.
Sobered by
their brush
with nuclear war, Kennedy and Khrushchev sought
that the
Khrushchev promised
challenge the blockade, calling
ditry."
The event marked

Soviet-American
prevent further deliveries of
remove
to
sites.
between
to ease tensions
"outright ban-
declared that
two days, nuclear war loomed
Kennedy
their countries.
was time
it
to write a
new
chapter
in
Cold War:
the
In a frenzy of activity, Soviet mili-
44
armed the missiles in Cuba.

American B-52 bombers armed with nuclear
tary advisers
weapons prepared
Meanwhile, Soviet
for battle.
we are to open new doorways to

we are to seize this rare opportufor progress,
we are to be as bold
If
peace,
nity
if
if
and farsighted
ships sailed toward the blockade line.
in
our control of weapons
as
ships stopped short of the blockade line, turned,
we have been in their invention, then let us

now show all the world on this side of the
and sailed home. "We're eyeball
wall and the other that a strong
many of the
Suddenly, on October 24,
Secretary of State
Soviet
to eyeball," said
Dean Rusk, "and I think the

On October 28
also stands for peace.
America
TT
other fellow just blinked."
to dismantle the missile bases
In 1963 the United States, the Soviet Union,
response to Kennedy's promise not to invade
and Great Britain signed a Limited Nuclear Test
Khrushchev agreed
in
UNITED
STATES
80
n(?MacDi
Aug. 22: Kennedy confirms
ATLANTIC
reports of Russian tectinicians
and supplies arriving
Cuba.
in
Oct. 22:
OCEAN
Kennedy addresses nation
about Soviet threat and announces

"quarantine" (blockade) of Cuba.
Oa.
14: Aerial surveillance reveals
missile
on launching pads.
Tropic of Cancer
Gulf of
San Cristobal
Mexico
Oct. 23: Khrushchev
warns
that U.S. actions could lead

to
thermonuclear war.
Guantanamo^
Oct 27: Kennedy
^^y
accepts Khrushchev's
proposal to end the
crisis:
remove
U.S.
Haiti:
DOMINICAN^~X
REPUBLIC
JAMAICA
Soviets will
BRITISH
HONDURAS
missiles
and promise not
and
will
>
vr
end blockade
to invade Cuba.
CARIBBEAN
Oct. 28: Khrushchev
that
weapons
will
SEA
announces
be returned
to the Soviet Union.
vL
U.S.
navy
base
U.S. air
force base
T"^
1
U.S. blocl<:ade
Soviet missile
site
300 Miles
PACIFIC
150
OCEAN
Cuban Missile
NINETY MILES
AWAY
Crisis
The United States needed to control the sea lanes to Cuba
delivery of Soviet missiles, which
LOCATION
300 Kilometers
if
Which bodies
launched from Cuba could
of
water did the
U.S.
hit
U.S.
cities
in
order to stop
some 2,000 miles away.
Navy patrol to enforce the blockade?
THE SIXTIES
837
CUF
Kennedy issued an ultimatum to
that it remove all it > missiles
If
he world held its b' 3ath as it

a.r war. In the end, the Soviets
s. Soviet Premier Nikita
Khrushchev
nory of the
relat
"9. had
't
crisis:
with deep respect because,
been, to say the least,
analysis,
The two most powerful nations of the

world had been squared off against each
minded and determined
other,
each with
its
didn't let
finger on the button.
inevitable.
But both sides showed that
the desire to avoid war
is
if
remember the
Ban Treaty
to
I'll
late President
frightened, nor
He
reckless.
didn't overesti-
crisis.
It
left
himself
was a great
we had been
able to extract from Kennedy a promise
always
would invade Cuba,
[Kennedy]
"hot line"
way out of the
He
that neither America nor any of her allies
end the testing of nuclear bombs
the atmosphere and under water.
become
victory for us, though, that
strong enough,
even the most pressing dispute can be

solved by compromise.
to avoid war.
himself become
mate America's might, and he
You'd have thought that war was
the fmal
he showed himself to be sober-
an interesting and challenging situation.
did he
in
in
The Bay
99
of Pigs and Berlin Wall
was
also set up between the United States and the
crises led to the
after
Cuban
missile
which the United
Soviet Union. This direct telephone connection
crisis,
enabled leaders of the two countries to communi-
States and Soviet Union worked
cate directly during a crisis.
harder for peace.
SECTION
IDENTIFY
and explain the significance of the following: Richard Nixon, John
Frontier. Equal Pay Act, flexible response.
Limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, "hot
LOCATE
1.
2.
REVIEW
F.
Kennedy,
New
Peace Corps, Alliance for Progress, Fidel Castro. Berlin Wall.
line."
and explain the importance of the following: Cuba, Bay of
Pigs,
San Cristobal.
MAIN IDEA How did President Kennedy attempt to stimulate the economy?
MAIN IDEA What was the advantage of the Kennedy administration's foreign-policy
strategy
of flexible response?
3.
LINKING HISTORY
buildup
4.
in
AND GEOGRAPHY Why were Americans so
concerned with the
missile
Cuba?
WRITING TO INFORM Imagine you are a member of the presidential commission assigned
examine the status of women in America. Write a report that summarizes the findings of the
commission and presents recommendations for change.
5.
ANALYZING How
his
838
predecessors?
CHAPTER
29
did President Kennedy's approach to foreign affairs differ
from that of
to
JOHNSON'S GREAT SOCIETY

c u s
What were the four major concerns of the Great Society programs?
How did the Warren Court decisions affect individual rights?
How did foreign policy concerns affect President Johnson's
domestic programs?
'n
November 22,
he was gunned
1963, John Kennedy's presidency ended
down
when
The new president, Lyndon
in Dallas.
Johnson, pledged himself to the ''ideas and ideals" that Kennedy

represented. "
had "so nobly
programs designed
Johnson sponsored a series of social
transform American society. These triumphs
to
on the domestic scene, however, were soon overshadowed as

LBJ taking the presidential oath
foreign policy problems caused Johnson 's presidency to unravel.
in
Dallas. 1963
This strange turn of events caused
XrAGEDY in DALLAS
ple to question whether

killing the president or
Kennedy knew he would have

win reelection
in 1964. In
to
campaign hard
November 1963 he
to
trav-
eled to Texas to try to bolster his support there. In
November
Dallas on
the route of
the airport.
22, enthusiastic
crowds lined
Kennedy's open-car motorcade from
At about 12:30
moved through
Kennedy slumped
p.m., as the
downtown
the
motorcade
area, shots rang out.
over, mortally
a larger conspiracy.
many
peo-
Oswald had acted alone
in
whether he had been part of
To end
Lyndon Johnson named
speculation. President
a commission,
headed by
Chief Justice Earl Warren, to investigate the assas-
The Warren Commission, which spent
sination.
10 months reviewing the evidence, concluded that
was no evidence of conspiracy: both Oswald
there
and Ruby had acted alone.
wounded. Within
hours Vice President Lyndon Johnson was sworn

in as president.
Over
came together
to
the next four days, the nation
mourn
the dead president.
Millions watched the funeral on television.
Americans
vibrant
felt that the
Kennedy had
Many
death of the youthful,
also killed something in
them. "We'll never be young again," Kennedy

staffer
Daniel Patrick Moynihan sadly observed.
Within hours of the shooting, the Dallas

police had seized
Two days
moved from one

to death
Lee Harvey Oswald
as a suspect.
was being
Oswald was shot
after his arrest, while he

jail to
another.
by nightclub owner Jack Ruby.
3OHNSON TAKES OVER

Lyndon Johnson appeared very
President
different
from the wealthy, charismatic Kennedy. Born

the hill country of central Texas,
in
Johnson grew up
in turn,
poverty and rela-
tive prosperity. Brash, ambitious,
and hardworking,
in a
household that knew,
Johnson rose rapidly through the Democratic party

ranks.
By
1948, he
A
to
the time he
was
won
election to the Senate in
major power
in the party.
master of compromise. Johnson seemed
always find the middle course on which most
THE SIXTIES
i:
839
poi)plc could ayrcc. This inasicrN oi the political
process, coupled with his years of experience in
Washington, enabled Johnson
manage
to
power with considerable
sition of
the tran-
and
skill
lact.
Kennedy's cabinet and advisers stayed on to lend
being "affluent." ...

lions of
human
In this
They dropped out of

.
How
veloped nation
sight
we
long shall
way tens
became
beings
and out of mind.
ignore this underde-
our midst?
in
of mil-
invisible.
**
continuity to the Johnson administration.
Announcing
January 1964 that "the day

are reserved for
more women
meeting
in his first cabinet

is
over when top jobs
men." Johnson pledged
to
to high gt)vernment offices.
his choices included
add 50
Some
Harrington also noted that racism
in
of
consumer advocate Betty
in poverty.
regation
He warned
that the
would not change
removed." he wrote, "but

that
to appoint only
to high offices, his strong
women's
rights
marked
27
support for
a significant break with
the historic
is
as this
is
to be the
the
economic condition
that will leave the poverty
consequence of
the case, being
bom
most profound
States imposes upon a
As long
color.
Negro
will continue
disability that the
United
citizen."
President Johnson responded to such concerns
past administrations.
The new
end of legalized seg-
of most poor blacks. "The laws against color can be
Thunberg. and Texas legislator Barbara Jordan.
Although Johnson was able
kept
ethnic groups, especially African Americans,
many
Furness, economists Alice Rivlin and Penelope
women
still
president also promised to appoint
more Mexican Americans to high positions. He

assigned Vicente T. Ximenes (he-MAY-nays) to
chair a presidential committee on Mexican
by declaring an "unconditional war on poverty

America." To launch his
War on
in
Poverty, Johnson
sent to Congress a bill calling for the establishment
of the Office of
Economic Opportunity (OEO),
American
affairs.
Other top appointments went to
with a budget of $1 billion, to coordinate a series of
Hector
Garcia, a Texas advocate for Mexican
new antipoverty programs. These programs
P.
American veterans, and

attorney
who
later
to
Raul H. Castro, a noted
became
the first
Mexican
American governor of Arizona.
Start,
As 1964 began, Johnson focused

tive efforts
on three areas: tax
his legisla-
cuts, civil rights.
and poverty. Within weeks he had persuaded

Congress
to
adopt Kennedy's tax program, which
cut personal and corporate

cent.
He
then pressured
income taxes by 4 per-
members of Congress
enact the long-stalled civil rights

3) and a
comprehensive program
bill
work
included the Job Corps, a
young people between
for
Head
an education program for preschoolers from

in
Service to America), a domestic version of the
Peace Corps. The
bill
passed Congress
in late
August 1964.
Whereas Kennedy had trouble pushing
to
lation through Congress,
major legislative goals of
Johnson
his first
legis-
fulfilled all the
term within eight
months. Comparing the two administrations. Texas

journalist Liz Carpenter concluded:
The war on
program
low-income families; and VISTA (Volunteers
(see Section
to fight poverty.
training
the ages of 16 and 21:
"Kennedy
poverty
1962, social activist Michael Harrington
In
published The Other America, a well-documented
study of poverty in the United States.

selling
book shattered
the prosperity of the
1950s. Harrington reported that
He
Americans
lived
best-
the popular notion that all
Americans had benefited from
lion
The
on
more than 42 mil-
less than SI. 000 per year.
issued a direct challenge for leaders to face the
reality of po\erty:
[The poor
erful
and
exist] within the
rich society the
most pow-
world has ever
known. Their misery has continued while

the majority of the nation talked of
840
;:
CHAPTER
29
itself as
VISTA
volunteers donated their time and talent

in the United States and in
to aid poor Americans
U.S. territories having limited public services.
Shown here
is an elementary schoolteacher
the U.S. Virgin islands.
in
inspired
showed
^tS\DENTIAL L/VfJ
Johnson delivered." Opinion polls
Americans were overwhelmingly
that
impressed with Johnson's achievements.
LYNDON
JOHNSON
B.
1908-1973
3OHNSON'S VISION FOR AMERICA

Riding
the
this
wave of
popularity.
XrwlortftiWinson'
Johnson easily won
in office
liiili'(tSUIi>
1963-1969
Democratic presidential nomination for the
1964 election. He selected Hubert Humphrey, a

liberal senator
from Minnesota,
mate. Adopting
as his running
platform that
rejected Eisenhower's
modern
Republicanism, the Republicans
chose Barry Goldwater, a conservative

senator from Arizona,
as their presidential
nominee, with
York
New
congressman
William E. Miller as
his running mate.
Johnson
Many observers saw Lyndon Johnson

stereotypical Texas politician
slightly
as the
and
loud, brash,
uncouth. Johnson loved to intentionally
shock observers with

behavior.
won by
Once
a
his shirt for a
and
his language, stories,
during an interview he
lifted
photographer to display
up
his scar
landslide, taking 61 per-
from
dolls,
and 486
1964
to
Democrats further increased
House and
a
the Senate.
bladder surgery.
cent of the popular vote
Goldwater and Johnson

campaign
gall
The
Johnson was also a very physical
Goldwater's 52. The
their majority in
last
both the
president to receive such
mandate was Franklin Roosevelt
politi-
electoral votes
cian.
He would
own
bled and slap others on their backs
shake people's hands
until his
in
friendly gesture. Fellow senators joked that
Johnson had two techniques for getting another
in 1936.
senator's attention. There was the Half-
The
Long before
plan.
the election, Johnson
had mapped out plans for his presidency.

his
He saw
major task as building a Great Society. In
this
"when he
shoulder" and the
Johnson
put
his
arm
clear
just put a
hand on your
"when
he
around you and thrust
his
Full-Johnson
Great Society, he said, poverty and racial injustice
face close to yours." But Johnson's techniques
would end. All children would have access
got
to an
education that enriched their knowledge and
results.
He was known
would serve not
drove himself and
only people's physical needs, but also their desire
complete multiple
enhanced
their talents.
for culture
and
short, in the
their
The
cities
"hunger for community." In
Great Society people would be "more
as a
his staff
tasks.
workaholic
"What's the hurry?"
one senator asked another about Johnson's

busy schedule.
"Rome
wasn't built
concerned with the quality of their goals than the
The other senator
quantity of their goods."
Johnson wasn't foreman on that
make
After his election Johnson
moved
quickly to
the Great Society a reality.
While
civil rights
was a major
who
to exhaustion to
replied,
in
a day."
"No, but Lyndon

job."
part of the Great Society legislation,
other issues included health care, education, and
urban renewal.
The programs.
In 1965
Johnson persuaded
Congress to establish Medicare, a national health
insurance program for people over age 65.
THE SIXTIES
841
siaus
C'lMiLiro^N also aulh(ri/cd liiniis loi
bill in
Independence. Missouri, to
to
front of 8 -year-old Harrv

1
who had
first
insurance
in his hair
Truman,
incredible rate.
an
It
was
poured out of Congress

the
legislative activity since Franklin Roosevelt's first
100 days.
Deal program.
for education. In a
to take action
moving speech, he
^HE WARREN COURT DECISIONS

Like the Johnson administration, the Supreme
recalled:
Court of the 1960s reflected a
44
My
teacher
first
job after college
Cotulla. Texas,
in
American school.
forget
see
its
was
as a
my
in
It
Brown
In addition to outlawing segregation across
the nation, the Court tried to extend equality in the
might
have the chance to help the sons and
voting booth with the "one person, one vole" prin-
daughters of those students and to help
ciple. In
people
like
But
let
you
in
them
now do
I
on
over
all
have that chance
a secret:
mean
to
use
and
it
many congressional
re.sentatives as
I'll
**
Baker
densely populated urban areas. In
Carr (1962). however, the Court ruled
v.
equal numbers of voters in order to offer fairly
and Secondary School Education Act of 1965.
equal representation for everyone.
which provided $1.3
by the Housing and Urban Development Act of
The
acts authorized billions of dollars for
secretary of
Weaver
oversee
actions as an attempt to build a society
all
federal housing pro-
of the
New
Deal's
new department, making him

African American
had made Americans aware
the
member
that
new programs
"our
cities
were
Many
v.
Arizona (1966)
must be informed of
their
people saw the Supreme Court's
more
firmly committed to the principle of equality for

all.
but
many
others were outraged by such deci-
sions.
The Court had overstepped
critics
charged, by making law rather than inter-
preting
it.
Some went
authority,
and misdemeanors." erect-
ing billboards that proclaimed
WARREN!" One
its
so far as to accuse the chief
justice of "high crimes
"IMPEACH EARL
critic declared:
%m
Warren
Earl
[impeachment].
Civil
rights, health care,
education, and urban renewal were the

major concerns of the Great
Society programs.
::
Miranda
with poorly housed, badly educated, underem-
ployed, desperate, unhappy Americans."
842
(1964) granted accused per-
Illinois
v.
rights at the time of their arrests.
declared that the
filled
ished defendants charged with serious crimes.
Escobedo
said that accused persons
of a presidential cabinet. Weaver
HUD.
states to
public expense, for impover-
police interrogations.
first
as
at
They also established the

Department of Housing and
Urban Development (HUD) to
"black brain trust" headed this
in
Wainwright (1963) required the
assistance for low-income fami-
member
sworn
v.
sons the right to have a lawyer present during
grams. Robert C. Weaver, a
gratulates Robert
Gideon
provide lawyers,
urban renewal and housing
lies.
President Johnson con-
also issued a series of decisions
protecting the rights of those accused of crimes.
Pushing on. Johnson persuaded Congress to
1968.
The Court
billion in aid to schools in
pass the Omnibu.s Hou.sing .Act in 1965. followed
is
should contain approximately
Congress responded by passing the Elementary
impoverished areas.
after he
districts, sparsely
populated rural areas had the same number of rep-
this country.
that election districts
in
Board of Education of defining and
v.
extending individual rights.
face
never even occurred
fondest dreams that
of activism.
begun with the 1954 desegregation decision
you never
on the hopeful
spirit
the leadership of Chief Justice Earl
Warren, the Court sought to continue the trend
Mexican
a small
Somehow
scars
of a young child. ...
me
in
Under
what poverty and hatred can do
when you
to
at
most hectic period of
proposed federally funded health
Johnson also asked Congress
on funding
Great Society law
up
id pri>\ idc free health cure to the needy.
Medicaid
Johnson traveled
sign the
scl
('
CHAPTER
29
has sinned too grandly for
He
has defiled our jurispru-
dence and made war against the public

order.
sides has
The bench over which he premade a mockery of the Supreme
Court's appointed function.
99
The Warren Court's controstrengthened
versial decisions
individual rights.
Foreign POLICY AND

THE GREAT SOCIETY
While the Great Society was taking shape, foreign
drew President Johnson's
affairs also
addition to dealing with the Vietnam conflict
Kennedy
inherited from
became involved
Republic (see
(see Chapter 30), he
in the affairs
map on page
A Juan Bosch is shown here on Decennber 8, 962,

two days before being elected president of the
Dominican Republic. A military coup removed him
from power less than one year later.
1
attention. In
of the Dominican
The
nation's
supported Johnson's action did so reluctantly. In
democratically elected president. Juan Bosch, had
the United States, however, the majority of the
The new
public backed Johnson, praising his aggressive
837).
been ousted by a military coup
in
1963.
leader never really gained control of the country,
and
in April
rebelled,
demanding Bosch's
return.
The American
ambassador, believing that Bosch had fallen under
Communist
vene
influence, insisted that Johnson inter-
to "prevent another
Cuba."
By
in a
some 22,000 marines. With American supgovernment
port, troops loyal to the military
gained the upper hand and the situation stabilized.
and
In 1966, after relatively free
a conservative,
focusing more of his attention on the Vietnam War.
As
fair elections
put
pro-American government
people
labeling
it
in the
War on
War
Jr.,
Great Society had been "shot

fields of
than
it
did on the
Poverty. Citing such statistics, civil rights
declared that the
down on
the battle-
Vietnam."
in
Foreign policy concerns drew

federal funding and President
Johnson's attention away from
Great Society programs.
Dominican Republic,
SECTION
IDENTIFY
REVIEW
and explain the significance of the following: Lyndon Johnson, Lee Harvey
War on
his
Great Society programs
leader Martin Luther King,
gunboat diplomacy. Even those who
Commission,
Vietnam consumed more of
times more on the Vietnam
America condemned
in Latin
the conflict in
time, his attention to
power, Johnson withdrew the marines.
Many
Communist expansion.
Johnson was also
the spring of 1965
decreased. In 1966 the government spent about 18
Johnson responded promptly, sending

force of
stand against the threat of
1965, factions within the military
Poverty, Office of
Economic Opportunity, Great
Osvsâld,
Warren
Society, Medicare, Medicaid,
Elementary and Secondary School Education Act, Omnibus Housing Act, Housing and Urban
Development Act, Juan Bosch.
LOCATE
I.
follov\îng:
Dominican Republic.
MAIN IDEA What four major concerns did the Great Society programs address?
MAIN IDEA Hoy/ did events in Vietnam and Latin America affect President Johnson's
domestic
programs?
IDENTIFYING VALUES How
WRITING TO EXPLAIN
ened
did President Johnson's
programs
reflect values
from
his early life?
Write an essay explaining how the Warren Court decisions strength-
individual rights.
EVALUATING Why
do you think Michael Harrington believed
that ending legalized segregation
would not change the economic condition of most poor African Americans?
THE SIXTIES
843
Section 3
THE
,f
MOVEMENT
CIVIL RIGHTS
S
What was the major tactic of the early civil rights
it generate public support for the movement?
movement? How
did
What events helped expand legislation on civil rights and voting rights?
How was African American frustration expressed in the late 960s?
What other civil rights movements were inspired by the African
1
American
,.s
///{'
civil
rights
movement?
1960s began, southern
civil rights
efforts in the struggle for racial equality.
of important
J 965.
civil rights
and
leaders called for
new
These efforts won passage
voting rights laws in 1964
and
However, some young members of the movement
believed that progress was too slow. In the mid-1960s, frustration over the lack of progress
exploded into violence
in
black neighborhoods. Meanwhile, other groups, inspired by

African American activism, fought for their rights.
NONVIOLENCE
Jr.,
1963
1960. four African American college students sat
IN
ACTION
down
at
the "whites only" lunch counter of a
Greensboro, North Carolina, department
After the success of the
Montgomery bus boycott
The management refused
to serve
store.
them, but they
(see Chapter 28), southern civil rights leaders
returned the following day, vowing to continue
met
the sit-in protest until they received service.
in Atlanta,
Georgia,
in
1957
to discuss future
They expanded the Montgomery

Improvement Association (MIA) into the
News
Southern Christian Leadership Conference

(SCLC), an alliance of church-based African
strations in cities throughout the South. In April
American organizations dedicated
the
strategy.
crimination.
The
its
SCLC
to
ending dis-
MIA. the Reverend

the new organization.
leader of the
Martin Luther King,
The
Jr..
led
pledged to use nonviolent resistance
protests.
in
Nonviolent resistance required that
protesters never resort to violence, even
ers attacked them.
King called
forces of hate with the
power of
it
when
oth-
meeting "the
love."
CHAPTER
29
of the Greensboro
sit-in
quickly spread,
and within weeks students began similar demon1960 the leaders of these demonstrations founded
Student Nonviolent Coordinating

Committee (SNCC, pronounced "snick"), a loose
association of student activists from throughout

the South.
White response
dents'
commitment
to the sit-ins tested the stu-
to nonviolence.
White
racists
taunted the demonstrators, dumping food and drinks
on them. Sometimes the harassment escalated
Many non-SCLC members soon took up

nonviolent protests on their own. On February
844
Martin Luther King,
into
physical attacks. But the demonstrators never

resorted to violence.
By
the end of the year,
many
restaurants
and other eating estab-
lishments across the South had

been integrated.
Early
civil
activists
rights
used nonvio-
lent resistance to push
for equal rights.
The freedom
The success of
rides
the sit-ins inspired
Congress of Racial Equality
the
(CORE),
a northern-based civil
rights group, to launch a protest
against segregation in interstate
May 1961 an
group of Freedom
transportation. In
integrated
Riders
set off
from Washington,
^he Jreedom Rides
D.C., for a trip through the South.
Outside the town of Anniston.
Alabama,
bombed one
mob
a white
TESTING THE BAN
fire-
New
of the two buses
carrying the group
The
in
buses to
in
public places, but the trip ended in Jackson v^hen the riders v/ere arrested
and sent
members and
beat the riders as they tried to

escape.
The Freedom Riders planned to travel
Orleans to test observance of a Supreme Court ban on segregation
to prison.
LOCATION
In
which dties were the Freedom Riders attacked?
on the other
riders
bus were attacked in Birmingham.
When
the bus
company refused
CORE
sengers any farther,
SNCC
to carry the pas-
called off the ride.
SNCC members stepped in

to complete the rest of the trip. SNCC leader Diane
the city
Nash explained why:
The
If
the Freedom Riders had been
stopped as a result of violence,

that the future of the
to be cut short.
[you have to do]
felt
going
The impression would have
been that whenever a movement

is
attack
lence and the blacks
it
starts,
all
with massive vio-
[will] stop.
99
to
commissioner of public
safety, T.
Eugene
dumped across the state line.

made their way back to Birmingham
and convinced the bus line to take them to
"Bull" Connor, and
students
Montgomery, where they were once again attacked
strongly
movement was
Freedom Riders
Birmingham, where they were quickly arrested by
Immediately, Nashville
sent additional
by a mob. Under pressure from
civil rights leaders,
Attorney General Robert Kennedy sent federal

marshals to protect the riders on the rest of their
journey. In Jackson, Mississippi, however, state
officials arrested the riders.
Outraged by the
arrests,
hundreds of other protesters
on the
rides.
Over
Freedom Riders
the
tried to carry
summer more
than 300
traveled the South to protest seg-
regation. In response, Robert
Kennedy pressured
the Interstate
Commerce Commission (ICC)
strengthening
its
into
desegregation regulations.
Stunned Freedom Riders gather outside their

bus after it was firebombed by a white mob. In all,
2 people were taken to an Anniston hospital
for treatment.
1
THE SIXTIES
845
Nonviolent resistance proved more effective
Successes and setbacks
in
Birmingham.
In April
1963 the
SCLC
launched
a series of boycotts, sit-ins, and marches to protest
The
also
rulings,
many educational
1%2
segregated. In
the
institutions
NAACP
remained
obtained a court
.-Xfrican
strators, including
Martin Luther King.
arrested and jailed.
The
until
Jr.,
were
protests continued to grovs
May, when Bull Connor ordered the police
attack the marchers,
order requiring the University of Mississippi to

admit
Hundreds of demon-
the city's segregation laws.
movement saw many successes; it

saw many setbacks. Despite Supreme Court
civil rights
many of them
to
schoolchildren,
with high-pressure fire hoses, dogs, and night-
.American applicant James Meredith.
Scenes of these attacks appeared
in
new spa-
President Kenned> dispatched federal marshals to
sticks.
ensure that Meredith arrived safely at school.
pers and on television throughout the world,
30
Meredith was on campus, a
that
that left
increasing supfX)rt for the civil rights movement.
got out on the evening of September
When word
riot
broke out
Mob
violence against civil rights

activists increased public support
for the movement.
two people dead. Meredith registered the
next day and attended classes the rest of the year
under the protection of armed guards.

Events elsewhere tested the effectiveness of
nonviolent resistance as a protest
tactic. In
Albany,
The march on Washington
Georgia, civil rights organizations staged numer-
ous nonviolent protests against discrimination, but

Police Chief Laurie Pritchett
was prepared
Early in June. President Kennedy urged the passage
for
meeting "nonviolence with nonviolence." Pritchett
new civil rights act designed to end segregation. To show support for Kennedy's civil
quietly arrested all of the protesters without resort-
rights bill, African
them. Calling his method of law enforcement
of a broad
He arranged to fill all the jails in

surrounding areas w ith prisoners and continued
the
to
t~ill
them
more than 200.000 people gathered
1963.
for a
On August
28.
at the
Lincoln Memorial, where they heard Martin Luther
for as long as possible, causing the
Albany movement
American leaders called
huge march on Washington. D.C.
ing to violence.
King.
to virtually stall out.
Jr..
deliver one of the
most moving speeches
MARCH TO FREEDOM
Civil
The Granger
nights
Co*iect)On.
New YorH
Engraving observing passage of
the
Civil
Aa of 1875
Rights
Fourteenth
I'l'rM Thirteenth
Amendment passed.
Amendment
Civil Rights
passed.
Act passed.
Crow
U
I860
1865
Civil Rights
1870
1875
t_
Emancipation
Proclamation issued.
First Jim
laws passed.
Act passed.
1885
1880
Slaughterhouse Cases limit

protection of African American rights
under Fourteenth Amendment.

The G'ar-ge
Civil Rights
HT'VJ
Fifteenth
Amendment
846
CHAPTER
29
passed.
Act of 875 declared

1
unconstitutional.
Detail from the
Freedmen voDng
EmancipatK>n Prodamation
Richmond,
in
Virginia.
1871
in
American
Repeating the phrase
history.
dream." King spoke of
Americans would Hve
a nation in
harmony
in
"I
The March on Washington
have
which
all
helped bring about passage of the
(see page 1010).
Civil Rights
Act of 964.
1
Other speakers, such as A. Philip Randolph,
gave eloquent testimony

civil rights in
warned
America.
that the
until equality
leader John Lewis
JREEDOM SUMMER AND SELMA
younger generation of demonstra-
were determined not
tors
to the long struggle for
SNCC
was
to give
up
their struggle
As Congress debated
a true reality:
ment leaders turned
By
the force of our demands, our
we
determination and our numbers,

splinter the segregated
South into
shall
thou-
sand pieces, and put them back together

the image of
God
and democracy.
**
tration. In
June 1964 they launched Freedom
campaign
voters.
involved nearly 1,000 volunteers,
It
the
their
March on Washington
45 percent, but where only 5 percent of
bomb exploded in a Birmingham church, killing

young African American girls. Then in
November an assassin's bullet cut down President
Kennedy. The new president, Lyndon Johnson,
growing out of the
state's
the early 20th century and the
four
old African American
in public
lynchings in
murder of 14-year-
Emmett
Till in
On
1955.
Summer
June 21 Michael Schwerner and
Andrew Goodman, two white New Yorkers, and

James Chaney, a black Mississippian, were
civil rights bill.
abducted and
accommodations and
gave the Justice Department the power to bring lawsuits to
many
Violence quickly struck the Freedom
campaign.
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 barred discrimination
employment and
rolls.
Mississippi had a reputation for racial violence,
in
many
Freedom Summer
African Americans were on the voting
joy proved short-lived. In mid-September
urged Congress to pass Kennedy's
American
focused on Mississippi, a state with a black popu-
raised the spirits of civil rights workers everywhere.
But
to register African
of them white northerners.
In
move-
Summer,
lation of
The success of
the Civil Rights Act,
their attention to voter regis-
enforce school desegregation.
killed.
Shocked volunteers carried
on, but
many
become
the victims of violence
local blacks feared they

if
would
also
they registered.
Students at
Tuskegee
Institute
NAACP founded.
'jiliM New York

City race riot occurs.
il:M Ray
Stannard Baker's
Following the Color
Line published.
1890
Ida Wells-Barnett
publishes lynching study.
1895
1900
1910
1905
IT
! Teddy
Roosevelt discharges
entire black regiment
in
Brownsville,
Texas.Âtlanta race
Plessy V.
Ida Wells-Barnett
Ferguson
supports
segregation.
riot occurs.
National
Urban League founded.
THE SIXTIES
847
A week
B> ihe end oi ihe summer, only 1.600 AliKaii

Americans had been added
workers launched a
who had won
King,
mission offices
Selma
area, only
com-
to face
Within days of the
American
One
examiners
By 1968 over
in the
half of
all
eligible
South were registered.
Bloody Sunday, and the Voting

Rights Act of 1965 expanded
African
eight-year-old girl in the march
me and
act's passage, federal
Freedom Summer, Selma's
trek.
recalled the scene: "I saw those horsemen
toward
voters.
African Americans
Just outside Selma, police attacked the
marchers.
Congress
descended on the South to sign up new African
by calling for a protest march from Selma to

Montgomery. On Sunday. March 7. some 6(X) peoon the 50-mile
later
the entire registration process under federal control.
beatings and arrests. Civil rights leaders responded
ple started
months
They
to register at election
in the
their journey. Five
the Nobel Peace Pri/e
the previous year, to lead them. P\)r days African
Americans attempted
completed
passed the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which put
similar registration drive in Selma. Alabama.

in\ ited
marshals and the National Guard, the marchers
lo ihe voting rolls.
In early 1965. civil rights
under the protection of federal
later,
American voter
registration.
coming
they had those awful masks on;
they rode right through the cloud of tear gas.
Some of them had clubs, others had ropes, or whips,

which they swung about them like they
were driving
cattle."
Stunned by the fierceness of
6 LACK POWER
As
the civil rights
movement grew, many African
this attack,
thousands of Americans poured into
Americans questioned the effectiveness of nonvio-
Selma
show support
lence.
to
President Johnson
was
marchers.
the
for
also shocked by Selma's
"Bloody Sunday." On March
15.
before a joint
session of Congress, he asked for speedy passage of

a voting rights
take
All Americans, he said, ought to
felt that
they should be able to use vio-
lence for self-defense. Others began to question the

desirability of integration altogether.
many
slogan Black Power,

that African
all
economic and
who must overcome the crippling legacy

And we shall overcome."
of
that since white society
the struggle for civil rights, for
"it's
bigotry and injustice.
Adopting the
of these leaders argued
Americans should mobilize
...
up
of us
bill.
Some
political power.
Some
to gain
also argued
caused racism, only sepa-
from white society would enable African
ration
MARCH TO FREEDOM
Race
riot in
Washington,
D.C. 1919
Guinn v.
United States outlaws
"grandfather clause."
National
Council of Negro
Women formed.
Marcus Garvey
founds Black Star
Steamship Company.
"Red Summer"
record number of race
riots occur throughout
the country.
^
1915
1920
1925
1930
t
The U.S.
enters World War I.
Over 370,000 African
Americans serve.
Southern
Tenant Farmers'
Union formed.
A. Philip Randolph
founds Brotherhood of
Sleeping Car Porters.
Soldiers
Infantry
848
CHAPTER
29
of the 369th
Regiment
Members ofOie STFU
1935
Americans
to
obtain such power. Although
the Black Power slogan was not widely used
the late 1960s,
it
earlier African
brought about "by any means necessary." The time
represented the ideas of many

American leaders, including
Marcus Garvey (see Chapter 21 and Malcolm X, a
who
rose to prominence in the
you
IflLlI
'"ilu'
Malcolm
in
Nebraska
in
was bom Malcolm
1925. His father was a
Baptist minister and organizer for
something
it
or shut up.
Marcus
is
you
If
forget
see that
up on freedom nowadays.
yours by
**
generation that has
own minds and
can't negotiate
If
Little
new
now, and they're beginning
right
to think with their
early civil rights era.
HHH
You're getting a
been growing
black nationalist
had passed, he argued:
for nonviolence
until
right,
then fight for
can't fight for
it,
then
it.
Garvey. After his father died and his mother
succumbed
to
mental
Moving
in
after a pilgrimage to the Islamic holy city
of
Michigan and then to

young Malcolm drifted into a
Mecca. Turning away from separatism, he con-
of crime, eventually ending up in prison. While
verted to orthodox Islam and began calling for unity
rupted.
first to
Massachusetts, the
life
1964
broke with the Black Muslims
Malcolm
family was dis-
illness, the
in prison,
Muhammad's Nation
in 1952,
bolize
his
in
and the Nation of Islam. In
down Malcolm X.
lost
to
Other young
some of
sym-
P.
however, carried on
activists,
his ideas. In 1966, college students
Newton and Bobby Scale founded
the
Huey
Black
Panther party in Oakland, California, to promote
African
a
self-determination in the black community.
leading minister for the
Asserting that blacks could not trust white police
surname.
Workers
faith.
rejected the
and used *'X"
holder,
people. This break set off a bitter struggle
February 1965, Black Muslim assassins gunned
name
Little, handed down to him
from some former slaveMalcolm
all
between Malcolm
of Islam, or Black Muslims,
an offshoot of the orthodox Islamic
Freed
among
he embraced the teachings of Elijah
He soon became
A powerful
Malcolm X champi-
Black Panthers armed
Nation of Islam.
officers to protect them, the
orator,
themselves and established citizen patrols to moni-
"War can only be abolished through
oned black separatism and
tor the streets.
called for freedom to be
war," they declared. Although the Black Panthers
The "Litde
wartime
plar)t
The U.S.
enters World War II.
Some one
appoints
on
Truman
Committee
and NAACP
leaders
Civil Rights.
million
Arkansas's
African Americans
"Little
Racial discrimi-
serve.
Rock N/ne"
Rock Nine"
enroll at Central High
nation banned in
defense industries and
School.^
SCLC
founded.
government.
i
1940
1945
1950
I960
1955
1
interstate
ICC bans segregation on

travel.
Montgomery bus
boycott begins.
Racial
discrimination
banned in federal
Smith V. Allright
outlaws "white primaries."
hiring
and
Sit-ins
begin
Greensboro, N.C.
military.
in
SNCC
Civil Rights Act

passed. 4 United States v.
Raines outlaws literacy tests
for voting.
founded.
Civil rights
activist
Ella
Baker
THE SIXTIES
849
were in\i)l\cd
pi)lice.
in
numerous conlroniaiions with
many African Americans
ailmircJ iheir
some of the Black Power movement's ideas, such as

the need for African Americans to gain economic
power.
boldness.
He
ing that
ahso
THE STREETS
IRE IN
among
Frustration
Americans fueled much of the suppon
for the
rights
lives
movement, discrimination
still
plagued the
of most African Americans. In August 1965
frustration
became
revolt
Los Angeles police
when
a routine arrest
Watts broke into a riot that raged for six days.

the National
Guard
injured,
When
34 people
finally restored order.
were dead, hundreds were
by
black neighborhood of
in the
broke out
erupted
misuse of gov-
to protest this
to
Memphis. Tennessee,
port for a garbage workers'
of April 4, 1968, the
strike.
On
man who was
nonviolence met a violent end
show
to
the
when
his sup-
the evening
symbol of
a sniper killed
him. Within hours of King's death, black neighbor-
hoods
all
over the country exploded
week of rioting
left
in outrage.
46 dead and thousands
injured.
and almost 4.000
The Black Power movement and
the next
two
years,
more than 100
where 43 people
federal report by the
the riots of the late 1960s
riots
demonstrated growing frustration among African Americans.
The worst
across the country.
in cities
in Detroit,
Vietnam (see Chapter
Before the Poor People's March took place.
King went
had been arrested.
0\er
in
called for a Poor People's
ernment funding.
Black
Power movement. Despite the successes of the civil
war
for the
March 1968 he
March on Washington
poor inner-city African
that fund-
might have gone for the War on Poverty
was being used

30). In
became increasingly upset
lost their lives.
Kerner Commission
charged that white racism was largely responsible

for the tensions that led to the riots.
the report warned, "is
one black, one white
"Our
moving toward two
nation."
societies,
separate and unequal."
Seeking to address the frustration of the

1960s. Martin Luther King.
Jr..
started to
late
embrace
Others
inspired by
the movement
King's tragic death and the divisions within the
rights
movement during
the 1960s
civil
sometimes
MARCH TO FREEDOM
Coretto Scott King at
tnsM James
Meredith enrolls at
the University
of Mississippi,
"Ole Miss."
funeral service,
Martin Luther King,

assassinated.
James Meredith attempting

to enter Ole
968
Demonstrators attacked
in Selma.
Voting Rights Act
passed.
Malcolm X assassinated. ^
Watts riots occur.
blames white racism for
Mrss
Jr.
^ Kerner Report
riots.
^^^^.
Nearly 100 race riots occur
the U.S.
SCLC
Lundi counter
sit-in.
963
launches Birmingham
protests.
launched
Freedom Summer project

^ Civil Rights Act
Mississippi Freedom Democratic
in Mississippi.
passed.
party founded.
îa^M^H CORE sponsors

Freedom Rides. Albany
Movement launched.
850
CHAPTER
29
Amendment
in
^ Kerner Commission appointed.
Twenty-fourth
outlawing poll taxes passed.
obscure the movement's gains.
also inspired other
It
demand
196()s a
group
that
Workers (UFW).
better treatment.
would become
led by
the
During the
United
organize Western migrant workers, most of
were Mexican Americans,

working conditions.
to
win
better
cloth
to
wages and
for
meant
ment, many younger members of the Mexican

American movement began demanding moreradical action. Young Mexican American college
students organized the Chicano movement, which
Such pride was
American
in
Mexican
country, most notably

race"),
founded
Popular culture
that to
be white and middle
to
be
ethnic pride
1950s had
in the
truly
"American"
class. In the 1960s,
and other groups insisted that the meaning of
American must expand

equally, not just
The
numerous Mexican
tral
("the united
the
to include all citizens
one favored group.
of these movements also raised a cen-
rise
question:
own
sprang up around the
La Raza Unida
force.
African Americans, Hispanics, American Indians
culture and heritage.
reflected in the
political parties that
by
promoted the message
African American civil rights move-
emphasized pride
loyalty.
lasted
until federal authorities finally
movements emphasized
All these
Dutch for
the
The occupation of Alcatraz
the protesters
and group
UFW had won most of its demands.
in the
protesters offered to
same price paid by
Island.
many months,
removed
.strike
wide boycott of grapes picked by nonunion workers.

the
the
Manhattan
of California grape pickers and launched a nation-
By 1970
As
The
Franci.sco.
buy the island from the government with beads and
whom
1965 Chavez called a
In
San
Island near
Farm
Cesar Chavez, began
group of Red Power advocates
occupied the abandoned federal prison on Alcatraz
groups, such as Mexican Americans and American

Indians, to
1969
In
Could oppressed groups discover
identities
and promote
same time
their
own
their
interests yet at
retain a sense of citizenship
and
belonging to the larger American society? This
in 1970.
Some American Indians organized into the

Red Power movement, which demanded, among
important question
still
confronts us today.
other things, that the U.S. government pay tribes for
them
lands that had been taken from
The
illegally. In
civil
rights
movement
1968 three Minnesota Chippewas organized the
Inspired other groups, such as
American Indian Movement (AIM), which would
Mexican Americans and

American Indians, to fight
become
the major force in the
ment during the 1970s
Red Power move-
their rights.
(see Chapter 31).
SECTION
IDENTIFY
REVIEW
and explain the significance of the following: Southern Christian Leadership Conference,
nonviolent resistance,
Freedom
for
Riders,
sit-in,
Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, Congress of Racial Equality,
March on Washington,
Civil Rights
Act of 1964, Freedom Summer, Voting Rights Act,
Black Power, Malcolm X, Kerner Commission, United Farm Workers, Cesar Chavez, Chicano move-
ment, American Indian Movement.
LOCATE
and explain the importance of the following: Greensboro, North Carolina; Birmingham,
Alabama; Albany, Georgia; Selma, Alabama; Memphis, Tennessee.

I.
MAIN IDEA What tactic did members of the early civil rights movement use to fight for equal
rights? What effect did this tactic have on public opinion?
MAIN IDEA What event helped bring about passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964? What incidents helped expand African American voter registration?
MAIN IDEA How did the African American civil rights movement affect other ethnic movements?
WRITING TO EXPRESS A VIEWPOINT Imagine you are a Freedom Rider. Write a letter to
the editor of a southern newspaper explaining
TAKING A STAND
Take a stand
tion and nonviolent resistance or
in
why you
feel
it is
necessary to complete the rides.
support of either Martin Luther King,
Malcolm X's method of separation and
strengths and possible effects of that
method on the
civil
rights
Jr.'s
method
of negotia-
self-defense. State the
movement.
THE SIXTIES
851
Section ^
LJ
CULTURE AND COUNTERCULTURE
^^^~
k^
FOCUS
How
did hippies rebel against traditional society?
What
How
did the revived
women's movement do
for
women?
did rock music impact the 1960s?
^he times they are a-changin \ " declared singer Bob Dylan in
1963. He was not referring to the civil rights movement alone. Many
young people,
rejecting the values of their parents' generation,
embraced new
styles
of music and dress and new ways of life. Others
challenged American traditions, including religious practices and the

role
of women
in society.
The
result
was a reinvention of culture
that
Hippie, 1967
eventually affected the entire nation.
campuses among white middle-class
The counterculture
felt
students.
Many
frustrated by the impersonal academic bureau-
cracy and by the conservative curriculum offered
The youth
the Beats
movement
rebellion that began in the 1950s with
and rock
in the
'n' roll
evolved into a broad
1960s that challenged the beliefs
and traditions of older generations. Growing up

during an era of Cold War
fears,
massive
civil rights
protests, and the
War
led
many
baby boom
Vietnam
children of the
universities.
To them,
traditional courses
of touch with the real world.

In 1964 discontent exploded into protest at
the University of California at Berkeley.
Some 70
percent of the students went
on
strike. Instead
of attending
classes, they rallied, held sitins,
and picketed university
to question the
administration buildings.
values of American society
Their intention, they declared,
and
to
blame
their parents for
creating the problems that
was
to
"Shut This Factory
plagued the country. This
Down." By 1965 such chants

were echoing from college
generation gap between the
campuses across the nation.
baby boomers and their

elders
grew ever wider
as the
decade wore on.
Shaking
tower.
4 Five hundred policemen

were present during the
the
The
first
ivory
Berkeley student protests
audible
Some
demonstrators who staged
rumblings of the 1960s youth
movement occurred on
852
at
seemed out
CHAPTER
29
college
December
sit-in
in
1964.
were arrested and
hauled off to
jail.
As
Vietnam War escalated
the
campus activism increased

woman who participated in the
at
Columbia University
in the late
movement
student
recalled the
iy6()s,
more. One
still
mood
of the
students:
There was an
that here
the world.
Everybody believed that
would be
a revolution
this
changed, that there'd be
the United States within
in
and a whole new
years,
history, changing
would never be the same, that
university
society
incredible exhilaration,
we were making
social order.
While some students wanted
five
99
to
change the
world, others rebelled by rejecting everything con-
nected with mainstream America, what they called

the Establishment. Instead, these hippies
soon became known
sought
to create
as they
an alterna-
A The
taken
tive life-style, a counterculture.
Elements of the counterculture.
Haight-Ashbury
attracted hippies of
in
May
district of
San Francisco
ages. This photograph
all
was
968.
Like the
Beats before them, hippies rejected the material-
ism and work ethic of past generations

simplicity and doing "your
own
in favor
thing."
of
Many
hippies indulged in behavior intended to shock
Questioning American
SOCIETY
older Americans, such as public displays of

nudity and the use of profanity.
new
Most searched
for
physical experiences by engaging in permis-
by experimenting with
sive sexual behavior or
mind-altering drugs, such as
LSD
(lysergic acid
diethylamide), or "acid."
Timothy Leary, a Harvard professor who was

1963 for using
fired in
became
with his students,
the drug's leading advocate. Leary invited
people to "tune
lowed
LSD
turn on, drop out."
in,
his advice.
Many
But there was a high price
to
The counterculture movement
Americans, even those not active

ture
Some
at
an alarming
Many
traditional churches,
came under
gion could answer
pay
religion
communes, where they attempted
to
dence
food, and shared
all
property.
Some formed
hippie neighborhoods in run-down urban
areas, such as the
Haight-Ashbury
district
was losing
its
in the ability
some
own
or most of
of San
society's
influence on American
life,
God Dead?"
many
lost confi-
of the established churches of
The challenges of the nuclear age,

had made conventional religious
world.
felt,
answers irrelevant. Reflecting the search for

native answers, the
religion
alter-
number of college courses
and enrollment
cally, as did interest in
Francisco.
modem
their parents to provide spiritual assurance in the
modem
their
all
Americans, especially the young, did not
live collectively in
harmony with nature. They

modern conveniences, grew their
scrutiny. In the
1969, however, 70 percent said that
leading Time magazine to ask, "Is
rejected most
own
By
necessarily lack spiritual faith, but
hippies "dropped out" of society by
joining rural
institutions, including
mid-1950s, over 80 percent of Americans said reh-
problems.
rate.
many
to question the
value of conformity.
cases of sexually transmitted diseases and drug

addiction increased
growing
in the countercul-
movement, were beginning
fol-
for the experimentation of the era, as reported
reflected a
sense of skepticism in America. In the 1960s
in
them
in
grew dramati-
Eastern religions such as
Zen Buddhism.
Hippies rebelled against traditional society by
own
forming their
counterculture.
The questioning of
into the art world.
that the art
tradition
Many new
even extended
visual artists argued
world had become a slave
to elite tastes
THE SIXTIES
853
and prejudices. AriisiN created works only

please a tew cultured critics
mu
to
to appi-il in ilic
majority of non-artists.
As
ot New York
wanted to
who
emerged
the 196()s began, a
painters and sculptors
number
make art more accessible to the general public.

They accomplished their goals by using "found
objects"
tin
cans, furniture, cardboard packaging,
cartiH>n strips,
and other everyday
subjects of their works.
this
The
articles
as the
leading proponents of
method, called pop art, included Roy
Lichlenslein and Claes Oldenberg.
Many
of
o\crsi/c soup cans, rows of green soda bottles, and
photograph of
a garishly colored rendering of a
Marilyn Monroe reproduced multiple times.

Initially, Warhol painted by hand. However, he
soon switched to a stencil-printing process called
he simply did designs that an
silk screen. Finally,
assistants then reproduced. Warhol's
army of
sage, that everything
mes-
even can be mass-proart
duced, both glorified and mocked consumerism.
Warhol once predicted
everyone
that "In the future
will be famous for 15 minutes," reflecting con-
sumers' constant desires for
new
products.
Lichtenstein's huge paintings were done in comic-
strip style,
complete with speech balloons.
Oldenberg used a variety of materials
make
to
giant sculptures of such things as hamburgers,
/I REVIVED WOMEN'S MOVEMENT
ttxnhpaste tubes, and clothespins.
One of
The best-known pop artist, however, was

Andy Warhol. His most notable paintings included
years of inaction, the
its
the
most
lasting legacies of the 1960s
challenge to traditional views of
women.
women's movement
was
After
experi-
enced a widespread revival.
Sparks of unrest.
^ Pop
art
artists
more
helped
make
part
accessible to the
This revival was sparked
in
by the publication of Betty Friedan's The
Feminine Mystique (1963). which rejected the pop-
general public by selecting
women were
ular notion that
content with the roles
images that reflected

everyday life. Andy
Warhol, for exaniple,
of wife, mother, and homemaker.
painted these oversize

soup cans in 1965.
centration
she charged,
felt stifled
Many women,
by the "comfortable con-
camp" of domestic
life:
Each suburban wife struggled with
alone.
As she made the beds, shopped
groceries,
matched slipcover
it
for
material, ate
peanut butter sandwiches with her children,

chauffeured
Cub
Scouts and Brownies,
she was afraid to ask even of herself the

silent
question
Other
Roy LicMns*<n
A Many
of
Roy
Lichtenstein's
"Is this all?"
99
women agreed with Friedan. Her book

women to demand greater oppor-
helped motivate
tunities
and
fairer treatment in the
workplace.
paintings
were
Although the Civil Rights Act of 1964 outlawed
drawn
sexual discrimination in employment, the govern-
in
flamboyant,
comic-strip
style.
ment seemed
ances.
As
reluctant to deal with
a result, in
women's
griev-
1966 Friedan and other
feminists founded the National Organization for
Women (NOW)
Women
began
ety of ways.
to
lobby for women's rights.
to stand
Some
up for themselves
in a vari-
held consciousness-raising ses-
sions to improve their self-esteem. Others took

direct action. In 1968, for example,
some
feminists
disrupted the Miss America pageant, charging that
beauty contests degraded women.
854
CHAPTER
29
HISTORY
BY DR. ALICE KESSLER-H ARRIS
the
iff
JVlaking
Social History
ntil
used
relatively recently,
most American
history text-
books focused on
political his-
deeds of the
tory, recounting the
nation's political, military,

social leaders. Today,
and
however,
textixxjks have begun to place
new methods
to recon-
Earlier historians
had analyzed
only written sources

political
and
The new
intellectual leaders.
work-
What is social history?

Some 50 years ago the wellknown British historian G. M.
songs, folklore, reports of chari-
speeches and
letters, oral
lives
children.
distress.
families, schools,
that both
preserve traditional values and

help introduce
history,
new
ones. This
however, goes beyond
the "old" social history by using
the household, giving details
women, and
them
social history
churches, and so on
Social
rather than political
social institutions to help
men,
daily lives of
and
racial
ethnic backgrounds helped
The new
in
also explores the social institu-
They concentrated on
about the
of the
929-39 (1984)
shows how people's
tions
his-
historians studied people's pri-
events.
cope with economic
histories, autobiographies,
tory as "the history of a people
vate
Women
Depression: Caste and Culture
San Antonio,
social historians
class back-
share. For example, Julia Kirk
Blackwelder's
by
left
uncovered new sources
oul"
different
grounds share and do not
ers'
left
and
thoughts of ordinary people.
history.
with the politics
Americans of
racial, ethnic,
a greater emphasis on social
Trevelyan described social
that
struct the daily lives and
explain broader political, eco-
Though
nomic, or technological
colorful, this history failed to
changes. For example, Kenneth
explain larger historical themes.
Jackson's Crabgrass Frontier
But social history changed

in
the 1960s.
The
civil
movement, antiwar
rights
new
historians. In
how
order to explain
these protest
985) explains that American

preference for
detached homes of their
A RoW, Jordan,
social history
generation of
families'
protests,
and the women's movement

inspired a
Roll,
an example of
in
helped lead to the growth of
by Eugene D.
Genovese, explores plantation

the preCivil
War
own
suburbs
life
an important eco-
nomic and geographic change.
South.
The
movements
best social history
arose, historians began studying
table societies, and ethnic and
combines research on
how
immigrant newspapers. These
and economic institutions with
historians used statistical meth-
research on
African Americans,
women, and
ethnic groups
how
other than white Protestants
ods to study
contributed to American
where they moved, what they
tory. Focusing
ple
his-
on ordinary peo-
workers, women,
city
dwellers, farmers, immigrants

social historians set
out to
ate and drank,
people voted,
how
they spent
and saved their money, and the
social historians
expand the history of the
have created a body of
United States.
whose
To do
sought out
so,
these historians
new sources and
strength
work
lies in its
respect
for cultural diversity. Their
work
explores the values and ideas
and
act.
ordinary peoThis combina-
tion helps us understand politics
and the forces that ultimately

create change.
new
size of their families.
The new
ple think
how
political
In
doing so, the
social historians can rightly
claim to have updated

Trevelyan's definition of social
history by creating a history of

all
Americans with the
mixed
politics
in.
THE SIXTIES
i:
855
A new
movement
in ihc civil rights
ulu> had pariKipaicd
Many young women
generation.
and counterculture realized
that they faced just as
much
in
sexual discrimination
those realms as they
One
did in mainstream society.
activist recalled a
friend telling her that "you'll never be a radical as
long as you don't see
You always
ments were beginning

rights.
the system affects you.
affects other people
it
more women
l^6()s
late
think
how
By the
move-
'
inspired by other
to stand
up for
One woman who became
so inspired was
in
Toledo, Ohio. In
bom
on March 25. 1934.
spent most of her teenage years taking care of her
invalid mother. In 1952 Steinem entered Smith

College, where she graduated with
loved Smith," she
"I
recalled. "They gave you three

meals a day to eat, and all the
books you wanted
to read
love of reading and writing led to
her desire to
become
a journalist.
the
A com-
pelling influence on the youth rebellion of the
1950s, rock *n' roll continued to reflect social
change
in the
1960s, while
branched out into a
it
new forms.
The year 1964 marked
variety of
Invasion
the musical British
the arrival of such English bands as the
'n" roll
Drawing on rock
and African American blues for inspiration,
these bands created a vibrant, powerful
new
of music. Meanwhile. African American
many sponsored by Molow n Records of
style
artists,
Detroit,
were experimenting with enhanced blendings of

traditional black music.
The unique and widely
known
popular style they created became
"Motown
as the
sound."
The use of electrically amplified
instruments,
especially the electric guitar, inspired musicians to

try
innovative
and very
loud
sounds on audi-
ences. Seattle native Jimi Hendrix
was
the master
1968 she started writing a
political
column
New
for
York
magazine, which brought her into

contact with activists such as Cesar
feminist
1960s marched to new forms of music.
what
more could you want?" Steinem's
In
movements of
Beatles and the Rolling Stones.
1946 her parents divorced. She
honors.
JSICAL REVOLUTION
All of the social and political
own
their
Journalist Gloria Steinem.
Gloria Steinem was
J-
Chavez and African American

Communist Angela Davis. Later
that year she w rote her first openly
article. "After Black Power. Women's
T Jimi Hendrix, shown here performing in 1970,

was one of the most innovative rock 'n' roll
guitarists to
emerge during the
late 1960s.
Liberation." which established her as an advocate of
the
movement. In 1971 she helped found the

Women's Political Caucus to encourage
National
women
to run for political office.
Thai same year,
she became editor of a new magazine for
w omen
entitled \fs.
"There
is
nothing outside of [the move-
mentl," Steinem said. "I once thought

this for
life."
two or three years and go home
would do
to
my
But she has continued to be a leader
women's movement,
real
in the
writing several books, lobby-
ing for causes such as the passage of the Equal
Rights
Amendment
(see Chapter 31). and helping
found numerous organizations for women, including the Coalition of
Women
Labor Union
Women
and
Against Pornography.
The 960s
1
revival of the
women's
movement challenged traditional

views of women.
856
:!
APTE
29
Folk music by
such as
Joan Baez was
also popular
during the
artists
1960s.
in the 1960s.
of the electric guitar

inspired a
as Joan
new
Folk music also
type of rock sound as singers such
Baez and Bob Dylan created

message
sent a political
1962 Dylan
lyrics that
such as
to listeners,
in this
hit:
How many
before
Yes,
it's
years can a mountain exist
washed to the
How many
'n'
sea?
some
years can
people exist
before they're allowed to be free?
Yes,
'n'
How many
man
times can a
turn his head
pretending he just doesn't see?
The answer, my
in
friend,
is
blowin'
the wind,
The answer
is
blowin'
in
the wind.
99
In spite
of traffic jams, water shortages, lack of public conve-
niences, and rain, the
Woodstock Music
Festival in
August
1969 was an overwhelming success.

In the late 1960s, as the
rage, rock
Vietnam War continued
music became more openly
to
political.
Woodstock was more
Dylan. Baez. and other musicians popular with

counterculture performed songs that bitterly
criti-
marking the
the era,
high point of the counterculture movement.
cized the war.
Rock music would be
the focal point of an
event that marked the beginning of the end for the
movement the Woodstock Music

August 1969 some 300,000 young
counterculture
Festival. In
was a celebration of
cert. It
than just a rock con-
people descended on rural upstate
New
York
for
four months later,
at a free
Some
concert held
at
Altamont Raceway near San Francisco, a security
team beat a young African American fan

in full
view of the
stage.
The
to death
idealistic spirit
of the
youth movement seemed to die with him.
the three-day festival. Despite driving rain, knee-
Rock music followed the movements of the 1960s and marked
deep mud. and severe shortages of food and

water, the concert remained a peaceful gathering
as listeners reveled in the
the high point of the counterculture at Woodstock.
music of rock's
top performers.
SECTION
IDENTIFY
Timothy
and explain the significance of the following: generation gap, hippies, counterculture,
Leary,
pop
Organization for
1.
2.
Roy
Andy Warhol, Betty Friedan, National

Bob Dylan, Woodstock.
have on traditional views
women?
did the youth rebellion of the 1960s have
society?
WRITING TO EVALUATE
ates the relationship
5.
Lichtenstein, Claes Oldenberg,
Gloria Steinem, British Invasion, Jimi Hendrix,
ASSESSING CONSEQUENCES What consequences

on
4.
art,
Women,
MAIN IDEA Why did hippies form their own counterculture?

MAIN IDEA What effect did the revival of the women's movement
of
3.
REVIEW
Imagine you are a music
between rock
SYNTHESIZING How
'n' roll
did the various
critic in
1969. NA^rite an article that evalu-
music and the events of the 1960s.
works of pop
artists reflect
American culture
in
the
1960s?
THE SIXTIES
857
SNCC
John
CHAPTER
29
founded
flight.
F.
Bay
of Pigs
Freedom
Kennedy
invaded.
elected
president.
Rides begin. Berlin

Wall buiic
summary
1.
and
list
to
in
ond next to
2,
Rides,
Study the time
5.
the order
first
line
which
in
next to
activity
traditions
3.
Betty Friedan's The Feminine Mystique published.
4.
Freedom Rides
5.
Medicare and Medicaid established.
How
sions
did Michael Harrington's
2.
Peace Corps
3.
Fidel
4.
Warren Commission
5. Juan
Castro
Bosch
rights
v.
institutions
in
and
the late 1960s?
Warren Court's
Wainwright, Escobedo
deci-
v. Illinois,
Arizona strengthen individual rights?
v.
Synthesizing
2.
progress
book The
AND
In
what ways
did African
in
achieving
civil
rights?
Analyzing What contribution did music and pop

art make to society in the 1960s?
3.

IDEAS
Review the

Frontier
civil
Americans express frustration over their slow
New
Gideon
in
and Miranda
Other America influence American domestic policy?
What
were challenged
begin.
IDENTIFYING PEOPLE
Freedom
did the
and other peaceful
THINKING CRITICALLY
Evaluating How did the
1
2.
sit-ins,
Cultural Diversity
3.
the sec-
Woodstock Music Festival occurs.

American Indian Movement organized.
Evaluating
events overseas
protests help expand democracy?
above,
below.
1
Washington occurs.
Kennedy assassinated.
undermine the Great Society programs?
of the chapter.
paper
Cuban
missile crisis erupts.
REVIEWING THEMES
Global Relations How did
2.
Number your
published.
WRITING A SUMMARY
write a
Equal Pay Act passed.

Betty Friedan's The
Michael Harrington's Feminine Mystique
published. March on
The Other America
Yuri Gagarin I'-ikes

first manned spjce
Skills
and Graphs beginning on page 996. Study the graph

below, which shows the
number
of drug arrests
6.
nonviolent resistance
reported between I960 and 1970.
7.
Voting Rights Act
the
8.
Chicano movement
how many
9.
generation gap
10.
Gloria Steinem
number
of arrests
arrests
first
which year did
In
exceed 100,000? About
were reported
in
970?
URBAN DRUG ARRESTS, 1960-1970

1.
How
deter
2.
did the
Kennedy administration propose to
Communist expansion?
What was
(i
the purpose of the Great Society?
did President
Johnson propose to make the Great
Society a reality?
3.
What
4.
How
Brown Power. Red Power, and Black

Power movements have in common?
did the
did
young people rebel against conformity
during the 1960s?

5.
What
How
858
gains did
did they
CHAPTEK
women make
make these
29
ijr
How
IE E
Z
I
1966
1968
1970
Year
during the 1960s?
Source: Information Please Almanac
gains?
ZI
War on
Medicare and Medicaid estab
Poverty
OEO
declared.
established.
Summer
lished.
Freedom
launched.
occurs. U.S. intervenes
passed.
NOW founded.
Martin Luther King,
Supreme Court
Jr.,
decides Miranda
in
Dominican Republic. Voting

Rights Act passed.
Act
Civil Rights
Malcolm X assassinatBloody Sunday
ed. Selma's
Arizona.
v.
Music Festival
Movement
occurs.
organized.
i
1964

the different leadership styles of
F.
1968
1966
John
Woodstock
assassinated.
American Indian
LINKING HISTORY
essay that evaluates
Lyndon Johnson and
Kennedy.
Refer to the
AND GEOGRAPHY
map on page
influence U.S. policy
837.
How
did geography
toward Cuba and the Dominican
Republic?

Native Americans were one ethnic group in the 1960s
whose problems were not addressed by the U.S. government. Read the following excerpt, which comes
from an
article published in the
New
Republic
BUILDING YOUR
PORTFOLIO
1965,
in
describing conditions on the Pine Ridge Reservation

in
South Dakota. Then write a paragraph summarizing
what you have
read.

cooperatively.
44
Practically none of the houses on the
reservation has electricity: Half of the hous-
CIVIL RIGHTS
1.
In
chapters 27 and 28 you
es are without wells nearby; Poverty-
served as a reporter covering the
Program workers are discovering people

hauling water fifteen miles. Indoor plumb-
ment. Building on that experience, write a
ing or telephone service
is
rare.
randum to the manager of your
why
.
There
.
is a great deal of illness at Pine

The infant mortality rate is twice
that of the nation
among small
's,
and
infectious diseases
children are a major problem.
The incidence of tuberculosis
is
seventeen
expectancy for a person at Pine Ridge

thirty-eight years,
still is
compared with
.
ECONOMY
of
In
Chapter 27 you prepared a chart
government programs designed to help
member
WWII
on that experience, imagine you
of Johnson's Great Society. Prepare
an illustrated pamphlet that describes government
sixty-two
efforts in areas such as health care,
urban renewal,
or education.
to the
dimly seen to
lie in
Indian problem
3.
pouring the
to figure
people out of the cramped
out
city
how
to get
and back
into
the countryside. If the administration does
not pull hard to redevelop these rural areas,
end up merely fanning the flames
the cities.
2.
are a
intermingle with everyone else. But the city
will
civil
Americans, Hispanic
Americans, Native Americans, and women.
life
Indians into the big cities where they will
it
station explaining
is
The solution
planners are trying
move-
memo-
the station should provide coverage of the
veterans. Building
times that for the rest of the country. The
years nationally.
rights
rights efforts of African
Ridge.
civil
in
POPULAR CULTURE
In
Chapter 28 you
prepared a photo essay on American culture during the 1950s. Building
you are
on that experience, imagine
a reporter for Rolling Stone, assigned to
write an article about the
rock
'n' roll.
first
two decades
of
Prepare a family tree of rock music,
using photos to trace the influence of rhythm and

blues, jazz, folk, country,
and the
British Invasion
on American music up to 1970.
99
THE SIXTIES
859
Land Use
America's
the Los Angeles Area, 1920s to 1980s
in
I^H
Industrial centers
Built
up areas
GEOGRAPHY
URBAN
AMERICA
.S
mlo
more people moved
the cities
after
and suburbs
World War
itan areas
II,
metropol-
large cities or
groups of cities and their surrounding areas

city of
arose.
Los Angeles
The
Ethnic neighborhoods
is
typical
10%
or
10%
or
1920s most of the
In the
more African
20%
that
or
more foreign-born
grew popular
Mexican
cities
built
was not developed. As
the
in
it
engulfed
numerous surrounding
By
the 1980s the
city
Los
grew more crowded, Los Angeles
encompassed some 80 small-
1950
1.170.358
1970
2.111.801
1990
3.S.J9I
dwellers,
and commute
live
outside the
to work.
POPULATION GROWTH OF LOS ANGELES
1900
many
In
areas.
Angeles metropolitan area
er cities. Like
950s.
the nation's most extensive electric railway
system to encourage people to
the city grew,
the early 20th century, as eastern
land inside the official city

limits
Angeles was at the forefront of
creating the suburban housing system
American and
lis.
Los
more African
American
of the 20th-century metropo-
urban-
Los Angeles-area
IN
THE 20TH CENTURY
102.479
residents generally live out-
Sortt;
side the city
and commute
WwWAhwr
to
work. This has led to the
POPULATION OF
LOS ANGELES IN 1990
observation that Los Angeles,

like
many
other metropolitan
Amncan. Alaskan,
areas, is in fact "a
suburbs
in
or Altut
hundred
Los
Angeles has been one of the most ethnically
diverse cities
nation
search of a city."
in
in
the country, yet years of discrimi-
housing have
left
many
limited to ghettos in die center

u penon
of
my no.
Ed
Roybal, a Hispanic
city council,
Miftc tifonnMon
Pinsc Aknomx
sell to
fueled racial unrest
20^
860
UNIT
in
riot
the later
of
965 and
city. In
member of the
could not buy a house
because the realtors would not
such as the Watts
ethnic groups
ofê
in
1949
Los Angeles
the suburbs
Hispanics. Such discrimination
century, sparking
numerous
the south central riots of
riots,
992.
k.f
Transportation
Cos Angeles Area, 1950s
40%
^^^
^_^
completed
Freeway under
construaion
the 1940s automobiles
grown
today. While Los Angeles has
contributed to several brush
fires in
rapidly,
highway
or
more Hispanic
^^1
or
more Asian
30%
it
also led to a rise in
smog
pollution
in
Los Angeles. Construction
a problem
has also faced numerous problems caused by
its
that plagues
in
rocked by numerous earthquakes, including one
1973. Los Angeles also

in
January 1994
lies in
t/iot killed
Average
Cos Angeles Area, 1980s
an area of heavy earthquake
more than 50
traffic
activity.
The
flow per day
200,000 or more vehicles
40%
100,000-199,000 vehicles
40%
or
more African
American
or
more Hispanic
49,999 or fewer vehicles
Other major road
PACIFIC
OCEAN
Dy the mid-1 980s Los Angeles was the second-largest

rapidly,
a measure diat cut

city
-^
campaigned
in
half the
began working on plans
to
for
measures
amount of land
to slow
city in
America.
Many
citizens,
worried that
growth and improve urban conditions.
In
986
available to developers for construction. Also in the
improve public transportation with a
new
train
city
people.
50,000-99,999 vehicles
growing too
many
geography. The dry climate has
recent years. Lack of an adequate water supply led to the construction of Owens River Aqueduct
1913, followed by the California Aqueduct
in
it
more African
^^H 40%
had replaced the railway system as the preferred means of transportation
of a huge freeway network encouraged automobile use, but

cities
or
American
Federal or
state
and subway system.
t/ie city
the
city
was
passed
mid-1980s the
has been
1954-1975
Chapter 30
WAR IN VIETNAM
FOCUS
UNDERSTANDING
THE MAIN IDEA
Most
U.S. leaders
Vietnam
troops
to
end
expected the war
in
quickly once U.S.
and equipment entered the
confiici
They did not dream that some
2.6 million Americans would serve
war that dragged on
for
in
more than a
decade. Nor did they imagine that

antiwar protests would grow to the
proportions they did.

might global conditions lead one
nation to intervene
in
the
affairs
of another?
CONSTITUTIONAL
HERITAGE Why
might one
branch of government fear
another branch becoming too

strong?
DEMOCRATIC VALUES
What
are the limits to the gov-
ernment's responsibility to keep

the public informed?
racy,
what
limits are
In a
democ-
there to a
people's right to protest govern-
ment
actions?
1954
1955
Diem comes
Geneva
Conference
held.
in
to
power
South Vietnam.
1965
1973
U.S. sends combat

troops to Vietnam.
Cease-fire
declared.
1975
Saigon
falls,
UM
The United States had taken the position of opposing the spread of
TO THE PAST
communism anywhere
against
in
Communist
a similar war
the world. U.S. troops had recently fought
in
Now Americans became
forces in Korea.
Vietnam, where the Vietnamese had
in
independence from the French a few years
,^/ni
n Graham Greene's
rator sits in a
won
involved
their
earlier.
novel The Quiet American (1955), the nar-
Vietnamese cafe thinking about
American "adviser" Alden
According
Pyle.
new
arrival, the
young
to the narrator, the
American "seemed incapable of harm":
Perhaps only ten days ago he had been walking back across the
Common in Boston, his arms full of the books he had been reading
in
advance on the Far East and the problems of China.
even hear what
said;
Democracy and the

mined
he was absorbed already
responsibilities of the
learnt that very
soon
in
He
didn't
the dilemmas of
West; he was deter-
to do good, not to any
person but to a country, a continent, a world.
individual
99
Greene's Alden Pyle closely resembles the American advisers sent

to
South Vietnam
the rough sea of
in the 1950s.
This "quiet American," wading into
post-World War
American self-image
11
Southeast Asia, typifies the early
Vietnam: confident, serious, and eagerly com-
in
mitted to building a model democracy.
This sense of idealism was grounded in the

effort to save
Vietnam and the
from communism, even
rest
of the world
.9^^
at great cost to
America. The evenmal cost
^BP
Vietnam
Women's
years of war
Memorial
and more than 60,000 Americans dead

or missing
was higher than most
believed possible.
sacrifices,
And
Vietnam was not "saved."
In the war's wake,
were
U.S.
Marine officer takes cover.
despite the
left to
ponder
Americans
how
early
idealism ended in what has
-î
been called "a tragedy of

epic dimensions."
WAR
IN
VIETNAM
863
Section
r
'
MF
1
BACKGROUND TO CONFLICT
Why
Why
in
want to control Vietnam?

the United States refuse to back Vietnamese independence
did China and then France

did
the
940s and 1950s?
Why did
President Kennedy increase U.S. involvement
in
Vietnam?
3,
'or centuries invaders coveted the fertile river deltas and coastal lowlands of Vietnam. First China
and
later
France conquered and ruled
Vietnam. But the deep desire of the Vietnamese people to be free could not
he overcome. During World War

Vietnam.
And as
the
for power, hoping
war came
to establish
II,
France began
to a close,
on
to lose its grip
Vietnamese Communists fought
an independent nation. This threat of a
Communist takeover soon drew
the United States into the conflict.
French colonial
occupation
is
in
slightly smaller than California, covering
The geographic setting
127.207 square miles of mostly
Fishhook-shaped Vietnam
on the west by Laos and Cambodia.
forests.
try
of Southeast Asia
Pacific
is
the easternmost coun-
8,000 miles across the
from the west coast of the United
States.
It
111*
Saigon
hills
Lying south of China. Vietnam
and dense
is
bordered
Its
coastline
stretches along the Gulf of Tonkin, the South
China Sea. and the Gulf of Thailand (see map on

page 865).
The population of Vietnam
is
centered most-
Red River Delta in the far

north and the Mekong (may-kawng) Delta in the
south. The Mekong Delta is Vietnam's richest agritwo
ly in
areas: the
cultural region, specializing in rice cultivation.
Hanoi
is
the major city of the north and the coun-
while
try's capital,
South Vietnam's
in the south.
Ho
capital.
Other
Nang and Hue
Chi Minh City (previously

Saigon)
cities,
is
the largest city
such as the ports
Da
(way), are located on the narrow
coastal low lands of central Vietnam.
To
the north of the
Mekong
Delta are the
central highlands, sparsely populated and mostly
covered by
forest. Farther north, the
Annamite
Mountains form the jagged backbone of Vietnam.
Vietnam
tivating
864
is
one of the world's largest producers of rice,
more than
2 million acres
CHAPTER
30
each year.
cul
Their rugged peaks and dense rain forest separate
much of Vietnam from neighboring
Laos.
Chinese occupation
The moist
and
tropical climate of the deltas
lowlands
coastal
Vietnamese farmers
to
grow
was
several crops
of rice a year.
It
abundance
tempted China
that
allowed
has
this agricultural
to
Red River Delta around 200
the
more than
invade
B.C.
For
a thousand years, the Chinese
struggled to maintain control over north-
and central
ern
Vietnamese
Vietnam.
resisted, finally
winning
ed independence from China

In the 1400s
China
control over Vietnam.

tary leader
rilla
But
the
limit-
in a.d. 939.
tried to reassert
Vietnamese mili-
named Le Loi employed
guer-
warfare to defeat the Chinese
invaders. Using tactics similar to those
used against the French and
later
Americans, Le Loi's rebels worked as

peasants by day; by night they took up
arms
to attack the Chinese.
By 1428
rebels had driven the Chinese
country and
from the
won independence
Vietnam. Le Loi became the
the
for
new emperor.
RENCH OCCUPATION
Vietnam again
lost its
Vndochina
independence
in the
surge of European imperialism in the mid-
1800s. This time the invaders were
A TROPICAL PENINSULA
the South China Sea.
French, attracted by the promise of gaining access to Asian trade and of
new
making
The nations of Indochina occupy a peninsula
stretching from the mainland of Southeast Asia deep into the tropical waters of
RELATIVE LOCATION
to
its
How might
Vietnam's location have contributed
long history of foreign invasion?
Catholic converts.
Despite the stubborn resistance of

the Vietnamese. French military
won
out. In 1883 the
power ultimately
Vietnamese were forced
to
grant France complete control of the country.
combined Vietnam with Laos and

Cambodia to form French Indochina, one of
France
later
France's richest possessions.
Foremost among the
French
sought control of Vietnam's rich
farmlands and trade.
later the
wanderer and
Ho was bom
in central
Vietnam
in 1890. the
son of a poor country scholar In 1911, calling him-
Van Ba (Third Son), he got
a job as cook on a
French merchant ship. After spending a few years

at sea,
he decided to
working
as a pastry
settle in
cook
London. There, while
in a hotel.
the English language (he
Ho Chi Minh and Vietnamese independence. Like the Chinese, the French gained
was Nguyen That
a world
man of many names, whose last alias was Ho Chi

Minh (hoh chee min) "He Who Enhghtens."
self
The Chinese and
nationalists
Thanh (en-gy-EN taht tahn),
Ho
learned
was already fluent
in French).
From London, Ho went
to Paris,
where he
control of the land but not the hearts of the
soon emerged as a leader of Vietnamese nationahsts
Vietnamese. Nationalist feelings remained strong.
living in France.
Ho joined
the French sociahsts but
WAR
IN
VIETNAM
865
ihcm
siH)n Icit
Comniunisl
French
lo help organize ihc
Ho
parly. Later.
claimed that
United States seemed poised to prevent them from

reclaiming colonial rule over Vietnam.
was patriotism and not Communism
"it
that originally inspired" his quest for
Vietnamese independence. By 1923,

though, convinced that a worldwide
Communist revolution was Vietnam's
only hope, he
Paris to study rev-
left
olutionary tactics in
American policy toward Vietnam was soon put

the
plotted for
lest.
were once again locked
and quivering, with
as "taut
only one thought

his country,
as a
in his
head,
Vietnam." Hunted
Communist, Ho donned
disguises as he
moved from
country to country
some-
times a Chinese journalist,
at
other times a Buddhist
monk
with flowing robes.
What Ho awaited
was a chance
his plan.
to launch
That chance
of French Indochina, the Philippines, Malaya,
all
and Indonesia.
In
Vietnam the Japanese
French colonial government

it.
Early
1941
in
Ho
the
slipped secretly into Vietnam
He
to organize a resistance.
the
left
in place but controlled
called the
movement
League for the Independence of Vietnam, or
Vietminh
(vee-ET-MiN).
drew from Indochina

Allies in
When
the Japanese with-
after surrendering to the
August 1945, the Vietminh declared inde-
The
Not only did President Truman
support behind France.
Why
did
Truman
viewed France as a
the spread of
side with France? First, he
vital ally in the struggle against
communism
Second, he was unwilling
Hanoi on September
2.
more than half
Ho
advisers feared that
communism would
(see Chapter 27). This fear
American support,
the
Vietminh leader echoed
America's Declaration of Independence:

the truth that
are
endowed by
able rights,
suit
all
men
"We
hold
are created equal, that they
their Creator with certain unalien-
among them
life,
liberty,
and the pur-
of happiness."
At another celebration that day. American
army
officers joined
Vietnamese leaders on the
reviewing stand as a Vietnamese band played "The

Star-Spangled Banner." U.S. warplanes flew over
the gathering in a salute to Vietnam's indepen-
dence. The French were sure to resist, but the
866
CHAPTER
30
engulf Asia
was reinforced
in
1949
when Mao Zedong's Communists took over

China
U.S.
a
Asia's most populous country and
ally.
By 1950
the United States
bloody ground war
North
Korea's
to turn
invasion
a former
was locked
in
back Communist
of
South
Korea.
Meanwhile, Communist-led nationalist revolts

rocked Indonesia, the Philippines, and Malaya.
Because of these developments the focus of
America's containment policy broadened
to
include East Asia. There, U.S. policymakers
vowed
to
hold the line against communism.
Truman's successor, Dwight D. Eisenhower,

shared this resolve, especially
in
regard to
Southeast Asia. Besides possessing abundant raw

materials essential to
was considered of
modern
strategic
industry, the region
importance
in contain-
ing the Chinese Communists. If Vietnam
communism, Eisenhower warned,
speak. In an effort to gain
postwar Europe.
back the Vietminh
because of Ho's Communist connections. U.S.
million people gathered at an independence cele-
bration to hear
in
to
pendence.
In
Would America
ignore Ho's pleas for assistance, he threw U.S.
Ho Chi Minh
came during World War U. In 1940 the

Japanese army swept down from China to occupy
in battle.
stand with the Vietnamese in this conflict?
Vietnamese independence. One

French comrade described him
to
By 1946 the French and the Vielnamese
answer was no.
Moscow.
During the 1920s and 1930s
Ho organized and
France and the Vietminh go to war.
^ At Dien Bien Phu a weary

French soldier awaits further
shelling by Vietminh guerrillas
In
early 1954.
fell to
the rest of
Southeast Asia would soon follow. The president

illustrated his point
You knock over
dominoes
set up.
what
happen
it
will
to the last
one
the
is
first
domino
And
slowly the elephant
bleed to death. That
one, and
Indochina.
will
Out by David Schoenbrun
Inside
Frustrated, the French tried to lure the
communism would
commitment
encircled by
more than 50,000 Vietminh
The French commander urged
to a
But even with mas-
military
equipment were of
offering them
"The Americans
cue:
world
his
will not let us
sol-
hope of a
res-
the
will not let us
limit-
down:
mit money, Eisenhower was reluctant to
Korean War. As
defeated the French and on
Vietminh chose when and where
their surrender.
May
7,
to
com-
become
war so soon
a result, the
ed use against Vietminh guerrilla tactics. The

to attack, struck
the free
down."
Help did not come. Although willing
after the
troops.
war-weary
directly involved in another Asian
sive aid, the French suffered defeat after defeat.
Money and
Some
13,000 French soldiers soon found themselves
non-Communist Vietnam was even stronger than

Truman's. By 1954 America was paying much of
effort.
Dien Bien
northern Vietnam. The plan backfired.
diers to hold out
President Eisenhower's
battle at
Phu (dyen byen foo), deep within Vietminh-held
spread throughout Asia if it took

hold in Vietnam, the United
States sided with France against
the Vietminh.
war
1984
to be
Vietminh into a conventional
the cost of France's
by permission of McGraw-Hill Companies
theory.
Believing that
will
be the war of
99
From America
a certainty that
go over very quickly." This idea came
will
called the
dark jungle.
by saying. "You have a row of
Vietminh
1954, forced
without warning, and then disappeared into the
comment
jungle. In a
Ho
1946,
to
an American journalist
in
Chi Minh had expressed his people's
determination to prevail, characterizing the fight as
"a war between an elephant"

French "and
Vietnamese:
the
the
tiger"
The Geneva Conference.
In the spring of
1954, just one day after the French surrender at
Dien Bien Phu, an international conference

tle
the Indochina conflict
began
in
to set-
Geneva,
Switzerland. There, representatives of the French

to map out Indochina's
The People's Republic of China
(Communist China), the United States, Great
Britain, the Soviet Union. Laos, and Cambodia
and the Vietminh attempted
44
If
phant
the tiger ever stands
will
crush him with
his
But the tiger does not stand

will leap
upon the back
of the elephant, tearing
huge chunks
from
still,
the ele-
mighty tusks.
still.
...
He
future.
joined the discussions.
The Communist Chinese, who had begun

aiding the Vietminh in 1950, hoped to limit U.S.
They
wished
his hide,
and
influence in the region.
then the tiger
will
vent the establishment of a strong, unified
leap back into the
Vietnam on
also
their southern border.
to pre-
The Americans,
4 A French
newspaper
reports the
fall
of Dien Bien Phu.
WAR
IN
VIETNAM
867
mcan\Miiic. did noi uaiu lo sec Vicinain handed
cease-fire
was agreed
the I7ih parallel
at
parallel, the
North oi the 17th
latitude).
but no definite
to.
was achieved. Vietnam was
political settlement
temporarily divided
stayed in the south. In 1960 the southern Vietminh
Communists.
>\cr (.ompleiely to the
formed the National Liberation Front (NLF). The
NLF's main goal was
the overthrow of the
Dinh Diem regime. Members of
Vietminh
were called Vietcong (Vietnamese Communists) by

their opponents, but not all
nants of the French-controlled government

resumed authority. Vietminh forces would with-
Communists.
to the north;
to the south.
French forces would withdraw
General elections to reunify the
country were scheduled for July 1956. Alarmed

that the
Communists would
win a nation-
likely
Ngo
17 north
held undisputed power; south of the line, rem-
draw
who had
flowing from the north to the Vietminh
wide election, the United States refused
to
Many
NLF
this rebel force
supporters were
peasants joined the ranks of the NLF.
some because of government repression. Others

joined out of fear: the NLF, like Diem's forces,
used terrorist tactics, assassinating hundreds of
government
side
officials.
Soon much of
was under Vietcong
the country-
control.
endorse the agreement.
America's involvement deepens. John F.

Kennedy, who became president in 1961. fully
The regime of ngo dinh

Ho
President Eisenhower estimated that
much
general election by as
hoped
that southern
non-Communist.
possibility
at least,
might be kept
Ho? One
was Ngo Dinh Diem (en-GOH din
former government
Though
might win a
could stand against
de-Er^).
under the French.
official
lacking Ho"s charisma.
Diem was enough
of a nationalist to be a credible Vietnamese leader.
that
takes power
spent several years in the United States, where his

In
1955
president of the newly established
Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam) following a

rigged election
Saigon.
in
Diem
got
more than
605,000 votes from the 450.000 registered voters!

But Diem knew that he had no chance of winning a
nationwide election against Ho. Thus, he refused
to call an election in the south
date set by the
Diem,
from the
when
Geneva Conference
Roman
start.
The
the July 1956
rolled around.
Catholic, was unpopular
large Buddhist population
resented the favoritism he showed toward

Catholics. Peasants disliked his land policies,
which favored wealthy landholders. And almost

everyone objected
grip of
Diems
power was solely in the

Above all. people feared his
that
family.
ruthless efforts to root out his political enemies.
Diem's hated security forces routinely tortured and

imprisoned opponents.
By
ed
868
the late 1950s
in the south. In
CHAPTER
30
world
failed
was eager
an image
Bay of Pigs
invasion and the Soviets' raising of the Berlin Wall

early in his presidency (see Chapter 29).
to the aid of
Coming
South Vietnam, which Kennedy had
once called the "cornerstone of the Free World
armed revolution had
erupt-
1959. military assistance began
in
Southeast Asia," provided America with a chance

to assert
its
power.
When Kennedy
took office, some 700 U.S.
were
in
South Vietnam training
Ngo Dinh Diem paces
the floor of his Saigon
palace after crushing an attempt to overthrow his
regime
views attracted powerful backers.
Diem became
in the
also
the south. Ngo
in
Dinh Diem was strongly anti-Communist. He had
political
He
theory.
image
had been tarnished by the
military advisers
Diem
domino
lo bolster America's
as four to one. Still, he
Vietnam,
Who
subscribed to the
diem
in
the spring of 1955.
Diem's army. Over the course of

tion.
Kennedy increased
As Vietcong
16,000.
that
his administra-
number
to
attacks mounted.
more than
Kennedy
authorized U.S. forces to engage in direct combat.
As a result, the number of Americans killed or

wounded climbed from 14 in 1961 to nearly 500
in
1963.
President Kennedy saw U.S.
involvement in Vietnam as a way

to halt the spread of communism
and strengthen America's image
in the world.
Diem's overthrow. The
situation
was also
escalating politically. South Vietnam's Buddhist

leaders
now openly opposed Diem's
was waging
a brutal
regime.
Buddhists. Hundreds had been arrested, and
had been killed
Diem
in the
Buddhist monks publicly
fire.
These
set
Diem
murdering both Diem and
fly
November
his brother.
Diem
fire at
a busy
policies.
over-
fall.
Kennedy had
said of the South Vietnamese: "In the final analysis

it
is
their war.
or lose
1963,
it."
They
But
we
who had
after
who have to win

know how Kennedy
are the ones
will never
might have handled the
Diem's vio-
out of the country.
situation.
Three weeks
Diem's murder. Kennedy himself was
assassi-
nated in Dallas.
SECTION
IDENTIFY and
on
of several Buddhist
themselves to protest Diem's
interview shortly before Diem's
group of young
lent assassination upset U.S. advisers,
been prepared to
first
cern over America's involvement in Vietnam. In an
South Vietnamese army officers plotting Diem's

overthrow. The plotters struck in
set himself
the
Kennedy's doubts increase. Diem's
refused to comply. U.S. leaders

to a
killed
He was
throw did nothing to ease Kennedy's growing con-
unless he ended the repression.
gave quiet encouragement
Saigon.
themselves on
U.S. officials in Saigon threatened to withdraw sup-
When Diem
in
monks who
shocked Americans, and
grisly protests
Quang Due
11,1 963,
intersection
many
crackdown. In response, sev-
eral
port for
On June
campaign of repression against
REVIEW
Ho
Chi Minh, Vietmlnh, domino theory,
Ngo
Dinh Diem, Vietcong.
LOCATE
and explain the importance of the following: Vietnam, China, Red River Delta, Mekong
Delta, Hanoi, Saigon, central highlands,

I.
MAIN IDEA Why
did President
Annamite Mountains, Dien Bien Phu.
Truman
refuse Ho's requests for help against the French?
MAIN IDEA What led President Kennedy to increase U.S. involvement in Vietnam?
LINKING HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY What attracted the Chinese and the French to Vietnam?
WRITING TO PERSUADE Imagine you are an adviser to President Eisenhower in 1959. On the
basis of
what you would know
involvement
5.
in
Vietnam. Then,
at the time,
in a

British
those
prepare a statement outlining the pros and cons of U.S.
paragraph,
In
make
a policy
the 1941 Atlantic Charter, President Roosevelt and
Prime Minister Churchill pledged "to see sovereign
who
President
recommendation.
rights
and self-government restored to
have been forcibly deprived of them." Imagine that you are Ho. Write a letter to
Truman
explaining
why America should honor
this
pledge
in
Vietnam.
.VAR iN
VIETNAM
869
THE WAR ESCALATES

u
Why
did the Tonkin Gulf Resolution raise
a constitutional issue?
What
in
factors frustrated U.S. military efforts
Vietnam?
9 am
not going to be the President
Vietnam go the way China went,
"
who saw
vowed Lyndon Baines
Johnson, the next American president to inherit the Vietnam War
Throwing U.S. air power and thousands of young American troops into
the conflict,
Johnson hoped
would dominate
to
end the war quickly. But the war
The tonkin gulf
resolution
LBJ
The new South Vietnamese government was
just
as corrupt and ineffective as Diem's, and the
NLF
ARVN.
(called the
for
Army
McNamara,
a cabinet member held over from the Kennedy
administration, returned from a quick trip to
Vietnam in December 1963 to give his new boss a
Communist victory.
advised. Johnson would have to
McNamara
increase the
To prevent
American commitment.
A Communist
was an
unthinkable prospect for Johnson. Like previous

it
was necessary
Communist expansion. Before
to
increasing the
Johnson claimed
of Tonkin were "unprovoked." Later
attack
President
Johnson
had been attacked twice
Gulf of Tonkin. The president asked
CHAPTER
30
was
it
spying
in
support of
North Vietnamese
was not without cause. The second, more-
vous sailors, caught
in
it
appeared that ner-
stormy weather, had
misinterpreted interference on their radar and sonar
as
enemy
ships and torpedoes. Nonetheless,
Johnson and
his advisers got
Grandma's
in the
in
fired first. Thus, the first
Johnson admitted
that U.S. ships
Gulf
South Vietnamese raids against North Vietnam and
had
North Vietnam soon gave him the opportunity.
announced
armed
revealed that one of the ships, the destroyer
Maddox. had been engaged
get congressional backing. Events on the seas off
1964
authority to
that the attacks in the
authority to expand the
August
Tonkin
attack against forces of the United States."
U.S. commitment, however. Johnson planned to
In
the
take "all necessary measures to repel any
over, probably ne\ er occurred:
victory in Vietnam
presidents, he firmly believed
show of patriotism. Congress passed

Gulf Resolution, giving the president
of the Republic of
Vietnam). Secretary of Defense Robert
sobering report.
to authorize the use of militar\' force "to
prevent further aggression." In an overwhelming
continued to gain ground against the South's army
870
Vietnam
the nation 5 consciousness for nearly a decade.
Congress
stop
in
war
later, the
nightshirt
it
what they wanted:

as they
saw
resolution
fit.
was
As
"like
covered everything."
Only a few in Congress voiced caution.

Wayne Morse of Oregon, one of only two senators
to vote against the Tonkin Gulf Resolution,
warned:
made
"I
believe that history will record
a great mistake.
the President
We
war-making powers
a declaration of war." In other
the resolution.
power
tional
we have
most were professional
are in effect giving

in the
words,
Congress had given up
absence of
in
its
the
Vietnam. At the height of the war, American
Vietnam were, on average, younger
diers in
served
The Tonkin Gulf Resolution

allowed American presidents
fight an undeclared war in
in
All
World War
II
sol-
(19),
who had
poorer, and less educated than those
to declare war.
Vietnam
soldiers, already enlisted in
But as the demand for troops
forces.
grew, more and more draftees were shipped to
passing
constitu-
armed
or in the Korean War.
young men who
registered for the draft
did not have an equal chance of serving in
to
Vietnam. One out of four was excused from ser-
contrary to the intent
vice for health reasons. Another 30 percent

received non-health-related exemptions or defer-
of the U.S. Constitution.
ments (postponements of
service),
most often
for
college enrollment. Mainly because of college
A MERICAN FORCES
IN
deferments, young
VIETNAM
With the Tonkin Gulf Resolution
lies
in his pocket.
President Johnson responded to his advisers' call

for a buildup, or escalation, of
forces in Vietnam.
American
He ordered
military
young men
to
serve in the armed forces. In April 1965 the

Selective Service notified 13,700 draftees, and
by
least
the poor served in
numbers
far greater than their
proportion in the general population

in
as they
had
most of the previous wars.

African and Hispanic Americans served in
the Selective
Service, the agency charged with carrying out the
military draft, to begin calling up
were the
men from higher-income familikely to be drafted. As a result,
combat
in especially
high numbers, particularly
during the early years of the war.

soldiers protested that black
were being asked
to
of these
and Hispanic soldiers
do more than
and dying.
Some
their share of the
December some 40.000 had received "greetings"
fighting
from
Americans accounted for almost 24 percent of
all
even though they made up only
11
their local draft boards.
During the war more than 2.6 million

Americans served
in
Vietnam. In the beginning
U.S.
600,000
-1
500.000
TROOPS
IN
battle deaths,
In 1965, for example, African
percent of the U.S. population.
VIETNAM, 1964-1972
U.S. Battle
1-
400.000
300.000
Deaths
>
Year
E
3
200.000
100.000
^&
01964
1966
1965
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
Killed
279
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
5,047
9.463
14,623
1971
1,376
1972
36!
1,432
9,426
4,230
1972
Year
Source: National Archives and Records Administration
INVOLVEMENT DEEPENS
the
U.S.
military involvement in Vietnam increased sharply follovîng
1964 Tonkin Gulf Resolution.

greatest? In
what year were troop
levels
Between what two years was the increase

and
battle deaths the
in
troop levels the
highest?
WAR
IN
VIETNAM
871
M Most
servicewomen
U.S.
Vietnam were army
in
nurses assigned to Vietnamese hospitals or to

Mobile Army Surgical Hospital (MASH) units.
Navarra Rhoads.
Corps,
who
served
Army Nurse
in the
how complete
described
later
this detach-
ment could become:
44
remember had completed

I
and
tation
arm.
vsras
had the
up and give
it
tion.
This nurse
ampu-
this
my
under
holding the leg because
to dress
.
soldier's leg
had
to graves registra-
it
came
and she v/as
in
scheduled to take the place of another

nurse.
When
her and
had
she saw me,

this leg
under my arm. She
collapsed on the ground
"What
thought,
what's
here
had
this leg
her.
not realizing that
with a combat boot
man's combat fatigue
half this
out
v/as trying to figure
wrong with
dead fainL
in
could possibly be wrong
with her?" There
on and
went to greet
still
still
blood dripping over the exposed end.
on.
99
The AIR WAR

When
Johnson sent troops
Vietnam
to
1965, he
in
did not anticipate the type of war that Rhoads
The most
confronted the
war
vivid images of the
and
diers facing the rigors
enemy
w ay through
hearing but seldom seeing the enemy.

rice paddies
to
the jungle,
Still
and searched
lages for guerrilla bands. But most
went
Some
in well-defined battles in the
highlands. Others cut their
waded through
are of sol-
terrors of battle.
rural vil-
Americans who
Vietnam were not assigned
units. Instead, they serv ed in the
others
to
combat
thousands of sup-
port positions needed to keep the
He hoped to use air power to secure a

many of his advisers, the presi-
quick victor*. Like
dent expected prolonged bombing to pressure the
North Vietnamese into negotiating. Toward
Thunder,
campaign against
the North, in Februar\
bomb
war machine
an outhouse without
Though weakening
engineering, medical care, and communications.
more-immediate aims.
and mortars could
those
however.
and did
Enemy
strike
rockets
Vietnam, most as nurses. Though they did not

guns into
battle, they
gave their
daily, eight
women worked
45.000
faced combat horrors
lives.
Another 20.000
in civilian capacities,
to
many
as volunteers for humanitarian organizations such

as the
Red
women
to detach
themselves from the pain and
suffering of war in order to cope. Jacqueline
THAP-^FR
?n
closely oversaw
my
the
approval."
enemy's
will to fight
the air war's eventual goal. Johnson had

First,
he
w anted
two
to assure the
South Vietnamese of America's commitment.
Weapons and
coming
Minh
into
Trail.
lines.
supplies from North Vietnam were
South
The
Vlemam by wa)
trail
of the
Ho Chi
had begun as a network of jun-
some of which snaked through nearby

Laos and Cambodia. By 1965 North Vietnam had
gle paths,
begun converting
the
trail
into a sophisticated
com-
munications and transportation system.
Cross. Like soldiers in the field, these
had
militan. targets in
He
Second, he w anted to destroy Vletcong supply
anywhere.
Some 10.000 service women were among

who functioned in noncombat positions in
carr>
1965.
the operauon, boasting that the pilots "can't even
was
safe,
this
end, Johnson launched Operation Rolling
moving: administration, supply and transportation,
They were hardly
872
described.
Johnson was therefore anxious
to
bomb
the
Roads and bridges built to handle heavy

trucks \s ere bombed repeatedly, but the resourceful
trail.

Vietcong quickly repaired them or made do with-
They constructed many
out them.
ground
everywhere. The NLF, aided by regulars of the
North Vietnamese
facihties under-
bombing. Some
as protection against
worked
full
time to maintain and expand the
Ho
appeared peaceful during the day sided with the

Vietcong
The U.S. military had estimated

lapse within weeks.
When
search-and-destroy missions
col-
in
attempts to flush
the Vietcong from their hideouts. U.S. ground
happen.
Johnson increased the bombing. By 1967 U.S.

fighter
at night.
The Americans conducted thousands of
that the
this did not
who
ed back into the jungle. Vietnamese peasants
Trail.
bombing would bring about North Vietnam's
struck at U.S.
patrols or government-held villages and then melt-
300.000 people, armed primarily with shovels,

Chi Minh
Army (NVA),
patrols first located the
enemy and
then called in air
bombers were dropping an average

ARCTIC OCEAN
of 800 tons of
daily
bombs on North Vietnam
bombing so heavy
that in areas the
landscape resembled the cratered surface

of the moon. But each escalation failed to
bring about the desired results. Frustrated,
President Johnson broadened the air
war
OCEAN
Major
OCEAN
Jquatof
U.S. bases
PACIFIC
OCEAN
to
include strikes against areas of bordering
Laos and much of South Vietnam.
ANTARCTICA
Major areas of
Tet offensive, 1968
Areas under Vietcong
control, 1968
Robinson Project'on
In this wider air war, U.S. forces used
a variety of
napalm
NORTH
AMERICA ATIANVC^
PACIFIC
^ Major U.S.
^
air strikes
|H Areas of prolonged
HI conflict
CHINA
deadly weapons, such as
a jellied gasoline mixture used in
firebombs
and the
"cluster
bomb"
which sprayed razor-sharp metal fragments
when
exploded. America's arsenal also
it
included defoliants, chemicals designed to

land of vegetation.
strip the
ly
The most wide-
used of these chemicals was Agent
Orange. U.S. planes sprayed defoliants

over thousands of acres in efforts to expose
jungle supply routes and
enemy hiding
places and to rob the Vietcong of food.
The GROUND WAR

Although the
air
war was designed
to bring
U.S. involvement in Vietnam quickly to an
end,
it
had the opposite
Vietnam
effect:
rather than surrendering
more troops and supplies
south.
North
sent
Because
35aigon
of the widespread bombing, increasing
A/ung Tau
numbers of South Vietnamese joined the
Surrender of South
Xr
ranks of the NLF. Soon the opposition

200 Kilometers
100
more South Vietnamese

The United States
countered by launching a ground war.
Between March 1965 and the end of 1967,
forces included
than North Vietnamese.
U.S. troop strength grew from

to
some 3,500
But sheer numbers were not enough

to defeat
an
enemy who seemed
the Vietnam
to
War
THE HO CHI MINH TRAIL

caused the war to
PLACE
spill
How
Delta
South China Sea
Mercator Projertion
MM
some 486.000.
Vietnam, 1975
Mekong
U.S. efforts to destroy the
Ho
Chi Minh Trail
over into neighboring Laos and Cambodia.
did the geography of Vietnam help
an effective weapon against
U.S.
make
the
Ho
Chi Minh Trail
and ARVN forces?
be
WAR
IN
VIETNAM
873
Trip-wire-activated
crossbow traps were

one of many kinds of
booby traps faced by
combat
soldiers in the
jungles of Vietnam.
support to eliminate them.

"cleared." the patrols
moved on
Vietcong. Snipers and booby
animal snares to
Once an area was
pits lined
in search
traps
of more
from mines
made
these
with stakes
missions extremely dangerous and frustrating.

villages
to
And
rifles,
one soldier recalled, they held the "convic-
tion that the Vietcong
Most
would be quickly beaten."
also believed that the cause
munism
South Vietnam
in
optimistic
mood began
defeating
com-
was honorable. This
to fade as the hazards
fighting a nearly invisible foe in an alien landscape
seldom remained cleared of the NLF.
To deny the enemy any territorial gain,

American forces targeted many villages for
pacification: they moved the residents to refugee
fight on despite
camps or
the villages. In
planners believed that superior American technolo-
such warfare, progress could not be shown on a
gy would win the war. Yet as 1967 ended, success

seemed no closer than in 1963. Ho's earlier omi-
map.
and then burned
cities
Instead, the daily
became
the sole
body count of enemy dead
measure of success
tionable measure at that.

ly
guessed
at
The U.S.
and a ques-
military regular-
or inflated the numbers. Said one
officer responsible for
body-count
dead and Vietnamese,
it's
statistics: "if it's
sank
in.
Equally frustrating was the enemy's will to
nous warning
to
mounting casualties. U.S. war
to the
every one
you
will lose
kill
and
first
U.S. troops had arrived
mood. As surely
in a
of yours, but even
1.
3.
at
those odds,
will win."
were frustrated by
and
REVIEW
explain the significance of each of the following: Tonkin Gulf Resolution, escalation,
Ho
Chi Minh
Trail, defoliants,
search-and-destroy missions, pacification.
MAIN IDEA Why
did Senator
Wayne Morse
believe
Congress had made a grave mistake
in
pass-
Tonkin Gulf Resolution?
RECOGNIZING POINTS OF VIEW Why did some people believe the draft was unfair?
GEOGRAPHY: PLACE How did Vietnam's geography contribute to the U.S. military's inability
to
defeat the Vietcong?

4.
WRITING TO DESCRIBE
Imagine you are a reporter
in
Vietnam
in
describing the conditions faced by U.S. military and civilian personnel

5.
ANALYZING Why can

effect?
CHAPTER
for
and explain the importance of the following: Gulf of Tonkin.
ing the
2.
my men
supply lines or make progress

against an enemy that melted
into the jungle.
hopeful
as they carried their packs
Operation Rolling Thunder,
LOCATE
ten of
their inability to disrupt Vietcong
SECTION
IDENTIFY and
kill
Vietcons."
A MERICAN MORALE EBBS

The
French now seemed applicable
Americans: "You can
U.S. forces
874
of
30
it
1966.
in
Write
a short article
Vietnam.
be said that Johnson's attempt to end the war quickly had the opposite
AMERICANS DIVIDED
FOCUS
What
were the main reasons some Americans opposed the war?
Why did some Americans
label
antiwar protesters as disloyal?
Jy the end of 1967, oxer 16,000 Americans had been killed

in
Vietnam. Thousands
more had been injured or
disabled.
And despite
the government's optimistic forecasts, a
U.S. victory
seemed increasingly
reach. The fighting
and
citizens alike.
dragged
distant, if not out
of
on, frustrating soldiers
Gruesome TV images of terrified
Vietnamese civilians and dead or injured soldiers
brought the fighting home. Some people responded by
demanding
that the military be allowed to
do whatever
it
Peace button
took to win; others wanted America to pull out of Vietnam
ness of
The media and the war
ARVN troops
ment of
inflating
and accused the U.S. govern-
enemy body counts
to
show
progress.
The Vietnam War invaded American homes in

ways no previous conflict had. Free of the tight
press restrictions
imposed by the mihtary during
previous wars, war correspondents, photographers,
TV
and
camera crews accompanied soldiers on
patrol and interviewed people throughout South
Vietnam. Television beamed footage and reports of

the
war
into people's
a result. Americans
homes on
a nightly basis.
saw images
that
seemed
As
to
contradict the government's optimistic reports.
Although such reporters as David

Halberstam of the A^^vv York Times and Neil
Sheehan of United Press International did
not, in
the beginning, question the goal of containing
communism, they did criticize the government's

optimism. As early as 1962 they argued that the
war was not being won and could not be won so
long as America supported the unpopular and corrupt
Diem. They also reported on the
ineffective-
Television images of the war, compellingly reported by correspondents such as Morley Safer, shown here, became a
nightly feature of news programs.
WAR
IN
VIETNAM
875
4 As the war dragged on, the opposition to the

war included many Vietnam veterans.
The antiwar movement

A
variety of pacifist, religious, civil rights, and stu-
dent groups shaped the antiwar movement.
Women
these were peace groups such as
Among
Strike for
Peace and the National Committee for a Sane

Nuclear Policy and radical student groups like
Students for a Democratic Society (SDS). The
movement
attracted a broad range of people.
Doctors, teachers, ministers, and other professionals
joined housewives, retired citizens, and stu-
dents to protest the war.
SDS and campus
protests. By
the
end of
SDS had members on 124 college camThough it was only one of many groups
opposing the war. in the minds of many
1965, the
puses.
SDS was
Americans, the
the antiwar
At colleges across the United
movement.
States, the
other student groups and faculty
SDS
and
members held
antiwar rallies and debates. These groups particularly criticized the
in
HAWKS VERSUS DOVES

As the gap between what the government said and
what people saw and read widened, doubts at
Reserve Officers Training Corps (ROTC) on cam-
home
vices, the
increased.
war
by both doves
war's goals.
also protested the draft, the presence of the
The administration found
and hawks people
criticized
Hawks
people
itself
who opposed
who supported
criticized the
way
the
the
Dow
war was
LeMay
of many hawks: "Here we
organized the
held
expressed the frustration
More
that
And
The most powerful
yet we're afraid to use
we lack the will."

Doves opposed the war on many grounds.
power,
Pacifists, such as the
King,
Jr.,
believed that
CIA, and such defense contractors
The antiwar movement

tion
nation in the world.
Reverend Martin Luther

all war was wrong. Some
in
first
marched on
a petition
resort to nuclear
war's opponents was the respected pediatrician and
that
He and
others argued
America was fighting against the wishes of a
majority of Vietnamese.
CHAPTFR
10
17. 1965.
ately to
the Capitol
and delivered
that
to
Congress
lawmakers "act immedi-
end the war." Because
it
drew
far
more
people than expected, the march spurred on the

antiwar movement. Over the next decade, count-
employing
civil rights
tactics largely bor-
movement, protested
U.S. involvement in Southeast Asia.
might
weapons. Prominent among the
author Dr. Benjamin Spock.
national antiwar demonstra-
demanding
less demonstrators,
in
SDS
than 20.000 people participated. After an
rowed from the
particular, fearing that the United States
as
afternoon of speeches and singing, the crowd
vinced that Vietnam was not crucial to national
Vietnam War
builds. The
Washington, D.C., on April
doves, such as diplomat George Kennan. were con-
security. Others objected to the
ser-
Chemical, the manufacturer of napalm.
heavier bombing. Air Force general Curtis
are at the height of our power.
by the armed
pus, and the recruitment efforts
the
being fought, arguing for more U.S. troops and
876
involvement of universities
research and development for the military. They
Linking the war to poverty and

racism.
Civil rights activists
most outspoken
critics
of the war. In 1967 the
Reverend Martin Luther King,

the
war was
were among the
stealing resources
Jr.,
spoke of
how
from poverty pro-
'
grams and how

to U.S.
that fact
involvement
heightened his opposition
stifle
Vietnam, to preserve
Vietnam:
in
Negro, called on to
"democracy" which
does not exist for them
Where
watched the program broken and
eviscerated [gutted] as
were some
if it
political plaything of a society
war, and
knew
that
rehabilitation of
its
money
like
tion tube,
Many
By 1968
America would never
poor so long
label
in
in
99
blacks were twice as likely as whites to
themselves as doves.
destructive suc-
on two points: Did the United

States have the right to be in
Vietnam? Were the sacrifices in
lives and domestic programs
worth the nation's presence
yy
civil rights activists
voiced concern
1960 by African Americans
racial equality,
the draft for the freedom fight
Vietnam
as
government was sending young

African American men off to war in great numbers
yet doing little to end racism at home. The Student
Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC),
in
ask:
The antiwar movement focused
skills
that the U.S.
founded
We
home.
and
men and
some demonic,
at
gone mad on
invest the necessary funds or energies
continued to draw
is
the United States?
idle
the liberation of
to
there?
promote
expressed the views of growing
numbers of blacks:
/Protest versus support

Despite their high
made up
44 We take note of the fact that
6 per-
a small percentage of the U.S. population.
Many Americans opposed
cent of the draftees from this country are
ly its
antiwar protesters
visibility,
more extreme
the
movement,
factions.
fighting for one's country
Some
was
especial-
believed that
a patriotic duty.
Others objected to the antiwar movement's
tactics.
People found certain acts of protest, such as burning the
American
flag,
occupying buildings, and
Many
by young men
burning draft cards, particularly upsetting.

veterans of past wars were angered
;BosTOH
COliEGE YAF
*-
**..,
/?EED01
who went to prison rather than serve in the military

or who fled to Canada to avoid the draft.
Though most Americans who disagreed with
the antiwar movement expressed their opposition
in private,
some organized counterdemonstrations.
Demonstrators
-VIETNA1
at
these rallies often carried signs
proclaiming "America, Love
"My
It
or Leave It" or
Country, Right or Wrong."
Many Americans saw

as disloyal.
Some
protesters
believed
it
was
a citizen's patriotic duty to serve

in the armed forces. Others
objected to antiwar tactics.
Government conflict
President Johnson and his advisers responded to
Demonstrations were also organized by those in

favor of U.S. policies in Vietnam, such as this rally
of the Young Americans for Freedom.
antiwar protesters by insisting that the United States
was helping
to
defend
its
ally in
Saigon against
aggression. If America failed to support South
WAR
IN
VIETNAM
877
Vietnam, asked Seca^tary of State Dean Rusk, w hat
generals, legislators, national
U.S. ally vsDuld ever trust the country again?
But the administration also faced criticism
in
security advisers
presidents
and
to follow his
Congress. Doves, such as Senator J. William

Fulbright of Arkansas, head of the Foreign
military advice. During the
Relations Committee, sharply criticized the
the escalation of the war.
Johnson administration's policies as loo extreme.

Fulbright held congressional hearings in 1966 to
haps more than any other
give the war's critics a fiirum. These televised
individual
hearings gave the antiwar position
more
credibility
policy debates that led to
it
was McNamara
who
Even within Johnson's circle of advisers,

gnawing doubts surfaced. Several senior
staffers
set
Robert McNamara
America's course. Said
who
Clark Clifford,
with mainstream Americans.
per-
later succeeded him as secretary of defense:

"McNamara held the key to the President's decision"
1965 request for more troops.
expressed misgivings about the administration's
to grant the military's
conduct of the war. Most
McNamara's many recommendations had

failed, however, to achieve their results. As each
troubling to the president
the turnabout of his secretary of defense,
was
optimistic forecast proved to be no more than
Robert McNamara.
By age 44 Robert
S.
McNamara had already

He was the
reached the lop of the corporate ladder.
Motor Company, the

who was not a
new
president of the Ford
first
person to hold that position
descendant of Henry Ford. Then

only 34 days
call inviting
for the
in 1960. after
new job, McNamara received a

him to become secretary of defense
in his
Kennedy administration.
With
his impressive analytical skills, the
intense, bespectacled secretary of defense
McNamara
persuaded
wishful thinking, his confidence slipped; by

October 1967
it
had eroded altogether.
McNamara
leveled with President Johnson, telling him that
"continuation of our present course of action
in
Southeast Asia would be dangerous, costly
in
lives,
and unsatisfactory
But the policy that
to the
American people."
McNamara had
helped shape
was firmly entrenched, and Johnson was determined to stay with it. Within days Johnson had
eased
McNamara
out of his cabinet position.
sits
alone after a presidential press confer-
ence announcing
further troop ship-
ments
to Vietnam.
SECTION
IDENTIFY and
King,
1.
2.
3.
Jr., J.
REVIEW
explain the significance of each of the following: doves, hawks, Reverend Martin Luther
William Fulbright, Robert
S.
McNamara.
MAIN IDEA Why did some Americans oppose the war?

MAIN IDEA Why did the antiwar movement trouble some
WRITING TO PERSUADE Imagine you are a U.S. senator
Americans?
in
1967 and are either a hawk or a
dove. Write the president a letter persuading him to support your view and to change his policies
accordingly.
^.
EVALUATING What
at
878
home
CHAPTER
30
played
in
roles
do you think
television coverage and
shaping American views toward the Vietnam
economic and
War?
social conditions
WAR AT FULL TIDE
FOCUS
Why
did the Tet offensive
in their
weaken many Americans' confidence
government?
What were the key events of the 1968 presidential campaign?

How did Nixon set out to end the war? How did Americans
react to this plan?
^he year 1968 was
a troubled one.
military offensive by the
began with a massive
NLF and the North
many Americans
shattered
It
'
confidence
of the war Demonstrations and violent
in
Johnson 's handling
riots followed.
end some 15,000 more Americans had died

political career lay in ruin. Republican
to
have a plan
to
Vietnamese that
in
By year's
Vietnam,
and LBJ's
Richard Nixon, who claimed
end the war and "win the peace,
"
won
the White
House. Nixon slowly withdrew U.S. troops from Vietnam, but increased
the
pace of U.S. bombing. And when Nixon ordered the invasion of
Cambodia
in
1970,
war protests
at
home surged
to
a new high.
Captured
NVA
weapons
people rallied behind their "liberators." But Hanoi
Che TET OFFENSIVE

January 30, 1968, was the
Vietnamese
New
lull in fighting.
NLF
their
offensive as a Vietcong defeat. In a military sense,
guerrillas and North
the general had a point. At a cost of 2,000
Vietnamese troops crept from
their jungle
city hideouts to execute a carefully
strike.
100
of U.S. forces in Vietnam, hastened to describe the
most South Vietnamese and
U.S. allies slept,

and
However,
start of Tet, the
Year. In past years the
had been honored by a

late that night, as
hoHday
was disappointed. When the assault was over,

more than a month later, an estimated 40,000
Communist soldiers lay dead.
General William Westmoreland, commander
Within hours countless villages, more than
cities,
attack
camps
planned
and 12 U.S. military bases came under
from nearly 70,000 Communist soldiers (see
map, page 873). Heavy fighting raged

strongholds as Saigon and
in
such U.S.
Da Nang. At one
point
American and 4,000
ARVN
lives,
heavy
places.
losses, the
NLF
remained strong
power and were
still
standing
Even more important was
the political effect
American confidence by showing
the
government
in the
to
South as the
fire-
than ever to fight on.
the offensive
down
many
more determined
U.S. Embassy.
North Vietnam expected the Tet offensive
in
They had faced overwhelming U.S.
the Vietcong even occupied the courtyard of the
bring
most of the
attackers had been repelled. But despite suffering
had on the United
South Vietnam was secure
States. Tet jarred
that
no part of
not even downtown
Saigon. Walter Cronkite, anchor of the
WAR
IN
CBS
VIETNAM
i:
879
XhE ELECTION OF
wake of
In the
1968
the Tet offensive, three out of four
Americans disapproved of Johnson's conduct of the

war. Early in the 1968 Democratic presidential
cam-
paign, antiwar candidate Senator Eugene McCarthy
of Minnesota took advantage of this growing dissat-
and challenged LBJ.
isfaction
March New
In the
Hampshire primary, McCarthy won almost as many

votes as Johnson.
McCarthy's impressive showing drew another

leading critic of the war into the race: Senator
Kennedy of New York (brother of the

slain President Kennedy and former U.S. attorney
general himself). RFK's large national following,
Robert
F.
especially
among African Americans,
Hispanics, the
young, and the poor, made him a strong contender

for the
Democratic nomination. Shaken by the
divi-
sion within his party,
LBJ shocked
March
and emotionally exhausted,
31. Physically
the nation
on
Johnson announced he would not seek reelection,

saying he wished to spend his
trying to
months
last
in office
end the war.
LBJ's withdrawal from the race
left
it
wide
open. Senators McCarthy and Kennedy and Vice
Humphrey went head-to-head in

primaries. Kennedy won most of them,
President Hubert
several state
particularly the crucial California primary in June.
He seemed
destined to be the Democratic nominee.
But on the night of his California victory,
A An
made
emotionally drained Johnson listens to a tape recording

by his son-in-law describing his duty in Vietnam.
delivering a speech in a hotel ballroom.

shot.
The next day he died
victim of
after
RFK
was
a bullet fired
by Sirhan Sirhan, a young Jordanian immigrant.
Evening News, expressed America's bewildered
mood:
"I
the hell
thought
is
we were winning
the war!
What
going on?" To one of his aides, President
Johnson groaned: "If I've

over. I've lost Mr.
lost Walter,
then
it's all
dramatically.
nation already in shock over the murder of the
Reverend Martin Luther King,

er (see
Such
influential
magazines as Time
now had
Chapter 29)
settle
the turmoil, the
on a candidate for the
because of the
cause.
opinion, Johnson
more
troops.
LBJ made
it
Though granting
clear there
a small increase,
would be no more.
come
Democrats met
convention was a dispirited
shift in public
to
November
880
offensive dealt a double
blow: it indicated that U.S. leaders had misled the public, and it
exposed severe flaws in U.S. military operations in Vietnam.
CHAPTER 30
earli-
to grips with
affair.
in
Chicago
election.
to
The
President Johnson
did not even attend, fearful of the reaction he would
And
throughout the convention memories of
the fallen Robert
Kennedy remained hauntingly
alive for the demoralized delegates. Vice President
Humphrey, despite
his close identification with
Johnson, received the nomination.
The Tet
two months
Society seemed to be spinning out of control.
Amid
and Newsweek not only expressed misgivings

about the war but also called for its end. Largely
denied Westmoreland's urgent request for 206,000
Jr..
another assassination.
Average American."
After Tet. public criticism of the war rose
He chose Senator
Edmund Muskie of Maine as his running mate.

The Democrats' difficulties were underscored by the chaos on the streets outside the con-
vention.
massed
Some 10,000
in the city
antiwar protesters had
and camped
in
Grant Park,
across from the hotel where
many
delegates were
lodged.
Of
activists,
and ordinary citizens opposed
to the war,
perhaps a few hundred came prepared
for violent
the college students, longtime
all
Outside the Democratic Convention, Chicago police
battled antiwar demonstrators.
confrontation. In the sweltering August heat, they
held
chanting "Hell No!
rallies,
We Wont
Go!" and
taunting police with shouts of "Pig!"
Outraged
viewed
to see his city
overrun by people he
dangerous revolutionaries, Chicago
as
mayor Richard
J.
Daley ordered helmeted Chicago
The police
police to clear out the protesters.
attacked on the night of August 28, clubbing pro-
and using tear gas
testers
Hundreds were
to disperse the
injured: hundreds
to jail. Reporters, passersby,
crowd.
more were hauled
and police were also
injured in the fray.
The
violent spectacle of protest and police
Chicago convention raised
brutality at the
Republicans' hopes of capturing the White House.
At
convention
their
mood
sunshine.
tion:
in
Miami Beach,
the upbeat
of Republican delegates matched the Florida
some 10
Deep
million votes and
won
5 states of the
South.
familiar figure dominated the conven-
Nixon
also lost a bid for the governorship
of California. But since then he had kept in the pub-
what he called the "silent

majority" of patriotic Americans, Richard Nixon
Appealing
won
easily
yVlXON, VIETNAMIZATION,
AND CAMBODIA
eye.
ernor Spiro
to
the nomination.
Agnew
He
chose Maryland gov-
as his running mate. Promising a
"law-and-order" crackdown on urban crime, Nixon
appealed for support to those Americans

ther
got
Richard Nixon. After his defeat by Kennedy
in 1960,
lic
of the newly formed American Independent party,
who
in
His key foreign-policy adviser was Henry Kissinger.
Together they took important steps to improve

tions with
the
to
But
in
rela-
Union
the Soviet
1969 Vietnam loomed as
most urgent problem, and Americans watched
see whether
Vietnam. Nixon told voters
Nixon could
fulfill his
to
campaign pledge
end the war.
he had a plan to end the Vietnam War, though he

revealed no details.
Communist China and
(see Chapter 31).
nei-
approved of the disorderly antiwar protests nor
wanted a U.S. defeat
President Nixon gave foreign affairs his top priority.
Part of Nixon's end-the-war plan
Vietnamization.
It
was
called
involved turning over the fight-
ing to the South Vietnamese as U.S. troops were
and RFK's assasin an

uphill struggle against Nixon in
the 968 presidential campaign.
LBJ*s withdrawal
sination left
Humphrey
gradually pulled out. This strategy, said Nixon,
would bring "peace with honor." At
best,
Nixon
hoped, Vietnamization might produce a stable anti-
Communist South Vietnam. At
worst,
it
would
delay a collapse long enough to spare America the
As
Humphrey's campaign picked up steam, boosted somewhat by LBJ's

announcement in late October of a bombing halt.
humiliation of outright defeat.
But time ran out for the Democrats, though the
ment. The North Vietnamese had warned
results
election day neared,
were
close: of
73 million votes
cast,
Richard
Nixon
key
to
Hubert Humphrey. Nixon's margin
talks
in the electoral
states to
Humphrey's
13.
carried 32
Former Alabama governor
George Wallace, who campaigned as the candidate
that Vietnamization
to a
was
the
peace agreefirst
Johnson and then Nixon that the United States

would have
was much wider, however: he
hoped
removing a major obstacle
Nixon received only some 500,000 more than

college
also
were
to set a date for troop

to continue. In
removals
if
peace
February 1970, as U.S.
troop withdrawals mounted, Henry Kissinger began
meeting secretly
ary
Le Due Tho
in Paris
(layd
with long-time revolution-
uhk toh) of North Vietnam.
WAR
IN
VIETNAM
IS
881
When
in
Vietnam
NixDii liH)k dIIicc. U.S. trcH)p strength

sIikkI at
about
He
54().(K)().
s{K)n ordered
some 25,(X)() soldiers. Over the next

many more came home. But the prcKess
was slow. At the end of 1972. about 24.200
/?.
ÎWAR PROTEST INCREASES
News
of the bombing and invasion of Cambodia
a vsithdraual o\
four years,
Americans
still
remained
Publicly, Nixon emphasized Vietnamization:
however, he planned
secretly,
widen the war
to
Cambodia. North Vietnam had been staging

safe
troops along the bt)rder in neutral Cambodia
into
from U.S. attack
while
sending supplies and
troops south through Cambodia on

Minh Trail.
Early in
1%9 Nixon
in the
on college campuses.
Vietnam.
in
provoked outrage
the
Ho Chi
University in Ohio set
students
fire to the
at
Kent State
campus
ROTC
building, Ohio's governor vowed to "eradicate" the

protesters.
On May
4,
1970, National Guard troops
sent to control demonstrators shot into a group of
students, killing four
whom
and injuring nine
some of
were merely walking across campus.
Ten days
ordered the widespread
United States, particularly
When
later, state
police in Jackson,
Mississippi, fired at protesters in a dormitory
bombing of Cambodia. He hoped to destroy North

Vietnamese supplies and trails in line with
Johnson's original war aims. He also wanted to
send a signal to Hanoi that the United States was
dents and faculty on hundreds of college campuses
still
willing to
in pursuit
u.se force,
strikes
of Nixon's aim of "peace with honor."

the
Cambodian
air
from Congress, the American people, and
key military leaders
even the
secretary of the
Because of Cambodia's neutrality, Nixon

feared an international uproar. But
ousted Cambt)dia*s ruler

policy changed. Since the
when
coup
March 1970, Nixon's

new Cambodian govern-
in
ment was pro-American, he made
Nixon then sent some 80,000 U.S. and
ARVN troops into Cambodia.
bers of Congress.
ing.
also shocked
mem-
They too had believed
American involvement
in
that
Southeast Asia was end-
Questioning Nixon's constitutional right to
extend the war. Congress repealed the Tonkin Gulf
the delicate balance
had kept Cambodia out of the war.
were forced
into the interior of
battles with U.S.
and
of the countryside.
ARVN
however, that
ty to carry
this action did not affect his authori-
on the war. Congressional leaders
responded by developing plans to stop the war by

ending funding once U.S. troops were withdrawn.
In 1971 another incident sparked the antiwar
movement. The
NVA
troops
Cambodia, where
forces destroyed
much
New
a collection of secret
ing to the war.
The invasion destroyed

that
strike.
The Cambodian invasion
his policy public
justified the air strikes as defense of a friendly
nation.
went on
nine. In outrage at these brutalities, stu-
Resolution in December 1970. Nixon insisted,
air force.
and
wounding
and even expand the war,
Nixon and Kissinger concealed
they
showed
York Times began publishing
government documents
Known
that the
as the
relat-
Pentagon Papers,
government had frequently
misled the American people about the course of

the war.
The documents were leaked
to the press
by Daniel Ellsberg, a former Defense Department

official,
who had been
strongly prowar until
^ Four Kent
State students were

during a confrontation
between National Guardsmen
killed
and some 3,000
882
at
Jackson State College, killing two students and
CHAPTER
30
rioters.
spending time
the
Vietnam
stiidsing the effects of
there, he
found that few South
in
war. While
Vietnamese supported
Nixon
government. President
their
block publication of the Pentagon
tried to
Papers but was unsuccessful.
Many Americans responded in

anger when President Nixon coupled Vietnamization with an invasion of
Cambodia.
The war goes on

As commander
in chief,
President Nixon ordered
Cambodia but also the

renewed bombing of North Vietnam, which
not only the invasion of
Nixon
President Johnson had stopped. Extending the
bombings
into areas that
had been
off-limits
As Nixon explained
Theory."
U.S. troops in Vietnam.
was
what the president called the "Madman
part of
visits
Nixon's method was based on his belief that
Eisenhower's hints that he might use the atomic
to his chief of staff,
bomb had
H. R. (Bob) Haldeman:
helped end the Korean War. But Nixon
miscalculated the opposition's endurance. Rather
4^
call it
the
Madman Theory,
want the North Vietnamese to

I've
reached the point where
anything to stop the
word to them
know Nixon
Communists.
war
that, "for
is
Bob.
than ending, the war suddenly grew more fierce.
Hoping
believe that
might do
We'll just
slip
the
can't restrain
major invasion of the South
angry
will
be
North, including Hanoi.
peace.
Paris in
**
March 1972.
NVA
two days begging
He
also ordered the min-
ing of Haiphong Harbor to prevent Soviet ships
has his
from delivering military supplies. Despite these
himself
in
in
responded by ordering heavy bombing of the

him when
hand on the
and he
nuclear button" and Ho Chi Minh
he's
weaknesses of Nixon's
troops drove deep into South Vietnam. Nixon
God's sake, you
obsessed about
We
to reveal the
Vietnamization strategy. North Vietnam staged a
steps, the opposition
for
now
held more territory in
South Vietnam than ever.
SECTION
r53!
IDENTIFY and
REVIEW
explain the significance of each of the following: Tet offensive, William Westmoreland,
Eugene McCarthy, Robert
F.
Kennedy, Richard Nixon, Henry Kissinger, Vietnamization, Le
Due Tho,
Pentagon Papers.
LOCATE
1.
2.
3.
4.
and explain the importance of the following: Haiphong Harbor
MAIN IDEA How

MAIN IDEA How
did Richard
Nixon
plan to
end the war?
did the 1968 election signal
MAIN IDEA What Nixon policies led

WRITING TO INFORM Imagine you
American
dissatisfaction with the
war
effort?
to renewed antiwar protests?

are Nixon's press agent. Write a
news
release explaining
the reasons for bombing Cambodia.

5.
TAKING A STAND
available to
its
In
citizens?
wartime, should the U.S. government make
Why or why
all
information about the
war
not?
WAR
IN
VIETNAM
883
Section 5
li
H
1s
THE CEASE-FIRE AND AFTER
FOCUS
m
Why
did the United States agree to a cease-fire In January
What
What
973?
factors contributed to America's inability to win the war?
long-term effects did the war have on the Vietnamese

and American people?
9,n
1972 Vietnam again dominated the presidential cam-
paign. Although the
overwhelmed
war was not yet
his antiwar opponent,
over,
Richard Nixon
Democratic senator
George McGovern. By early 1973 a cease-fire was signed,

finally ending
America
the Civil V/ar
But the Vietnam War's painfiil legacy
most
bitterly divisive
remains.
-ru
The
r...
fell
episode since
rr
. .-,r
IXON'S REELECTION
Senator George
McGovern of South Dakota cam-
paigned
1972 Democratic presidential
mary
in the
as an antiwar candidate.
World War
II.
An
pri-
air force pilot in
McGovern had been
a history pro-
fessor before going into politics. His opposition to

the
of Saigon, April 1975
war ran deep.
he declared
in a
In
one emotional Senate speech
trembling voice: "This chamber
ment
for the
Democratic nomination. While
at a political rally in
Maryland
in
May, however,
Wallace was shot. The injury paralyzed him from

the waist
down, and he withdrew from
law
home and
and order
at
voters the
war would soon be
weeks before the
assured
the war. "Peace
is at
Nixon won
over. In fact, a
in the negotiations to
hand." he declared.
the election
by a landslide
million votes to 29 million for
electoral
few
Henry Kissinger
election.
announced a breakthrough
reeks of blood." George Wallace opposed
McGovern
to
college,
McGovern.
McGovern
end
47
In the
carried only
Massachusetts and the District of Columbia.
the race.
After the disastrous 1968 convention, the
Democrats adopted new
rules that increased repre-
women, and young people

in party organizations. The Twenty-sixth
Amendment, passed in 1971. had lowered the votsentation of minorities,
ing age from 21 to 18.

his support
884
::
McGovern drew much of
from these groups, and
at the
conven-
A CEASE-FIRE AT LAST
For more than three years Henry Kissinger and
North Vietnam's Le Due Tho had engaged
in diffi-
in
October 1972
North Vietnam offered a peace plan
that Kissinger
cult
peace negotiations. Finally,
tion he easily captured the nomination.
and President Nixon found generally acceptable.
The Republicans renominated Nixon and

Agnew. Nixon again stressed his strong commit-
The plan included a
CH AFTER
30
cease-fire and pullout of all
foreign troops from Vietnam, an end to U.S.
and the creation of a new government
military aid,
South Vietnam
Van Thieu
Nguyen
that included
JP^^^H
REMEMBERING
VIETNAM
in
(en-gy-EN)
(<^
(the current president), representatives
who had
of the NLF. and "neutrals." Thieu.
been included
objected to the
in the negotiations,
proposed government, seeing
as a loss of power.
it
Rather than abandon Thieu, the United States
what life in a constant

of war had been like:
rejected the agreement.
When North Vietnam demanded
^L
Le Ly Hayslip spent the

first 20 years of her life
in Vietnam. After the
war she reflected on
not
that the
^|
m
^
^^^
^^1
^m
^
state
^^
^S't2
agreement be reinstated, Nixon responded by
bombing of Hanoi and

Nixon declared to the chair-
ordering around-the-clock
Haiphong.
man
furious
of the Joint Chiefs of Staff: "This
chance to use military power to win
you don't,
I'll
40,000 tons of
birth,
your
is
and
this war,
consider you responsible."
bombs
i/t was
realized that
souls in that world were blessed with the simple
bombing and
privilege of saying
before they died?
27, 1973. the negotiators in
announced a
good-bye to their loved ones
hammered
And how many of those
ones died with the smile of a
Although the plan
cease-fire.
scarcely differed from the one
their lips
out in
life
loved
well lived on
knowing that their existence added
October, minor changes allowed each side to
up to more than a number
claim a diplomatic victory. The United States
another human brick on a towering wall of
pledged
to
withdraw
South Vietnam and
its
exchange agreement.
It
a "body count" or
corpses? Perhaps such a place was America,
Vietnam. The
although American wives and mothers, too,
prisoner-
were losing husbands and sons every day
did not, however, address
the major issue behind the
war
the
evil
in
vortex between heaven and hell that
political
country had become.
future of Vietnam. In urging Thieu to accept the
Nixon
in
remaining forces from
to help rebuild
peace settlement also included
cease-fire,
I,
talks.
On January
Paris
the North Vietnamese. At the end of
agreed to resume
growth, and death but only endless dying
many of my countrymen, had been

born into war and that my soul knew nothing
tried to imagine people somewhere who
else.
knew only peace what a paradise! How many
nearly two weeks, with the barrage only halting for
the
cycle was no longer
along with so
Some
rained on the two cities for
December, Nixon called off
if life's
brought about by endless war.
if
Christmas Day. But the intensive bombing did not
sway
as
the
my
99
secretly pledged that if fighting
resumed, the United States would come to South

Vietnam's
aid.
The United States agreed
to a
as
cease-fire in January 1973, after
heavy bombing
failed to sway the

North Vietnamese from their
demands.
North Vietnamese troops stormed the com-
pound. Some 120,000 Vietnamese who had

worked for the Americans were flown to the
United States.
On
April 30, 1975, the Saigon gov-
ernment surrendered unconditionally.
For Americans the Vietnam War was over.
Two
years after U.S. forces withdrew,
The
long, costly effort to prevent the creation of a
Vietnam under Communist
Saigon's military regime collapsed. In January
united, independent
1975, North Vietnamese troops overran the north-
rule
em
and Laos, which had been ravaged. But the pre-
As South Vietnamese
new waves of refugees
part of South Vietnam.
troops retreated in panic,
poured into Saigon.

In early April the
ened.
eral
The U.S.
had
failed.
dicted collapse of
dominoes
noose around Saigon
tight-
military hastily evacuated the sev-
thousand Americans
still
in the city.
Some
escaped from the U.S. Embassy roof by helicopter
The war had spread
all
Southeast Asia
did not happen.
out between the
to
Cambodia
the falling
Quarrels soon broke
Communist
leaders of Vietnam
and those of China and Cambodia. International
communism was
not as unified a world force as
U.S. policymakers had feared
or had claimed.
WAR
IN
VIETNAM
885
Commentary
Why
Did the North Prevail?

sonic people argue that the United States
Thouyh
did not lose the Vietnam War, the nation obviously
did not achieve
goal
its
an
one
less
Americans
to
haunted the nation and count-
that
decades
for
come?
to
People have put forward
many
reasons to
Communists prevailed against

and U.S. forces. Without doubt the
why
explain
ARVN
the
Communists'
fierce desire for a united
gave them the
will to fight
on
Vietnam
in the face
of over-
whelming
military opposition. Like the French,
American
strategists underestimated the strength
of this nationalist feeling
among
the
Vietnamese
people. For the Vietnamese, the war against
America was a continuation of
their
decades-long
As one North Vietnamese general commented of the Americans. "They can't get
War
heads that the Vietnam
it
into their
has to be understood in
terms of the strategy of a people's war. that
men and
the Americans'
it's
not
materiel, that these things
At the same time,
are irrelevant to the problem."
ineffective South
VilETNAM AFTER THE WAR

The war ravaged
Vietnamese people.
According to Saigon government figures, some
185,000 ARVN soldiers died in combat.
Estimates put the number of South Vietnamese
the
dead at nearly a half million. The exact

number of Vietcong and North Vietnamese Army
war casualties is unknown, but estimates place
civilian
the total at nearly
million dead. In addition,
879,000 Vietnamese were
approximately
orphaned and 181.000 were disabled.
anticolonial crusade.
a question of
the war.
independent. non-
Communist South Vietnam. What contributed

this failure,
determined foe, ineffective

South Vietnamese leadership,
and inappropriate military
strategy and tactics all contributed to America's inability to win
Vietnamese leadership undercut
war
effort.
succession of U.S.-
sponsored political leaders, most of
whom
generals, failed to inspire popular support
were
Among
the
disabled were those exposed to Agent Orange.
These people have been plagued by high

liver cancer
and other
rates of
illnesses.
1.5 million
Vietnamese fled Vietnam
after the fall of Saigon.
Desperate to escape eco-
Nearly
nomic and
social hardships,
many braved
the rough
South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
crowded
boats.
in tiny,
They were joined by thousands of
other Southeast Asian refugees, such as the
Hmong
among
the South Vietnamese.
As
war dragged on,
the
Americans began doubting

Vietnam
to
growing number of
that the fall of
communism would
America's interests or standing
ever climbing death
American leaders
toll
in the
Some
The
admit the lack of progress
to
in
world.
and the failure of
resulted in a loss of public trust in the
and a steep decline
South
seriously threaten
government
support for the war.
analysts claim that political and mili-
tary strategies
were
at fault.
Some
of these analysts
charge that the United States was not aggressive
enough
in
pursuing
its
war aims. Others point out
that U.S. advisers trained the
South Vietnamese
forces in conventional warf'are rather than in tactics

better suited to Vietnam's geography. Furthermore,
these analysts charge, the tactics of conventional
war cannot
effectively counter the skillful use of
gjerrilla tactics. Still other critics
go so
far as to
argue that any use of military power to solve an

essentially political
886
CHAPTER
30
problem was doomed
to failure.
A Many Vietnamese were forced

homes
to flee their
Vietnam War. This photograph shows a small boat packed with Vietnamese
following the
refugees arriving
in
Hong Kong.

(muhng) of Laos, also fleeing grave postwar condi-
More than 730,000 of
tions.
settled in the
these refugees have
United States since the war.
Vietnam veterans after

THE WAR
More
than 2.6 million Americans were involved
in the
Vietnam War. More than 58.000 of them
wounded, and nearly

2.300 are missing and presumed dead. Improved
emergency medical services saved many soldiers
died; over 300,000 were
with severe wounds that
have been
fatal.
As
in
previous wars would
a result, there are an unprece-
dented number of paralyzed and otherwise

severely disabled Vietnam veterans.
More than 600 Americans were prisoners of

war (POWs). Some POWs spent six years or
more in North Vietnamese jails, where they
endured long periods of solitary confinement and
torture.
One
was
of the most visible tragedies of the war
the fate of
veterans.
its
No
ticker-tape
parades celebrated the return of soldiers from the
Vietnam
conflict.
On
the contrar\'. veterans often
became lightning rods for the anger,

shame of fellow citizens frustrated by
guilt, or
the war;
One
of the legacies of the
Vietnam
War was the number of
paralyzed and severely disabled veterans. Shown here are

marchers in the Vietnam veterans parade held in New York
City on
May
7,
1985.
other Americans met them with stony silence.
The
public's negative reaction enraged and
demoralized many veterans. They had faced a
cer at an unusually high rate, and children of
life-and-death struggle, obeying orders in what
these veterans had a very high rate of birth
they trusted was their country's national interests.
defects.
book Born on the Fourth of July (1976),

Vietnam veteran Ron Kovic recalled his pain over
ical
In the
this lack
9%
of support:
didn't
How
on the
it
when we were
line for
our coun-
the Fourth of July by
and
in
1991
dis-
left
Americans who served there.
to
Many others had

down and starting
Some became homeless.

who were involved
Soldiers
their families,
Ron Kovic 1976
Thousands of Vietnam veterans turned
families.
and
economic, emotional,
and physical scars on the people of
Vietnam and on many of the
drugs or failed to kick the drug habits they

trouble finding jobs or settling
1984 the man-
government extended permanent
The war
99
had developed during the war.
In
ability benefits to these veterans.
could they do this to us?
From bom on
1970s linked their med-
at first
Many of us would not be coming back and

many others would be wounded or
maimed.
in the
Agent Orange.
ufacturers of the chemicals created a relief fund
the federal
believe
people protesting against us
try.
to
for the veterans
want to
putting our lives
Research
problems
in the
spraying
of defoliants later developed certain forms of can-
P UBLIC POLICY LEGACIES

The war shook Americans' confidence
in their
government.
Many were shocked
their leaders
had misled them during the war. The
actions of Johnson and
stitutional question:
Nixon
to disco\er that
raised a crucial con-
under what authority can
WAR
IN
VIETNAM
;:
887
Tfieit
NO MORE VIETNAMS
01/1/
numbers of troops, equipment,
exposed to the kind of grisly
and supplies to the Gulf.
images and grim
fueled the Vietnam antiwar
America's military assault would
Louring
War.
the 1991 Persian Gulf
and commenta-
politicians
tors often
compared
vious wars
with pre-
it
movement.
in fur-
The
ther contrast to Vietnam, Bush
tight
control on
president believed
that the willingness to use U.S.
avoided Johnson's tendency to
keep
particularly
And
be quick and deadly.
military
military
power was important
to keeping international peace.
Vietnam. As President George
operations. Instead, he
Bush considered using military
cal decisions to his military
At the same
commanders.
that a clear victory over Iraq
army out
force to push the Iraqi
Bush also took
of Kuwait, he assured the
left tacti-
would
page
War
nation: "This will not be another
from the Vietnam
Vietnam."
approach to media coverage.
To
Bush
fulfill
alone.
In
promise,
this
the Gulf
fight
ma
in his
He
War
of information from the
sure
the nation of the
rid
stig-
Most
news media and general
cial
issue
victory,
as
about the Persian Gulf
Newsweek proclaimed
that "America's troops
the United
Nations and through
exorcised the ghosts
direct diplomacy. Bush
of Vietnam."
With the ghosts
pushed for interna-
ing
commitments
troops and
from
women
of
money
returning from
the Persian Gulf

received a very differ-
At
U.S. allies.
men and
banished, the
tional support, includ-
welcome than
home, he asked
ent
Congress to authorize
their Vietnam-era
the use of force.
counterparts.
With the
Congress
respect toward
firmly behind him.
it
had
in
Vietnam. The U.S.
tary therefore put tight restric-
operation that reflected the
tions
in
Vietnam.
Determined to avoid
It
that Americans
wage an undeclared war? To prevent

"another Vietnam." Congress passed the War
Powers Act in 1973. The act reaffirms Congress's
the
war
against
support for
the troops and the sacrifices
would not be
they made.
funding that might otherwise have gone to domestic
programs, such as those that help the poor
Above
setting a 60-
national divisions, can impose severe restraints
The Vietnam War
The war
billion,
and fueling
CHAPTER
Even many Americans
on the presidential commitment of U.S.
war by
30
cost
also left a dismal
economic
American taxpayers about
adding greatly
inflation.
all,
on the use of military force. Since Vietnam,
troops to foreign conflicts.
$150
all
American policymakers learned

that a hostile public opinion, or even deep
constitutional right to declare
legacy.
War
Iraq stressed their
also closely
screened what was broadcast so
presidents
limit
Gulf
who opposed
on media access to the
front lines.
drawn-
out war, he rushed massive
day
surge
American veterans followed the
mili-
Bush then launched a military
lessons learned
of gratitude and
bulk of
world opinion and
::
felt
public shared this view. In a spe-
war
zone to erode public support
time, he
of the Vietnam failure.
of the
did not intend to allow the flow
insured that America
first
would not
888
statistics that
to the national
The war
debt
also siphoned off
leaders have been hesitant to
commit U.S. troops
in far-off regions without being certain of the
consent of the American people and the nation's

political allies.

The Vietnam
Veterans Memorial
the
"Wall" serves
as
a tribute to Americans
who
died
The
in
the war.
architecture student at Yale
furor surrounding U.S.
when
her design was
chosen for the national monument. Of the healing
involvement in Vietnam led

Congress to limit the president's
war^making powers.
overcome
aspects of the memorial, she said: 'To

grief
you have
to confront
An
it.
honest memorial
makes you accept what happened before you over-
come
it.
think the memorial
makes people
accept."
Inscribed on a huge wall of black granite are
Healing the wounds

of the
the
names of the more than 58,000 Americans who
died in Vietnam. Lin insisted that the names be
war
listed in chronological order
Long
after the war's end,
seek ways to
come
legacies. Perhaps the
the
rift
in
to
war and
its
most moving attempt
caused by the war
Memorial
Americans continue
to terms with the
is
the
order or by rank
knew." Hundreds
to heal
weep
Maya
visit the
memorial
by
I.
2.
Maya Ying
in the war,
few people you
memorial
dark silence
its
daily.
has
Some
mementos, or
what the
to tell them.
REVIEW
explain the significance of each of the following:
Act,
you were
or leave flowers, personal
SECTION
Amendment, War Powers
in alphabetical
written messages. Others simply ponder
Ying Lin. Lin, a Chinese American, was a young
IDENTIFY and
that "if
you could find your time and
Vietnam Veterans
Washington. D.C.. designed by
so
not
George McGovern, Twenty-sixth
Lin.
MAIN IDEA What factors led the United States to agree to a cease-fire?
MAIN IDEA Discuss the effects the war has had both on the Vietnamese
people and on many
Vietnam veterans.
3.
4.
ASSESSING CONSEQUENCES What factors helped prevent the United States from achieving
its goals in Vietnam? What might the United States have done differently to reach those goals?
WRITING TO PERSUADE
honor
5.
local
EVALUATING What
foreign and
Write a
Vietnam veterans
economic
in
some
have been
policy?
letter to
your
local
chamber of commerce to persuade
it
to
way.
some
of the long-term effects of the Vietnam
Support your answer with
specific
War on
U.S.
examples.
WAR
IN
VIETNAM
889
French surrender at
Dien Bien Phu.
Geneva Conference
divides Vietnam.
U.S. aids
CHAPTER
30
War between
France
Vietminh and
French begins.
Indochina.
in
Diem
comes
power
South
Vietnam.
WRITING A SUMMARY
executive branch (the president) assumed increas-
ing
summary
write a
steps did
of the chapter.
Why
power.
did this alarm Congress?
What
Congress eventually take to safeguard
its
constitutional powers?
Number your
and
list
paper
to

to
2,
5.
Study the time
in
the order
next to
first
in
line
above,
which they
the second next
activity
Students
killed at
did the antiwar
protests illustrate American democratic values?
THINKING CRITICALLY
below.
1
3.
Problem Solving
Kent State and Jackson State.
Imagine you are an adviser to
who
President Kennedy,
is
considering sending
2.
Cease-fire declared.
3.
Congress passes Tonkin Gulf Resolution.
U.S. combat troops to Vietnam. Write him a

memorandum suggesting at least two noncombat
4.
Nixon begins bombing of Cambodia.
ways the United States might contain communism
5.
Tet offensive launched.
and support South Vietnam.
Identifying
on the time
Cause and
line,
and
AND
you think LBJ had good reasons
war effort? Why or why not?

Hypothesizing Suppose the United States had
to escalate the U.S.

3.
won
IDENTIFYING PEOPLE
Do
Evaluating
2.
in
IDEAS
a decisive victory
be different
in
Vietnam.
in
Vietnam?
in
How
might
life
America?
Ho
Chi Minh
6.
defoliant
7.
pacification
Study the
3.
domino theory
Ngo Dinh Diem
8.
doves
noting the numbers
4.
Vietcong
9.
Tet offensive
Then
5.
Tonkin Gulf Resolution
Vietnamization
the
map
the
names
1.
2.
10.

1
What were
became
2.
Why
ment
3.
5.
identify
at the right,
on
it.
each place on
by selecting from
listed
below.
each place next to

in
Vietnam?
its
corre-
sponding number on your

its
involve-
paper.
Vietnam
What were
8.
Write the correct name of
There are two extra
after 1964?
the main reasons for Americans'
opposition to the war?

4.
map
to
the main reasons the United States
involved
did the United States increase

in
Number your paper
Why did Richard Nixon win the 1968

How has the Vietnam War influenced
election?
Americans?
names on the
list.
Alekong River
Gulf of Tonkin
South China Sea
Ho
Vietnam
Laos
Hanoi
Cambodia
China
Soviet Union
Chi Minh City
^REVIEWING THEMES
1.
Global Relations
stance on world
ment
2.
890
in
How
did the United States'
communism
lead to U.S. involve-
Vietnam?
Constitutional Heritage During the war the
CHAPTER
30

Writing to Create The Vietnam War
its
peak, and you have just been drafted.
poem or song
is
reaching
Write
that expresses your feelings.
to
in

First official U.S. combat troops
sent to Vietnam. First national
antiwar demonstration held.
NLF formed to
oppose Diem.
Tet offensive
Congress passes
Tonkin Gulf
bombing of
Cambodia.
declared.
published.
I960
1970
1965
1975
discussion of Vietnam's physical characteristics and
One
read the following description from Michael Herr's
most difficult features of the war for U.S.

troops was not knowing who the enemy was. The folof the
lowing
poem
by a marine
who
served
describes one reaction. Read the

essay state your reaction to
in
Vietnam
poem and
in
Then
Dispatches.
made
rain
falls.
~ Cease-fire
Pentagon
Papers
launched.
Nixon elected'
president.
Resolution.
Saigon
U.S. troop withStudents killed at

drawals begin. l~ Kent State and
Nixon begins
Jackson State.
in a
paragraph explain
why such
ter-
fighting difficult.
a brief
it.
44 The
Highlands of Vietnam are spooky,
unbearably spooky, spooky beyond
belief.
They
are a run of erratic mountain ranges, gnarled
War
Guerrilla
valleys, jungled ravines
and abrupt
Montagnard [aborigines
It
's
practically impossible
to tell the civilians
from
the
99
the Vietcong.
Nobody wears
They
uniforms.
all talk
BUILDING YOUR
PORTFOLIO
same language
(and you couldn

even
where
and disappear as the terrain
villages cluster, thin
steepens.
plains
the Highlands]
living in
't
understand them
if they didn't).
They tape grenades
inside their clothes,
cooperatively.
and carry satchel charges

in their
market baskets.
THE COLD WAR
In
chapters 27 and
28 you served as a U.S. delegate to the
Even
their
and young
and girls.
UN
women fight;
conference. Building on that material, create a
boys,
chart,
photo
essay, videotape,
or other
visual
presentation showing the structure of the
United Nations. Then write a short statement

It's
practically impossible
indicating
how
the
UN
might have
to tell civilians
been used to lessen U.S. military
from
involvement
the Vietcong;
2.
after awhile
you quit
in
Vietnam.
CIVIL RIGHTS
28, and
29 you served as
trying.
covering
William Ehrhart
Building
for a
In
civil
rights
on that
chapters 27,
a reporter
movements.
material, write a script
S-minute news program that
concerns of one of the

movements to the Vietnam War. Your comments
relates the specific
LINKING HISTORY
in
AND GEOGRAPHY
Vietnam, U.S. forces encountered a physical setting
motor vehicles and advanced tanks

conventional U.S. war machinery. Review the chapter
ill
suited for
should examine economic and social factors at home,
government
policies,
and conditions
WAR
IN
in
Vietnam.
VIETNAM
891
UNITS
mencan
Voices of
Change
ways the postwar years were a troubled
In nuiny
serious issues, from Cold

injustice.
War fears and war
Singer-songwriter
time.
Americans confronted
to racial prejudice
and
social
Bob Dylan, San Francisco Beat poet Lawrence
American poet Naomi Long Madgett, and Native
Ferlinghetti, African
American poet-novelist James Welch were among the writers who explored
these problems
and
tensions.
Times Thetj
Are A-Changin'
TAie
For he that gets hurt

Will be he
It'll
Come
gather 'round people
Wherever you roam

And admit that the waters
Around you have grown
And accept it that soon
be drenched to the bone.
You'll
If
Is
has stalled
There's a battle outside
And
by Bob Dylan
who
it is
If
you
can't lend
For the times they are a-changin'.
rattle
your walls
The line it is drawn

The curse it is cast
The slow one now

Will later be fast
Come
mothers and fathers
As the present now
Throughout the land
Will later be past
And
The order
don't criticize
is
your time to you
What you
worth
Your sons and your daughters
And
Are beyond your command

Your old road is
Will later be
savin'
Then you better
Or
start
you'll sink like a
swimmin'
stone
Come
Who
new one
your hand
ragin'.
soon shake your windows
And
Please get out of the
Rapidly
can't
understand
Rapidly fadin'.
the
first
one now
last
agin'.
writers and critics

Civil rights
prophesize with your pen
demonstrators attacked with
high-pressure water hoses, 1963
And keep your eyes wide

The chance won't come again
And don't speak too soon
For the wheel's
And
That
there's
it's
no
still
in
tellin'
spin
who
Flower power,
1967
namin'.
For the loser
now
Will be later to win
Come
senators, congressmen
Please heed the
Don't stand
in
call
the
Don't block up the
892
UNIT
doorway
i
If
hall
W'"'^]
Those
f^lea to
>oV^
f>'*|Nj.' .X'lbi
.VAL
Who Matter
by James Welch
You don't know

Voter registration march to Montgomery, Alabama, 1965
My
From
9 /Im Waiting
my
pretend
dumb.
my
songs often wise,
bells
could chase
jVlict\A/ay
snow
the
across these whistle-
by Naomi Long Madgett
by Lawrence Ferlmghetti
black plains.
I
am
waiting for
my number
to be
I've
come
called
and
am
and
am
waiting
for dad to
I'm
come home
pockets
his
my
end
And
and
am
patronize
my
and
I'll
feasts.
growing
reap what
I've
not
skin's
am
much worse
prayed and slaved and waited
and
I've
before they improve

I
You've bled
am
waiting
for the Salvation
Army
me
sung
me
but
my
waiting
treed
human crowd
wander off a cliff somewhere
for the
to
And
and
am
its
If
for
But
in
waiting
time
me
me
and you've
you'll
am
and
for a
am
without
I
am
and
and planets to
am
in
1.
waiting for lovers and
down together again

new rebirth of wonder.
Why
me
help
come
to you, head down,
my
smile,
happy for the snow clean hands of

you,
my
friends.
do you think "The Times They Are A-Changin'" became
<
2.
What
3.
To
movement
of the 1960s?
image does Lawrence Ferlinghetti paint of
whom
are the speakers
in
Naomi Long
Welch's poems addressing their message?

attitudes similar?
know you
matter.
bleeding from
an anthem for the youth
lie
won't stop now.
weepers
to
And
or ignore me,
teeth
away with stones.
me now
me
These teeth?
like
fall
rain
and
nose?
anybody
waiting
'
my
nationalisms
killing
for linnets
me
See
it
my
scrub
I've
Mighty mountains loom before
way to be devised
all
deride
my drum,
civilize this hair.
smash
straight for you.
above the bough.
my destination and
made my vow;
Or
waiting
to destroy
and
found
So whether you abhor
animals
to reclaim the earth as theirs
be cunning and
long.
I've
waiting for forests and
thin bones,
move out
know you need
won't be
seen the daylight breaking

high
me
my
in
have plans to burn
and
it
for a
noisy as the wind?
me
and
me
and say you took
you help
will
me
I've
blessed
.
am
friend,
am waiting
the meek to be
not strong
patched together
atomic umbrella
and inherit the earth.

and
lie
grown
for Ike to act
and
my name
you've everything but
freed
clutching
proud,
to take
You've lashed
am
that
enough to stand alone.
strong.
way to make you know
song.
and you've starved
I've still
over
and
face
no longer
I've
and
my
build
black.
waiting happily
for things to get
I'll
been
a different way,
sowing or my
waiting
for the atomic tests to end
and
past of poverty and 4-day
Don't ignore me.
And
of irradiated silver dollars
are grim. Call
to blast these bundled streets and
I'm going
I'm stretching
I'm
full
from
old dirt track.
coming and
The days
your winds
I'm climbing to the highway
waiting
Celebrate.
won't turn back.
for the living
to freedom and
this far
How
life in
the 1950s?
Madgett's and James
How are
the speakers'
are they different?
birds of the finch family
AMERICAN LETTERS
893
IM
Strategies for S^^^c^ss

CONDUCTING AN
the information you need. Plan
Terkel probably began his inter-
INTERVIEW
the interview so that questions
view with
istorians often
conduct
interviews with people
who
ipated
4.
one
Conduct the
interview. Be
an active
witnessed or partic-
in historical
logically follow
events. Such
another.
Allow
listener.
question
like
"How
Given Nora Watson's
responses that go beyond
is.
faction, his follow-up questions
dissatis-
interviews are called oral histories
your
and are considered primary
keep the interview on the
probably encouraged her to
sources.
topic.
reflect further
Analyze the interview.
employed."
One
of the largest oral history
collections
was compiled
5.
WPA.
Project of the
interview's content, noting
what was
Project
members interviewed former
Identify
slaves to gather their recollections
of
life in
specific questions, but
on
feeling
"under-
Review and summarize the
the
in
1930s by the Federal Writers'
the South under slavery
said with emphasis.
statements that are

Several oral histories have been
written based on interviews with
representative of the person's
ground and
overall views.
support personnel, reporters,
air
troops, nurses,
and other people
and during Reconstruction. The
who were
Vietnam. But the war can be
remembered from many
Historian Charles A. Beard
Studs Terkel's oral history
view. Prepare a
described the accounts as "litera-
Working.
accounts were
1
944
ture
I
in
Lay
first
published
My Burden
Down.
more powerful than
have read
in
anything
in fiction."
Effective interviewing involves
more
than just talking to people.
To get the most from an
inter-
view, conduct
and
accompany
it
It
carefully
Watson,
The speaker
a staff writer for a pub-
such responses.
Studs Terkel
Jobs
are not big enough
for people.
not just the
worker whose
his spirit,
had expected to put
topic. Gather information on
the energy and enthusiasm
your topic as the
and the
work
gifts
that
isn't
questions.
to
Set up an interview.
They expect
Contact the interviewee; iden-
can
purpose of the interview, and

schedule a convenient time
and place to conduct
it.
Ask
whether you may tape-record

3.
It's
line
too small for
is
and research the
yourself, state clearly the
offer.
know
it
labor. ...
I'm vegetating
being paid to
.
may have
than you
less
Token
happening.
and
do exactly
that.
But then you walk out
with no sense of satisfaction.

.
I'm being had.
Somebody
the interview.
has bought the right to you
Prepare questions.
for eight hours a day.
Formulate questions to get at
know what mean?
UNIT
participated
in
the
period.
you know?
tify
who
29 and 30 as background for the
job
2.
conducting interviews with
Terkel might have asked to obtain
Interview
basis for
in
people
antiwar movement. Use chapters
How to Conduct an
Identify
use
points of
of questions to
lisher of health-care literature.
assembly
1.
Nora
is
list
in
Then decide what questions
with prior research
as well as follow-up analysis.
894
do you spend your workday?" He

then may have inquired about how
demanding and rewarding the job
99
You

plete
CIVIL RIGHTS
To many Americans,
greatest strides

concepts involved.
historical
rights came
World War
In
1945, representatives
of 50 world nations cre-
the
in civil
economy. Using the portfolio

the 30 years after
II.
African Americans,
of the different areas of the econ-
women, and
other groups made progress
plays a role.
disabilities,
in
play
in
which the government
ernment involvement
others. Using the portfolio mate-
lives
you designed
in
chapters 27,
and 30, rehearse and then
CULTURE
gram to the class, making sure the

program accomplishes the goals
advances
you set and follows your plan of
gy,
production.
and a
chapters 27, 28, and
Nixon
in
1973 recommending or
condemning continued
bership
in
U.S.
mem-
Your report should explain why
ECONOMY
the United States originally joined
the decision
in light
In
events between 1945 and 1973.
increasingly involved
Videodisc Review
Further Reading
In
Chafe, William H.
outline for a video collage of post-
war America. Choose images
Rights.
rights

script,
and present your video col-
lage to the class.
in
Civilities
managing
science and technolo-
rising
standard of
shifts,
living
and
Civil
Oxford (1981). Overview

civil
you designed
in
Hampton, Henry, and Steve
Payer.
Bantam (1990).
Oral history of the
civil
rights
movement.
Knox, Donald. The Korean War:
Uncertain Viaor/. Harcourt (1988).
Oral history of war.
of
chapters 28 and
show documenting
life
the changes
in
from the 1950s to
the 1960s.
C,
Bullfinch Press
ed. Life-The '60s.
989).
(1
overview of the
An
960s from a
social history perspective.
Thompson, Robert
movement.
Voices of Freedom.
lives
Americans. Using the materials
O'Neil, Doris
that
the period. Write a script to
in
population growth and
everyday
of the formative years of the
best illustrate the major topics of
the
29, present to the class a slide
the postwar era, the United
States government became
of world
950s and 1960s,
in
helped transform the daily
the United Nations.
the United Nations and evaluate
affects the
POPULAR
present your 15-minute news pro-
in
dis-
of average citizens.
30, write a report to President
Make sure your
shows how each type of gov-
ated the United Nations. Using
designed
a visual display
securing rights long guaranteed
rials
chapters
in
omy
28, 29,
in
27 and 29, create
Hispanic Americans, Americans
with
THE COLD WAR
and influencing the American
Smith. The Missiles
of October. Simon
(1992).
The story
&
Schuster
of the
Cuban
missile crisis.
Young, Marilyn
B.
The Vietnam Wars,
1945-1990. HarperCollins
(
99
War
).
1
History of the Vietnam
and
its
aftermath.
REVIEW
895
'.M
pHB
'm ^^^^^^B^^^^
.^fl
I
to-
'^
JL
Chapter 31
FROM NIXON TO
CARTER
|^^^J
HHlHHHi^^^HIH
Chapter 32
REAGAN. BUSH, AND

CLINTON 1980-Present
^^Bl'
1:
1^ resident Nixon
's
foreign policy successes
brought improved relations with the Soviet
Union and China, but the Watergate

scandal forced him to resign.
A growing
sense of discontent characterized the

administrations of Nixon's successors,
Ford and Carter Reagan and his

conservative agenda rode this wave of
dissatisfaction into office in 1981.
Although Bush continued Reagan's policies,

the
economy faltered, and Bush
lost his
reelection bid to Clinton in 1992.
Clinton took
office,
As
many nations looked to
the United States for guidance in finding

their place in the
new era
that emerged
following the collapse of the Soviet Union.
President Reagan and Soviet leader Gorbachev,
Moscow, 1988
Chapter 33
AMERICA
IN
WORLD
1
970- Present
TODAY'S
1970-1980
Chapter 31
FROMJÎXON
TO CARTER
UNDERSTANDING
THE MAIN IDEA
Vice President Ceroid Ford
president
when
become
the Watergate scandal
forced Richard Nixon to resign

1
974. Ford
lost
the
1976
in
presidential
election, however, to Democrat Jimmy
Carter.
The legacy of the
civil
movement contnued through
rights
activism
by numerous groups that had faced

discrimination. Affirmative action pro-
grams and busing however, brought

about a white backlash.
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT How might a nation's

choice of energy sources affect
its
economy?

might opening relations with one
nation help improve relations
with another nation?
CONSTITUTIONAL HERITAGE Why
is it
dangerous for
one branch of government to

withhold information from
another branch of government?
First
Earth Day
celebration held
Nixon resigns
Jimmy Carter
Iran hostage
presidency.
elected president.
crisis begins.
Throughout the 1960s the United States increased

::
LINK TO THE PAST
its
involvement
in
the Vietnam War. As the war escalated, so did criticism of the conflict.
A weary and unpopular Lyndon Johnson decided not

1 968. Republican Richard Nixon
tion in
to
end the war
the election, promising
Vietnam and to restore "law and order" to
in
^^ ood evening.
you from
won
to run for reelec-
This
is
the thirty-seventh time
society.
have spoken
Richard Nixon's voice cracked with
this office." President
emotion as he addressed the American people on August

Less than two years
tory.
Now
earlier,
he had
won
8,
1974.
reelection in a landslide vic-
he was announcing his resignation. Facing impeachment
for his role in the Watergate affair, the

hit the
to
most serious scandal ever
White House, Richard Nixon became the
first
to
U.S. president
to resign.
Vice President Gerald Ford served out the remainder of Nixon's
Jimmy
term. In 1976 the nation elected a Democratic president,

Carter
a Washington outsider
ment appealed
to
whose promise of honesty
many Americans.
in
govern-
Carter's popularity soon plum-
meted, however, and he was voted out of office after one term.
Amid
these political twists and turns,
changed rapidly
as
many people moved
new waves of immigrants
American society
to the
Southwest and
arrived
from Latin America and Asia. In

addition, the African
civil rights
American
movement continued
to influence other
ing equal rights
groups seek-
particularly
women, Hispanic Americans,

people with disabilities, and
American Indians.
Scene from 1976

bicentennial celebration
Gas
station sign, 1973
i:
899
Sect ion
THE NIXON YEARS
IB.M
r
How
did President
Nixon try to reverse the
liberal
trends of the
Kennedy-Johnson years?
What caused the energy crisis of the early 1970s?

What factors contributed to the growth of the environmental nnovement?
What was President Nixon's main foreign-policy goal?
/^resident Nixon tried

1 1
to steer the nation
away from
the
liberalism of the Kennedy-Johnson years. His conservative
agenda, however, was undermined by a Democratic Congress
and by serious domestic problems, including a stagnant economy. In foreign
affairs,
though, the president
success. Nixon chalked up his
had greater
most important achievement
Chinese leader Mao Zedong and
by easing tensions with the Communist world.
<
President Richard Nixon
other Americans hoped that the leap signaled a
UOURTING THE SILENT MAJORITY
shift
away from
Much
On
July 20, 1969. Americans cheered as Apollo 11
astronauts Neil Armstrong and
Edwin "Buzz"
class voters
1960s.
the troubles of the 1960s.
of Nixon's support came from middle-
weary from the
social upheaval of the
Nixon called these people
Aldrin landed their lunar module on the moon.
majority "the
Stepping onto the moon's surface, Armstrong
shouters, the non-demonstrators."
declared. "That's one small step for man, one giant
leap for mankind." President Nixon and
many
the silent
forgotten Americans, the non-
He won
their
votes by pledging to restore law and order and to

cut back Democratic programs.
Many
critics of
Johnson's Great Society policies charged that the
programs had failed
to significantly decrease
poverty in America. Instead,
critics insisted, these
policies had created a complex, inefficient

bureaucracy that made people dependent upon the
federal government.
The welfare system came
under particular attack, as the number of welfare

recipients climbed
from some
3.1 million in
1960
to
some
Astronauts Neil Armstrong and Edwin "Buzz"
Aldrin
9.7 million in 1970.
made
the
first
lunar landing
in
1969.
By
1973, five additional Apollo flights had explored
the surface of the moon.
900
CHAPTER
Under
the existing welfare system, most fam-
received the bulk of aid in the form of ser-
ilies
time Nixon took office the
economy was
in trouble.
system with the Family Assistance Plan
minimum
recession and growing unemployment. Normally in
argued that giving
times of high unemployment, inflation goes down.
(FAP). which would guarantee families a
income. Supporters of
money
FAP
would
directly to families
cut
down on gov-
ernment service programs and the bureaucracy
went with them.
however, charged
Critics,
Yet
battle, the
1970s, inflation and
unemployment
that
PRESIDENTIAL LlVg^
even more dependent on the federal
government. After a heated
in the
that
such direct aid would only make poor families
during the 1960s, by the
High levels of government spending on social

programs and on the Vietnam War had led to a
such as Medicaid. Nixon proposed replacing
vices,
this
boom
enjoyed an economic
Senate
RICHARD M. NIXON
rejected the FAP.

In addition to trying to reform the federal
(9/3-/994
bureaucracy, Nixon promised not to ask for any
new
This
civil rights legislation.
move was
of the Republicans' southern strategy
part
a plan
in office
to
1969-1974
win conservative southern white voters away

from the Democratic
As
party.
part of this plan,
Nixon also delayed pressuring southern schools

to desegregate.
When
the
Supreme Court ruled
in
ÂB\^
a 1971 case that busing could be used to integrate
schools,
Nixon denounced
The southern
the decision.
strategy also influenced the
president's choice of justices for the
Nixon claimed
Court.
the
Supreme
that the liberal rulings of
Warren Court had encouraged lawlessness
in
America. Such lawlessness, he argued, was

demonstrated by a series of prison
ous of these was the 1971 rebellion
the
at
most
New
seri-
York's
Attica prison, which resulted in the death of 40

prisoners and guards.
retired in 1969.
justice,
other
When
Chief Justice Warren
Nixon appointed
Warren Burger,
Nixon nominees
to
Growing up
intense ambition.
in
California
in
poor
family
made Nixon determined to be
success and never to give up.
One
more famous examples
of the
Richard Nixon's
to bounce back from
ability
political challenges
of
came during the 1952
dential election. Nixon,
presi-
who was Dwight
Eisenhower's vice presidential running mate,
a conservative
head the Court.
to the
work and
of the Republican party through hard
riots in the late
Among
1960s and the early 1970s.
Richard Milhous Nixon rose to the top ranks
Two
Court were rejected
by the Senate, but the president eventually

appointed three more conservative justices: Harry
Blackmun, Lewis Powell, and William Rehnquist.
had been accused of accepting personal
from wealthy businessmen. He went on
conservative justices to the

Supreme Court.
deny the charges.
national television to
came to be
called the
In
what
"Checkers speech,"
Nixon admitted to accepting one personal

"You know what
Nixon tried to reverse liberal

trends by cutting back on civil
rights legislation and appointing
gifts
"It
was
little
it
cocker spaniel dog
white, and spotted, and our

six-year-old,
want to
gift.
was?" the candidate asked.
named
it
black,
little girl Tricia,
Checkers.
And
the
just
say this, right now, that regardless of
what they
say about
it,
we're going to keep
The Checkers speech won wide
it."
public support
and saved Nixon from being dropped from the
Tackling the economy
Republican ticket.
Reversing the liberal policies of the 1960s was not

Nixon's only objective.
tering
He
also
had
to tackle a fal-
economy. Although the United States had
i:
901
hoih
pncrmincnon
iniv
rt>sc
THE ENER
OIL PRICES, 1973-1981
RISIS:
is
irURE ON FOREIGN 011^
us
called stagflation.
1973-1981
August 1971 Nixon u>ok
in
a drastic step to curb inflation by
imposing wage and price controls
temporary
freezes on
wages, prices, and
Many
rents.
people were surprised by the
V
L,
W
Nixon had long
action, since
opposed the use of such
Labor leaders feared
controls.
to
I.
wage
that
V
a,
freezes
would hurt those earning
AFL-CIO
_o
'Z
0.
the lowest wages.
George Meany called
president
"Robin HixxJ
in reverse,
it
because
977
robs from the poor and gives to
it
Year
the rich."
Sources:
WoHd
Energy:
t/ie
Facts
and the
Future: inset Siavsvcal Abstract of the United Stotes
Nixon, however, was bowing to political reality.
Only by
OPEC'S OIL
omy
The
oil
prices.
because American dependence on foreign
could he hope to win the
upcoming
Throughout the 1970s the Ui. government struggled
problems caused by skyrocketing
taking bold action on the econ-
United States experience
strategy worked. Inflation
oil
barrels of foreign
oil
were purchased
continually increased.
Between which two-year period did the
biggest increase
its
to ease the
These efforts were largely unsuccessful
in
prices? Approximately
oil
how many
I97S?
in
slowed, and Nixon was reelected

in
1972.
When
he eased controls
the following year, though, inflation shot
By August 1974
up again.
the annual inflation rate had
reached 12 percent.
A homemaker
reflected public sentiments about the
from Chicago
economy:
U.S. suppon of Israel. Although the Arabs lifted

their
embargo
after a few
months, the price of
oil
remained high. Some Americans charged
that oil
companies were keeping prices
high to
artificially
boost their profits.
You always used to think
try that there
in this
The
coun-
would be bad times followed
by good times.
Now, maybe
its
oil
embargo and
the price hikes caused
an energy crisis in the United States during the

winter of 1973-74.
bad times
followed by hard times followed by harder
oil.
times.
try
**
and
As
the cost of gasoline, heating
electricity soared,
some
experienced severe hardship.
parts of the coun-
One
pital told its patients to stay in
bed
"We had
we
so
little oil left
that
Detroit hos-
to
just
keep warm.
had to cut
back the thermostats." noted one hospital
Che ENERGY
CRISIS
"In storage
as
The surging
cost of oil
w as
a major cause of infla-
as
rooms and areas w ith no
patients,
it
got
40 degrees."
Responding
to the crisis. President
Nixon
World War II the U.S.

economy had become increasingly dependent on
foreign oil. By the early 1970s the United Slates
conservation and signed a
was importing one
struction of a pipeline to bring oil south from
tion during the 1970s. Since
To
third of
its oil
needs.
get higher prices for their oil. several
oil-exporting nations, mainly Arab countries.
had formed the Organization of Petroleum

Exporting Countries (OPEC) in 1960. In the fall
of 1973. amid a new Arab-Israeli war. OPEC
oil
Many
announced
less
The Arab
bill
authorizing con-
oil
embargo and
price
hikes of 1973 helped provoke an

States.
CHAPTER
make the United States

He called for energy
oil.
imports grew throughout the 1970s.
energy
.Arab countries cut
to
Alaska. Nevertheless. America's dependence on

oil
oft'
oil prices.
program
dependent on foreign
shipments to the United States as retaliation for
quadrupled
902
low
official.
crisis in
the United
^ As concerns over the

environment grew, U.S.
cities began to stage Earth
Cleaning up the environment

When Nixon
worried about the environment.
Two
events soon
helped increase concern, however. The
massive
first
was
coast of Santa Barbara.
oil spill off the
California, in 1969.
Day
Day celebrations. Shov/n

here is the 1970 Earth Day
event in New York City's
Central Park.
took office, few Americans seemed
The second was
the
first
Earth
celebration in April 1970. Across the country
huge crowds took part
and other
in "teach-ins"
designed to raise awareness of environ-
activities
mental problems. At an Earth
Day event
in
New
York City's Central Park. Episcopal bishop Paul
Moore
told a
group of schoolchildren: "Unless we
stop stealing, exploiting, and ruining nature for our
own
gain,
we
In 1970
lic
will lose everything."
Congress responded
to
growing pub-
concern over the environment by approving the
creation of the
Environmental Protection Agency
JOREIGN AFFAIRS UNDER NIXON
(EPA), a federal agency with power to enforce

environmental laws. Congress also approved the
Although domestic issues demanded much of
and Health
Nixon's attention, his main interest was foreign
creation of the Occupational Safety
Administration (OSHA)
to enforce
laws protect-
from dangerous or unhealthy working
ing workers
conditions. That
same
year.
Congress passed two
laws to limit pollution. The Clean Air Act set
air-
affairs.
Working closely with
adviser,
his national security
Henry Kissinger, Nixon sought
to
reshape U.S. foreign policy and leave his mark on
world
affairs.
quality standards and tough emissions guidelines
for car manufacturers.
Improvement Act made

of the cleanup costs of
The Water Quality

oil
companies pay some
oil spills
and
set limits
on
the discharge of industrial pollutants into water.
The NIxon-Klssinger approach.

and Kissinger shared
("practical politics")
Nixon
a belief in realpolitik
an
approach
to foreign
policy that emphasized national interests over
moral or ethical concerns. Applying realpolitik
Public concern over air and
meant
water
such as democracy and
coupled with
events like Earth Day, fueled the
growth of the environmental
movement in the 1970s.
quality,
that national interests, rather than ideals
the guiding force in
human rights, should be

American foreign policy.
Therefore, governments allied with the United

States should receive
American support, even
if
they were not democratic.
The government
also increased support for
the use of nuclear energy to replace oil
sources.
As
a relatively clean source of energy
that did not eat
up limited natural resources,
nuclear power seemed to
many energy
experts to
be "the only practicable energy source

adequate to sustain our
our economy."
way
of
By January
power plants were
in
life
many
critics
and
to
promote
operation and over 160
worried
in the
among
the world's five major powers: the United
States, the Soviet
Union. Western Europe. Japan,
and the People's Republic of China. As Nixon

explained in 1972:
in sight
1974, 42 nuclear
more were under construction or

stages. Yet
and coal
The chief goal of the Nixon-Kissinger foreign policy was to establish a balance of power
planning
that the risks of
4 The
only time
world that
we
in
the history of the
have had any extended
when there has been a

balance of power. It is when one nation
becomes infinitely more powerful in relaperiod of peace
a nuclear accident outweighed the advantages of
tion to
nuclear power.
danger of war
its
is
potential competitors that the

arises.
*9
i:
903
to turn Chile into "another
Nixon's main foreign-policy goal

was to achieve a balance of
power that would help reduce
ally to the Soviet Union
international conflict.
impro\ed relations with the People's Republic of

By the 1970s China and the Soviet Union
China.
CIA
to dis-
though both
Communist
still
with
ties
China would enhance American power
Asia and
further divide the
in
Ni.xon visited China in 1972 in an effort to
ease more than 20 years of hostility.
in
work together
the Pacific region and
and cultural and
to
to
The two
promote peace
develop trade relations
scientific ties.
Furthermore. Nixon
also instructed the
political life in the country. In
September 1973 the Chilean army
and
up a military dictatorship. To many

American actions in Chile represented a
set
pow er.
serious abuse of
Shortly after the Chilean coup, conflict
erupted
Middle East. Six years
in the
1967, Israel had crushed
in
Syria
Six-Day War.
in the
Embittered by their defeat,
Arab
the
continued to
states
harass Israel, and Israel con-
tinued to strike back.
prime minister
Israeli
Taiwan. This move helped decrease Chinese sup-
Golda Meir recalled
Although many
American conservatives were shocked by Nixon's

trip,
new
it
gave the president leverage to promote a
the
tension between her
country and
its
Arab
neiahbors:
In
May
1972. three months after visiting
Moscow
leader Leonid Brezhnev (BREZSH-nef).
room
in this
w ork
together and
iting nuclear
limited the
weapons. This
Arms
number of
was
out.
it
SALT
treaty, the
product of
War
intercontinental nuclear mis-
of
nation could have.
competition,
Arab
its
allies
w ith
land lost in the 1967 war.
the Israelis
a result of the peace talks, the
the lessening of military
:!
and
In general.
Nixon and Kissinger
attention to countries that
were not of
the South
One
American nation of Chile.
1970 Chile elected a Stvialisi president. Salvador

(ah-YAYN-day). Fearing that Allende planned
CHAPTER
Israel
seeking to recover
attack,
Yom
which came
Kippur. caught
by surprise. They soon launched
counterattack, however, that threatened Egypt's

capital. Cairo.
Facing defeat. Egypt called on the
Soviet Union for help.
When
direct strategic importance to the United States.
904
The
reducing the
As
the Soviets threatened to send troops
into the region. President
AUende
Israel,
a small first step in
Trouble spots.
w as
order to
support to Israel. Then, in October 1973.
Egypt and Syria invaded
diplomatic tensions between countries.
exception
in
the Soviets providing aid to
during the Jewish holiday of
United Slates and the Soviet Union entered into a
little
The
while the United States gave most
end the arms
period of detente
99
treaty did not
nuclear threat.
This simmering conflict was fueled by Cold
treaty lim-
traveling long distances to
it
wipe
to live
it
were prepared
to recognize the existence of
was when they attacked
their
those capable of
other continents each
race,
Nixon
Limitation Talks (SALT),
siles
Although the
the other side.
together."
Nixon and Brezhnev also signed a

the Strategic
had been shouting
only time that Arab states
world for
two great nations with different systems
we
come back from
The two
issues of mutual concern. At the time.

declared. "There must be
For years
"peace" and hearing the echo "war"
for talks with Soviet
agreed to promote trade and to cooperate on other
In
Golda Meir
policy with the Soviet Union.
China. Nixon flew to
paid
earlier,
Arab
its
Egypt. Jordan, and
promised eventual withdrawal of U.S. forces from
port for the North Vietnamese.
killed Allende
observers.
neighbors
Communist world.
nations agreed to
He
economic and
bitter
enemies. Nixon believed that improved
cut off aid to Chile and

in the
rupt
Relations with China and the Soviets.

As pan of this strategy. President Nixon sought
a Communist
tried to topple the
provided funds to Allende's opponents

Chilean military.
had become
He
Allende government.
Cuba"
Nixon
on
alert.
Nixon put
all
U.S. forces
major military confrontation seemed
possible. Within days, however, the superpowers
persuaded the Arabs and the

cease-fire. Detente
test,
Israelis to accept a
had survived
its first critical
but prospects for a lasting peace in the Middle
East remained in doubt.
the Middle East

ANTI-AMERICANISM
Growing
dependence on foreign
U.S.
oil
required good relations with
oil-producing Arab states, a situation complicated by hostility between the Arabs and
RELATIONSHIPS WITHIN PLACES

Arabs and
Israelis.
Not
all
conflicts
According to the map. what other conflicts began
in
Israelis.
the Middle East were between
1979?
in
SECTION
IDENTIFY
REVIEW
southern strategy, Warren Burger,
stagflation.
silent majority, Family
Assistance Plan,
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries,
Environmental Protection Agency, Occupational Safety and Health Administration, Clean Air Act,
Water
Quality Improvement Act, realpolitik, Leonid Brezhnev, Strategic
Arms
Limitation Talks, detente,
Salvador Allende, Golda Mein
LOCATE and
I.
explain the importance of the following: Israel, Egypt, Jordan, Syria.
MAIN IDEA What
steps did President
Nixon take to reverse the
liberal policies
of the
Kennedy
and Johnson administrations?
MAIN IDEA What factors provoked an energy crisis in the United States in 1973?
IDENTIFYING CAUSE AND EFFECT What events fueled the growth of the environmental
movement
in
the
970s?
WRITING TO EVALUATE
memorandum
Imagine you are a
member
of the National Security Council. Write a
that outlines President Nixon's main foreign-policy goal and evaluates
was threatened by events
in
ANALYZING What was
unique about the economy during the early 1970s?
propose to deal with
how
this goal
the Middle East.
How
did
Nixon
this situation?
905
FROM WATERGATE TO FORD
FOCUS
What
was the Watergate scandal?
Why
did President
What problems
Jjlixon
Nixon resign?
did President Ford face during his presidency?
second term, which began with a sweeping
reelection victory,
ended
two years later with his
less than
resignation from office. Just as the words Teapot
sum up
the scandals of
Warren Harding 's presidency, the
word Watergate represents

years. With Nixon
Ford
's
Nixon Resigns
Dome
the political abuses of the
departure from
office.
Nixon
Ford XsNitmes Presidency Tnthn
President Gerald
tried to restore credibility to the White
House.
Headline announcing Nixon resignation, 1974
actions, the
URISIS IN THE PRESIDENCY
White House charged them with
biased reporting.
Additional actions were taken in secret to
Years after Richard Nixon
Henry
left office.
help ensure Nixon's reelection. In 1969 Nixon
Kissinger reflected on the presidency of his former
ordered his staff to compile an "enemies
boss:
made up of
critics
opposed
Nixon had three
goals: to
biggest electoral landslide
remembered
as a
in
win by the
later, in
and
Two
years
He
achieved
all
the end of 1972 and the beginning of 1973.
variety of illegal actions in the
And he
security."
lost
them
all
two months
obsession.
dream
later
By 1972
into an
99
roomed
won
his land-
"national
these secret activities had mush-
no matter what
which involved criminal
it
took. This campaign,
activity
and electoral
1972 election. Nixon increas-
"dirty tricks.'" along with subsequent attempts to
worked to extend and to maximize his

power. He shifted much of the authority of the
cabinet, whose appointment required Senate
cover them up. became known as Watergate. The
approval, to his personal White House
ing wiretap equipment and other spying devices
slide victory in the
ingly
staff.
He
also hid vital information from Congress and the

public.
906
name of
into a full-scale effort to ensure Nixon's
reelection
This obsession began before Nixon
up a
which included former agents of the CIA and

FBI, was ordered to stop leaks and carry out a
these objectives at
partly because he turned a
set
secret unit called "the plumbers." This group,
accepted by the "Establishment" as an

equal.
reaction to Daniel Ellsberg's leak of the
Pentagon Papers (see Chapter 30), Nixon
history; to be
peacemaker; and to be
to his policies
then tried to ruin their reputations.
list""
When
CHAPTER
31
the
news media
criticized
Nixon's
scandal took
in
its
name from
the Watergate building
men
Washington, D.C. In June 1972 five
were caught breaking
carry-
into the Watergate offices of
the Democratic National
Committee.
It
was soon
WATERGATE
Foreign journalists
were
ested
case.
particularly inter-
the Watergate
that
in
Many noted
sinnilar
scandals exposed
by journalists in their
countries were often ignored
because the popular press had little political
influence. For example, although the French
followed the Watergate investigation with
great interest, an alleged French government
attempt to wiretap the offices of a weekly

newspaper, Le Canard Enchaine, drew little
attention. After Nixon's resignation, French
Bob Woodward (left) and Carl Bernstein (right)

were two Washington Post reporters who investigated the link between the Nixon White House
and the Watergate break-in. This photograph
was taken in April 1973.
Andre Fontaine commented

newspaper Le Monde:
journalist
Wwe no longer knew

discovered that these
men had
ties to the
wanted
White
to believe
it.
it,
But there's
in
we no
still
the
longer
at least one
House and were being paid with funds from
nation on this earth where the law, decidedly,
Nixon's campaign organization, the Committee to
stronger than men, where, just
(CREEP).
The administration denied any
Re-elect the President
break-in. calling
it
President,
link to the
a "third-rate burglary."
some
But two
known only
level source,
revealed that White House officials and
some judges were capable of making
decisions against him.
States must give up his place to the liberties he
high-
took with the truth doesn't leave [Americans]
"Deep Throat."
as
astonished. As for the Watergate scandal,
CREEP
we
had hired 50 agents to sabotage the Democrats'
have heard much that the wiretapping at Le
chances
weak replica, the fact is that

France has had some others ....
Our old
countries
have become
in the
Canard
1972 election.
The Watergate scandal
impli-
is
only a
cated the Nixon administration

in illegal activities,
which
is
the
The idea that the President of the United
Washington Post reporters. Bob Woodward and

Carl Bernstein, kept digging for the truth.
named by
very indulgent toward
officials
sins.
But the Americans,
despite the excesses of competition
later tried to cover up.
terculture
and coun-
haven't yet loosened the cocoon
of moralism, into which the puritans put their
The WATERGATE
Woodward and
political
life.
INVESTIGATION
99
Bernstein's astonishing revelations
did not prevent Nixon's reelection. But by the spring
The biggest bombshells were
of 1973, both the judicial and the legislative
branches of government were investigating

Watergate. Senator
Sam
Ervin of North Carolina led
the investigations for the Senate.
witnesses to testify
One
of the
first
was James McCord. an ex-CIA
May,
live television
yet to come. In
coverage of the Senate hear-
ings began. Across the nation millions of
Americans
sat
glued to their sets as senators
grilled witnesses
and compiled evidence of
offi-
who had taken part in the Watergate break-in.

McCord admitted that top White House officials had
cial
helped plan the break-in and later tried to cover
Watergate remained unclear. Time and again, a
agent
up. This testimony broke the case
wide open.
it
misconduct. Eventually several top White
House
officials
went
to jail. Still,
Nixon's role
in
key member of the Watergate committee. Senator
i:
907
Howard Baker of Tennessee, asked: "What

know and when did he know
president
did the
il'^"
In
June. Nixon's former White House counsel John

the stunning answer: the president him-
Dean gave
self
had ordered the cover-up.
Nixon denied
way
be no
to
the charge,
prove
and ihcrc scctncd
lo
Then another witness
it.
revealed that Nixon had secretly tape-recorded his
conversations
in the
White House!
In the tapes,
investigators believed. lay the truth behind
The
Watergate.
Justice Department's special prose-
cutor. Archibald
Cox. demanded
that
Nixon
turn
over the tapes. Citing "executive privilege," Nixon

refused on the grounds that release of the tapes
would endanger national
security.
midst of this controversy, the Justice
In the
Department dealt the administration another blow.

In
October 1973
Agnew
Agnew
for
it
Gerald Ford was sworn
in
as the nation's 38th
president as his wife, Betty, watches.
charged Vice President Spiro
with bribe-taking and income-tax evasion.
pleaded no contest and resigned
in
exchange
minimal punishment. Nixon then nominated
Gerald Ford, the Republican leader
in the
House of
office
have never been a quitter. To leave

before
my term
opposed to every
But as president
Representatives, as vice president.
of America
first.
is
completed
my
instinct in
must put the

.
Therefore,
interests
I
resign the presidency effective at
NIXON
tomorrow.
RESIGNS
Shortly before
Agnew
On October
Cox demanded
Prosecutor
that
20. after Special
he obey the judge,
Nixon ordered Attorney General

to fire
shall
noon
y9
resigned, a federal judge
ordered Nixon to release the tapes. The president

refused to comply.
is
body.
Elliot
Richardson
President Nixon resigned rather

than face impeachment for his
role in covering up the Watergate affair.
Cox. Both the attorney general and Deputy
Attorney General William Ruckelshaus resigned
The
rather than
obey the
then
Robert Bork. the solicitor general,
fell
to
order.
task of firing
Cox
who
On August
Ford was sworn
9.
1974. Vice President Gerald
in as the
complied. This series of events, known as the
Nelson Rockefeller of
Saturday Night Massacre, outraged
dent,
led to increased calls to
Nixon
finally
White House
the public
and
impeach Nixon.
first
agreed lo release some of the
tapes. Vital
38th president of the
United States. He then nominated Governor
New York
for vice presi-
and Congress confirmed his choice. For the

time in history, both the president and the vice
president held office by appointment.
segments were missing,
however, and Nixon again resisted turning over the
whole
set.
It
was only months
Supreme Court ordered Nixon

tapes
to turn
Americans found out the
after the
over
truth:
all
Commentary
the
Nixon
The Larger Meaning
of
Watergate
had directed the Watergate cover-up and had autho-
Watergate was not the
rized illegal activities.
presidency. The administration of Ulysses
Still.
Nixon refused
to step
first
scandal to taint the

S.
down. The House Judiciary committee responded

by approving a series of impeachment charges
Grant, a century before Nixon, was stained by
against him. Facing almost certain conviction.
Warren G. Harding. But Watergate was
Nixon decided
Nixon was
spoke
908
that
later
to resign.
to the nation:
CHAPTER
On August
8.
1974. he
financial scandal. So, too,
and the
was
the presidency of
the first president to resign
first
since
Andrew Johnson
different.
from office
in
1868 to
face a serious threat of impeachment. Unlike
Vietnam War
the
who had
felt
the pardon
was
unfair to sol-
Johnson, Nixon's troubles did not resuh from a
diers
power
only a handful of people accepted the president's
struggle with Congress but from charges of
criminal activity.
cal political
Some war
offer.
Furthermore, Watergate did not involve typi-
misconduct, such as taking bribes.
It
served their country. Meanwhile,
rcsisters. like
Dee Knight, con-
trasted the conditional pardon with the full
pardon
granted Nixon:
challenged the very basis of our constitutional
government. Nixon
above the
rule of
w We knew
tried to place the presidency
the clemency was pro-
claimed just to offset the Nixon pardon,
law and above the constitutional
We weren't criminals,
system of balance of powers. Afterward, Congress
which was an
would
and Nixon was, but Ford proposed to par-
try to
clean up government corruption by
some
passing several laws, including
insult.
don Nixon unconditionally while
limiting the
amount of money individuals and corporations
"alternative punishment" to us.
offering
99
could contribute to a political candidate.
Watergate tested our system of constitu-
government
tional
to the limit, but the
system
JORD'S TROUBLES CONTINUE
held firm. Vigorous investigative journalism and

strong action by the courts and Congress exposed
Ford soon ran into other problems, including conflicts
the criminal activities of the Watergate conspirators
and forced a president
to resign.
Watergate
with the Democratic majority in Congress.
moderate conservative. Ford vetoed a
is
a
fact,
government of law, not of individuals.
had
he vetoed more
in
bills
such a short time.
than any other president
As
Congress worsened, he found

cult to
ÔRD TRIES TO REUNITE
inflation,
common
touch.
House, he had
As
won
was
Ford's relations with

it
increasingly diffi-
his policies.
of Ford's main goals was to combat
which was being fueled by the energy
gifted with the
leader of the Republicans in the

the respect of colleagues in both
parties for his honesty
and unassuming manner.
But President Ford
lost
much of
this early
goodwill when, a month after taking office, he

full
The energy crisis increased the price of many

consumer goods in the United States. To win pubsupport for his anti-inflation program, President
Ford issued buttons with initials representing
lic
"I'm a Ford, not a Lincoln," he once joked.
granted Nixon a
implement
One
THE NATION
president, Gerald Ford,
number of
social-welfare bills sponsored by Democrats. In
underscored the fact that the United States
The new
"Whip
Inflation
Now."
pardon. Overnight Ford's
popularity rating dropped from 72 percent to 49
now the full truth

about Watergate would never emerge. They
percent. His critics charged that
pointed to the double standard that allowed Nixon

to
go
free while his co-conspirators
Many
were punished.
people suspected that the pardon had been
agreed upon in advance in exchange for Nixon's

resignation. President Ford denied this charge.
defended the pardon by saying that a public
would have prolonged the
bitterness
A
step
wounds of the
w eek
later.
by offering
trial
and division
produced by Watergate. He had acted, he

heal "the
He
said, to
past.*"
Ford took another controversial
partial
amnesty
evaders and military deserters
to
who
Vietnam
draft
agreed to reaf-
firm their allegiance to the United States and spend
two years performing public
service. Supporters of
909
GERALD
R.
in office
FORD
1974-1977
1913Gerald Ford faced the
made
of restoring the nation's confidence

in
government
was uniquely
that Ford
to
Watergate
after the
remove
from
White
Throughout
his
qualified
"The
Senator Robert
P.
He
acquired this attitude from
He had been
star player for the University of
Michigan and received several
nicest
offers to play for professional
Ford," said
teams. Instead he worked
he
Griffin, "is that
way
his
doesn't have any enemies." Indeed,
through law school as a coach and
when Ford
entered
first
responded that "anybody

keep
his
has too
crisis
enemies
in
his
list,"
who
he
He was
can't
:an't
oil.
seized the Mayaguez, an
Like Nixon. Ford
curb inflation by cutting federal spending,
In response,
ers criticized
revealed, the
One problem was Soviet emigration
released
which restricted the freedom of

Jews and political dissidents
When members
of Congress criticized this policy,

the Soviets canceled a proposed
U.S. -Soviet trade pact. Over the

next few years, relations continued
to sour.
American influence
Toward
that end.
in
maintain
Southeast
he requested
5722 million in military aid for

Cambodia and South Vietnam. But
Congress, opposed to further military ventures in Southeast Asia,
turned
May
down
1975.
CHAPTER
Ford's request. Then, in
Cambodian Communists
31
White House
unarmed U.S. cargo
its
policy,
it
when
ship.
to free
crew. Forty-one Americans were
39 crew members.
While some applauded the president's
however, U.S.-Soviet relations began to unravel.
to
the
killed in the effort to release the
Ford also continued many
of Nixon's policies, including detente. Gradually,
Ford also tried
however.
Ford launched a military action
the vessel and
longed the nation's economic woes.
to leave the countr\'.
life,
since Teddy RoosevelL
many enemies."
In foreign affairs.
Sports remained an
the most athletic president

in
but this threw the country into a recession and pro-
Asia.
politics.
influential part of his
head
and the soaring cost of
tried to
about
heard
President Nixon's "enemies
910
or arrogant when he won.
cially football.
been known as an honest and

likable politician.
when he
never vengeful
lost
years of playing sports, espe-
House.
career he had
thing about Jerry
Ford
friends because he always
He was
the taint of scandal
the
politicians.
maintained a fair-minded attitude.
Most observers believed
crisis.
many
Unlike
difficult task
actions, oth-
as hasty and ill-timed. As facts later

Mayaguez crew had already been
the troops
were
sent.
Cambodian Communists seized an unarmed U.S. cargo ship,

in May 1975. President Ford called the action
the Mayaguez,
piracy and sent U.S. Marines to free the vessel and
its
crew.
Jordan dechircd:
Ford clashed with Congress over

domestic and foreign policy.
During his term U.S.-Soviet
relations
not going to
am
"I
here and
sit
be an idle spectator to the

.
began to unravel.
destruction of the
Constitution." Despite her
outstanding record
Congress,
The ELECTION OF
announced
1976
in
1978 Jordan
in
that she
would
not run for a fourth term.
At the 1976 Republican convention. Ford narrowly
As
won
more conserv-
adviser, however, she
Ronald Reagan of California. To
played a prominent role
the party's nomination over his
ative challenger,
a political analyst and
balance the ticket, the convention nominated con-
in national affairs until
servative senator Robert Dole of Kansas for vice
her death in early
president. At the Democratic convention,
Carter
former governor of Georgia
Jimmy
won
the
996.
speech to the 1976 Democratic con-
In her
vention, Jordan declared:
nomination, with Senator Walter Mondale of

Minnesota as
his running mate.
at the
Democratic convention.
Jordan brought a strong sense of
liLLJJ
moral authority to the Democratic party.

in
government handed dov^n to us by the
new ways
realize
received a law degree from Boston University. In
1966 Jordan became the
first
African American
elected to the Texas senate. There her tire-
less efforts
on behalf of
social reform
won
praise
from President Lyndon Johnson, who noted, "She

proved that black
it
we
can find
to implement that system and
our
destiny.
**
1936, she grew up in Houston,
Texas. She excelled in school and eventually
woman
cannot improve on the system of
founders of the Republic, but
vw
"*** Born
We
Congresswoman
Barbara Jordan of Texas gave the keynote address
is
beautiful before
we knew what
meant."
central to
known
outside the South, Carter ran as a
Washington outsider untainted by Watergate. He

promised never
to lie to the
American people and
openly noted that he was a born-again Christian
whose
religious ethics strongly shaped his political
actions.
was
a new approach to government

Jimmy Carter's campaign. Little
The idea of
was
"You
can't divorce religious beliefs and
House
public service," he said. In a close election, he cap-
of Representatives, where she soon gained a repu-
tured 297 electoral votes to Ford's 240. After eight
In 1972 Jordan
elected to the U.S.
tation as a skilled legislator
She played a key role
in
and
brilliant orator.
drawing up impeachment
charges against President Nixon. At one point
years of Republican rule, the Democrats returned to

the
White House. Many hoped
SECTION
IDENTIFY
Sam
Ervin,
that Carter
would be
able to reverse the public's mistrust of government.
REVIEW
and explain the significance of the following: Watergate, Bob Woodward, Carl Bernstein,
James McCord, John Dean, Archibald Cox, Gerald Ford, Saturday Night Massacre, Jimmy
Carter, Barbara Jordan.

I.
MAIN IDEA Why did President Nixon choose to resign from office in 1974?
MAIN IDEA What difficulties did President Ford face during his time in office?
ASSESSING CONSEQUENCES What was
WRITING TO INFORM
ing the
5.
Imagine you are an investigative reporter for the Washington
Watergate scandal. Write an
investigation leading
the significance of the Watergate investigation?
article that outlines the
major events
in
Post,
cover-
the scandal and the
up to President Nixon's resignation.
HYPOTHESIZING How
might events have been different
if
Ford had not pardoned Nixon?
91!
Section 3
CARTER: THE OUTSIDER AS PRESIDENT
FOCUS
What
critical
How did
Why did
How did
//
domestic issues faced the Carter administration?
Carter's foreign policy differ from Nixon's?
Cold
War tensions
the Iran hostage
Jciniuny 20, 1977,
rise
under President Carter?
crisis affect
Jimmy Carter
Carter's presidency?
took the oath as the 39th
president of the United States. Initially a popular president, Carter
enjoyed some notable successes. But serious problems

persistent inflation
and conflict
in the
Middle East
including
eventually
helped erode the president's popularity. In 1980 he
lost his
bid for
Family
a second term.
member
of hostages
An "OPEN ADMINISTRATION"
The Carter
style to the
style.
awaiting return
in Iran
Carter brought a folksy
White House, abandoning much of
pomp and ceremony
the
of previous presidents.
During the presidential campaign. Carter had
Contributing to this informal tone was his colorful
promised,
family,
who became
interest.
The news media reported on
ple.
He
if
elected, to stay in touch with the peo-
quickly showed his intentions to keep that
promise. Following his inauguration, the president
and
his family
to the
walked down Pennsylvania Avenue
White House, rather than make the
limousine surrounded by Secret Service.
trip in a
the subject of
of Carter's young daughter.
much
public
the activities
Amy. and on
the views
of his outspoken mother. Miss Lillian. Carter's

wife. Rosalynn, received even
one of
his
more
attention as
most trusted advisers. Although
critics
questioned his wife's influence on policy, the president insisted that she play a prominent role in
White House
affairs.
Early on. Carter took several steps that indicated a

full
day
new approach
in office,
to
government.
On
his first
he announced an unconditional
pardon for most Vietnam-era draft evaders, moving
beyond
the conditional
pardon offered by
President Ford. This gesture helped heal lingering
divisions over the war. Carter also held several
A The Carter family attracted almost as much

media attention as the president. Shown here are
President Carter with his wife, Rosalynn, and his
young daughter, Amy.
912
CHAPTER
31
PRESIDENTIAL LlV^
in office
JIMMY CARTER
1977-1981
1924The common reaction
to Georgia
tionship with his wife. Rosalynn
governor Jimmy Carter's announce-
Carter took an active and public
ment
that
he was running for
role
presi-
dent was "Jimmy who?" Few

people outside of
were
home
his
familiar with the
her husband's views. Meanwhile
Jimmy Carter shared the house-
Soon, how-
Plains.
began to discover
was much more to
southern politician than
around the world to represent
state
ever, voters
grin.
hold chores, such as cooking,

caring for their daughter, and
grocery shopping.
this
own
Carter had worked
campaign.
as a nuclear
engineer before entering politics
modern
his
jacket during the presidential
When
did his
bal-
inter-
candidate sewing a button onto
the United States Naval Academy,
Carter had
One
viewer was shocked to see the
his large
highly ranked graduate of
anced,
political affairs, traveling
peanut
farmer from
that there
in
ply
own
asked
if
he always
sewing. Carter sim-
mumbled with thread
in
mouth, "Uh-huh."
rela-
"town meetings" and radio and
television call-in
National Energy Act to relax controls on the price
sessions to keep in touch with the people. Unlike
of natural gas. Despite these efforts, world events
Jimmy
Richard Nixon.
to
Carter seemed determined
keep his administration open
continued to affect the nation's energy supply.

In January
to public view.
rupted world
Carter's
first
economic
was
tasks
was just beginning

recession.
Some
percent of the
to
economy, which
emerge from several years of
eight million
work
unemployment
One of Carter's
policy.
to stimulate the
force
Americans
7.8
were unemployed. The
re\ ive the
implemented a
1979
a revolution in Iran dis-
shipments.
raised the price of oil
few months
later,
50 percent, leading
to
another U.S. energy crisis (see the chart on page

902).
As gasoline
supplies dwindled,
many
stations closed or reduced their hours.

flared as frustrated drivers
had
to
gas
Tempers
w ait hours
to
fill
among African Americans and
rate
Hispanic Americans was 13 percent.
To
OPEC
oil
economy and
series of
ing a corporate tax cut.
create jobs. Carter
economic measures, includ-
The Carter
administration's
pohcies helped reduce unemployment
High energy costs hurt many groups during the late 1970s,
On February 6, 1979, protesting farmers
drove their tractors down Pennsylvania Avenue to demonstrate in front of the White House.
including farmers.
slightly, but
they also fueled inflation, which reached 13.3 percent by 1979.
wage and
voluntar\
in
inflation. Carter called for
price controls, along with cuts
funding for social services. But Carter's anti-
program produced more unemployment.
inflation
By
To curb
the
summer
of 1980. the
economy was once
again mired in recession.
Facing
tiie
the nation's
imported
energy
crisis.
oil.
To reduce
major cause of
the nation's oil depen-
dence. Congress created the
Energy
economic woes was the high cost of
in 1977.
Department of
The following year
it
passed the
913
one-man
ture. This
America.
to
not an appropriate policy for
99
Carter's
the area of
policy of international adven-
is
new approach was most
human
rights
the
evident
in
rights of all people
freedom from unlawful detention or
human
Declaring that "our commitment to
must be absolute," Carter called
torture.
rights
for strong diplo-
matic and economic pressure on countries that violated
human
rights.
Not surprisingly,
many
dictatorships that
repressed the rights of their people strongly
opposed Carter's
policy.
Some American
mats also had doubts. They warned
that
diplo-
such med-
dling in the domestic affairs of other countries
After the disaster at Three Mile Island, residents staged

protests that questioned the safety of nuclear power.
might increase world tensions. The United States
Protesters urged the government to explore alternative
would resent meddling by other nations
in its
energy sources, such as solar power.
domestic
their gas tanks.
Some
foreign policy of realpolitik to
less and by embracing other energy-saving mea-
midst of the
in the
oil crisis,
March 1979
emphasize moral principles and
homes,
respect for
another event
dramatized America's energy problems.
in
human
rights.
In late
Pennsylvania, nearly
causing a catastrophic nuclear meltdown
the
Panama Canal caused

He supported Panama's
Carter's stand on the
a nuclear reactor failed at the Three
Mile Island power plant
they pointed out.
Carter moved away from Nixon's
people responded by driving
sures, such as instalHng solar heaters in their
affairs,
even greater controversy.

right to control the canal
zone and pushed for pas-
Panama Canal
which granted
melting of the reactor's core. This incident stirred
sage of the
public fears about nuclear power.
Panama control over canal operations by the year

2000 while safeguarding U.S. security interests.
Critics charged that Carter was "giving away" the
canal. "We built it. we paid for it. it's ours, and
An economic
energy
recession and an
were among the
crisis
treaties,
serious domestic issues facing the

Carter administration.
we
are going to
keep
it!"
declared conservative
Republican Ronald Reagan.

Gradually, however, public opinion shifted in
Carter's favor, and after a long and bitter debate.
Human RIGHTS AND

FOREIGN POLICY
As
Carter struggled with difficult domestic issues,
he was also charting

affairs.
new course
in foreign
Rejecting the realpolitik of the Nixon
years. Carter tried to inject moral principles into
American foreign
policy. Reflecting on past
administrations, he declared:
We
are deeply concerned ... by the
subtle erosion
our foreign
in
policy.
Under the Nixon-Ford
administration, there has evolved a kind of

secretive
914
::
CHAPTER
"Lone Ranger" foreign policy

1
the focus and morality of
A Through the Panama Canal treaties,
President
Carter proposed that the United States give control of the canal zone to Panama by the year 2000.
Labeling the invasion
the Senate narrowly ratified the treaties in 1978. In
Latin America, where U.S. control over the canal
had long been a sore point, the
met with
treaties
more
Soviet military action
on the Panama Canal issue signaled
flexible
hoped the approach would
improve America's image and diminish the appeal
communism. His
policy
was evident
in Africa,
where the United States and the Soviet Union were
jockeying for influence among the continent's

newly independent
interest in Africa, Carter tried to
who showed
in their
win friends among
own
way.
One
Carter official noted, "It
not a sign of weakness to recognize that
cannot dictate events elsewhere.
It is
we
any
provoke a military response by the United
States.
Although
the U.S. improved relations with developing countries,

Cold War tensions increased
when the Soviets invaded
Afghanistan.
reach out to black African
before
long
Soviet
invasion
of
policy triumph: a Middle East peace accord. Carter
had taken office
He
the
rather a sign of
Andrew Young,
states.
Not
Afghanistan, Carter engineered his chief foreign-
Carter's ambassador to the United Nations.

civil rights activist
CARTER AND THE MIDDLE EAST
alone
maturity in a complex world."
former
that
little
African nations by helping them sort out their prob-
lems
warned
Persian Gulf would
states.
Unlike Nixon and Ford,
is
in the
approach to relations with develop-
ing countries. Carter
of
peace.
they refused, he cut grain sales to the Soviet
control treaty. Finally, the president
UARTER AND THE COLD WAR

a
When
a threat to
the Soviets to withdraw.
Union and announced a boycott of the 1980

Summer Olympics in Moscow. Congress also postponed the signing of a key U.S. -Soviet arms-
general approval.
Carter's stance
President Carter warned
tried to
criticized white
imperialism in Africa, condemned South Africa's
1977 amid fears of another
in
Anwar
Menachem
Egyptian-Israeli war. Egyptian president
Sadat (sah-DAHT) and Israeli premier
Begin (muh-NAHK-uhm BAY-gin) met for peace

talks, but those talks
Anwar Sadat
policy of apartheid (racial segregation), and sup-
deadlocked.
received a great deal of criticism
ported black majority rule in Rhodesia (now
from the leaders of other Arab nations for attempt-
Zimbabwe).
ing any peace talks with Israel. Sadat
Carter's flexible approach helped

tions in Africa
and ease Cold War
ing of tensions
smooth
conflict.
The
of Afghanistan to
born
in the
eas-
Kum
on the Nile Delta
In
troops invaded the country
install a
small village of Mit Abu-
rela-
was short-lived, however.
December 1979 Soviet
pro-Soviet leader. The
in 1918.
His
childhood was heavily influenced by his

close-knit family and the local
(religious leader),
who
Imam
taught him the
Soon
invasion put Soviet troops within striking distance
principles of the Islamic faith.
of major
graduating from the Egyptian Military
oil routes.
was
Academy
in 1938,
Sadat joined a
group of rebels who wanted

Egypt of
its
after
to rid
constitutional monarchy,
which was under British
Sadat went
to
control.
prison in the
1940s for his efforts
to liberate
Egypt. After being released from prison, he

joined the rebel forces
monarch
who
finally
in 1952. Thereafter
tral role in
overthrew the
Sadat played a cen-
shaping Egyptian policy, finally
4 As
U.S. ambassador to the United Nations, Andrew Young

condemned apartheid and sympathized with the concerns of
developing nations. His actions made him a controversial

and he was forced to resign in 979.
figure,
^S^
915
becoming president
played a key role
As president he
197U.
in
Middle East events, including
in
trying to pave the road to peace.

ited Israel in 1977,
When
Sadat vis-
Premier Begin remarked:
Americans approved of
his performance.
Nixon's
approval rating had not fallen this low even during

the depths of Watergate. Carter's drop in popular-
was
ity
partly
due
to his lack of political experi-
ence. But his troubles also lay in the nature of the
44
The time
of the
and Jerusalem
large.
short
is
between them
unemployment. Middle East
[but] the distance
War
until yesterday, quite
problems he faced. The energy
between Cairo
We.
the Jews,
know
faced, however,
99
to appreciate this courage.
Iran hostage
But Sadat always downplayed his

about peace.
He considered
a collective effort by the entire country.
own
role
He once
Of
all
the difficulties he
none was more damaging than the
crisis.
security in
the Middle
critical to
U.S.
East. In the 1950s the United
his actions
States had helped overthrow Iran's leader and
To him,
restore
all
Egyptians shared responsibility for the nation's

future.
and Cold
conflict,
had long been regarded as
Iran
in bringing
crisis, inflation,
tensions were highly complicated issues that
defied simple solutions.
Sadat passed this distance with
heartfelt courage.
how
flight
28).
Shah Reza Pahlavi
power
(see Chapter
Although the shah's regime was very repres-
sive, the
said:
to
United States always supported him. In
1979, however, followers of a militant Islamic
44
leader, the Ayatollah
Responsibility cannot be relegated to
certain individuals,
no matter how good
koh-MAY-nee), forced the shah to flee the country.
The new government was outraged when
your opinion of them might be; neither can

it
be confined to groups of people, however
good
is
their intentions
may
On November
medical treatment.
**
Carter
September 1978 Sadat met with Begin and
at
Camp
David, the presidential retreat
became known
framework
as the
result of their efforts,
Camp
for peace,
which
David Accords. As a
Sadat and Begin shared the
Nobel Peace Prize for 1978. The following year,

the
two leaders signed a formal peace
30 years of war between Egypt and
"And
Some
Month
American hostages
month, the hostage
sis
Americans. As frustration over the
mounted, public anger
touched the Soviet Embassy."
Echoing
universal approval.
oil-
thoughts
these
during
the
1980 presidential election
campaign, the Republican

candidate. Ronald Reagan,
weak
nations, furious at his
president
who
"betrayal" for making peace with Israel. In 1981,
had presided over a
members of an Islamic fundamentalist group
decline in American
army assassinated Sadat while
power.
promise
Reagan's
"make
to
America strons
CARTER'S POPULARITY FALLS

Although Carter had chalked up some notable successes as president, by 1980 only 21 percent of
3
Many
the hostages signaled
Carter aide admitted that "Khomeini would not have
attacked Carter as a
CHAPTER
Carter also grew.
cri-
At the
he was reviewing a military parade.
916
at
felt that his inability to free
drew
within the Egyptian
U.S.
Israel.
order to appease Arab
Arab
dragged
when
military helicopters crashed in the Iranian desert,

killing eight
exporting nations, such as Saudi Arabia. Sadat

the wrath of other
crisis
America's decline as a symbol of power. Even one
supporters of Israel accused President Carter

in
at
Tehran, Iran's capital.
on. In April 1980 a rescue mission failed
they shall beat their swords into
of favoring the Arabs
after
in
ending
plowshares and their spears into pruning hooks."
The accords did not meet
embassy
treaty
emotion-filled ceremony, each quoted the prophet

Isaiah:
the U.S.
in
Maryland. There, after 12 days of negotiations, the

three agreed on a
an
4, 1979, in
effort to force the shah's return to Iran for trial,
Iranian militants seized 53

In
President
Carter allowed the shah into the United States for
be. Responsibility
the entire people's property.
Khomeini (eye-uh-TOH-luh
American hostage
in Iran
^-^-
Election of
again" struck
1980
chord
REPUBLICAN LANDSLIDE
He and his
mate.
George
running
with voters.
Carter's difficulties at
home and abroad doomed
his
chances
for reelection.
MM
Bush, easily won the

election, capturing 489
LOCATION
Which
states did Carter win west of the Mississippi
River?
electoral votes to Carter
An
and Mondale's 49.
independent candidate.
John Anderson, failed

to capture
any electoral
but
votes,
win
did
almost 7 percent of the
popular vote, further

reflecting public frustra-
admin-
tion with the
For the
istration.
time since
Republicans
first
1952, the
won
control
of the Senate, while

the Democrats" majority
House dropped
in the
Electoral
Popular
%of
Vote
Vote
Popular Vote
489
Reagan
43,904,153
50.7
somewhat.
49
35,483,883
41.0
Anderson
5,720,060
6.6
Other candidates
1,407,793
1.6
Carter
After his defeat
Carter
continued
to
negotiate for the release
of the
On
hostages.
January 20. 1981, after
444 days
in captivity, the hostages
freed, just
sworn
moments
were
The
finally
Iran hostage crisis contributed
to Carter's defeat
Ronald Reagan was
after
the
980
election.
in as president.
SECTION
IDENTIFY
REVIEW
and explain the significance of the following: Rosalynn Career, Department of Energy,
National Energy Act,
Menachem
in
Begin,
human
Camp
rights,
Panama Canal
treaties,
David Accords, Iran hostage
Andrew Young,
crisis,
apartheid,
Anwar
Sadat,
Ayatollah Khomeini, Ronald Reagan, John
Anderson.
LOCATE
Iran,
South Africa, Rhodesia (Zimbabwe),
Afghanistan.
2.
MAIN IDEA What two serious domestic issues did President Carter face?
MAIN IDEA How did the Carter administration's approach to the Cold War
overseas? What event caused Cold War tensions to increase?
3.
CONTRASTING
1.
influence events
Contrast the Carter administration's approach to foreign policy with the Nixon
administration's approach.
4.
WRITING TO EXPLAIN
tion.
5.
Imagine you are a
political analyst
covering the 1980 presidential elec-
Write an essay explaining why Carter has been defeated.
TAKING A STAND Was
Carter right
in
supporting the Panama Canal treaties?
Why
or why not?
917
A DECADE OF SOCIAL CHANGE
FOCUS
How
did the
civil
rights
movement
continue
in
How
the 1970s?
did
some whites respond?
What
What
did
American Indian leaders
fight for
during the
issues both encouraged and divided the women's

during the 1970s?
How
did the
new immigrants
in
the
.^,
970s?
movement
970s help shape society?
D,uring the 1970s American society- underwent important social

changes. African Americans
made further gains,
despite a growing
white backlash. Hispanic Americans, American Indians, people with

disabilities,
and women also made
these changes, society as a whole

living longer
and moving more
legal
and economic
strides.
Amid
was evolving as Americans were
and new immigrants were
often,
A woman
swelling the population.
choice of
Carter appointed the
first
rights movement
woman
tary of
The 1970s brought some progress
Though
report found that
in the area
of
civil
1975 Civil Rights Commission
many
African Americans were
still
to a cabinet post
as
UN
civil
ambassador.
Patricia Harris as secre-
Housing and Urban Development.
During the 1970s Hispanic Americans also
began
to reap
some rewards
for their political
struggles of the previous decade.
Between 1974
being kept from voting by various means, by the end
and 1987 the number of elected Hispanic

in the
elective office
three times the
number
roster of elected black officials in
in 1969.
1978 included
numbers of Hispanic Americans were appointed
LULAC
Citizens
the
Atlanta. Detroit, and Washington. D.C.
As new African American

political experience, they
formed strong alliances
and effective lobbies. They also worked hard

out the black vote, a key factor in
electoral victory in 1976.
As
to get
Jimmy Carters
president. Carter
helped open the doors of the federal government to

African Americans, naming more blacks to federal
jobs than any previous president. In addition to his

C H
AP'
League of United Latin American
mounted lobbying
raise national
leaders gained
to
federal jobs, while Hispanic groups such as
170 mayors, including those of Los Angeles.
members of
officials
United States more than doubled. Growing
House of Representatives and
16
rights
African American
of the 1970s over 4.500 African Americans held
The
918
Andrew Young
The legacy of the civil
rights.
with visual impairment
demonstrating for
efforts
and helped
awareness of Hispanic concerns. In
California the United
Farm Workers won
key
victory in 1975 with the passage of a state law
extending legal protection to migrant farm workers. In addition, the
Southwest Voter Registration
Education Project helped Hispanic Americans register to vote.
Americans with
disabilities also
\oices heard in the 1970s.
made
their
Why. they asked, should
to
make up
for previous
discrimination.
But the 1970s also

brought a white backlash
against this aspect of the
civil rights
Some
movement.
white citizens com-
plained that affirmative
action programs were
depriving them of their
own
first
One of
rights.
the
targets of white anger
was court-ordered busing

to achieve school deseg-
regation.
Busing met with
strong opposition in a
These demonstrators
in
San Francisco protested lack of access to public
transportation by blocking buses during rush hour.
number of
notably
cities,
most
Boston.
One
angry white Bostonian,

their tax dollars help build public facilities that peo-
Jinmiy Kelley. warned: "You heard of the Hundred
ple in wheelchairs or people with visual disabilities
Years War? This will be the eternal war.
could not easily use? In response to protests, state
passed
and local governments passed laws requiring w heelchair
ramps and special parking spaces
facilities.
Many
public
at
public facilities also put up signs in
braille to help the visually impaired.
Congress
joined these efforts by passing the Rehabilitation
Act
in 1973,
which forbade discrimination
in jobs,
education, or housing because of physical disabilities. In
1975
it
passed the Education for All
Handicapped Children Act. which required
down from father to

By the fall of 1974.
It
will
be
son."
violent protests against
busing had erupted in Boston.
Many
people were
injured in the riots. Yet despite the risks,
T These
tors
many
Boston protes-
condemned the
bus-
ing order issued by Judge
W.
Arthur Garrity,
which was supported by
Ted
Kennedy and Ed Brooke.
U.S. senators
public
schools to provide education for children with physical
and mental disabiUties.
The legacy of the civil

movement continued
rights
the
growing political clout of African
Americans, Hispanic Americans,
and people with disabilities.
in
A WHITE BACKLASH
The expansion of civil
rights during the 1970s
the result of both public

effort to
and private
was
efforts. In
an
uphold federal laws against discrimina-
tion, the Civil
Rights Division of the Department
of Justice sued corporations and labor unions to
end unfair employment practices.

and businesses also
Many
schools
instituted affirmative action
programs, whereby ethnic minorities and
were given preference
in hiring
women
and admission
919
black parents bclic\cd thai
was necessary.
hiisiiiy
some 500
AIM members,
As one African American woman. Rachel

Twymon. told her two children who were being
called the "Trail of
bused to u previously all-white school:
Washington, D.C.
occupied the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA)
One of
44
be spat
it's
it
at.
not the
to go through
through
integrated.
if
last. It's
we
something
is
Bom
in
much of his childhood in

the San Francisco Bay
area. By 1970 he had
become a prominent
figure in AIM.
have
something you have to go
this city
occupation was
Dakota, Means spent
names. You're going to
maybe pushed around some. But

first time this has happened and
won't be the
BIA
in
1940 on the Pine Ridge Sioux Reservation of South
year for either of you. You're going to be

called a lot of ugly
the leaders of the
Russell Means, a longtime Indian activist.
going to be an easy
I'm afraid this isn't
protesting what they
Broken Treaties," temporarily
ever going to get
**
Means
1973
In
helped lead AIM's most
By
the late 1970s the busing controversy
dramatic action
had
Many
continued.
post on the Sioux reser-
whites argued that affirmative
vation
action programs led to reverse discrimination. In
down
1978 the Supreme Court handed

tant ruling
on affirmative action.
California
\.
of
man, Allan Bakke, had been unfairly denied

admission
tas
to
medical school on the basis of quo-
systems that
Means
Russell
Here
number of
set aside a fixed
more than 300 Sioux. For 71 days
AIM members
and U.S. marshals engaged
grim standoff.
Finally, after
wounded,
African Americans. Although the Court did not
aim's grievances, and
killed
and one
did strike
government agreed to consider

the siege came to an end.
While AIM'S confrontational tactics cap-
quotas as a means of achieving racial equal-
tured headlines and television attention, other
forms of affirmative action,
rule out all
ity.
in a
two people had been
places for certain groups of people, in this case,
down
1890, U.S. cav-
in
alry units had killed
that a white
Bakke, the Court ruled
Wounded
in
Knee, South Dakota.
an impor-
In University
the
seizure of the trading
quieted down, but anger over affirmative action
In a bitter dissent Justice
it
Thurgood Marshall
the
American Indian leaders worked

life
crimination in America and
Taos Pueblo Indians of
on generations
its toll
renew
to
tribal
by quieter means, including court action. The
recalled the history of three centuries of racial dis-
New Mexico
recovered
of African Americans: "The dream of America as
48,000 acres of land, including the sacred Blue
the great melting pot has not been realized for the
Lake. American Indians
Negro; because of his skin color he never even
more than
made
from them, won from Congress an $81.5 million
it
into the pot."
backlash against
reform erupted
rights
right to purchase
acres. Tribal groups in Alaska,
civil
in
1970s, fueled by busing
Maine, claiming that
half of the state had been illegally taken
award and the
White
in
the
up
to
300,000
South Dakota,
Washington, and elsewhere either regained ancient
and
lands or received large payments from the govern-
ment
affirmative action.
for lands illegally taken
from them. These
cases were handled by the Indians Claims
Commission,
agency
set
up
in 1946.
A MERICAN INDIANS ORGANIZE
1961 federal law designed to encourage economic
As
development on reservations. Under
part of the
broad movement for
American Indians
began
American Indians also benefited from
civil rights,
this law,
to organize, to seek
many
tribes established a variety of business ven-
redress in the courts, and to engage in commercial
tures,
such as factories, processing plants, and
ventures.
al.so
Young urban Indians launched
American Indian Movement (AIM)

for a renewal of Native
in
the
1968. calling
American culture and
recognition of Native American rights. In 1972,
920
a federal
CHAPTER
resorts.
Some
of the income from these busi-
nesses went to improve conditions on reservations. Tribal schools
improved as a
and colleges, for example,
result of the
new
prosperity.
DINE'
I
>
:|c;i^
'^^3^
POWER AUTHORITYl
Enterprise
lia-wjo Tribal
RO.BOX 2577
WINDOW ROCK.
I
t
<i
ARIZ. 86515
j
}
POWER PROJECT
DINEH
M The lumber
mill
and power project depicted
these photographs are among the many

businesses established by American Indian
in
tribes.
Reflecting growing pride

Indians, the
among American
number of persons who
identified them-
constitutional
amendment
barring discrimination
on the basis of sex (see Chapter 21). The
ERA
selves as Indian to federal census-takers surged
received strong support from the National
from fewer than 800.000
Organization for
in 1990.
in
1970
to nearly 2 million
Despite the gains, however, American
Indians remained
among
continued to grapple with
the poorest of citizens
many
and
women's groups.
and other
In testimony before Congress,
feminist leader Gloria Steinem asserted:
social problems.
Women
During the
Women (NOW)
suffer second-class
from the moment
970s Indian leaders
treatment
they are born. They are
worked to improve conditions for

American Indians and to regain
tion biologically rather than learn.
tribal lands.
whatever
expected to be rather than achieve, to func-
his intellect,
is
more
likely
brother,
to get
the family's encouragement and education
money, while
The WOMEN'S MOVEMENT

GAINS
MOMENTUM
and elect more
worked
women
male colleges opened
to
in
shape public policy
to public office.
Many
states.
At
still
first,
ERA
**
in 1972, but the

at least
38
certain, but
by
required the approval of

ratification
seemed
all-
women, while
courses in women's
1972 Congress passed the Education
Amendments
amendment
During a news conference, National
their doors to
other universities instituted

studies. In
are often pressured to
Congress passed the
The women's movement made many advances

the 1970s as leaders
girls
conceal ambition and intelligence.
Act, which outlawed sexual dis-
Women's
r'S^
Political
Caucus leaders
Gloria Steinem, Bella Abzug,

Shirley Chisholm, and Betty Friedan
announced their goal to increase the
women
crimination in higher education.
number
The following year, the Supreme Court

handed down a landmark decision affecting
women. In the case Roe v. Wade, the Court over-
1972 presidential conventions.
turned a state law limiting

tion.
The Court ruled
not the state, should
women's access
that a
woman and
of
delegates to the
to abor-
her doctor,
make such decisions. While

v. Wade as a victory,
most feminists hailed Roe
opponents protested that the ruling violated the

right to life of the unborn.
The 1970s also saw a major battle over the

Equal Rights Amendment (ERA), the proposed
921
< Phyllis Schlafly was

one of the most vocal
the ERA
during the 1970s and
A CHANGING POPULATION
critics of
As
American society worked
different groups in
the 1980s.
for change, the society itself
to
was evolving. Thanks
medical advances, Americans were living
longer, a
phenomenon
referred to as the "graying
of America." At the same time, the birthrate was

the 1982 deadline sci
dropping sharply, to an average of two births per
ERA
woman. For years, experts had been promoting this

level of zero population growth (ZPG)
by Congress, the
was
still three states
short of ratification.
birthrate that replaces the existing population but
As
does not increase
a result,
become
it
failed to
women's
movement made many

how-
political gains:
ever,
it
also alienated
many women who

\iewed
it
as a
move-
The divorce
womMany women from
working-class and ethnic
communities
fell that
1.000
the leaders of
NOW
many middledowngraded the

family and condemned women who chose to be
full-time homemakers. These women viewed
Roe V. Wade and the ERA as threats to traditional
family
Critics
life.
also alienated
warned
it
that the
make any
between men and women."
Eventually, they claimed, men and
women would even be forced to
"nullify any laws that
share public restrooms!
ERA
When
ERA
would
distinction
rise
during the
were registered per
was necessarily a
lifelong
Americans also moved more often

1970s than
ing
in the past.
number of Americans migrated from
the West, seeking a

life-style.
in the
During the decade a grow-
and the East to the Sunbelt
ulation
felt that
continued to
up from 2.2 in 1960.

many Americans were abandoning
the idea that marriage
every day.
women who
rate
commitment.
suburban
The movement
hopes of preventing over-
Americans,
Increasingly,
could not identify with the problems they faced
class
in
1970s. In 1979, 5.3 divorces
ment primarily for

privileged white
en.
population.
law.
The
it
states
the North
of the South and
warmer climate and
more
This migration caused the pop-
growth of California. Texas, and Florida
outpace that of the
rest
of the nation.
Another key factor
in
America's evolution
during this period was continued immigration,

mostly from Asia and Latin America. Most Latin
American immigrants came from Mexico, but

sizable
number
also
came from
critic Phyllis
proclaimed:
1980, for example, nearly 120.000 Cubans fled the
the
Schlafly
"The defeat of the
Equal Rights Amendment

greatest victory for
since the
woman's
women's
suffrage
is
the
rights
move-
ment of 1920."
The women's movement was encouraged

by legislation such as
the ERA, but the issues
alienated
many women
from the movement.

922
:;
CHAPTER
the Caribbean. In
failed to win ratification.
conservative
to
A Many multigenerational Asian families, such as the one pictured here, immigrated to the United States in the 1970s.
Communist
island for the United States,
mainly
settling
the
in
Miami
area.
Economically successful. Cuban Americans
became an important
American
Of
Asia
group
interest
in
politics.
the 1.6 million immigrants
in the 1970s,
from
most came from the
Philippines and South Korea. China, which
opened the way

President Nixon's
the
new Asian
for emigration after

visit,
some of
supplied
Many
population as well.
of
these Chinese immigrants were highly

skilled
and well-educated professionals
fleeing political persecution. Despite their
backgrounds, however, some of these

immigrants found when they arrived that
their inability to
speak English, as well as
discrimination, kept
them from obtaining
The Bilingual Education Act of 1974 encouraged public schools,

such as the one shown here, to provide students with instruction in
their primary languages while they learned English.
well-paying jobs. The experiences of Wei-
Chi Poon. a biology professor from China, and her
primary languages while they learned English.
husband, a skilled architect, were not unique.
Although
some
opposed
critics
charging
Neither knew any English
when
they immigrated
education
United States. As a
result,
she worked in a
of immigrants into American Ufe
to the
that
bilingual
slowed the assimilation
it
there
was
httle
laundry for SI. 85 an hour, while he took on two
question that the United States was becoming an
low-paying jobs.
increasingly multicultural society.
Congress
passing two
tried to aid such
new
1975 required
laws.
states
immigrants by
The Voting Rights Act of
immigrants, both legal and
to print voting
materials in various foreign languages. The

Bilingual Education Act of 1974 encouraged pubschools to prox'ide instruction to students in their
Large-scale Asian and Latin
American immigration during

the 970s prompted support for
1
bilingual education.
SECTION
IDENTIFY
American
would remain an
important issue for America.
and communities with large
numbers of non-English speakers
lic
illegal,
Coping with new
REVIEW
and explain the significance of the following: Patricia Harris, League of United Latin
Citizens, Rehabilitation Act, Education for All
University of California
v. E>al<.l<e,
Russell Means, Education
Amendment, zero population growth.

I.
MAIN IDEA Why
2.
MAIN IDEA What
did
American
Handicapped Children Act, affirmative action.
Amendments
Sunbelt, Voting Rights
Act, Roe
Act of 1975,
v.
Wade, Equal Rights
Bilingual
Education Act.
Indians begin to organize during this period?
influence did the Asian and Latin
American immigrants
in
the 1970s have on
American society?
AND EFFECT How did the
3.
IDENTIFYING CAUSE
4.
How did some whites

tinue into the
970s?
impact of the
respond to
civil
rights
movement con-
this legacy?
Imagine you are a
movement. Write an essay that summarizes the Impact of Roe
political
v.
observer of the women's
Wade and
the
ERA on
the
movement.
5.
LINKING HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY Why did many Americans move to

during the 1970s? What effect did this migration have on population patterns?
the Sunbelt states
923
Nixon
Earth Day
Fir*t
Salvador Allende
elected president
CHAPTER
EPA and
of Chile.
visits
China.
price controls
break-in occurs. ERA

passed. Nixon reelected
imposed.
president.
Wage
and
WRITING A SUMMARY
and
list
paper
to
5.
Study the time
ond next to
2.
the order
in
first
Israel.
line
3.
affect the
visit
Why did Nixon

White House tapes to the
Department?
How
did his refusal challenge
the basis of constitutional government?
activity
below.
did U.S. depen-
economy?
Global Relations What effect did Nixon's

to China have on U.S.-Soviet relations?
Justice
the sec-
oil
refuse to turn over his
which
in
next to
above,
REVIEWING THEMES
dence on foreign
of the chapter.
2.
Number your
invade
Saturday Night
Massacre occurs.
summary
Roe V. Wade decided.

Egypt and Syria
OSHA created.
write a
SALT
Watergate
treaty signed.
celebration held.
THINKING CRITICALLY
Education Act passed.
1.
Bilingual
2.
First Earth
3.
Watergate break-in occurs.
4.
Panama Canal
5.
Iran hostage crisis begins.
1.
Evaluating
Day celebration
held.
2.
Synthesizing
actions by
3.
did the Arab-Israeli
war
affect the
What
domestic and foreign policy
Nixon interfered with democratic
Evaluating
principle of
AND
government take
Do
you think
government
fied in basing a policy of foreign affairs
United States?
IDENTIFYING PEOPLE
steps did the
during the 1970s to clean up the environment?
treaties ratified.
How
Analyzing What
human
rights? Explain
is
rights?
justi-
on the
your answer.
IDEAS
member
Writing to Create Imagine you
the environmental movement. Design a poster for the

first
1.
silent majority
6.
apartheid
2.
Clean Air Act
7.
Anwar
3.
Salvador Allende
8.
Rehabilitation
4.
Saturday Night Massacre
9.
Russell
5.
Barbara Jordan
0.
Roe
v.
Earth
Act
Means
fer

Interview on page 894. Imagine you are a reporter cov-
2.
list
did Nixon's domestic and foreign policies
from those of
his
that illustrates your con-
Review the Strategies for Success on Conducting an
Wade

How
dif-
Camp
David Accords during
of three questions to use
in
978. Prepare a
conducting an inter-
view with either Anwar Sadat or Menachem Begin.
predecessors?
What was the origin of the Watergate scandal?

What long-term effects did this scandal have on
the United States?
3.
of
cerns about the environment.
Sadat
ering the
1.
Day celebration
are a
What
domestic and foreign problems did Ford face
during his administration?

4.
How
did Carter attempt to keep his pledge of an
"open administration"?
reelection
5.
How
in
did he
fail
to win
1980?
did the expansion of the
civil rights movement during the 1970s affect ethnic groups,

women, and people with disabilities? What caused
white backlash during
924
Why
CHAPTER
this
period?
Sadat, Carter, and Begin signing the
Camp
David
Accords. 1978
National Energy Act

passed.
Jimmy Carter
elected president.
1974
Panama
Iran hostage crisis
begins. Soviet
Canal treaties ratified. Camp David

Accords reached.
Union invades
Afghanistan.
1980
1978
1976

During the 1970s, court- ordered busing was seen as
one way of overcoming
racial segregation.
Read the
following excerpt from an account about the effect of
busing on
What
is
44
West Charlotte High School
in Virginia.
the message of this piece?
district judge
made it clear
wanted socioeconomic integration
The
that he
as well as racial integration.
We
are presently operating under [a
court] order which forbids any change in
assignment of a lottery-chosen white student

assigned to West Charlotte High even if his
family moves away from the area
in
he was chosen. This has resulted
in
which
some
bizarre transportation problems. In one

case,
to
we had
to assign
a driver and bus
BUILDING YOUR
PORTFOLIO
pick up one pupil whose family built
new home and

moved to the far
a
northerly end of
the county,
more
than 25 miles
cooperatively.
from West
1
Charlotte High
School.
99
BUS5/iKS
POLITICS
Imagine you are a Washington Post
reporter covering the Senate investigations into the
Watergate
affair.
Write
a short article outlining the
constitutional issues involved

break-in, cover-up, and
2.
Young antibusing protester
Study the
map
in
AND GEOGRAPHY
the next column, which shows
population changes
in
the United States from 1970
Which states had the greatest population

growth? Which regions were most affected by
to
980.
THE ECONOMY
the Watergate
Imagine you are an econo-
the 1970s. Create a flow chart that shows
mist
in
how
increases
in oil
prices overseas ultimately affect
the cost of consumer goods

3.
LINKING HISTORY
in
news coverage.
in
GLOBAL RELATIONS
the United States.
Imagine you are a
United Nations delegate from an emerging nation.
Conduct an interview with the secretary-general

on the role the United Nations should play in
establishing a
War
world balance of power amid Cold
conflicts.
population growth?
925
1980-the Present
Chapter 32
REAGAN, BUSH,
AND CLINTON
UNDERSTANDING
THE MAIN IDEA
President Ronald
in
981 with a
Reagan entered
office
of conservative
series
reforms for the economy and foreign

relations.
Bush,
His vice president, George
won
t/ie
presidency
Plagued by economic and

problems, Bush
Clinton in the
initially
988.
politjcal
Democrat
lost to
992
in
election.
Bill
Though
troubled by political failures,
Clinton presided over
an economic
resurgence and easily
won
reelection in
996. As he prepared to lead the
country up to the twenty-first century,
Americans grappled with issues such

as increased immigration, urban racial
tensions,
and the spread of AIDS.
THEMES
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT What positive and negative effects
might nneasures that
cut taxes, social programs, and

business regulations have on a
nation's
economy?
DEMOCRATIC VALUES
How
might the use of modern
technology increase democratic

participation in an election?
1981
1984
1988
Sandra Day
Ronald Reagan
George Bush
O'Connor appointed
to Supreme Court.
elected president.
1991
1992
1994
Operation
Desert Storm
elected
control of the
launched.
president.
House and Senate.
Bill
Clinton
Republicans gained
UM TO
Public frustration with government
THE PAST
Watergate scandal broke, the energy
omy
continued to weaken. As a
crisis
result,
the 1970s as the
in
emerged, and the econ-
Democrat jimmy
Carter,
who
promised to reform government, was elected president. The Iran

hostage
crisis
and runaway
inflation, however,
dency, contributing to a Republican victory
ntering the
Reagan promised
White House on
to set the nation
in
undermined
the
wave of
on
his presi-
980 election.
discontent, Ronald
new course with lower
taxes, fewer federal regulations, cuts in social programs, and
^^^br^
grew
increased military spending.
was well suited
for the television age. Often called "'the Great
Communicator," he projected
that reassured
former Hollywood actor, Reagan
a sense of confidence
and patriotism
Americans troubled by the nation's mounting eco-
nomic problems and weakened world image. Television observer

John Corry noted of Reagan: "His voice
not an orator's voice.
per.
Meanwhile,
it
is
It is
is
his greatest
husky, and sometimes
it
extraordinarily intimate. Mr.
speak to audiences; he speaks
weapon.
It is
fades to a whis-
Reagan does not
to individuals."
Reagan's vice president, George Bush, was elected president

Bush's greatest achievements were on the international
in 1988.
Under
front.
his administration, the United States launched a successful
invasion of
Panama and played
a primary role in crushing the Iraqi
takeover of Kuwait. Bush's domestic record was less impressive,

however.
By
the time he ran for reelection in 1992, the country
beset by an ailing
tic
economy and
other domes-
problems. In a campaign that
saw the
date
rise
H.
of independent candi-
Ross Perot and an
increased role for

lost to
women, Bush
baby-boom Democrat
Clinton,
who won
1996 pledging
Bill
reelection in
to "build a bridge
to the twenty-first century."

Operation Desert Storm,
99
President Bush visiting

U.S. troops
REAGAN. BUSH, AND CLINTON
was
THE REAGAN MOVEMENT

c u s
What was Reaganomics? How
Why
did
affect the country?
it
Reagan administration consider events

Nicaragua and El Salvador important?
did the
What economic problems
in
plagued the country during
the late 1980s?
What was
the Iran-contra
fOnald Reagan
consenative
affair?
1980 presidential victory reflected the growing
's
mood of the
Reagan
nation. Adopting
programs.
Congress cut taxes and reduced federal regulation of the economy.
As a
result, the
economy boomed
in the
mid-1980s. Toward the end
of the decade, however, political scandals and a soaring federal

President Ronald Reagan
deficit troubled the nation.
with
President
XhE NEW RIGHT
same
the
Reagan and
political goals.
turned
conservative
Republican. Ronald Reagan appealed to a wide

range of voters
eral politics.
who were
disenchanted with
~f
I
came
from
the
political conservatives of
jJH
"^^^W
^^^
^^^
Right. At the fore-
New
balance
control,
and busing
to achieve
Reagan
president.
Right conservatives were largely responsible
for the Republicans gaining control of the Senate

in
1980.
They
also played a significant role in
Right was
shaping Republican policy throughout the decade.
Reverend Jerry FalwelFs

Moral Majority a funda-
Although Jerry Falwell disbanded the Moral
mentalist Christian organi-
tives
zation founded in 1978.
Republican
front of the
Majority in the
late
1980s,
M The Reverend Jerry
New
Right conserva-
continued to exert a strong influence
in the
party.
nEAGANOMICS
IN
ACTION
Falwell's
Moral Majority encouraged

churchgoers to register to vote
and support conservative causes.
928
Right shared
in schools.
In addition to helping elect
New
New
Both supported school
Both opposed abortion, the Equal Rights
Amendment, gun
racial
Reagan's strongest support, however,
'
lib-
policies.
the
Nancy
and free-market economic
prayer, a strong defense,
A former Democrat
his wife,
President Reagan entered office with a comprehensive
economic program already mapped
plan,
out.
This
dubbed Reaganomics. was based on
the
supply-side economics argument that lowering the
would spur economic growth.
top income tax rates
Americans, especially unskilled workers
in the
would invest
land, also
their tax savings in businesses,
thereby creating jobs, increasing consumer spend-
factory workers
Midwest, once America's industrial heartremained high. As a
result,
homelessness
increased dramatically.
Critics also charged that
and generating higher tax revenues. Congress
ing,
Unemployment among
inner cities.
Supporters of Reaganomics claimed that people
in the
Reagan's tax cuts
responded to Reagan's program by passing a three-
favored the wealthy and that spending cuts and
year plan to cut federal income taxes by 25 percent.
deregulation weakened programs that protected
Congress also supported another part of

Reagan's economic plan
drastic cuts in govern-
ment regulation of industries such

trucking, airlines, and banking.
by the Department of
also
searching for
ment of Reaganomics) would produce enormous
was
deficits in the federal budget.
handling of
Interior's
Reaganomics stimulated the

economy by cutting taxes and
companies
to private
industrial regulations, but critics

claimed the policies hurt the poor
and increased the federal deficit.
and gas. He also leased federal
oil
lands to coal companies.
At
first,
Reaganomics seemed
1983 the inflation
rate
combined with
increased military spending (another important ele-
Secretary of the Interior James Watt leased
huge areas of the seafloor
that big tax cuts
as television,
public lands. Against the objections of environmentalists.
warned
The Reagan admin-
istration's probusiness. antiregulation stance
typified
consumers, the needy, and the environment. They
had dropped
to
work.
By
manageable
to a
similar to those in the 1920s and 1950s. Business
nEAGAN AND THE COLD WAR
revived, the stock market soared, and the future
The Reagan
looked bright.
military spending
4 percent. Americans went on a shopping spree
Critics
were quick
to point out that not all
Americans benefited equally from
Deep
ment
cuts in social
in
programs
Reaganomics
employment rose
the recovery.
an important
hurt the poor.
And
overall, joblessness
ele-
although
remained
among African Americans and Hispanic
high
administration's emphasis on increased
was
in part a reflection of
Ronald
He
took a
Reagan's strong anti-Communist views.
hard line against the Soviet Union, even branding
it
an "evil empire." To counter the Soviet threat.
Reagan called
new weapons systems and an
for
increased U.S. presence in such areas as the Indian
Ocean and
oÊSlDENTIAL
the Persian
Gulf
UV^
in office
RONALD REAGAN
1981-1989
1911'
One
of Reagan's political gifts
was
a sharp wit. After his first debate with
Jinnmy Carter
a
in
the 1980 election,
reporter asked
if
March
30,
president
was wheeled
wounded
into the operat-
room, he looked around
ing
he had been
1981. As the
at the
surgeons and quipped, "Please assure
nervous appearing on stage with the
me
president. "No, not at
While he was recuperating
all,"
Reagan
replied, then referred to his past
career as an actor:
same
"I've
humorous notes to
been on the
including
gunman shot him on
Republicans!"
in
his staff
one that read,
members,
"If
had
had this much attention
Reagan's wit helped
lone
all
intensive care, Reagan sent several
stage with John Wayne."
reassure the nation after a
that you are
Hollywood,
orv^'^^Skk.
I'd
in
have
stayed there!"
REAGAN, BUSH. AND CLINTON
;:
929
New weapons.
Itdiu IWSI id
Pcniagons budget grew
tmm
abiun S25()
biiiiDii.
nuclear weapons.
Much
the
l^)K5i
stime $150 billion lo
ierfiOLAMD
of the money went to fund

"'-
Reagans
first
secretary ol state.
eemmf
^ LU POLAM Bt FRiE
'
'
,^tirr.
..MUiT//
Alexander Haig. suggested that "nuclear warning

shots" might be useful in a conventional war.
The
talk
of nuclear war stirred public
fear. In
to\sn meetings and slate referendums, voters
urged a freeze on the testing and deployment of
Many
weapons.
nuclear
Americans marched
show
lies to
in ral-
their support
^J'TV .i.l.ôsl.o C,,..,t1ccvr, Solidarity
for the proposals.
To
blunt
the
nuclear-freeze movement. Reagan proposed

the Strategic
Defense
Initiative (SDI).
Many Americans,
particularly those of Polish
descent, supported the Solidarity movement. These

Boston residents marched to show their support.
space-based missile-
defense system,
March
in
SDI
1983.
quickly stirred con-
troversy.
labeled
right to
1977
it
rested on untested
woman
protests the use of nuclear
and
probably
warned
also
power
party control. At
Labor
things went well
that
activity.
responded by voting on September
activists
form the independent trade union Solidarity.
17 to
under the leadership of Lech Walesa (vah-LEN-suh),
an electrician
at a
helped launch the
Then,
in
Gdansk shipyard who had
initial strikes.
December 1981.
government changed
SDI research would
tial
law.
its
the Soviet-backed
stand and instituted mar-
Government troops shut down
Solidarity
intensify the arms
centers and arrested union leaders. Expecting resis-
Reagan countered that SDI would be a

weapon for peace one that killed weapons, not
tance, Soviet troops prepared to brutally "restore
order" as they had
people. In a national address he proclaimed:
Czechoslovakia
race.
in
in
^4
call
upon the
our country, those
scientific
who
community
in
now
Reagan called
means of rendering these nuclear
weapons impotent and obsolete.
restrictions against the Soviets.
**
30, the Soviets shot
down
Soviet airspace, killing
ing
Even before
President Reagan took office, U.S.-Soviet rela-
when
to
of arms-control
905). Relations deteriorated further when, in
the 1984
Gdansk and
Szczecin (SHCHET-seen) staged a series of massive
CHAPTER
32
trade
On September
Korean
airliner
over
269 passengers, includ-
defended
the United States sent
1979 invasion of Afghanistan (see map on page
in
Union
new
international
their action, claim-
ing the plane had been spying. Later that year,
tions had cooled because of the Soviet Union's
August 1980, Polish workers
all
many Americans. Despite
outcries, the Soviets
U.S. -Soviet relations.
for
in
Moscow heeded
Tensions flared again in 1983.
to
the cause of mankind and world peace: to

give us the
1956 and
in
the warning and stayed out of Poland.
gave us nuclear
weapons, to turn their great talents
Hungary
1968. Warning the Soviet
not to invade Poland.
930
first,
government legalized independent union
unworkable. They
1979 this
form trade unions free from government or
Communist
for the strikers. In late August, faced with the
technology
in
the
threat of a nationwide general strike, the Polish
movie, saying
Boston
demand
"Star
popular
In
to
Critics
it
Wars," after the
was
and
strikes to protest high prices
new
nuclear missiles
England and Germany, the Soviets walked out
tions
talks.
When
Summer Olympics
between
lowest point
the
the Soviets boycotted

in
Los Angeles,
two superpowers sank
in years.
rela-
to their
army
leEAGAN AND LATIN AMERICA
and armed by the CIA.
recruited, financed,
Hoping
the revolutionary
group would overthrow
Reagan
the Sandinista government,
Fearing that the developing nations of Latin
tras
America would
founders of the United States.
fall
under the influence of the
involvement
war against
in the region, particularly the Central
American countries of Nicaragua and El Salvador.

In
1979, Nicaraguan rebels
known
in
Vietnam
Central America. Reflecting such concerns.

restricting funds for the contras late
would soon
in 1984. But, as the nation
Somoza Debayle, whose family
to the
the CIA-sponsored
the Sandinistas, fearing another
Congress began
as
Sandinistas had overthrown the dictatorship

of Anastasio
"freedom fighters" and compared them
Many Americans opposed
Soviet Union, President Reagan increased U.S.
called the con-
White House continued
learn, the
to finance the contras
had ruled Nicaragua since the 1930s. Soon after
despite the congressional ban, using funds secretly
Reagan took
contributed by wealthy supporters and foreign gov-
office,
he cut
all
U.S. aid to Nicaragua
on the grounds
that the Sandinistas
the Soviet bloc.
He
were backed by
ernments.
The Reagan administration
also charged that the Sandinistas
also found itself
were exporting revolution by shipping Cuban and
pulled into events in El Salvador. In 1979 a group of
Soviet weapons to rebels in El Salvador. The
young
Sandinistas reacted to U.S. pressure by strengthen-
instituting a brutally repressive
ing their ties to the Soviet bloc.
Reagan then
military officers seized
army and
power
in the country,
government. The
special death squads killed
and tortured
opposition leaders. Soon fighting erupted between
decided to support the Nicaraguan contras, a large
Central America and the Caribbean, 1980s

SPREAD OF COMMUNISM
LOCATION
during the
The domino theory influenced Reagan's policy
Which countries
Latin America.
in
did the United States invade or send troops to
1980s?
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
fSfJ'
GUATEMALA
PACIFIC OCEAN
982
<S'
BELIZE
-
Kingston
- Trjeb.
1980-1992:
mr
Civil
RICA
(Fr.)
'DOMINICA
AM
^ A
CAR'
B B E
^NICARAGUA
^"^ COSTA
between U.S.-
BARBUDA
GUADELOUPE
Prince
1983. March
h 198
1988
l'98r,'ân|gua
ANTIGUA and
Port-aii
HONDURAS
Tegaigalpa
''
HAIT[
Bay (Lis base)
J^!^^l^_
.^Belmopan
rf
S E
MONTSERRAT
^,^^^_^^, ^,,^^
NETHERLANDS
ARUBA
(Neth.)\
A
' '
Panama
..'.^ ST.
ST. VINCENT and

THE GRENADINES
(Fr.)
LUCIA
BARBADOS
y^GRENADA
"ri98}
<^3"3l
'
^MARTINIQUE
(Br)
ANTILLES
Panama/
backed Salvadoran government and

leftist
guerrillas supported by
Cuba
Georgetown
Paramaribo
and Nicaragua.
GUYANA
1981-1987:
United States aids the
anti-Sandinista Contras in Nicaragua;
Communist country
civil
war ends
Guerrilla activity
or civil war
U.S. military
in
1990.
Scale at Equator:
500
1,000 Miles
presence
or intervention
500
1,000 Kilometers
Scale varies with latitude.

Miller Cylindrical Projection
90
931
ashore on Grenada, unseated
Army Rangers went

coup
the
leaders,
United
to the
Soon
announced
and
set
up a go\ernment favorable
States.
after the
Grenada invasion, Reagan
would seek
that he
second term
in
1984, with George Bush again as his running

mate. Former vice president Walter Mondale
nomination.
He
won
picked
Democratic
Congresswoman Geraldine Ferraro of New York
as his running mate. Ferraro thus became the first
the
woman
to run
Some
predicted Ferraro's presence would
on a major parly presidential
increase support for the Democratic party
The surrender
of the Nicaraguan National
Guard to the
979 marked the end of the Somoza

regime. Citizens celebrated the rebel victory by dragging a
statue of Somoza through the streets of downtown Managua.
Sandinistas
in July
ticket.
among
women.
Republicans had been taking steps
to
women in their party. Reagan

women to high public offices,
enhance the role of

appointed several
including Elizabeth Dole as secretary of trans-
demanding
government forces and rebels
radical
and human services, and Jeane Kirkpatrick as
reform.
In
won
1984, Jose Napoleon Duarte, a moderate,
election by promising reforms and an end to
the civil war. Eager to prevent a rebel victory that
might allow El Salvador

ence, the
itary
portation. Margaret Heckler as secretary of health
to fall
under Soviet
influ-
Reagan administration offered Duarte mil-
and economic aid and sent advisers
government troops. The
to train
war raged on, how-
civil
head of the U.S. delegation

Nations
the
first
woman
to
first
ever to serve on the Supreme Court
tive justice
woman
conserva-
Sandra Day O'Connor. Republicans
also sought the support of
doned by
United
hold the post. In
1981 Reagan had also appointed the
the feminist
women who
felt
aban-
movement. The percentage
ever, until intense international pressure forced both
of female delegates to the Republican convention
sides to sign a peace treaty in 1992.
increased from 24 percent in 1980 to 44 percent

in 1984. In the end, Ferraro's
presence did not
Central America, especially
add many votes for the Democrats.
Nicaragua and
day.
El
Salvador,
became
a flashpoint in the struggle between the United States

and the Soviet Union.
to
remained popular. His emphasis on patriotism and

national pride struck a responsive chord with
many
Americans. While Carter was haunted by his
seemed quick
fail-
to for-
give and forget any mishaps or scandals in Reagan's

administration.
Adding
to
Reagan's popularity was a small-
scale military action in 1983.
On
the tiny Caribbean
island of Grenada, a military group overthrew the
government and
killed the
prime minister. Several
Caribbean nations requested U.S. interNention.
On
October 25. 1983, some 2,000 U.S. Marines and
CHAPTER
3 2
election
Mondale's 37.6 million. The Republicans

13.
T The invasion of Grenada began in October

when U.S. troops landed on the island.
Despite criticisms of his policies. President Reagan
ures and setbacks, the public
On
Reagan received 54.5 million popular votes
swept the electoral vote, 525 to
REAGAN REELECTED
932
to the
1983,
IGNS OF TROUBLE
One
TOTAL FEDERAL DEBT,
issue that arose during the election
was
4.0 n
the
growing conservative emphasis of the Supreme
When
Court.
4J
^V
Q
Chief Justice Warren Burger retired
1986. Reagan elevated Associate Justice
in
William Rehnquist
to chief justice.
To
in
When
Antonin Scalia.
judge and law professor
who
many
senators.
By
rejected Bork. handing
3.0h
1.5-
<
federal
4-1
_c
1.0-
0.54
Court
1985
1983
1981
58-42
Reagan
press reports that he had
law professor. At
who could
last
people, includ-
1989
1991
Source:
Statistical
Abstraa of the United States
vote, the Senate
a crushing loss. His
smoked marijuana
Reagan found
also
1987
Year
many
next choice. Douglas Ginsberg, withdrew after
judge
"o
in recent years.
Bork's views alarmed

ing
3S^
1/)
held a far narrower
interpretation of the Bill of Rights than the
had upheld
i_
O 2.5c c ?03 u
another justice retired
1987. Reagan nominated Robert Bork, a
1/1
"B
fill
Rehnquist's position. Reagan nominated conservative
981-1 991
as a
THE COSTS OF GOVERNMENT

total federal
the
a conservative
win Senate confirmation.
Despite Ronald
Reagan's promise to balance the federal budget by
1984, the
debt continued to grow dramatically throughout
1980s.

how much was
the federal debt by
Approximately
1984?
Anthony Kennedy of California.
The
failure of the
Bork nomination w as one
of several signs that the '"Reagan Revolution" was

starting to
weaken. Of special concern was the fed-
which had reached over S200 biUion
eral deficit,
in
economic
In another sign of
hit the nation's
savings and loan
trouble, a crisis
(S&L) and bank-
1985. Seeking to balance the budget with forced
ing industries in the late 1980s and early 1990s.
spending cuts. Congress passed the Balanced
Freed of federal regulation, banks and S&Ls, espe-
Budget and Emergency Control Act
cially in the Southwest,
its
in
1985.
Gramm-Rudman-Hollings Act
Called the
had made risky loans
to
after
sponsors, the law required automatic across-the-
board cuts
deficit
in
government spending when the
exceeded a certain amount. Other
tion took
aim
at specific
legisla-
problems. The Tax
Reform Law of 1986, for example, wiped

many rules that gave certain groups special
out
tax
breaks.
The stock market

ble.
also
showed
signs of trou-
Reagan's tax cuts and business deregulation
had stimulated a stock market boom, but with
boom came
wave of
illegal
insider trading
this
the
use of confidential financial information by stock-
brokers for personal gain. Several large brokerage

firms pleaded guilty to illegal activities and faced
severe penalties. These scandals eroded investor

trust in stockbrokers.
Then, on October
19. 1987. after several
years of growth, the stock market crashed.
On
paper, stock losses totaled almost SI trillion.
The
value of Eastman
Kodak
stock
fell
by more than
30 percent. Other major corporations experienced

similar sharp drops in their stocks' values.
Investors lost billions of dollars during the stock
crash of October
Shown here
market
the frantic scene on

York Stock Exchange on the day of the
987.
the floor of the New

crash, as traders tried to
sell
is
shares and cut losses.
REAGAN. BUSH. AND CLINTON
933
developers to build office towers, shopping malls,
and other projects.
In the late I98()s the real-estate
market collapsed, and hundreds of

banks
had loaned money
that
S&Ls and
to developers failed.
Since the federal government insures
bank depositors,
it
had
to
S&L
and
billions of dollars to
pay
cover these losses, further straining the federal

budget.
The soaring
banking
remained
crisis,
after
federal deficit, the
S&L
stroika (per-uh-STRGY-kuh)
restructure the Soviet
On
all
economic
the
modernize
To
factories.
further his domestic goals
Cold War
costly
conflict.
and defuse the
Gorbachev pursued
between Gorbachev and
President Reagan, the Soviet Union and the United
economy
Intermediate-range Nuclear
States signed the
from a huge federal

deficit, the stock market crash,
and failures of S&Ls and banks.
was
The
foreign trade and reduced military spending.
detente with the United States. In 1987. after a
left office.
980s the
to
economy and government.
front, he called for increased
series of meetings
By the late
was pere-
Gorbachev's plan
revenues from these changes were to be used to
and
and other economic problems
Reagan
the Soviet people. Equally dramatic
suffering
Forces (INF) Treaty. This treaty eliminated
all
medium-range nuclear weapons from Europe.

Gorbachev also withdrew Soviet troops from
Afghanistan. Addressing the United Nations in
1988. Gorbachev said:
UOLD WAR TENSIONS EASE

There was more
tional front.
to
4 The
cheer about on the interna-
The most significant event of
can or must be an instrument of foreign
Reagan's second term was a dramatic easing of
Cold War
hostilities.
became leader of
When
the Soviet
policy. ... All of us,
Mikhail Gorbachev
Union
in 1985, a
stronger of
new
and
era of Soviet history began. With his nation bur-
dened by a
failing
economy, a repressive
us,
totally rule
use offeree.
and primarily the
must exercise
self-restraint
out any outward-oriented
99
political
system, and heavy military costs. Gorbachev

introduced a policy of openness, called glasnost
(GLAZS-nuhst). that promised
use or threat of force no longer
more freedom
for
In
ify the
May
INF
1988. as the Senate prepared to rat-
Reagan
Treaty.
tlevv to
Moscow. As
television cameras whirred, the U.S. president
and the Soviet leader embraced
like old friends.
During Reagan's second term

U.S.-Soviet relations improved
dramatically as Gorbachev instituted glasnost and perestro'ika.
The IRAN-CONTRA AFFAIR

As
relations with the Soviet
Union improved,
Reagan administration continued

in the
to face
problems
Middle East and Latin America. These
trations led to the
most
Reagan White House
the
frus-
serious crisis to hit the
the Iran-contra affair.
After Congress cut off funds for the contras'
war against Nicaragua's Sandinista government,

the
Reagan administration sought other sources of
funding. At the time, the White House was

secretly bargaining with Iran for the release of
On June
I,
1988, President Ronald
Reagan and Soviet
leader Mikhail Gorbachev embraced during a Moscow

ceremony celebrating ratification of the INF Treaty.
934
CHAPTER
32
U.S. hostages held by pro-Iranian groups
in
Lebanon. As part of the bargain, the administration shipped
more than 500 antitank missiles
to
way of
Iran by
Without int'orming
Israel.
-4
don't believe that what
did even under those cir-
is wrong or illeNorth insisted to

the congressional committee.
cumstances
weapons and supplies
these arms sales to pay for
"I
we
Congress, the administration used the profits from
gal," Oliver
for the contras.
When
the
arms
Reagan appointed
sales
became known
committee
in 1986,
to investigate.
The
committee cleared Reagan of any direct involve-
ment but heavily

officials,
White House
criticized other
some of whom resigned. The
secret
funding of the contra war soon leaked out as well.
was revealed that Lieutenant Colonel Oliver

North, a White House aide, had tunneled millions
It
nag^;?:r,t?r'\
f.
of dollars from the Iranian arms sales to the contras after
Congress had forbidden
1987,
aid. In
House and Senate committees investigated
the
officer
members
and his secretary.
affair.
North admitted
Fawn
Hall, had destroyed key documents.
that he
But
fact,
North emotionally insisted that he had acted out of

loyalty
must be obeyed by subordinate
it
but
lawful orders. ... In
it is
members
says
of the military have an
obligation to disobey unlawful orders.
**
and patriotism.
In
its
report the congressional committee
denounced North's
loose White
activities
and criticized the
House management
style that
In 1988 a court-appointed special prosecutor

filed criminal charges against
North and President
had
Reagan's national security adviser, Admiral John
allowed North to operate as he did. The chairman
Poindexter. North was convicted on various
of the Senate committee. Senator Daniel Inouye of
charges, including the destruction of government
Hawaii, countered North's claim that he was just
documents and lying
following orders. Said Inouye:
was
And
that code
makes
it
abundantly clear that orders of a superior
SECTION
IDENTIFY
Strategic
REVIEW
Defense
The conviction
Iran-contra affair, White

House aides provided illegal funding for the Nicaraguan contras
through arms sales to Iran.
was subject to the Uniform Code of

.
to Congress.
reversed on a legal technicality.
In the
[The] colonel was well aware that he
Military Justice.
later
Initiative, Solidarity, Sandinistas,
New
contras, Jose
Right,
Moral Majority, Reaganomics,
Napoleon Duarte, Geraldine Ferraro,
Sandra Day O'Connor, Gramm-Rudman-Hollings Act, Tax Reform Law, insider trading,
perestroika, Intermediate-range
LOCATE
I.
Nuclear Forces Treaty, Iran-contra
and explain the importance of the following: Nicaragua,
affair,
El
glasnost,
Oliver North.
Salvador, Grenada.
MAIN IDEA How did Reagan's economic policies both help and hurt the country?
MAIN IDEA What factors weakened the U.S. economy during the late 1980s?
ANALYZING Imagine you are a citizen of El Salvador in the early 1980s. Describe
situation in
country's
your country and explain why you think the United States
is
intervening
the
in
political
your
affairs.
WRITING TO INFORM
Imagine you are a
member
of the congressional
Write a
letter to
your constituents that summarizes the
to investigate the Iran-contra
affair.
committee appointed
results of the investigation.
did each political party try to appeal to
women
voters
in
the 1984 presidential election?
935
Section 2
FROM BUSH TO CLINTON
FOCUS
How
did Operation Desert
Storm
differ
from previous American
military conflicts?
What were some
How
9.'n
Bush
's
did the
of the domestic problems President Bush faced?
992 election reflect voter concerns?
988 Vice President George Bush was elected president.

popularity soared after U.S. troops defeated the Iraqis in
the Persian
Gulf War But Bush faced many challenges at home,
including a persistent recession that contributed to his defeat
by Democrat
Bill Clinton in 1992. Clinton
to the optimistic
Tomorrow.
"
theme song "Don
entered office
in
1993
Stop Thinking About
The youthful Democrat had reason
to
be optimistic,
Female soldier during Operation
having just won a close, hard-fought election.
by a comfortable margin
in
He won
reelection
1996.
classes,
XhE
1988
Desert Storm
election
and creeds. As a candidate
American voters ever
By 1988
With the popular Reagan prohibited from running

for a third term, the
Democrats hoped
White House
in
Jesse Jackson,
who had mn
1988. African
large group seeking the
Jackson hoped to
attract a
in 1984.
Jackson
had helped generate the largest turnout of African
in
to regain the
American leader
1984.
was among
Democratic nomination.
"Rainbow Coalition"
diverse group of voters representing
all
races.
encompass
for a
Democratic
primar>'.
Jackson's appeal had expanded to
wide range of voters. On "Super
Tuesday." the largest single day of primarv' \oting.
Jackson
won more
votes than any other candidate.
Governor Michael Dukakis of Massachusetts, however,
won
the
most delegates and eventually gained
the nomination. Dukakis, the son of

grants, selected Senator
his
Greek immi-
Lloyd Bentsen of Texas as
running mate. Vice President George Bush
the Republican presidential nomination with
Indiana senator
The 1988
Dan Quayle
Bush
campaign proved
of optimism
Seeking to unite a "Rainbow Coalition" of votJackson ran for the Democratic party's
presidential nomination in both 1984 and 1988.
ers, Jesse
936
CHAPTER
3 2
to
in recent years. Initially.
tried to appeal to voters" sense
young
as his running mate.
presidential
be one of the harshest
won
by promising "a kinder and gentler nation."
campaign's
final
In the
weeks, however, most of the
CRIME
IN
THE 1980s
Republican ads focused on negative issues. For

instance, one
commercial attacked Dukakis's
record on the environment by showing scenes of
Massachusetts' heavily polluted Boston Harbor.
The most
controversial Republican advertis-
ing campaign, however,

ers troubled
jumped by over
1988.
was designed
by the rising crime

12.5 percent
series of television
to
rate,
sway
vot-
which had
between 1984 and
and
print ads painted
Dukakis as weak on crime by associating him with

convicted murderer Willie Horton. While out on a
weekend pass under
1980
1982
1984
a Massachusetts prison pro-
1986
1988
1990
Year
gram, Horton had attacked a Maryland couple.
Source:
Statistical
Abstract of the United States
Since he was African American, some critics
GROWTH OF CRIME
charged that the ads played on fears of black criminals
and were
Although crime rates dropped
during the early 1980s, by mid-decade violent crimes
racist.
against both people and property showed a
Dukakis resisted using similarly negative

ads in his
own campaign.
steady increase.
Instead, he tried to con-
vince voters of his skills as a manager, arguing

that the election should be about
was the
competence.
overall crime
rate at
its
In
lowest level?
which year
What was
the approximate crime rate for that year?
%V)iif
f^fikm'
This approach did not work, however. In

the
November
the
Bush-Quayle
won 426
to the
election,
ticket
electoral votes
Dukakis-Bentsen
ticket's
112. But the
Democrats did increase

their majorities in both
Election of
1988
LOW VOTER TURNOUT
Only some 50 percent of those
eligible
voted
in
1988, the lowest
percentage since the election of 1924.
LOCATION
Which candidate
carried Washington, D.C.?
houses of Congress and
kept control of most

state legislatures.
1988 campaign button
Electoral
Popular
%of
Vote
Vote
Popular Vote
426
Bush
Dukakis
48,886,097
53.4
41,809,074
45.6
899,638
1.0
[Bush
I
(Republican)
Dukakis
(Democratic)
Other candidates
*West
Virginia cast
electoral
vote for Senator Lloyd Bentsen
of Texas
937
Nations condemned the attack, imposed economic
The PERSIAN GULF WAR
sanctions on Iraq, and set a deadline for Iraq's with-
drawal from Kuwait. As the January
who had
President Bush,
served
numerous
in
appointed yovernmcni positions, including director
CIA and
of the
much
trated
of his attention on foreign affairs.
was determined
Bush had
ship.
representative to China, concen-
America's world leader-
to reassert
his first
December 1989 he
He
chance
Panama, when
in
in
sent U.S. troops to arrest
United States.
in the
dead-
and Saudi Arabia pre-
States. Britain, France, Egypt,
pared for war. In
all,
some 690.000
allied troops
some 540.000 Americans
including
On
along the border of Kuwait.
began bombing
allied forces
and military and industrial
Panama's president Manuel Noriega, who was

wanted on drug charges
15, 1991.
line neared, military forces representing the United
amassed
January
16. the
attacks on Iraqi forces
installations.
assault began on February 23.
The ground
Within days the Iraqis had been driven back, and

Kuwait's ruling al-Sabah family returned to power.
Operation Desert Storm.

assumed
Iraq, led
Bush again
August 1990 when
a leadership role in
by ruler Saddam Hussein, invaded neigh-
boring Kuwait, a major
producer.
oil
The United
American
some 150
casualties included
died. U.S. air attacks also severely
and
killed
450 wounded, while an estimated 100,000
Iraqis
damaged
the
Many hailed
success of Operation Desert Storm and
Baghdad, and other
Iraqi capital,
the
cities.
applauded the leadership of General Colin Powell,
THE GULF WAR
chair of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and Secretary of
Although the Persian
forces. General H.
Gulf War was brief,

many people were
rating soared following the war.
caught
in
Defense Richard Cheney. The commander of U.S.
hero's
To
in
New
York
A unique war.
retaliate against
UN forces,
philosopher
living in Israel
when
fighting
out, recalled his innpressions as the
Operation Desert Storm differed
broke
war raged:
It
was won almost entirely by the use of
high-tech weaponry. Television reporters also pro-
vided unprecedented coverage of the war, including

live
coverage of the
air assaults.
glued to their television
^t was January 29,

bombardment
started. For fully
in
13 days since the
the Gulf
allowed to do our shopping.
in
which we were
All
three children, and myself
of us
This
going off
had taken to
dining area of our apartment. This
[missile]
we wondered each time where
rockets would
fall,
might be carrying).
the
and what deadly poison they

.
suspension between
heads.
we
lived in a state
TV scenes of missiles
and footage of missiles
99
of
hitting
flying over
The
skies over
our
is
happening
Baghdad have
all
over the
sky.
flashes
99
became
the star
technological nature of the war highlighted another
unique aspect of Operation Desert Storm

nificant role played
some
taken prisoner.
in
the sig-
in the Persian
Gulf con-
6 percent of U.S. troops. Eleven
American women
women from
by women. More than 35.000
American women served

flict
Iraqi targets
bombings on
of the show as coverage of the war expanded. The
For almost two weeks
[pause] something
is
Military technology quickly
way we kept
each other company through the Scud

.
first allied
been illuminated. We're seeing bright
my wife,
sleeping together on the floor of the sitting-
soldiers were killed and
Though
the U.S. military
CHAPTER
32
two
banned
serving as combat pilots, they served
almost every other capacity
including flying
support planes and working on missile crews.
938
sat
two weeks we had been placed
by three two-hour intervals
(.
As Americans
news correspondent
Iraq:
War had
outside.
scares
sets,
Bernard Shaw reported the
under a total 24-hour curfew, interspersed only
my
Bush's approval
from previous American military engagements.
Iraq launched an
attack on Israel. Sari Nusseibeh, a Palestinian
aerial
City.
received a
the crossfire,
including the residents of

Israel.
welcome
Norman Schwarzkopf,
Desett Storm, 1991

STRATEGY
IRAQI
Saddam Hussein peppers
Israel
and thereby drive Arab countries out
into the war,
with Scud missiles
in
an effort to draw
Israel
of the coalition against him.

EUROPE
MOVEMENT
How
ASIA
did Allied strategy defeat Iraq?
an.
16:
bombing
Operation Desert Storm begins with massive

of strategic targets
in
and Kuwait.
Iraq
ANTARCTICA
Robinson ProiectK
Iraqis set oil fields
ablaze and
pump
Persian Gulf
IRAN
an
in
and storage tanks

into the
oil
effort to foul a
Saudi desalinization plant.
Deployment of
off the
Marines
U.S.
makes the
coast
Iraqis
expect an amphibious landing.
Feb. 23: The four-day
Feb. 27: Bush announces th
and
will
cease
ground
war begins.
have liberated Kuwait City
ies
fire.
Feb. 26: Helicopters bring
the
in
Khafji
lOlst Air Assault Division to block
RED
SEA
the escape of Iraqi forces.
SAUDI
A
Allied countries
Iraqi
ARABIA
nuclear site
belonging to the
A QATAR
coalition military
N-*-
force
U.S.
base
Allied
bombing
Allied
advance
UNITED ARAB
EMIRATES
Feb. 2S: Iraqi Scud missile
28
U.S. service
1.
personnel
Oil field
in
Iraqi forces
kills
Abu Dhabi
O^Riyadh
U.S. naval vessels
Scud missile attack
if
300 Miles
their barracks.
ISO
**!**?
300 Kilometers
The
role of
women
nature of the war caused
in Desert
Storm and the
many people
the usefulness of banning
women from
With technology playing an increasingly

cant role in
modem
become
combat.
signifi-
warfare, critics charged, physi-
between men and
cal differences
women would
less important than technological skill.
During the previous years the number of

the military
Operation Desert Storm was

unique for its use of high-tech
weaponry, live television coverage, and use of women soldiers.
to question
had increased
women
to the point that U.S.
in
Air
/^ ROBLEMS AT HOME
Bush's successes
in foreign affairs
won him popu-
Force colonel Douglas Kennett commented that his
larity
branch of the service "couldn't go to war without
charged that he was neglecting problems
women and we
As
couldn't win without them." In
and international praise, but some
the 1992 presidential
at
critics
home.
campaign approached,
August 1991 the Senate removed the ban on
domestic issues, particularly the economy and a
women
growing
serving as combat pilots, but continued to
limit service in
ground
battles.
political controversy, troubled the public
and undermined the president's support.
iS
939
['^rv
^H
^
N^
1î
L^
language or behavior that creates a hostile working
environment. In televised hearings, the Senate
^^W''>
^^^^^V"*^
v'^^H
riBH
Thomas
Thomas's nomination,
in spite
bullying tactics used by some members of the

committee outraged many women. After the
Senate narrowly approved the Thomas nomination,
female activists vowed to show their disapproval
in the
dominated
after
ued Reagan's
a
etforts to
hearings.
move
the
Bush contin-
Supreme Court
in
conservative direction. In 1990 he filled a
vacancy on the Court with David Souter, a conser-
New Hampshire
vative
judge. In 1991,
Thurgood Marshall announced
Many women
told
of experiencing harassment as they entered male-
of an outcry by female activists.
The Thomas-Hill
next election.
debate about sexual harassment.
The Senate approved
of sexual harassment.
Committee investigated her charges. The
Across the country the hearings stirred
During confirmation hearings for Supreme Court nominee

Clarence Thomas (left), law professor Anita Hill (right)
accused
Judiciary
when
his retirement.
fields.
The debate became more heated
news broke of wide-scale sexual harassment

naval convention
of female officers
at a
September 1991. An
earlier
in
Pentagon study had
revealed that two thirds of the
women
in the mili-
tary had been sexually harassed by colleagues.
Such revelations prompted the military
to increase
punishment of sexual harassment.
Bush nominated Clarence Thomas, a conservative

African American judge and former head of the
Equal
federal
Employment
Commission (EEOC).
Opportunity
During the confirmation hearings, law pro-
at the
EEOC.
harassment
Thomas's
accused the nominee of sexual
the
unwelcome sexual
use of
confessed that
they tolerated sexual harassment because they
Many
could not afford to lose their jobs.
to take his place.
fessor Anita Hill, a former associate of
The economy. Many women
people
could relate to such feelings as the economy weakened.
The 1991
lion,
with more than $350 billion predicted for
1992.
The
federal deficit surged to
costs of the Persian Gulf
$282
War and
bil-
the
in office
1989-1993
1924Following the popular and charismatic
was shot down once. Bush's experi-
Ronald Reagan was not easy for
ences
George Bush. Throughout the 1988
to his strong interest
campaign he was constantly

ing "the
wimp
sation
that he
politician
and
factor"
the
was
fight-
affairs.
accu-
to him
a better follower
had bravely served as
World War
it
who
58 missions
940
S"
CHAPTER
32
in all
his presidency,
World War
for
said, "I
flew
and
mem-
came back
me
"When
to send our
thought back on my
own experiences
He
II
when he considered com-
came time
once
a pilot in
At the age of 18, George

Bush became one of the
pilots in the navy.
foreign
kids ... to the Middle East," he
II.
youngest commissioned
in
mitting troops to battle.
than leader. This charge seemed

particularly ironic for Bush,
During
ories of
weak
war may have contributed
in
what
it
.
was
.
like
in
combat and
to be shot at.
Having been
in
combat
rounded out my awareness of the

of war."
human cost
bailout of the
S&L
and banking industries added
The
who
trade gap persisted as well.
trade deficit had declined from
almost SI 02 billion,
$66
At Yale he met Hillary Rodham, a law student
to
the deficit.
billion.
1991
in
its
stood
still
it
Though
the
1990 high of
at
about
Japan's massive annual sales of auto-
mobiles and electronic goods to U.S. consumers
On
accounted for a large portion of the gap.

trade mission to Japan. President
business leaders tried with
little
a 1992
Bush and U.S.

success to per-
later served as
counsel to the House Judiciary
Committee considering
They married
became
was elected
many
opposed the war
1990.
ment
As
the
economy
Kennedy
the
rose. States facing
welfare programs. The
unemploy-
budget deficits cut their
number of Americans
ing below the poverty line
million in 1990.
a recession
faltered,
Rodham
Hillary
in the
He
for a time tried to
movement,
value of diversity and
Clinton, a
feminist influenced by the
women's movement, enjoyed
successful legal career while
grew by more than two
furthering her husband's political career.
As
lady of
first
Rodham
1992. complicating President Bush's reelection
Arkansas, Hillary
hopes.
Clinton served on several influential
Domestically, Bush faced troubles over the Thomas-Hill hearings and the sagging economy.
baby boomer.
era and by the civil rights
liv-
The recession hung on throughout
of his generation.
Vietnam and
in
equality.
hit in
traits
when he
avoid being drafted. Influenced by the idealism of
United States.
economic woes,
As
to lead Arkansas.
Clinton reflected
he believed strongly
to these
impeachment of Nixon.
the nation's youngest governor
suade the Japanese to increase imports from the
Adding
the
1975. Three years later Clinton
in
committees, including one
developed a ground-break-
that
Hillary
ing education-reform program.
Some
Hillary
band on a number of key
observers noted that
Rodham
Rodham
Clinton advised her husissues during the 1992
Clinton was
presidential campaign.
qualified to run for president her-
U/iINDS OF
Acknowledging
self.
CHANGE
key
role. Bill
Despite the nation's economic woes. President Bush
that voters
wave of popularity from the

Persian
as 1991 ended. One of the few
Democrats willing to challenge him in the 1992
one"
was
riding a
still
Gulf War
election
was Governor William
"Bill" Clinton of
if
his wife's
Clinton said during the 1992 campaign
would be
getting
"two
for the price of
he were elected president. As became appar-
ent after the election, however,
many Americans
were uncomfortable with the idea of a president's

wife in a policy-making
role.
Arkansas.
Bill Clinton
was born
1946
in
in
Hope.
Arkansas, shortly after the death of his father. His
mother. Virginia, later married Roger Clinton, an

abusive alcohohc. Clinton's childhood experiences
of dealing with poverty and a troubled
home
life
shaped his outlook on the

world.
President
When
met
John Kennedy in
he
1963, Clinton decided
on
a political career. After
The
affairs
Bill
Clinton
in
international
from Georgetown
election
After years of low voter participation, people

turned out in droves in 1992 to
heard. Candidates used
vision talk
make
their voices
pubhc forums such as
shows and radio
call-in
tele-
programs
answer questions directly from the public.

ter
to
mas-
of this electronic format was independent presi-
dential candidate H.
receiving a bachelor's
degree
1992
Ross Perot.
Perot, a billionaire
outsider,
ment
to
promised
from Texas who ran
to bring a populist
as an
reform move-
Washington. D.C.. by decreasing the
influ-
University, he studied at
ence of political lobbyists and by giving the public a
Oxford University in
England and gained a
law degree from Yale
greater voice in government.
balance the budget. Perot's message appealed to
University.
many
He
also promised to
use his skills as a businessman to cut spending and
voters worried about the economy.
13
94
Perot's popularity reflected the feelings of
many
voters that politicians were out of touch.
group
o\ Notcrs
who
One
Roosevelt
SS
Eleanor Smeal had declared: "The Senate did more
one week
to
more women
been able
underscore the
in
25 years."
running for public office
The increase
press to
in
Women
dub 1992 "the year of
women Democrats
won
candidates led the
woman." Many
the
Four prominent
election.
gained U.S. Senate
California filled both of
seats, includ-
Senate seats with
its
Barbara Boxer and Dianne
Feinstein.
In the presidential race. Bill Clinton's
sage of economic and social reform paid
mesoff.
Clinton and his running mate. Senator Al Gore of
Tennessee,
won 43
percent of the popular vote
and 370 electoral votes
to the
electoral votes.
saw increased
Bill
Clinton.
Glinton takes office

Once
net.
Although Perot and
his running
Clinton put together a diverse cabi-
in office.
His appointees included Mexican American
Henry Cisneros
as secretary of housing and urban
affairs
and African Americans Ron Brown and
Joycelyn Elders as secretary of commerce and sur-
geon general, respectively. Other women

appointees included Press Secretary Dee Dee
Myers. Attorney General Janet Reno, and
Secretary of Health and Human Services Donna
Shalala. Clinton also chose
to
fill
a vacancy on the
As
Bush-Quayle
38 percent of the popular vole and 168
ticket's
election
responded by
ing Patty Murray of Washington and African

American Carol Moseley-Braun of Illinois.
women
tion of baby boonner
need for
record numbers.
women
in
of these candidates
critical
The 992
Senate than feminists have
in the
do
to
1912.
voter participation, nunnerous

reform candidates, and the elec-
Hill hearings. Shortly after the hearings, activist
in
in
on being heard were
insisted
\somen, especially those outraged by the Thomas-
Theodore
presidential ticket since that of
Ruth Bader Ginsburg
Supreme Court.
his presidency began, Clinton suffered a
series of setbacks.
An
elaborate plan to reform the
nation's health-care system, drafted by a task force
mate. Admiral William Stockdale. failed to pick
headed by Hillary Rodham Clinton, died
up any electoral votes, they captured 19 percent
Congress. In addition, both Clintons faced charges
of the popular vote
more than any
independent
in
of past financial improprieties, including their
PRESIDENTIAL Liy^^
in office
CLINTON
1993-
1946Bill
marked
saxophone and was offered numer-
White House. He
ous music scholarships to college
Clinton's presidency
many
firsts in
was the
first
post-World
the
president born
War
II
in
era and the
the
first
president from Arkansas. Clinton
was
after
THE
PEOPLE'S**!
inaxjgiira;
career
also the first president to play
the saxophone at his
own
his
inaugural
tion
Clinton's career goal as a

Bill
He was heavily influenced by African American jazz
jazz musician.
artists
and early rock
such as
'n'
Elvis Presley.
excelled at playing the
942
CHAPTER
32
roll stars
He
in politics,
musical talents
as during the
celebration.
young teenager was to become
he graduated from high school.
Although Clinton went on to make a
Clinton President
Jan.20, 1993 * * *
he frequently used
in
campaigns, such
1992 presidential elec-
when, wearing dark
played the saxophone
glasses,
on
he
a popular
late-night talk show. Despite his love
of music, Clinton believes that he
made
the right career choice.
would have been
7^ CMûJÔu^
cian,"
a very
"I
good musi-
he once noted, "but
not a great one."
tangled involvement
Arkansas
in a failed
development called Whitewater. Then
estate
both the House and the Senate

in the 1994 midterm elections.
realin
1996 came charges that the White House had

improperly obtained FBI
Amid
files
on Republicans.
these distractions, Clinton confronted a
range of global challenges,
among them
Campaign
fighting in
i996
Bosnia and Northern Ireland and emerging democ-
Despite the results of the 1994 midterm elections,
racy in Russia. Clinton also wrestled with an
Clinton's popularity improved as the
upsurge of terrorism (see Chapter 33).
boomed. Describing
tions that
midterm
had allowed Clinton

elections,
economy
the healthy financial condito survive the
1994
economist David Wyss com-
The CLINTON presidency
economy during
the
Clinton administration, you have to say that
it's
President Clinton focused on economic recovery,
been
and his
In
showed some
efforts
mented. "If you look
signs of paying off.
August 1993 Congress narrowly passed a bud-
get act
1992.
to
time.
The 1996
about $145 billion, half that of
Unemployment went down
to 5.4 percent, a
ten-year low, and inflation hovered under 3 percent.
As
investors gained confidence, the stock
about the best of
Not
especially
was
however. The
economic news
all
first
few years
pushed for greater
as corporations
fired thousands of
33).
And
efficiency, they
employees. Both white-collar
[economic] worlds."
Contract with America and tried to cut popu-
in its
lar social
and environmental programs. As Clinton
and the Republican Congress battled over a budget

1995, the federal government briefly shut
bill in
down. Voters blamed the Republicans, and Newt

Clinton also benefited from divisions
Republicans,
who
budget cuts, government regulations, and social

issues.
These divisions sharpened as the 1996 pres-
idential
campaign began.
Among
other corporations cut their payrolls.
Kansas emerged victorious from the primaries and
jobs as
tried to unite his party's
unskilled positions. In the inner cities, with their
The Race. A
and Hispanic populations, even these
competing
disabled World
Dole faced concerns about
wondered, was he out of touch?
and poorest Americans continued
Could he handle the demands of
to
widen.
Encouraged by Clinton's early setbacks.

Republicans geared up for the 1994 midterm elec-
Many Republican
candidates signed
"Contract with America" pledging a balanced-bud-
amendment and
On
won
a stun-
ning victory, gaining control of the House and the

Senate.
the Senate,
Dole proved an
fective campaigner.
.
Newt Gingrich of Georgia became house
line,"
cal
concluded
analyst
helped back
there'll
Noonan.
crime
Concerned with early
failures in
the Clinton administration, voters gave Republicans control of
inef-
politi-
just
conservative resurgence.
from
Peggy
And
this
At 73, voters
that
"He
Christian Coalition, a political lobby
veteran.
precedes the applause
declared things
The
II
"He never
founded by television evangelist Pat Robertson,
speaker.
War
offered the sustained
and layered argument
other reforms.
election day, the Republicans
the presidency? Resigning
factions.
his age.
jobs were scarce. The gap between the wealthiest
get
a large field of
Republican candidates. Senator Bob Dole of
lost their
many of the new jobs that were created

during the Clinton years were low-paying,
tion.
among
over issues such as taxes,
split
In addition,
large black
as the
AT&T,
and blue-collar workers
IBM. GM, and
full
really just
The president's stock rose higher
that in
rosy,
remained high (see Chapter
trade deficit
all
is
Gingrich's popularity plummeted.
market boomed.
Clinton's
have low inflation,
Republican Congress failed to enact key measures
The medicine worked, over

dropped
We
a success.
employment, and steady growth. This
which combined tax increases and spending
cuts to reduce the national debt.
deficit
at the
be no more
in a
istration
Dole Admin-
and waited
for people to clap as he
cleared his throat."
a Newt Gingrich
i:
943
two candidates was tobacco. Clinton advocated

stricter measures to discourage smoking, particu-
the
among the young. Dole, by contrast, despite

overwhelming medical evidence, questioned
larl\
whether tobacco was really addictive.
The
Clinton's approach proved suc-
Result.
cessful,
and he became the
first
Democrat since
Franklin Delano Roosevelt to win a
Though
term.
Clinton-Dole debate, 1996
won 50
was not
his
Republicans
issues.
The
president echoed the
in calling for
economic growth,
smaller government, anti-crime programs, and
He urged tougher
school
middle-class tax
relief.
discipline and a
crackdown on "deadbeat dads"
who
failed to provide child support. Clinton also
echoed Republican
critics
of the nation's welfare
system. The president and Republican leaders both

called for welfare reform that
from the federal government

signed such a
On
would
work requirements, and
introduce
bill in
limit benefits,
programs
shift
to the states. Clinton
August 1996.
for the elderly,
ever, Clinton highlighted the difference
himself and his Republican opponent.
how-
between
By arguing
and new
social programs, he presented himself as
humane than Dole. Another
more
car-
issue dividing
Though a few of Newt Gingrich's "Freshman

Class of 1994" failed to win reelection, the
won
Republicans
the Senate. This
LOCATE
Rodham
Democrat
presidency while the
both the House and the Senate,
and the event seemed
to
send a message support-
ing a working bipartisan government.
As he approached his second term.

Clinton echoed this bipartisan
well."
He pledged
is
President
theme,
alive
and
to provide health insurance to
children and the unemployed, fix parts of the welfare bill, connect classrooms to the Internet,
and
repair crumbling schools.
Many
als as
observers described Clinton's propos-
"small steps" intended to avoid the political
overreach that had
doomed much of his
first
term.
REVIEW
Hill,
Clinton, H. Ross Perot, Ruth Bader Ginsburg,
MAIN IDEA What was
2.
MAIN IDEA What were two
4.
the first time that a
to the
and explain the significance of the following: Jesse Jackson, Michael Dukakis, George Bush,
1.
3.
was
won
Republicans
House and
a majority in both the
had been elected
Saddam Hussein, Operation Desert Storm, Clarence Thomas, Anita

Clinton, Hillary
Iraq,
sexual harassment.
Newt
Bill
Gingrich.
Kuwait.
unique about Operation Desert Storm?
domestic issues that plagued President Bush?
CONTRASTING Why was the 1992 election different from any other in recent history?
WRITING TO EXPLAIN Analysts refer to 1992 as "the year of the woman." Considering
women's
roles in events during 1991. 1992. and 1993, write an essay explaining
why
the early
1990s might be called "the years of the women."

5.

have on the 1984 and 1988 elections?
Perot
944
CHAPTER
In
1992?
impact did Jesse Jackson's "Rainbow Coalition" campaign
How were
96
paign, took 41 percent of the popular vote and 159
SECTION
IDENTIFY
a grueling
days of the cam-
electoral votes.
for the protection of both long-standing
ing and
in the last
"proclaim[ing] that the vital center
issues such as environmental protection,
gun control, and programs
a landslide victory, he
who had gone on
Dole,
hour multistate tour

Clinton, meanwhile, seized the middle
second
percent of the popular vote and 379 elec-
toral votes.
ground on many
full
the Jackson campaigns similar to that of H. Ross
AMERICA
IN
THE
1990s
c u s
How did immigration patterns of the 1990s affect the United States?
What were some problems urban Americans confronted?
How did government and businesses attempt to help working parents?
What health challenges did the nation face?
eaving behind the 1980s, Americans faced both promising
trends
and pressing
social problems. The
1990
U.S. census
revealed a population that was increasingly urban, southern
and
the
western,
and immigrant. Americans worked
to
overcome
economic problems and racial divisions that fractured many
cities in the 1990s.
care
and
Meanwhile, the rising costs of health
the spread of AIDS contributed to the nationwide
health-care
crisis.
Rally supporting
A HEV^yN^WE OF IMMIGRATION
Connie Mack of Florida.
can
we
justify
it
for Haitians?"
The Haitian
November
"How
AIDS research
issue underscored the continuing
1991, U.S. Coast Guard vessels inter-
debate within the United States over immigration.
cepted boatloads of Haitians bound for the United
The 1990 census revealed that more immigrants

had come to the United States in the 1980s than in
any decade since 1910, and more than 80 percent
In
States.
military
coup had ousted
Haiti's first
democratically elected president. Jean-Bertrand

Aristide.
As
political
and economic chaos spread,
thousands of Haitians sailed to the United States.
However, bound by a 1981 agreement with

Haiti and facing
economic troubles of
its
own, the
United States began to return the Haitians to their
home
countr\'.
Many
politicians criticized the gov-
ernment's policy. '"Returning Vietnamese, Russian

Jews, Cubans, Nicaraguans and others back to the
repressive countries
from which they were fleeing
would have been unthinkable." declared Senator
The
Guard intercepted Haitian

shown here, and tool<
them to a temporary "tent-city" at Guantanamo
Bay Naval Base. Some 2,500 refugees were housed
U.S. Coast
refugees, such as the family
at this base before being returned to Haiti.
945
of them came from Asia,
l.alin
America, and the
Caribbean. This influx of immigrants alarmed
many
Many blamed immi-
native-bt)m Americans.
granls for taking jobs from native-born residents.
Some
also argued that the presence of large
bers of immigrants willing to
served to keep wages
down
work
for
all
for
num-
lower wages
They argued
new businesses
that
immigrants created
that revitalized
helped the economy.
urban areas and
In addition,
immigration noted that
many
most notably those from
supporters of
recent immigrants,
India, the Philippines.
immigration by strengthening
illegal
Much
of the Immigration
and Naturalization Service's increased control

efforts focus
California
on the area around San Diego,

where almost half of
a point
The 1996 immigration

aimed
visions
at
keeping
also contained pro-
new immigrants
must have incomes
at least
poverty level. The
bill
who
125 percent above the
also prevents legal immi-
are not U.S. citizens from receiving
most forms of welfare
benefits.
Many
provision will encourage immigrants to

izens.
increased from
made up about one
in 1995.
computer technology, the
believe this
become
cit-
Already the number of naturalizations has
than either native-born Americans or European
immigrants. Asian immigrants, they pointed out,

third of all engineers in
off wel-
For example, sponsors of immigrants
fare rolls.
grants
bill
China, and Korea, on average had more schooling
California's center of
all illegal
immigrants enter the United States.
workers.
Supporters of immigration offered a different view.
problem of
control of the borders.
some 500,000
in
1994 to 1,000,000
If current trends hold, the
United States will
witness increased immigration in the coming years.
Silicon Valley.
Thus. Americans will continue to grapple with the
Opposition to immigration
increased in the 1990s, although
immigrants made many contri-
question of whether to
butions to U.S. businesses and
OF DIVERSITY
VTITIES
industries.
welcome immigrants.
Conflicts experienced by immigrants included the

President
Bush recognized these
benefits and
in
April 1992 in south central
changed U.S. immigration policy by increasing the
the acquittal of four white police officers accused
number of immigrants and doubling
of beating
year.
the
number of
workers allowed into the United States each
The
act also authorized special visas for for-
eign investors interested in establishing businesses

in
economically depressed areas of the country.

In
1996 during Clinton's
passed an immigration
first
bill to fight
Tension flared between the
Cuban
American communities in Miami
after Nelson Mandela, shown here,
African American and
spoke favorably of Fidel Castro.

::
erupted
Los Angeles. The area exploded
skilled
946
riots that
signed the Immigration Act of 1990. The new law
CHAPTER
3 2
term. Congress
the continuing
Most of
in
violence after
Rodney King, an African American.
the violence affected neighborhood resi-
dents and businesses as
and robbed.
Some
many people were
beaten
looters specifically targeted
Korean-owned businesses.
The riots disheartened people who had

worked to improve relations among African

Americans, Hispanic Americans, and Asian
Americans in Los Angeles. Sylvia Castillo, a
Mexican American community
target of the violence, noted, "I
was outraged by
jobs for suburban areas, inner-city residents

despair of again attracting the industries that could
reduce unemployment
the
could think was:
'Why
me?'" Rodney King himself urged people
"try to
work
get along?"
out" peacefully, asking,
it
Most
"Can we
conflicts
to
all
in the riots,
and many
people braved the violence to rescue victims.
Miami, Florida, deemed the "new
IV'ORK
Ellis
Many
Marvin Dunn, also experi-
Island" by psychologist
enced increased immigration and
1992 Miami had more foreign-bom residents
Peruvians
than
any other city
Boosted by a thriving
economy had boomed
had also seen three
Tension
in
in the
From 1970
1980s and 1990s.
United
than doubled. In 1991
tourist industry, the
in recent years, but
it
in the
number
to 1991 the
some 20 percent of
all
white
children,
60 percent of
all
African American chil-
dren, and
30 percent of
all
Hispanic children lived
with one parent, usually their mothers.
Most
particularly strong
between Cuban Americans and African Americans.
single parents faced serious financial
burdens. Patricia Mull, a Los Angeles seamstress
who
began a national boycott of
In 1990, black leaders
observers expressed concern about the
of children living in single-parent households more
riots since 1980.
Miami was
AND FAMILY
growing number of single-parent families
racial tensions.
including Cubans. Haitians. Nicaraguans. and
city's
communities.
residents in south central Los
Angeles did not take part
States.
in their
Inner cities experienced racial

and lost jobs to the suburbs in the 1980s and 1990s.
are they [rioters] doing
this to
In
development means more
this
and had always struggled against racism.
verdict
All
who was
activist
Manhattan. While
Miami's convention facilities after Cuban

American city officials snubbed South African
leader Nelson Mandela. Mandela had made favor-
income
stretched her
to
send her daughter to
private school, described the stress she faced: "I
worry about the
rent.
payment
in time.
worry
worry
if I
if I
can make the
have enough money
able remarks about Fidel Castro,
Cuba's Communist leader whose
regime many Cuban Americans

had
fled.
After Hispanic American
THE GROWTH OF SINGLE-PARENT FAMILIES, 1970-1991
businesspeople agreed to hire
White
1990
more African Americans and

patronize black-owned businesses,
black leaders ordered an end to the
POOR CHILDREN,
children
:=
U.
60-
African American
'
'children
^Hispanic American
50-
^children
boycott.
Economic problems compounded many urban problems.
40-
Q.
2 M
X c 30U
i7)
Some
analysts argued that bad
20-
economic conditions contributed
Los Angeles
to the
home
to
riots.
Once
10V
a.
major companies such as
Bethlehem Steel and Goodyear,
Los Angeles
lost
was repeated
across the country.
companies
1970*
Many
1980
Hispanic American
1991
Year
over 200,000
jobs in 1991 alone. Such loss of
inner-city jobs
0-
hn
Percentage of
* Data not available for Hispanic children.
children living
Note: Hispanic children can be of any race.
the poverty
Source:
Statistical
below
line
of the
that left the inner
POVERTY RATE
Single-parent families are
more
likely to
live
in
poverty. In
1990 the
poverty rate for single-parent Hispanic families v/as 68 percent, for single-parent African
cities relocated to the suburbs,
American families about 67 percent, and
for single-parent white families nearly
45 percent.
changing the faces of both the

cities
and the suburbs.
Many
sub-

American children
urban areas
office
now
space
contain more
than
What was
living in single-parent families
the percent increase
in
African
from 1970 to 1980? What percent of
Hispanic American children lived below the poverty line
in
1990?
midtown
947
anging
Ways
The economic problems
the United States
facing
the 1980s
in
AMERICAN INDIAN RENEWAL:

A CASE STUDY
drought years. Her family then
moved
under the Bureau
and 1990s presented special
California,
problems for the nation s nearly
of Indian Affairs' relocation
two
American
million
more
Indians,
than 20 percent of
whom
on or near reservations. As
lived
in earlier years,
joblessness, lack
of education, and
made
care
life
poor health
hard for many
But cultural renewal,
Indians.
economic ventures, and successful
Indians of Fort Hall Reservation
Idaho were
Indians
who
among
was
life
Mankiller,
day
was
difficult for
who
[in
the next day
"One
Oklahoma] and
I
was
trying to
indoor plumbing,
neon
lights
and elevators."
The Shoshoni-Bannock
She soon became active

the American Indian Move-
become more
Mankiller
In
involved
her
in
the mid-1970s
moved back
Indians successfully sued the U.S.
government
1990 to reclaim
in
irrigation rights that
ment, which inspired her to
community.
the
successfully pressed
recalled,
deal with the mysteries of

television,
in
The Shoshoni-Bannock
in
program. The adjustment to

city
claims of treaty rights offered
promise.
guaranteed to them
had been
an 868
in
treaty.
to
their treaty claims. In 1990,
Oklahoma. She completed
corporation, and being a social
using the terms of an 1868
college and began working to
worker."
Cherokee communities create
treaty with the United States,
promote economic growth
the Shoshoni-Bannock Indians
the Cherokee Nation. Stressing
won
self-esteem and
the right to use water
from the Snake River to

their farmlands.
was the
The
result of
irrigate
decision
more than 25
years of American Indian efforts
omy and
achieve economic
self-
Wilma
Mankiller,
I'jM
chief of the 108,000-
i'W'lwl
strong Cherokee
Nation, launched one of the
most
significant
Mankiller
renewal
was born
efforts.
in
1945.
She spent her early years on a

farm,
where her
family faced
economic hardships and
lived
addition to helping
jobs and provide better
health care, the
Cherokee
Nation sponsored a program to
how
teach students
improve housing, and develop
write the Cherokee language.
new
can't help but feel hopeful
businesses.
In
the
first
in
1985 Mankiller became
our
woman
principal chief,
her
won
address:
1987 she
a tough
to read and
future," Mankiller
1
noted
in
four-way race and a subsequent

runoff election. Mankiller
com-
think the strongest
pared her job to "running a
thing
small country, a medium-size
around to Cherokee com-
see as
travel
munities and talk with

is
their tenacity
[persistence]. Despite
everything that's happened

to our people throughout
history we've
managed to
without indoor plumbing or
hang on to our culture,
electricity.
we've managed to hang on
When
Mankiller
the farm failed after
CHAPTER
32
was
two
12,
to our sense of being
Cherokee.
**
"I
about
990 State of the Nation
people
in
Tahlequah, Oklahoma,
helped
new
In
develop rural water systems,
and
sufficiency.
MM
in
community
self-help, Mankiller
to win greater political auton-
948
to San Francisco,
left for
other things.
worry about money every
day, every night."
Many
two-parent families shared Mull's
concerns as they struggled
to
balance job and
More than 60 percent of

married women worked outside the home in
1995. up from about one third in 1960. The
family responsibilities.
increase in single-parent families and in families
with both parents in the work force created the
need for affordable day care. Employers increasingly began to realize that family concerns
affected the job performance of their employees.
To help employees balance work and family,

coalition of businesses in 1992
gram
to build
announced a pro-
more day-care and elder-care cen-
ters across the country.
to help
two weeks
working
The
rising costs of health insurance, doctor's fees,
improved medical equipment created a health-care
also recognized the
families. In February 1993,
after his inauguration. President Clinton
human
By March 1993
deadly stage of an illness caused by the
immunodeficiency
HIV.
virus, or
signed into law the Family
some one million people had been
Act. which President
HIV, and by 1996
and Medical Leave

Bush had twice vetoed. The
legislation requires large
companies
to
provide
workers up to 12 weeks of unpaid leave for family
and medical emergencies without losing

ical
their
med-
This legislation reflected the significant

in attitudes
have occurred
toward work and family
in
25-44
in the 1990s.
Florence Skelly, the
1993 that "rather than trying to climb the eco-
nomic ladder, people are becoming more concerned with relationships and family and
community involvement."
infected with
claimed the lives of
64 U.S.
in
New AIDS
cities.
women more
cases
than tripled between
1986 and 1990.
AIDS
that
vice chairperson of a market-research firm, noted
AIDS had
more than 320,000 Americans. In 1993 AIDS was

the leading cause of death among men ages
reported for
coverage or their jobs.
changes
and
crisis
during the 1990s.
The U.S. government

need
has
left
almost
no
continent
untouched. In the African nation of Zambia,

President Kenneth Kaunda's son died of
AIDS.
In
1991, basketball star Earvin "Magic" Johnson of

the
Los Angeles Lakers announced
that he
had
tested positive for HIV. Other celebrities struck

the disease
have included movie
star
by
Rock Hudson
and tennis legend Arthur Ashe.
The World Health Organization (WHO) estimated in 1995 that some 1.3 million persons
worldwide had full-blown AIDS. The organization
predicts that some 40 million people will be
Government and businesses

issued new policies to help working parents juggle
work
home and
life.
HIV by the year 2000.

Some activists accused the United
carriers of
HEALTHINTHE
government of responding too slowly and with too
1990s
little
Between 1970 and 1993, U.S. spending on health

care rose from
billion.
States
more than $74
some $884
billion to
The aging population, soaring physicians'
fees, higher insurance costs,
this
money
to the
AIDS
crisis.
The Food
and Drug Administration responded to these
criti-
cisms by speeding up the approval of several drugs

for the treatment of
and more-expensive
medical equipment accounted for much of
research
came
AIDS.
major step forward for disabled citizens
in July 1990,
when
President George
Bush
increase. Rising medical costs hit the poor and
signed into law the Americans with Disabilities
those without health insurance especially hard.
Act.
Fueling the health crisis in the 1990s was

the alarming spread of Acquired
Deficiency Syndrome, or AIDS. This
is
Immune
the final
The
act prohibits discrimination against peo-
ple with mental or physical disabilities
diseases such as
AIDS
in
portation, telephone services,
including
employment,
trans-
and public buildings.
949
Of
This demonstrator
these years, the rapid growth of personal
showed support for

the Americans with
Act dur-
Disabilities
ng a 1990
New
computers (PCs) loomed especially
leader in this revolution
rally in
York
Bom
Gates.
City,
the technological advances of
all
gramming
later
"Bill"
1955, Gates began pro-
in Seattle in
1974, while a student
at thirteen. In
PC
Harvard, he devised a
was William
large.
operating system.
at
year
he cofounded the Microsoft Corporation to
develop computer software. The
IBM
first
personal computer, introduced in 1981. utilized a
Microsoft operating system,
when Microsoft went

in
public,
MS-DOS. By
was
it
1986,
a world leader
PC software.
By then. PCs were transforming American
By the mid-1990s most business offices and
providing
life.
public institutions were computerized, and nearly
40 percent of American homes had PCs. Students

from grade school
for
many
books gave way
fi'
were using computers
to college
purposes. In libraries, bulky reference

to
CD-ROM
computer
disks.
Physicians could instantly access information on

the latest medical research via Medline, a
comput-
erized database. Typesetting machines disappeared

as books, magazines, and newspapers were printed
directly
The
companies with 25 or more
act also requires
employees
to
remove
structural barriers in offices.
proved
from computer disks. Computers also

be a great boon to the disabled,
to
used them
to
communicate
home
Bill Gates's
The
rising costs of health care
illustrates
and the spread of AIDS led to a

health crisis
in
some of
the
in a
number of ways.
near Seattle, Washington,
ways
in
which technology
might e\ entually transform private
the 1990s.
hillside
who
life.
In the
home, which includes about 100
huge
internal
microcomputers,
technology exists to
serve and delight,
Technology and society

The 1980s and 1990s brought advances
with intricate remote
space
control systems regu-
technology. In 1981 the National Aeronautics and
lating music, enter-
Space Administration (NASA) launched the
tainment, and even
reusable space vehicle
in
a space shuttle.
suffered a grave setback in 1986.
when
Challenger exploded shortly after
first
NASA
the shuttle
lift-off.
All
seven crew members perished, including social

studies teacher Christa McAuliffe.
have been the
who would
tor to the
Each
visi-
house
is
issued an electronic
pin,
which stores
information
and
forged ahead.
The
pins cue the com-
With the end of the Cold War, the space agency
puter system to route
focused on commercial and scientific projects
calls for a particular guest to the nearest
more than military
to set the lights
first
tracks motion.
civilian in space.
Despite this tragedy,
NASA
efforts.
The Hubble Space
Telescope, launched in 1990 and repaired
in
1993.
tri?nsmitted vital astronomical information
950
paintings!
phone and
along the visitor's path to the
desired brightness.
and
The Internet, a
vast,
computer-based com-
breathtaking photos from deep space. In 1994
munications and information system, enabled users
came
to
a joint U.S. -Russian space mission.
CHAPTER
? 2
communicate worldwide, join discussion
groups, and gather information from countless
The World Wide Web, developed by
databases.
Swiss scientists
in the early
1990s, linked a wide
Digital Library
(NDL). which was begun by
money
raised
from private sources and with some
array of internet sites offering texts, animations,
government funding, the
and graphics covering an almost
lion items available
Some
topics.
of
observers hoped the so-called "infor-
mation highway"
Wide Web
infinite array
the
Internet and the
would bring people from

his
different
and countries together.
social classes, cultures,
The Road Ahead,
World
In
book on computer technol-
web
site
NDL
plans to have 5 mil-
on the Library of Congress's
by the year 2000. Each item displayed on
screen will be a digitized image of the original.
Among
the items already on line are
and photographs relating
documents
to the history of African
Americans, the Civil War, women's suffrage, the
War
Great Depression and World
ogy. Bill Gates offered this hope:
the
Librarian of Congress. James H. Billington. With
II.
But computers have not brought Utopia. The
The
break
information highway
world culture, or
tural activities
make
also
social
it
their
own
be located.
cyberspace as well. In the Tele-
regulate indecency on the Internet.
quickly struck
down key
speech
no matter where they may
tried to
federal court
provisions of this law,
however, as a violation of
ethnic
communities to reach out to others with

similar interests
in
communications Act of 1996, Congress
will
easy for patriots, even expatriin
problems plaguing American society soon
appeared
at least a sharing of cul-
and values. The highway
deeply involved
ates,
going to
is
down boundaries and may promote
First
Amendment
free
rights.
In addition to fears about the kinds of mater-
*T
ial
circulating through cyberspace,
some observers
worried that a fully computerized society would
Almost
decade
earlier, in 1981, writer
William Gibson coined the term "cyberspace" for

the
new computer
realm. Wrote Gibson in 1996:
44
The [World Wide Web]
was
six
it
will
months
ago;
in
another
be something else
planned;
it
again.
city.
six
It
simply happened. ...
happening the same way

Is
not what
is
**
cities
not need
human
workers. Such fears were probably
exaggerated, since
new
ate
more jobs than they
val
between job
loss
eliminate.
months
offs
was not
in the inter-
and the emergence of new
remained high, affecting about 8 percent of
workers during the period 1993-1995. Other people worried that computers
It is
happen.
But
jobs, severe disruptions can occur. In fact, job lay-
it
would deepen
divisions as well-to-do, well-educated
It
social
Americans
mastered the new technology, while poorer citizens

lagged behind. Like
One use of
the
World Wide Web
promises to aid historical research
is
that
the National
IDENTIFY
Mandela,
shuttle,
new
technologies, the
com-
lenges for the future.
REVIEW
and explain the significance of the following: Immigration Act, Rodney King, Nelson
Wilma
Bill
all
puter held both vast promise and troubling chal-
SECTION
Mankiller, Family
and Medical Leave Act, AIDS, Americans with
Disabilities Act,
space
Gates, Internet, cyberspace.
LOCATE and
I.
technologies typically cre-
explain the importance of the following: Haiti, Los Angeles, Miami.
MAIN IDEA What economic

MAIN IDEA How
did
and urban problems did inner-city workers and families face?
AIDS impact the
nation?
MAIN IDEA How have computers transformed American life?

WRITING TO PERSUADE Imagine you are the owner of a medical
convinces listeners
in
EVALUATING How
your community that a health-care

has
NASA
clinic.
crisis exists in
Write
speech that
the 1990s.
impacted science and technology?
951
Gramm-Rudman-
Soviet Union boy-
CHAPTER
Solidarity
Martial law declared
formed.
Ronald Reagan
in
elected president.
32
WRITING A SUMMARY
summary
O'Connor appointed
to Supreme Court.
2.
in
and
list
paper
to
5.
ond next to
2.
and so on.
the order
in
first
1.
which
in
next to
above,
line
INF Treaty
activity
2.
Soviet Union boycotts
Summer
4.
Solidarity formed.
5.
Thomas-Hill hearings occur.
surrounding the Iran-contra
IDENTIFYING PEOPLE
AND
Solidarity
Rodney King
6.
4 Our flag
contras
7.
Immigration Act
3.
Geraldine Ferraro
8.
Wilma
AIDS
4.
insider trading
5.
Saddam Hussein
9.
10.
Bill
How
did the
Reagan administration
What
Gates
fight
and blue, but our
brown, black
red, yellow,
America
same
not
is
blanket
like a
same
cloth, the
like a quilt
colors,
Even
challenges did President Bush face during his
that
fit
many
many
color,
common
somewhere.
can win or
each other.
We
America
size.
many
patches,
sizes,
all
woven and
thread.
our fractured
in
we
same
texture, the
many
the Cold
state,
We
is
pieces,
held
of us count
all
have not proven
make progress without
99
must come together.
important issues did Americans discuss dur-
1992 election campaign?
benefits did the arrival of immigrants
in
the
urban problems and health challenges did
Americans face during the early 1990s?
young
REVIEWING THEMES
Reaganomics have on the country?
CHAPTER
3 2
family has just
down
effects did
far
from where you
moved
into a
ago, even the smallest
seemed completely out of

street,
self a
EcoRomic Development What
town not too
In a
Three years
1990s have for the United States?
What
red, white
more
and
ing the
What
together by a
term?
What
is
one piece of unbroken

the
War?
952
affect the
Mankiller
I.
improved relations
did
America?
rainbow
is
and white.
2.
How
campaign. The first is from a speech by Jesse Jackson.

The second is from a Republican commercial for
Ronald Reagan. How do these two selections reflect
nation
5.
did the scan-
prove both
and different from the Watergate scandal?
Analyzing
different views of
IDEAS
4.
affair
Review the Strategies for Success entry on

Comparing Points of View on page 420. Then read
the following two excerpts from the 1984 presidential
Olympics.
Rudman-Hollings Act?
3.
How
Connparing and Contrasting
Analyzing What was the purpose of the Gramm-
what ways might techno-
In
ratified.
3.
2.
Soviet Union.
advances help increase voter participation
similar to
the sec-
Then complete the
Clinton elected president.
Bill
1.
president.
United States and the Soviet Union?
2.
1.
Mikhail Gorbachev
becomes leader of
the election process?
dal
below.
1.
Olympics. Ronald
Reagan reelected
THINKING CRITICALLY
Study the time
Hollings Act passed.
Summer
Democratic Values
logical
of the chapter.
REVIEWING CHKONOLOGY
Number your
Day
Poland. Sandra

write a
cotts
new
car,
with
the river
is
Life
is
it
again.
down
the
bought him-
just
the options.
working
people were saying

forever.
all
new home.
house
reach. Right
one of the neighbors has
live,
The
Not
factory
long ago,
probably would be closed
better.
America
is
back.
**
INF Treaty ratified. George

Bush elected president.
Congress
Immigration Act
and Americans
investi-
gates Iran-contra
affair.
with Disabilities
Act passed. Iraq
invades Kuwait.
Stock market
crashes.
Operation
Desert Storm
Los Angeles riot
launched.
occurs.
Thomas-Hill
Clinton elected
hearings occur.
president.
i
1988
1987
Family and
Medical Leave
Act signed. Ruth
Bader Ginsburg
appointed to
Supreme Court.
Bill
Republicans
gain control of
the House and
Bill
Senate.
reelected
president.
president
1994
1996
1990
1993
1992
mom-and-pop
Writing to Explain Write an
where a
essay that explains
lot
businesses, the
of shopping
is
comer stores,
done.
drives out
It
the significance of the passage of the Americans with
the source of income for the teenagers and
Disabilities Act.
the
young adults who don 't have a
skills

After the Los Angeles
riot,
Williams became the
interview shortly after the

his
new
city's
riots,
chief of police. In an
Williams expressed
impressions of African American concerns
in
Los
lot
of
or are just going to school to learn
skills. It
African American Willie
Clinton
often drives out the source of
income for parents who may be

working at home and working
living
and
in the area.
The cost of crime in the African-American

community cannot be underestimated. 99
Angeles. Read the following excerpt from the interview. According to Williams,
what do African
Americans want from
and
police,
how
has crime
LINKING HISTORY
AND GEOGRAPHY
Refer to the maps on page 9 7 and page 937.

1
affected their neighborhoods?
states did the

did not win
The African-American community
in
Democratic party win
in
Which
988 that
it
1980?
wants strong, tough, honest, fair policing.
no African-American community in
America that does not want to see police
there. The people want to be treated fairly.
They want to be treated honestly and with
There
is
dignity.
Crime also has a long-term

the
BUILDING YOUR
PORTFOLIO
community because
it
effect
on
drives out the

cooperatively.
1.
POLITICS
In
Chapter
you were a
reporter covering Watergate. Building on that experience, imagine

affair
you are covering the Iran-contra
Create a flow chart that traces the Iran-contra
transfer of weapons, money, and supplies.

2.
BUSINESS
AND TRADE
Imagine you are
the director of a private agency that assists immigrant businesspeople. Prepare a speech on
how
immigrant businesses are helping to boost your

city's
3.
ined
economy.
THE ECONOMY
oil
In
Chapter
prices and inflation. Building
you exam-
on that experi-
ence, imagine you are one of President Reagan's
economic
advisers. Prepare a
pamphlet describing
the principles and goals of Reaganomics.

Willie L. Williams
953
/Imerica's
Predominant Ethnic ISackground, 1980s
GEOGRAPHY.
A
DIVERSE
COUNTRY
VEN
before the found-
ing of the United States, im-
migrants flocked to America
from around the world. The

origins of the immigrants
have changed over time,

however. The original Native
Americans emigrated from

Asia across Beringia. In
colonial times the vast majority
of immigrants
came from
Europe and Africa. Although
Europe continued
to provide
the bulk of immigrants
throughout the
9th century,
more and more of them were

from southern and eastern
Europe. After World
War
II,
It has been sold that America

resembles a patchwork quik
immigration patterns changed
of colors representing
dramatically as more people
began
to
come from
and
Latin
America and from Asia.
ethnic groups.
the ethnic
map
all
How
races
does
of the United
States support that statement?
Ail
According to the map, what
of these immigrant groups
have contributed to the diver-
ethnic background
Percentage of
0/
I
I
sity
of American culture.
is
heavHy represented
most
in
your area?
contribution to U.S.
immigration,
1820-1979
Political
boundaries
as of 1993
3000 Miles
1500
-==J^500
954
UNIT
Scatc
3000 Kilometer
In Robinson Profcction
acnnte only along the cqunor.
is
Contributions to U.S. immigration
TOP TEN CONTRIBUTORS

TO
Every day new
residents arrive in the United States from
througiiout the world. In recent years

countries, such as
Jamaica and
many
10 percent ofJamaica's
Percentage of
Immigration
Country
very small
|t|
U.S.
23%
Mexico
Between 1981 and 1990,
some 21 3,800 Jamaicans immigrated
IMMIGRATION, 1981-1990
have been huge
El Salvador,
contributors to U.S. immigration.
he
U.S.
to the U.S.
close to
Philippines
7%
Vietnam
5%
I'l
1982!
total population in
Census
U.S.
Bureau did not begin

to
keep track of im-
migrant origins
1820. Since
until
this
Chjrt informition (rom
Copyngtil
was
The
AdonK
SJove Trade by Phillip D. Cuttin.
969 by The University
of Wisconsin Press.
after the closing of the African slave trade, census figures
on foreign
Africans
arrivals
who
conducted
in
do not account
numbers of
for the large
arrived before 1820.
The
first
U.S. census,
790, counted African Americans as repre-
20 percent ofê
senting roughly
populatjon.
CONTRIBUTIONS TO
U.S.
IMMIGRATION
AsiaT/o
Asia<r/o
S.
America
Africa
recent years immigration to the United States
contributed
it
90 percent of immigrants
only contributed
Cermany,
in
the
in
the
980s!
1881-1890
1821-1830
and Great Britain

68 percent of immigrants in
3%
3%
Europe 10%
Other or
Asia
980s.
880s, more than the top ten countries com-
bined
23%
unknown
the 1880s,
Ireland, Scandinavia,
alone accounted for

the
percent
in
8%
<l%
Other or
has become much more diverse. Whereas Europe
<l%
N.America 8%
Africa <!%
S. America <!%
America <r/o
N.
En
Other or
uni<nown
S.
America
unknown<l%
Africa 3%
S. America 6%
N.America 42%
Africa<i%
Other or
unl<nown <l%
N.
America
28%
1981-1990
1931-1940
Due
to rounding, percentages
Chart information from StoDst/co/
do not
total
100%.
Abstfoa of tfie United Stotes
992
and Historical
Abstfaa
IWS,
1970-the Present
Chapter 33
AMERICA
IN
TODAY'S WORLD
UNDERSTANDING
THE MAIN IDEA
In the
990s, world leaders faced the
task of reorganizing relations
post-Cold
War
world.
in
the
As japan and
other countries gained economic
power,
many Americans
feared that
the United States would lose
as the leading world

while,
many
about the
its
place
power Mean-
world leaders worried
effects
of global pollution
and health hazards such as

overpopulation,
drugs,
and famine.
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT How might economic

influence be
more important
than military strength
mining the
political
in
deter-
power
of
nations?
GLOBAL RELATIONS
What
might nations do to
resolve global conflicts
in
other regions?
TECHNOLOGY AND
SOCIETY How
logical
might techno-
advances both hinder and
help the environment?
1972
1
Terrorists attack Israeli
Chernobyl nuclear
Berlin
athletes at Munich
accident occurs.
falls.
Olympics.
Wall
Operation Restore
Hope
launched.
NA
Cold War tensions decreased sonnewhat

:s
LINK TO THE PAST
in
the 1970s as President Nixon
negotiated detente with Soviet leaders. But

Soviet relations deteriorated as the Soviets
in
Poland, and the United States increased
in
the early
980s U.S.-
became embroiled
its
activities in
turmoil
in
Central
America. Relations began to improve, however, after the reform-minded
MiMiail Gorbachev became leader of the Soviet Union
lasnost and perestroika
marked
in
985.
the beginning of the
end of the
Cold War. World leaders now face the task of reshaping the international order in a
conflicts
have erupted
problems
social
new
spill
era
an era
many
in
that
countries,
is
hardly peaceful. Bitter
and urgent economic and
beyond national borders. The most serious of
these problems include nationalist conflicts in the former Soviet
Union, trade disputes, an exploding world population, dwindling

energy resources, and environmental hazards.
And
while industrial-
ized nations continue to enjoy high standards of living, the developing world faces grinding poverty, malnutrition, and even famine.
task of deciding
cerns
is
how
The
the United States will address these global con-
one of the greatest challenges facing Americans today.
Although the world's problems are
emerged
that the global
conmiunity
issues. Organizations such as the
is
great,
encouraging signs have
prepared to tackle important
United Nations and Amnesty
International have tried to bring people together

to find solutions to pressing problems.
from around the globe
Meanwhile brave individuals
throughout the world are
speaking out for justice
and peace. As the leading superpower in the
world,
States
the
is at
United
the fore-
front of these efforts.
Dismantling the Berlin Wall, 1989
AMERICA
IN
TODAY'S WORLD
i:
957
Section
^4.-^
A NEW ERA
7
c u s
What events marked
the end of the Cold
War?
How did the end of the Cold War affect regional conflicts?
How did terrorist activity change in the 1990s?
What role has the United Nations played in the post-Cold War
iV7
I'tikhail
Gorbachev's reform
led to the
efforts in the Soviet
era?
Union
and eventually to the
end of the Cold War
breakup of the Soviet Union. In early 1991, President
Bush
reflected
on the promise of a new era free from Cold
War pressures. "Now we can

prospect of a
see
new world order,'' he
the vefy real
declared, "a world in
which freedom and respect for human rights find a home
among
all nations."
and disorder have
But
often
in recent years, conflict, crisis,
Confrontation
old order fades
rule.
Union and the collapse of Communist
Once
set in
reforms took on a
Historians
still
intended to
Tiananmen Square, China, 1989
seemed the nonn.
the Soviet
The
in
debate
how
far
Mikhail Gorbachev
go with the economic and
political
reform of the Soviet system. Undoubtedly, he meant

to institute real change.
But many argue that
unlikely he foresaw the end result
it
is
the breakup of
Gorbachev's
the Soviet
motion, however, Gorbachev's

of their own.
life
efforts to
economy
modernize and expand
led to a dramatic easing of
Cold
War
tensions with the United States (see Chapter
32).
They
also indirectly assisted the democratic
movements
in
that
swept Eastern and Central Europe
1989 and 1990.
No
longer willing or able to bear
the costs of propping
up Communist regimes around
the world, the Soviet
Union announced
it
was adopting
in
1989
that
a policy of nonintervention in
Eastern Europe. Thus the Soviets did nothing
when
Poland and Hungary held free elections and the

Communist governments in Czechoslovakia and
Romania
fell.
^ Pro-democracy demonstrations, such as the

one shown here, helped bring on the collapse of
Communist
958
CHAPTER
3 3
party rule
in Russia.
Zhe ISteakup of the Soviet Sphere, 1991
The Soviets also did nothing when prodemocracy demonstrations broke out in East
Germany in the fall of 1989. Throughout the fall,
tens of thousands of East Germans fled to the
West through Hungary. Then in October demonstrators forced Communist leader Erich Honecker
to resign. Hoping to restore calm, the East
German government opened the Berlin Wall on
November 9 and lifted restrictions on travel to the
West. But
German
it
was already too
reunification
West Germany
late; the
pressure for
the reuniting of East and
one nation
was
in power were numbered. On

December 1 the Ukrainians voted for independence. A week later the presidents of Ukraine,
Gorbachev's days
Russia, and Belarus declared that the Soviet
Union was "ceasing
its
existence" and formed the
Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS).

On December 25 Gorbachev resigned as president
of the Soviet Union and turned over control of the
armed forces
Russia.
to Boris Yeltsin, the president of
The Soviet Union was no more.
Eventually the former Soviet republics of
too great.
Armenia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan,
After free elections, the two nations were united
Moldova, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan,
as
as the Federal Republic of

3,
Germany on October
and Georgia joined the CIS.
1990, without opposition from Gorbachev.
By 1991 Gorbachev had problems

own
in the Soviet
of his
Union. Alarmed by the pace of
Communist
Russia faced political turmoil and hard eco-
nomic times
and
as
it
struggled toward democracy
a free-market system.
By September 1993
hard-liners attempted to
Russia was so unstable that Boris Yeltsin tem-
oust him. Their coup collapsed quickly, but
porarily suspended the constitution and dissolved
reforms,
AMERICA
IN
TODAY'S WORLD
[S
959
power and
Russia
self-rule.
Parliament, sparking a pt)wer struggle. In a 1996
ent groups struggled for
presidential election. Yeltsin, despite p<H>r health,
and L'kraine argued over control of the Black Sea

fleet, while Christians in the former Soviet republic
defeated a ti)nner coinniunisi
\shi)
tasored
;i
return
of Armenia battled with Muslims
centralized rule
tt>
in
neighboring
Azerbaijan (az-uhr-by-jAHN).
The
collapse of
communism
On
in
Eastern Europe, the fall of the

Berlin Wall, and the breakup of
the Soviet Union marked the end
of the Cold War.
Africa
met a
pro-dem(Kracy reformers
different fate, in
May
all
diers
ered
On
China
Communist
June 4 the government sent
sol-
and tanks against the peaceful protesters gathin
Tiananmen Square. Estimates of
the
number
of protesters killed range from a few hundred to
more than
doned a
a thousand. In the 1990s
centrally controlled
capitalist free enterprise, but
China aban-
economy
in
favor of
human-rights abuses
rule
South
in
came
races could vote. Nelson Mandela,
spent years in prison,
to
an
between
won
who had
the presidency. Despite
and ethnic groups.
rival political
South Africa's future looked hopeful.
Elsewhere
1989 students and oth-
ers took to Beijing's streets to protest
party policies.
in
new era dawned
end. In 1994 South Africa held elections in which
conflict
In contrast.
a brighter note, a
when decades of white-only
reigned,
war raged
Civil
in Africa,
however, turmoil
worsened by famine and grinding poverty.

in
Zambia, Liberia. Mali, and
Somalia. In Nigeria a series of coups beginning
in
1983 gave rise to a brutal military dictatorship. In
December 1992 United Nations
forces, including
many Americans, launched Operation Restore

Hope to provide relief to famine-stricken Somalia.
Fighting among rival clans in that country had prevented relief workers from getting food and other
persisted.
supplies to star\ing Somalis.
By
UN
had no central govern-
forces
left,
the country
1995,
when
the last
ment, and Somalia's suffering continued. The failed
RiEGIONAL CONFLICTS
Somalia operation showed the limits of international
As
the
Cold War fades, regional conflicts have
The end of Communist
intensified.
Europe unleashed
that
bitter ethnic
had formerly been kept
in
rule in Eastern
intervention in desperately poor societies torn by

conflict.
and local disputes
check by Communist
Yugoslavia, was torn by fighting between Serbs,
Regional conflicts in the former

Soviet Union and in Africa have
Croatians, and Slovenes.
increased since the end of the Cold
authorities. Bosnia, in a region that
former Soviet Union
was once
the 15
newly
independent republics experienced conflict as
differ-
In the
itself,
War.
In the
many
Middle East
instability also threatens
nations, as Islamic fundamentalists battle for
political
power. However, hopes for peace between
Palestinians and
Israelis
were renewed
in
September 1993. when Palestinian leader Yasir

Arafat and Israeli prime minister Yitzhak Rabin
signed a peace accord. President Clinton,
saw
the signing of the
agreement
House. appro\ ingly referred to
it
who
at the
over-
White
as a "historic and
honorable compromise."
The peace process suffered a setback in

1995, when a young Israeli ultra-nationalist assassinated Yitzhak Rabin. In 1996 elections Benjamin
During the 1990s Somalia was torn apart by

civil war, famine, and poverty. In December 1992,
960
UN forces helped stabilize the political situation to

ensure that food and supplies reached starving
Netanyahu came to power pledging a tougher line

on peace negotiations. U.S. secretary of state
Warren Christopher worked hard to keep the peace
people.
process alive, but new outbreaks of violence
CHAPTER
33
HISTORY
in
DR. PAUL
the
JVlaking
BOYER
Jteedom of
Unfonnation Act
Tfie
'nder the
Freedom of
FOIA
Information Act (FOIA), anyone

is
agencies.
ful
FOIA
to grant agencies exemp-
from the
law. Critics
FOIA
to use the
a
book about
to research
his captivity.
argue that such exemptions,
Anderson wrote to
coupled with the complicated
requesting information on him-
Many people expected
way the government handles
self, his
to be particularly use-
FOIA
hostages held with him, and an
supposed to be able to exam-
ine the records of U.S. federal
the
tions
for scholars of political his-
tory. In reality,
however, many
scholars have found their use of
requests, have
tion has
history,
ate
for
call
been particularly trou-
who
cannot
fairly evalu-
hostage
the post-Cold
in
the
crisis.
useful information
Some
requests.
from
his
agencies tried
to delay answering for as long
inside information.
In
two other
Anderson received no
government actions without
the Freedom of Information Act
fiancee,
group implicated
Islamic
bling to scholars of political
ernment red
The congressional
the
law virtually useless. This situa-
the law severely limited by govtape.
made
agencies
War
era,
Others sent him
as possible.
originated during the 1950s,
many observers have begun
information that did not relate
when Senator Joseph McCarthy
to press for an overhaul of the
to his requests or that
FOIA. One strong supporter
from public news reports he

could easily have obtained else-
munist sympathies. Several
FOIA reform has been former Middle East journalist
where.
members
Terry Anderson. Anderson was
did receive classified docu-
push for an act that would allow
captured by Islamic terrorists
ments, they were so heavily
easy access to government
in
accused numerous government
employees of harboring
Com-
of Congress began to
files
of
1985 and held hostage
on people accused of being
December 99
Communists. By the time
release,
Congress passed the law

1966,
all
government
After
until
his
Anderson attempted
cases,
edited that they
were
were
him 62 pages of documents, of
totally blank,
20 showed
only addresses with

[blacked out], 3
needs clearly
paper reports, and
justified their
all
the text
were news-
public unless national security
were
reports on terrorism outside
exclusion.
Many government
interfered with
Cold
the Middle East."
officials,
however, claimed that the
some
useless.
For example, one agency sent
were
supposed to be open to the
tics. In
when he
which, Anderson found, "26
in
files
some
In
came
War
FOIA
As more people push

reform of the law they say
poli-
for
is
"outmoded by Cold War
circumstances,
they argued, foreign agents
assumptions," scholars are
might be reluctant to pass
hopeful that government docu-
information on to American
agencies for fear that the infor-
mation might be made public

through the FOIA. As a result
of such concerns, numerous
amendments were made to the
Terry Anderson tried to use

the
FOIA to
for his 1993
obtain information
book Den of Lions.
ments
sible.
will
If
opens new
it
become more
files
may allow
ine
to researchers,
historians to
and evaluate the Cold
period
acces-
reform of the FOIA
in
AMERICA
new
IN
exam-
War
light.
TODAY'S WORLD
961
between
and Palestinians
clear that the future was
Israeli soldiers
September 1996 made

from ccnain
it
in
far
headquarters after the FBI uncovered an Iraqi plot
former president George Bush.
to assassinate
In recent years,
in this inuihlcd rejiion.
and individuals
States.
terrorist activity has
With the end of the Cold War,
increased throughout the world. According to one
group of experts, the number of

1
terrorist acts rose
by
percent from 1991 to 1992. Terrorism has been a
global problem for
Olympics
when
in
eight
many
years.
The 1972 Summer
Munich. West Germany, were marred
Arab
two
terrorists killed
Israeli athletes
On
February 26. 1993, a
bomb
New
York
to
respond
to international terrorism linked directly to a particular nation. In
suspects arrested in the
bombing
attack on Libya after evidence tied that
ee), to an attack
Muammar
killed
Qaddafi (kuh-DAHF-
on a West Berlin nightclub
that
one American serviceman and injured many
summer of
others. In the
1993. President Clinton
ordered the bombing of Iraqi Intelligence Service
rocked
in
bombing were
City, killing
all tied to
Egyptian fundamentalist leader linked to several

rorist acts. In
killed 19
1988 a
bomb
1996 a truck
Saudi Arabia
in
bomb
took a grievous
air also
Am
destroyed a Pan
all
them
for
Muammar
Oklahoma
two
traced to
Qaddafi refused
to
trial.
April 1995 a truck

ing in
over
flight
Domestic terrorism was especially
ties to
toll. In
259 aboard, includ-
many Americans. The bomb was
Libyans, but Libya's

extradite
an
ter-
American servicemen and wounded 280.
Terrorism in the
1986 President Reagan ordered a
country's leader,
blast
World Trade Center
ing
5 people dead.
United
people and injuring more than a thousand. The
a gun battle that
of
at the
six
Lockerbie, Scotland, killing
left
Some
the
and look nine others hostage. The standoff ended in
American leaders have been quick
dramatically.
has been directed
this terrorist activity
Terrorism
however, terrorism by groups
has grown
bomb
chilling. In
destroyed a federal build-
City, killing 169.
Two men
with
anti-government militia groups were soon
charged with the crime.

arrested
year
later, the
Theodore Kaczynski, a loner with a
ance against
modem
FBI
griev-
technology, and charged him
with a series of mail-bombings. Then, during the
1996
Summer Olympics
in Atlanta, a
bomb
killed
one and injured more than 100.
NEGOTIATING WITH
TERRORISTS
Terrorism, the
weapon of the weak
powerful, raises agonizing dilemmas.
against the
The challenge
of defending society against terrorists without
ne of the most-
endangering Americans' constitutional rights poses
active terrorist organiza-
major challenge.
tions of the late 20th
century has been the
Terrorist activity by small groups
Irish
Republican Army (IRA), a nationalist group

protesting British control over Northern Ireland. In
1993
it
was revealed that the
had been
the
Irish
British
government
trying to secretly negotiate
peace with
Republican Army, despite a long-standing
policy against negotiating with terrorists. Although
predicted the
move would
has been increasingly aimed at

the United States.
/^ ROMOTING PEACE
With the end of the Cold War, many hope
Prime
United Nations will
at last
Minister Albert Reynolds of the Republic of
force for peace that
its
critics
Ireland cautioned, "This
is
fail,
the time for
all political
Mayhew,
places such as
peoce." Added Sir Patrick
planners had envisioned.
UN
By
forces were serving on
Cambodia and
peacekeepers played a successful
the British secretary of state for
Northern Ireland, "Peace, properly attained,
that the
the international
peacekeeping missions throughout the world. In
leaders to exercise calm, clear thinking, and
courage to insure
1992. thousands of
become
is
El Salvador,
UN
role.
The United Nations compiled
mixed
record, however, in dealing with the most-danger-
prize worth risks."
ous situations, as
in
Herzegovina, a former
962
CHAPTER
3 3
Somalia. In Bosnia and

state
of Yugoslavia, ethnic
fighting
among
Muslims
Serbs. Croatians. and
some 150.000 people dead
left
more peace-
efforts to build a
or missing by the
and just world
ful
order.
From
end of 1993. Although the United Nations and
1945 to 1990, the number of
NATO
and
private organizations con-
launched an investigation into alleged Serbian
cerned with international
sent peacekeeping forces to the area
war crimes,
As
cities,
the fighting continued.
and
killed or expelled
grew from under 3.000
issues
the Bosnian Serbs seized land,
more than 13,000. The

London-based
Amnesty
bombed
to
Bosnian Muslims, the
By
1995,
International, for example,
however, as the tide turned against the Bosnian
publicizes cases of political
The United
States and NATO cooperated in bombing Bosnian
Serb positions, and in November 1995 the United
repression
States brought the leaders of the warring factions
played
Clinton administration
at first
did
little.
Serbs, Clinton took a stronger role.
to
Dayton. Ohio, to
The
nic
hammer
which were held
addition, Clinton sent
Bosnia to join the
trials,
in the fall
effort.
won
in
vital roles in this
The
roster of
men and women who have
the Nobel Peace Prize
reflects the interna-
world. Recent winners have ranged from
Aung San Suu Kyi (daw awng
to
Daw
sahn sue cheej of
Burma, who resisted her country's oppressive

military leaders, to Carlos Ximenes Belo and Jose
Ramos-Horta of East Timor, who have worked
troops in enforcing the
Dayton accords. But ethnic hatreds
San Suu Kyi
tional nature of the struggle to create a better
and elec-
of 1996. In
some 15,000 Americans
NATO
Daw Aung
Individuals have also
out a peace accord.
Bosnian federation, war crimes
torture
throughout the world.
resulting agreement provided for a multi-eth-
tions,
and
Bosnia ran
deep, and the fate of the U.S. peace initiative
against the repression that the people of the former
remained uncertain.
Portuguese colony faced after Indonesia took over
The United Nations has played
the country. Rather than oppressing
the role of peacekeeper in the

post-Cold War era, with mixed
Suu Kyi declared
results.
observe
that the ideal
been limited
War,
many
to the
UN. Since
the end of the
private organizations
ment based on these very
Cold
for democracy.
SECTION
IDENTIFY
Kyi,
in
the
their struggle
**
REVIEW
Yeltsin,
Operation Restore Hope, Yasir Arafat, Yitzhak Rabin,
Daw Aung
San
Carlos Ximenes Belo, Jose Ramos-Horta.
LOCATE
I
govern-
and explain the significance of the following: German reunification, Commonwealth of
Independent States, Boris
Suu
It is
qualities that
people of Burma are seeking
have also pursued
citizens,
the concepts of truth, right-
eousness, and loving kindness.

Efforts at promoting world peace have not
its
government must:
and explain the importance of the following: Azerbaijan, Somalia, Bosnia and Herzegovina.
MAIN IDEA What three events signaled

Cold War have on regional conflicts?
the end of the Cold
War? What
MAIN IDEA How has terrorism changed in recent years?

MAIN IDEA How has the United Nations worked to promote peace
Why can be said that the United Nations has had a mixed record in
it
WRITING TO PERSUADE
Imagine you are a
member
in
effect did the
the post-Cold
achieving
its
end of the
War
era?
goal?
of the Nobel Prize committee. Write a
speech to persuade members of the committee to nominate Oscar Arias Sanchez or
Daw Aung
San Suu Kyi for the Nobel Peace Prize.
TAKING A STAND Do
international crises
in
you think
it is
the post-Cold
best for groups such as the United Nations to handle
War
period?
Why
or why not?
AMERICA
IN
TODAYS WORLD
963
Section 2
A GLOBAL ECONOMY
FOCUS
supporters hope the North American Free Trade Agreement

accomplish?
What do
will
have some Americans proposed to combat foreign economic

competition?
How
What
has been the effect of the exportation of U.S. mass culture?
trillions of dollars' worth of international trade links the major

industrial nations. This interweaving of economies
benefits
and
As
tensions.
produced both
the U.S. trade deficit grows,
many
U.S.
government and business leaders have argued that the answer

in
lies
joining North American countries into a unified trading alliance.
Others have argued for protectionist legislation.
Japanese assembly worker
New
'NTERNATIONAL TRADE
Zealand, Papua
New
Guinea. Philippines,
Singapore, South Korea, and Taiwan, have played

an expanding role in the global
In the fall of 1992,
American
journalist
Bruce W.
Nelan observed:
Pacific
to the
two World Wars and.

equally important,
Cold Wardomi
Just as
wars
the
nated the geopolitical

the 20th century,
will rule
map
Rim
accounted for 39 percent of
tion for
in the
The
Pacific Rim's reputa-
producing high-quality, low-priced

nications equipment, TVs,
economics
The European Union
Western European trading bloc created by the European
was formed
(EC)
Today
the United States
fication of the
this wev,.
is
By
only one
of several economic superpowers.

nations of the Pacific
European Union,
provide
stiff
Rim and
The Pacific Rim
nations,
Indonesia. Japan. Macao. Malaysia.
CHAPTER
33
1993 with
the terms of the treaty, the
Union
time of ratification,
rati-
memat the
Belgium.
Denmark. France, Germany. Great
competition.
in
Community
Maastricht Treaty.
bers of the European
in particular,
which include Australia. China,
964
the
economic.**
evidence supports
the
VCRs.
and other goods helped spur demand.
century ahead
Much
The
imports
all
automobiles, computers, telecommu-
of
over the 21st. All the
are basically
in recent
United States. Japan alone provided for 18
percent of U.S. imports.
big questions confronting the
world
economy
decades. In 1994, for instance, goods from the
As president of the
EC's European Commission, Jacques Delors
pushed for passage of
the Maastricht Treaty.
Britain. Greece. Ireland. Italy,
Luxembourg,
the
Portugal, and Spain
Netherlands,
represent
powerful economic and political
of foreign investors. For example,
SONY
1989 Japan's
in
Corporation bought Columbia Pictures, a
major Hollywood movie studio, for $3.4
Not
to be
Industrial
billion.
outdone, Japan's Matsushita Electric
Company,
pany, bought
MCA.
ment company,
for
a leading electronics
Inc.. a
major U.S. entertain-
some S6.5
billion.
RCA
a German corporation bought
Australian tycoon Rupert
com-
Meanwhile,
Records, and
Murdoch gained
control
of the 20th-century Fox film studio and of a media
empire
In recent years high-quality Japanese products
such as televisions, radios, and other electronic
equipment have captured a large share of the
U.S. market.
that included
TV Guide
magazine.
Sometimes these multinational corporations

bring economic benefits to the United States.
Leading Japanese corporations, for example, have
opened
ates a
factories in the United States.
major plant
in Mar>'sville,
Honda
oper-
Ohio. The U.S.
branch of Mitsubishi, a Japanese electronics giant,
The Union
force.
designed to allow for the free
is
movement of goods,
ber nations. The
ation
labor,
treat>'
on such matters as
policy, culture,
political
union
and
capital
among mem-
also calls for greater cooperhealth, education, foreign
and crime. Some predict
that a full
the "United States of Europe,"
which could include
as
many
as
20 member
states
employs some 50,000 American workers. Such

plants boost the U.S.
the profits
go
economy, although most of
to the parent corporations in Japan.
companies invest in the

many American businesses are
Just as foreign
United States,
expanding
their investments in other countries.
example, the
New York-based
For
International
to
happen, the
Telephone and Telegraph (ITT), which began as a
European Union would be the world's
largest trad-
communications company, expanded
will eventually form. If this
were
ments
ing bloc.
By
1993. concern over economic competition
from Europe and the Pacific Rim led
to
growing
until,
by the 1990s,
it
its
invest-
held major interests in
such diverse businesses as hotels, finance, food

processing, insurance, and real estate.
ITT
invest-
American
ments were spread throughout the world, from
Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). The agreement,
Bolivia to France. Other corporations such as
in
December 1992 and
General Motors. Texaco, and International
November
1993. provides for a
Business Machines (IBM) also operate worldwide.
support for U.S. ratification of the North
which President Bush signed

Congress
ratified in
lowering of trade barriers between the United

States,
Mexico, and Canada.
Supporters hope that the North

American Free Trade Agreement
will help counter economic com-
from the European

Union and the Pacific Rim.
petition
jyiULTINATIONAL CORPORATIONS
Many Americans
also worry about the effects of
foreign investment in the United States.
economy
is
The global
increasingly dominated by multina-
tional corporations that invest
money
in a variety
of business ventures around the globe. U.S. media
and entertainment companies have been a favorite
Multinational corporations have opened several

manufacturing plants in the United States. Shown
here are workers in the Honda automobile factory
in Marysville, Ohio.
AMERICA
IN
TODAY'S WORLD
i:
965
especially automobiles. In 1970 Japanese imports
accounted for only 5 percent of the U.S. auto mar-
BALANCE OF TRADE, 1991
ket;
120-j
,^
jjl]
I/I
c
o
loo-
se
60-
40-
by 1990. the Japanese held 28 percent of the
Imports
market. Despite President Bush's 1992 trade mis-
Exports
sion to Japan (see Chapter 32). the trade gap

remained.
One 1992
poll
showed
that
Americans con-
sidered Japan "the greatest threat to the U.S.'s
dom-
20-
"o
inant position in world affairs in the 2 1st century."
As "Buy American" campaigns
WoWd Almonac and
Source. The
OPEC
EC (EU)
Canada
Japan
spread,
some peo-
ple have resorted to "Japan bashing." blaming all of
America's economic woes on that nation.
Rook of Facts
Others urged the United States to imitate
FOREIGN TRADE
and
Its
impom
is
The difference
called
its
value between a country's exports
in
balance of trade. A balance of trade
may
be
Japan's in\estment strategy. For example, although
Japan
economy
is
only about two thirds the size
either positive or negative in value.
of the U.S. economy. Japanese businesses invest
goods than
it
imported, resulting
in
Which group exported
more
nfiore
a positive balance of trade?
in
new
plants and updated equipment than
U.S. companies do. In America a larger slice of
corporate profits goes directly to stockholders.
Some
critics
have suggested Americans cut back
on consumption and invest more wealth
powerful bonds
international trade
among
nations.
weave
Sometimes, how-
ever, trade relations fall out of balance. In 1994.

for
example, the United States ran a deficit of S8
billion in
trade with
its
U.S. trade gap with
all
EC
nations.
The
overall
nations in 1994 stood at
some SI 50 billion. In the face of this huge gap.

some Americans advocated protectionism
higher
tariffs
imports
to
and
stricter barriers against foreign
encourage U.S. industry and protect
jobs from foreign competition.

Protectionist sentiments fueled opposition to
the ratification of the North
Agreement. Such
critics as
American Free Trade

former presidential
candidates H. Ross Perot and Jesse Jackson
opposed NAFTA, arguing it would encourage

American businesses to invest more money in
Mexico, where wages are lower and environmental
laws weaker. Yet over 60 percent of U.S. business
executives polled in 1992 said that the advantages
of free trade
in
promoting economic activity and
efficiency outweighed the costs.
Sometimes, imbalances between trading partners produce tensions. Such strains have occurred,
for example,
its
Pacific
between the United States and two of
Rim
trading partners: Japan and China.
In 1988 the U.S. trade deficit with Japan soared to
S54 billion, as more and

more Americans purchased Japanese products.
a then all-time high of
966
::
CHAPTER
3 3
modem
technology.
LÊBATING TRADE POLICY

The complex webs of
in
Some
1,000
members
of the United
Workers Union Local 595
in
Linden,
Auto
New Jersey,
attended a rally to protest both foreign imports

and Japanese criticism of U.S. workers.

Other observers saw
Japan's educational system
as a key to
its
economic suc-
cess and called on U.S.
schools
follow
to
the
Japanese model by provid-
more instruction
ing
in
basic skills and technical
Some advocated
training.
year-long schooling, again

following the Japanese pattern.
Other educators, how-
ever, noted that Japanese
schools place heavy emphasis
on rote memorization,
and
little
on
creativity.
The impulse
copy
to
Japan's model faded by
as
Japan faced
A The Japanese
model of education has attracted many admirers in the

United States. Shown here are students from Kojimachi Junior High
993
severe
School.
recession, caused in part by
the tight hold of powerful
monopolies on Japan's economy. To promote recov-
Protectionism and improved edu-
ery and foster competition. Prime Minister Mirohiro
cation have been
Hosokawa, who took
proposed to
office in
August 1993. pro-
posed deregulation of the nation's key
As
another trading partner with
trade imbalance.
worked
whom
nomic competition.
industries.
wore on. China emerged
the 1990s
as
America had
The Clinton administration
to increase U.S. exports to China, as well as
other nations, and to challenge Chinese trading

practices
Americans considered
negotiator Charlene Barshefsky
unfair. U.S. trade
made
Beijing from 1993 through 1995.

issues.
compact
disks,
the U.S. trade
June 1996
when
other
Barshefsky demanded that Beijing stop
Chinese companies"
first
eight trips to
Among
illegal
copying of U.S. movies,
and computer software. Although
gap with China totaled S3. 3
exceeding
billion in
the gap with Japan for the
the administration claimed
success
the overall U.S. trade gap declined
by some
time
14 percent during the
first
half of 1996.
when China threatened
tXPORTING
March 1996.
MASS CULTURE
U.S.
While America's international trade

remained high
in the 1990s,
deficit has
one U.S. product
American mass
increasingly in demand.
movies, pop music, and television shows
is
culture
has won
fans throughout the world.
By
was one of America's most
profitable exports, with
1990. mass culture
annual sales of over $5 billion. The sales of

American
TV
S600 million a
shows
year.
about 70 percent of
Europe alone totaled some
in
The U.S. music

its
industry earned
revenues from overseas
sales.
Said a British economics journal in 1989: "America

is
As trading tensions with China increased.

Sino- American relations suffered. In
some remedies
combat foreign eco-
to entertainment
American
what
Saudi Arabia
consumer
is
products,
McDonald's hamburgers and Coca-Cola
to oil."
from
to Levi's
to interfere in elections in
blue jeans, have been snapped up by people the
Taiwan, President Clinton ordered U.S. aircraft
improved
world over. The overseas division of the

McDonald's Corporation, for instance, has grown
as Clinton's first
enormously. In 1992 McDonald's opened more
carriers to nearby waters. Relations
somewhat, but remained uneasy,
term ended. The importance of foreign trade
post-Cold War era made clear that

relations
among
in the
in the future,
the industrialized nations
would
restaurants overseas
China
than
it
McDonald's S30
including one
did in the United States.

billion sales in 1995, over
was generated by
increasingly revolve around economic issues rather
billion
than traditional military or territorial rivalries.
in foreign nations.
in Beijing,
its
AMERICA
some 9.000
IN
Of
S14
restaurants
TODAYS WORLD
967
American consumer products such
as fast food,
and movies have spread throughout the

world. This American restaurant, for example, is
in Bangkok, Thailand.
clothing,
Some
foreign intellectuals worry
mass culture
that U.S.
will suffocate
How
their
own
tional
music and food, along with other
cultures.
can tradi-
cultural elements, survive in an envi-
American
rock'n'roll and hamburgers so much?
They also worry that Hollywood
ronment
values
that
movies and television shows give the

world
a distorted
impression of
life in
But the shared global culture has advantages
the United Slates. Deploring the effects of
American television on
his fellow citizens, a
as well. Television links the entire
orbiting
Jamaican journalist wrote:
communications
satellites.
world through
Events
in
one
nation are instantly transmitted around the globe.
44
Thus events
Because of what they see on
everyone
thing
in
Dallas
in
America
make
honey.
Jamaica thinks
it
like
The export
of U.S. mass culture

has helped the U.S. economy, but
critics worry that it distorts
images of the United States.
that
money
**
REVIEW
SECTION
IDENTIFY
North American Free Trade Agreement,

Hosokawa.
Treaty,
1.
MAIN IDEA How

Pacific
2.
3.
Rim
produce a
like
the land of milk and
and material wealth are the only ways to be

rich in this world.
like natural disasters quickly
global outpouring of sympathy and help.
that every-
wonderful. Shows
is
look
makes people think
It
television,
Pacific
Rim, European Union, Maastricht
multinational corporations, protectionism, Morihiro
have U.S. economic policies been affected by the European Union and by the
nations?
MAIN IDEA What

MAIN IDEA What
remedies have been proposed to

effect has the
export of
U.S.
fight foreign
economic competition?
mass culture had on the United States and
other countries?
4.
WRITING TO EXPLAIN Imagine you are a U.S. economic adviser on trade with Japan. Write
a memo that summarizes some of the economic reasons for the strained relationship between the
United States and Japan.
5.
ANALYZING Why
the global economy?
968
CHAPTER
3 3
might multinational corporations have both positive and negative effects on
Section 3
ENERGY AND THE ENVIRONMENT

u s
has led to renewed interest
sources and conservation?
c
What
What are some
of the
in
alternative energy
major environmental problems facing
the world today?
What
are
some
of the solutions that have been proposed to
deal with environmental concerns?
0,^fthe many problems facing the United States and the rest of
the
world
in the
some of the most pressing
1990s,
relate to
energy use and the environment. Environmentalists warn that
the fossil-based
energy sources that once seemed unlimited threaten to run
the earth's reserves of oil, gas,
out someday.
toll
Many
and coal
also note that industrialization has taken
on the natural environment. In future decades, the
combination of population growth and environmental pollution
could make
life
more
Cleaning waterfowl
difficult.
after the Alaska
WBinMlSJf
1989
oil spill,
for nearly 25 percent of this consumption.
tNERGY CONSUMPTION
40 percent of U.S. energy came from
oil,
Some
23 per-
cent from natural gas, 22 percent from coal, 8

It
was
in the
about the
percent from alternative sources such as solar or
gripped America (see
hydroelectric power, and 7 percent from nuclear
1970s that a sense of
world's energy supply
first
crisis
Chapter 31). Spurred by government regulations,

scientists
began
to
conduct research on more
energy-efficient cars, furnaces, and air conditioners.
Despite
conservation
power.
In the late 1970s
eral rules,
lower speed
the
and 1980s, thanks

limits,
to fed-
and rising prices
at
pump, average automobile
however, global con-
gasoline mileage improved in the
sumption of energy continues to
United States. In the 1990s, how-
efforts,
rise
under the pressure of popu-
lation growth, urbanization,
and
industrial expansion. In 1991

the world
consumed an amount
of energy equivalent to that of
over 535 billion barrels of
ever, as speed limits crept
Americans traded
efficient
up and
in their fuel-
compacts for larger
cars,
vans, and light trucks, per capita
gasoline consumption increased.
oil.
The United States, which is

home to about 5 percent of the
world's population, accounted
M Some
environmentalists suggest that solar-
powered automobiles, such as the one shown here,

may one day replace those fueled by gasoline.
AMERICA
IN
TODAYS WORLD
969
In the early ptist-World
pDwer Ncemed an answer
War
II
years, nuclear
to ihe nation's
energy
needs. jDurnalisis predicted that nuclear-power

plants
would generate
electricity "too
meter." But the nuclear-power industry
ous trouble by the 1990s.
Chemob\l nuclear-power
(see
map on page
plant near Kiev. Ukraine
human
made the surroundThe Chernobyl
life.
times mt)re radioactive mater-
pumped 50
into the
in seri-
971), sent a cloud of radioactiv-
ing land unsafe for
ial
was
I9S6 accident at the
across Europe and
ity drifting
disaster
cheap to
environment than the bombs dropped
on Hiroshima and Nagasaki combined
The Chernobyl
incidcni.
coming
in 1945.
in the
Clearing a piece of Amazon rain forest has

a controversial action now that people
become
understand the importance of trees to the larger

ecosystem.
wake
1979 Three Mile Island accident (see

Chapter 31). heightened public anxiety over
o\ the
nuclear power.
Some began
to call for increased
funding for research on alternative energy sources
Experts warn that forests are vital to the
ecosystem
larger
the interaction of living beings
with their environment. Forests help prevent floods
such as solar power, geothermal power (geysers
and
and hot springs), wind power, biomass (materials
therefore, as forests vanish,
such as wood or waste products that can be
released into the atmosphere, contributing to pollu-
burned or used
addition,
many
to
make
fuel),
and hydrogen.
U.S. utility companies
In
spurred
tion
Trees also absorb carbon dioxide;
soil erosion.
more carbon dioxide
is
and global warming (see page 972). Of special
concern
is
the disappearance of the tropical rain
home
by government tax breaks and other incentives
forests that are
have launched successful energy conservation
plant and animal species. As the forests vanish,
programs designed
to
reduce consumer demand
some
species
may
be
lost forever.
The debate over
and increase the efficiency of energy production.
to about half the world's
forest destruction
is
not a
simple one. In economically depressed Maine,
Increases
in
some
global energy use
12.000 jobs depend directly or indirectly on
the logging industry. In poor nations, rain-forest
and concern over the safety of

nuclear-power plants have led to
renewed interest in conservation and alternative energy
lands are also viewed as a source of jobs and rev-
enue. Business and agricultural interests in devel-
oping nations argue that
it
unfair
is
for
environmentalists in the industrialized world to ask
sources.
poor nations
make heavy economic
to
sacrifices to
preserv e the rain forests.
The
conflict over the rain forests
JOREST
As
can be
LIFE
scientists search for
made
living
their
from tapping the sap
remaining forests and wildlife. Owing to popula-
from rubber
tion growth, industrialization,
organized
and expanding com-
trees,
cam-
mercial agriculture and livestock operations,
paign
forests are disappearing at an alarming rate. In
destruction of the
against
the
northern Maine, for example, timber companies
Amazon
clear-cut vast forests, leaving only a narrow
by ranchers seeking
"beauty strip" of trees along rivers, lakes, and
grazing land for their
highways. And, according to the United Nations
cattle.
Food and Agriculture Organization, almost 42 mil-
was born Francisco

Alves Mendes Filho
in 1944. grew up
lion acres of forests in tropical regions
per year between 1981 and 1990.
CHAPTER
3 3
even deadly.
Brazilian Chico Mendes.
new forms of energy, many
environmentalists focus on protecting the world's
970
bitter,
were
lost
rain forest
Mendes. who
In the 1980s,
whose family
with a deep appreciation and understanding of

nature. "I
became an ecologist long before
had
In the 1960s.
make room
for industrialization
agriculture.
To oppose
resistance, such as
insti-
in
environmentally
human blockades
to stop
heavy equipment, the workers focused the
the rain forest to
world's attention on the disappearing
and large-scale
this destruction
tapped rubber trees and
responsible ways. With nonviolent methods of
South American leaders
much of
who
otherwise used the rain forest
ever heard the word." he once recalled.
tuted a plan to burn off
organized workers
Mendes
Amazon
rain forest.
the global environment

OVERPOPULATION
careful
MM
management
will
LOCATION
More cropland
is
needed
to feed the world's
ensure that the limited supply of land
Which continents have countries
is
currently facing water shortages?
SRI
:rang/-
INDONESIA
growing population, but only
used wisely.
LANKA
MALAYSIA
Mauritius
CiiCkoo-Sbnke
Lf
MADAGASCAR
Lemur
CJ,*
Tasrrianian
(C'.jForesler
-'^
New Zealand
Bushwr^
Deforestation
Water-scarce country,
1992
Acid rain
^7
Unregulated industrial
-.,_s^-
pollution
Hole
f
.
in
ozone
layer
Major ecological
disaster
ANTARCTICA
Selected endangered
species
Azimiithal Equidistant Projection
AMERICA
IN
TODAY'S WORLD
971
Still,
the burning of the rain forest contin-
ued. In 1*^88
Mendes
warming
declared:
In
the
last half
with carbon dioxide and other gases that allow solar
They
radiation to reach the earth's surface while prevent-
fires as in 1988.
Our
are burning everything.
week
in
ing heat from escaping. This process
were
airports
by the burning of
1987 because of the
for the
same reason.
nothing but smoke.
How
it
Amazonia
hurts!
is
intensified
and by the cutting and
fossil fuels
burning of forests. Scientists warn that over time
smoke. This year they were closed one
month
With
effect.
century Amazonia has
never seen so many
closed one
from the greenhouse
atmosphere has become heavily polluted
earth's
44
results
the spread of automobiles, cities, and factories, the
the greenhouse effect could cause temperate areas
is
**
to
become
would wither The
so hot that crops
melting of the polar ice caps could flood coastal

In
1988 Mendes was assassinated.
rancher and his
many
areas, jeopardizing
many suspected a large-scale conspiracy among ranchers.

The battle to save the Amazon and other forests
think that the greenhouse effect
continues, however, spurred on by estimates that the
layer
son were convicted of the crime, but
world's tropical forests will be gone within 115

years
if
deforestation continues at the current rate.
Efforts at saving plants and animals are not

limited to the rain forests. Plant and animal species
around the world are
in
grave danger of extinction
from the explosion of human population and the

spread of cities and industry (see
Individuals and groups have
process and save
and unique scenic
areas.
map on page
worked
to
971).
slow
some endangered
at least
this
species
For example, Greenpeace,
is
Some
scientists
already seriously
harming the environment.
related danger
the thin veil of molecules
is
the thinning of the
ozone
some 10
to
30
miles above the earth's surface. These molecules

protect against ultraviolet solar radiation
rays).
UV
marine
and harm crops. To date, most ozone
life,
thinning has been over Antarctica (see
warn
971). But environmentalists

like the
map on page
that other areas,
ozone layer over the southern
America, are thinning as well.

to the
(UV
damage
rays can cause skin cancer,
Much
tip
of South
of the
damage
ozone layer has been caused by chemicals
called chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs)
combinations
an international environmental organization, cam-
of carbon, chlorine, fluorine, and sometimes hydro-
paigns against whaling, and the U.S. government
gen
has acted to protect unique lands. The 1994
nations.
California Desert Protection Act enlarged the
refrigerator
Joshua Tree and Death Valley National Monuments
and
and converted them
to national parks.
Then
in
1996
pumped
into the
atmosphere by industrialized
CFCs, which
are used in aerosol sprays,
and air-conditioner coolants, electronics,
plastics, can
no longer be produced
President Clinton took steps to protect 1.7 million
chemical can, however, continue to be made

developing world until 2005.
held valuable coal leases.
By invoking
the
in the
United States and most industrialized countries. The
acres of Utah canyon lands where a Dutch mining
company
third hazard of
in the
atmospheric pollution
is
Theodore Roosevelt had
acid rain. As factories and automobiles spew
used to protect the Grand Canyon from develop-
chemical pollutants, these pollutants combine with
Antiquities Act
the law
ment
Clinton
the
Escalante National
was able
to create the
Canyons of
Monument without
Congressional approval.
the moisture in the

rain, often far
from
atmosphere and
Environmentalists are working to

prevent deforestation and to protect
species from extinction.
1980s and the 1990s,
regions as distant as the Appalachian Mountains in
Canada, and the mountains of central Europe

the effects of acid rain.
Acid
rain has
provoked conflict between the
United States and Canada.
The
and makes lakes and
fish. In the
eastern North America, the lakes in northern
showed
tNVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
later fall as
their places of origin. This acid
rain gradually kills trees
streams unfit for
factories
is
Smoke from Michigan
believed to increase rain acidity in
energy consumption and the con-
Canada. As the United States weakened environ-
tinued loss of the world's forests have led to grow-
mental standards during the 1980s, Canadians
rise in global
ing concerns over global
warming,
the increase in
the temperature of the earth's atmosphere. Global
972
cities.
CHAPTER
3 3
strongly protested that this action
environment.
harmed
their

Acid rain not only injures
trees and lakes but also
damages buildings and

monuments. This statue
percent increase over the 1989 figure.
The nation
recycled an estimated 14 percent of
solid waste
in
in
1991.
The United
its
States lags behind other
Rome has gradually deteriorated from being exposed
industrialized nations in recycling, however. Japan,
to acid rain.
54 percent of
50 percent of
for example, recycles

its
The concern over recycling
The
its
is
related to urban
growth. Experts predict that there will be
United
cities
States has a better
paper and
glass.
21
at least
with populations of 10 million or more by the
record in dealing
year 2000. Eighteen of these cities will be
with water pollu-
developing nations. The enormous amount of
Since
tion.
garbage created
the
Clean Water Act

became law
in
in these
1972, the United States has
up
great progress in cleaning
its
rivers
and
made
lakes.
excess of garbage
is
Many
expert estimates that an
risking the health of
of the urban population
1990 survey of more than 656,000 miles of rivers
urban areas threatens the
One
future of the residents.
in poor,
in the
40 percent
developing world.
cities are instituting
innovative waste-
some 30,000
and streams found that 80 percent of the waters
management systems.
were safe for
Zabaleens (Christians from southern Egypt) use
fishing. Environmentalists note that
much of the some 129.000
miles of water that were
found unsafe were contaminated by

ticides,
fertilizers, pes-
and animal waste washing from farmlands
and residential areas

the 1972 act.
The
pollutants not covered by
act
was amended
1987
in
to
include these sources, and contamination levels
In Cairo, Egypt,
horse-drawn carriages
city.
They then
sort
reusable material.
pigs.
to collect
garbage from the
through the garbage and
Thrown-away food goes
Waste products are used
sell
the
to feed
to fertilize crops.
Scrap metal, glass, paper, and plastic are recycled.
One
recycling expert notes that Cairo's system
has economic as well as environmental benefits:
have continued to drop.

Pollution from oil spills also presents serious
problems. Spills, such as the 1989 Exxon Valdez
accident along the coast of Alaska,
times the average income
fish
kill
countless
and waterfowl and cost millions of dollars
clean up.
As
a result, environmentalists
government leaders are calling
to
and many
for stricter controls.
Zabaleens make as much as three

in
Cairo.
In
many
developing countries, up to 2 percent of the

population
is
supported directly or
rectly by refuse
indi-
from the upper 20 percent
of the population.
^*
Environmentalists and government leaders are working to

reverse the effects of global
warming, ozone depletion, acid

rain, and water pollution.
RECYCLING AND URBAN GROWTH

As environmental awareness grows, recycling
the collection
reuse
and processing of used items for
has been
winning support. Recycling
serves two important purposes:

natural resources, and
solid waste that
it
must be burned
buried in overflowing landfills,

sea, or
it
reuses scarce
reduces the mountain of
shipped to disposal
in incinerators,
dumped
facilities in
into the
poorer
nations.
By
A Growing populations have overburdened the sanitation

resources of many cities. Some cities have loaded their garbage
on barges and tried to export it to other areas often without
success. The governor of Florida, for example, refused to allow
this New York barge to dock in his state.
1991 some 4,000 curbside recycling pro-
grams were underway
in the
United States, a 250
AMERICA
IN
TODAYS WORLD
973
Other
such as Juarez C
cities,
instituted similar systems.
ity,
As
Mexico, have
many
a result,
urban planners, such as Donella Meadows, are
manage
advises,
ter
than
United Nations conference on the environment,

the
UN
sponsored the United Nations conference
brilliantly starting very soon," she

possible the world might look bel-
conference attracted some 35,000 participants,
"it is
it
first
on Environment and Development dubbed the

Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro. Brazil. The
cautiously optimistic about the future.
1992. the 20th anniversary of the
In
"It
humans
including delegations from 178 nations and
does now."
some
1,200 private environmental organizations. At the
conference, U.S. representatives hedged on supporting several proposals they considered unreal-
The world responds
istic,
including a promise to cut carbon dioxide
emissions to a certain level by the year 2000. Yet
Growing environmental dangers have stirred the

international community to action. For instance,
in the 1982 agreements issued by the Third UN
Conference on the
Law
of the Sea, participating
nations pledged to protect the marine environ-
ment of coastal waters and

'"the
common
to
make
the oceans
heritage of mankind."
be the urgent danger of ozone depletion, the
some
significant
compro-
mises and increased hopes for future agreements.
The
rise in
been evident
environmental awareness has also
in the
growth of private organizations
and lobbying groups, such as the international
WorldWatch
Institute. In
political parties,
Confronted with what many people consider

to
the conference yielded
Britain and
Europe, environmentalist
such as the Green parties of
Germany, have gained influence
The
increased. These groups have tried to work
Montreal Protocol on Ozone Depletion, signed
together to promote international cooperation and
community again took
international
in
Montreal, Canada,
in
reducing the emission of

that threatened the
ozone
action.
1987, set standards for
CFCs and
layer. In
other gases
1990. as evi-
dence of ozone depletion grew more alarming,

this
agreement was made even
stricter.
three nations pledged to halt
CFC
entirely within the decade, and
more ozone-damlist.
In
$240
million to enable developing nations to purchase
recycling. Third
UN
Summit, Green
parties.
1.
3.
in 1992: "In
As
the
an envi-
ronmentally interdependent world, no country can

separate
its
fate
from
that of the
world as a whole."
New waste-management systems, recycling, and international

cooperation are among the solutions
promoted to control
global
REVIEW
layer, ultraviolet
solar radiation, chlorofluorocarbons, acid rain,
Conference on the Law of the Sea, Montreal Protocol on Ozone Depletion, Earth
and explain the importance of the following: Chernobyl, Antarctica.
MAIN IDEA How

increases
2.
environment.
noted
and explain the significance of the following: geothermal power, biomass, ecosystem,
Chico Mendes. global warming, ozone
LOCATE
the
Institute
environmental hazards.
CFCs.
SECTION
IDENTIFY
about
WorldWatch
production
addition, the industrialized nations pledged
alternatives to
concern
Ninety-
aging chemicals were added to the banned
in
did utility companies, the public, and the
government respond to
global
energy consumption and to fears over the safety of nuclear power?
MAIN IDEA What are some of the environmental problems facing the world in the 1990s?
WRITING TO PERSUADE Imagine you are a member of the Worldwatch Institute. Write
a let-
ter to the head of a foreign nation, outlining possible solutions to control environmental hazards.
4.
IDENTIFYING VALUES
healthy environment.
974
as
public concern over the environment has
CHAPTER
33
Provide support for the view that the international community values a
ADDRESSING GLOBAL
c u
What has
s
contributed to a worldwide increase
ILLS
crime
in
recent
in
decades?
What
are
some
of the countries that are experiencing particularly
high rates of population growth?
What
are
some
of the causes of famine in the developing world?
IV,hile protection of the environment is an

humankind faces many other problems as
the international
well.
drug trade has contributed
and
to
The expansion of
a worldwide
many developing
increase in crime. Meanwhile,
fering from famine
urgent global task,
nations are suf-
the effects of overpopulation
experts predict will worsen in the next century.
a problem
Many
nations
continue to look to the United States for help and guidance
in
solving these problems.

Afghan farmer collecting opium
South Pacific." While overall drug use
'RUGS
AND CRIME
United States declined somewhat
in the
in the 1980s, the
use of a cheap but deadly form of cocaine called
As urbanization has increased worldwide,
so has
drug use and violent crime. The international drug

trade
is
a multibillion dollar operation. In countries
such as Peru, Colombia. Burma. Laos, and
crack increased. Use of injected drugs, particu-
vast political influence,
their own milimany governments have
and control
forces. Consequently,
thirds of the
France have been heroin addicts.
As
Thailand, drug lords often amass great wealth, exert
tarv'
Two
AIDS in many counAIDS patients in Italy and
helped spread
larly heroin,
tries.
worldwide drug
the
has crime.
1986
UN
traffic
has grown, so
survey found a 120 percent
increase in drug-related crimes worldwide from the
Although the
preceding decade. The same report found a 30
frustrating,
it
percent increase in murder worldwide and a 22 per-
went on. In 1995. for example, under pressure
cent increase in thefts. In the United States, for
Colombia
example, violent crime rose by almost 33 percent
had trouble combating the drug
trade.
campaign against drug abuse proved
from the United States, police
in
rounded up the leaders of a powerful drug ring
that
dominates the world cocaine market.
Drug use
varies
from country
to country.
1992 United Nations report noted: ''Abuse of

heroin
is
soaring in a
number of
regions, and
from 1982
to 1991.
Crime also has
risen dramati-
cally in the
former Soviet Union since the end of
Communist
party rule. Violent crime in
jumped
nearly 90 percent in 1989. Said
Moscow
one Moscow
citizen,
echoing sentiments often heard
in
"Moscow was
cocaine, once abused mainly in the Americas and
cities:
Europe, now threatens Africa, the Near and
up. but
Middle East. South and Southeast Asia and the
streets these days, all
it
isn't
a safe city
when
American
was growing
any more. There are thieves on the

kinds of criminals."
AMERICA
IN
TODAY'S WORLD
975
World
Tfte State of the

POPULATION GROWTH
population
the annual growth rate
At the
double to some lO.S
will
LOCATION
is
I99S rate of
people
billion
in
growth 1.6 percent the

less
than 45 /ears.
worid's
In Africa,
where
2.8 percent, the population will double in less than 25 /ears.
Which continent has
most
the highest rate of population growth and the
countnes with an average calorie supply 25 percent below recommended
levels?
PAPUA
GUINEA
Ci|u*tor
Estimated Average Yearly

Infant Mortality Rates
for Selected Nations
Rich Nations
1990-1995
(deaths per
1.000
live
and Poor Nations, 1993
Per Capita GNP,1993

I
Less
than $300
births)
$6,001 -$9,000
$300-$750
I
Finland
United States
$751-52,500
$9,001 -$20,000
Romania
19
China
27
Mexico
36
Algeria
61
l$20,001-$30,000
$2,501-$6,000
I
Calorie supply
25% below recommended
levels,
1988
88
India
159
Nafi
Population, 1993
total
population: S.544.000.000 (growth rate:
60.4%
8.4%
of total
rate:
North Amenca; Western Europe;
btin America
Asia
(growth
Estimated Cumulative
HIV Infections, June 1994
1.6%)
Australia,
(growth rate:
1.6%)
1.5
million
million
New Zealand
of total
1.8%)
Central America, South
Amenca,
and Canbbean
12.4%
Afria
Europe
of total
13.1%
(growth rate: 2.8%)
(growth rate: 0.2%)
0.S%
Oceania
North America
of total
5.2%
(growth rate:
976
CHAPTER
Sub-Saharan Afnca
3 3
1.5%)
(growth rate:
India and Southeast Asia
Eastern Europe and former USSR;
of total
East Asia,
I
.0%)
10 million
2.5 million
200,000
of total
Oceania
West
Asia,
North Africa;
America, the picture was not
In
all
bleak.
Despite widespread fears of ever-rising crime
rates.
U.S. crime statistics improved as the 1990s wore on.
From 1992
reported in America
crime
lent
decline
tion.
number of
to 1994. the
was
serious crimes
by 5 percent;
fell
in
1995 vio-
another 9 percent. The greatest
fell
in cities
of more than
million popula-
Experts credited the decline both to beefed-up
law enforcement and
an improving economy.
to
are expected to experience high

rates of population growth in the
coming decades.
WORLD HUNGER
Rapid population growth has worsened food shortages
in
some
countries. In addition, differences in
wealth produce wide variations
An increase
United States, malnutrition
among
nutri-
and between countries. In the
tion within countries
the international
drug trade has led to an increase
In crime worldwide.
in
and
in diet
is still a
problem
the poor, particularly those in rural areas,
even though most Americans enjoy a high standard

of living.
By
POPULATION EXPLOSION
Many
of the world's toughest problems have been
made worse by
was growing by
ond.
Much
of
this
at 5.7 biUion,
grew by
many developing
less than
percent a
nations the population
grew by 2 or 3 percent. Experts predict
1.3 billion
jump from 936
that India's
by 2020; Mexico's, from 94 milhon
to
By
million.
2020, Africa
expected to account
is
the situation
even worse by preventing
workers from reaching victims. Worldwide
in
the early 1990s, an average of 37,000 children
under age five died each day of starvation, diarrhea,
and diseases associated with malnutrition and poor

health care.
Increasing the likehhood of food shortages
million in 1995 to
136 million; and Bangladesh's, from 128 milhon to
210
made
relief
in
the population of the
the 1950s to
some famine-stricken coun-
Africa. Civil wars in
growth has been concentrated
industrialized nations
population will
and
From
the 1990s, rainfall declined sharply in northern
tries
While
famine plagues many countries,
Ethiopia, Sudan, and Somalia.
a rate of three people every sec-
the developing world.
year, in
By
a massive increase in population.
1995 the world's population stood

it
contrast,
including Bangladesh and the African countries of
is
the fact that the world's grain production declined

in the late 1980s, despite
productivity. This
was due
advances in agricultural
in part to the fact that in
for about 18 percent of the world's population, in
Latin America and elsewhere, commercial farms
contrast to 9 percent in
producing beef, pork, and poultry for the world
One key
950.
to limiting population
developing countries, some argue,
growth
is to
women. Former Indian prime
the status of
who was
Indira Gandhi,
in
advance
minister
POVERTY AND NUTRITION
assassinated in 1984,
wrote in 1980:
% Below
Poverty Line
State
Men
and most
the potential
ability
women
of
are unaware of
women. Their
lives
are entrapped by pre-conceived notions and

attitudes
from
status for
women,
mankind
is
birth
onwards. ...
women, or
a handicap for the
as a whole.
lower
lesser opportunity for
**
Receiving
Food Stamps/
Lunch Programs
Mississippi
25.7
Louisiana
23.6
16.8
New
20.9
10.0
Mexico
19.5
Arkansas
19.6
9.5
Alabama
19.2
11.2
growth of
Source:
Statistical
WHEN ENDS DON'T MEET

As women gain equality of rights and opportunity,
Gandhi believed, they will no longer be valued
1990 some 14
In
percent of the U.S. population was living below the poverty

line,
while 9 percent participated in the Federal Food Stamp
and National School Lunch programs.
primarily for their ability to produce children.
Mexico, Bangladesh, and

the developing nations of Africa
India,
was the percentage

line
of population living
In
which state
below the poverty
but not receiving food assistance the greatest?
AMERICA
IN
TODAY'S WORLD
977
OW
Tfteit
THE PEACE CORPS

experience.
The Peace Corps
often served as a training
of
whom
in
public service.
Kennedy launched the Peace
Corps program
such volunteer was
in
96
hun-
dreds of young Americans eager
Bloch.
who
to help the United Sates
Corps
in
War
the Cold
vsrin
joined the pro-
In its first
year
volunteers served
in
some 900
1
6 host
where they started
countries,
The Peace Corps
continued to
many
work
hen President John
gram.
been recent college graduates.
ground for the volunteers,
W.
One
Julia
sons,
became
overseas service.
In
work
assistant administrator of the
At
height
its
26.
The ending
War
of the Cold
in
the 1990s
Corps had more
has also brought
than 10.000 volun-
about a
the
shift in
teers, serving in
program's focus.
over 50 countries
The Peace Corps
Asia. Africa,
now
and
is
being invited
Latin America.
into countries that
During the
were once part of
970s.
budget cuts and
the Soviet bloc.
decreased recruit-
November 1992
ment
the
efforts
first
In
group of
volunteers went to
caused the num-
Many of
ber of Peace
Russia.
Corps volunteers
them are teaching
some
to drop to
Peace Corps volunteers
in
the Russians about
the Philippines
to run small busi-
the 1980s
In
the agency reorganized and

increased
ing
its
emphasis on help-
people gain
skills in
tech-
nology and free enterprise.
Assistance program, she
the Reagan
Charles Bennett,
Corps was the
first
me
In
typical
and development," Bloch notes.
teer
in
the 1960s tended to be

in his
or her
... a career
"When was
I
...
overseas aid
in
an undergraduate
had thought
might be a
twenties, fresh out of college,
journalist, having
who
communications and public
volunteered for a stint
before going on to other

careers.
1
Few volunteers
in
policy.
the
960s had any previous work
CHAPTER
??
first
volun-
in
But there are several
hundred
point
majored
to.
like
me
that
who
had once
trained as a navigator for
step for
recruited by the Peace Corps.
young person
of the
retired U.S. military officer.
in
The
a
One
became the highest-ranking
"Certainly the Peace
Peace Corps volun-
nesses.
Asian American
administration.
the kind of volunteer
in
'
teers to go to Russia was
This reorganization led to a
change
how
capitalism and
6.000 recruits.
::
Today that figure
percent.
960s. the Peace
in
978
the
has dropped to just over 50
for Peace and Voluntary
Food
in
In
960s as many as 85 percent of
under age
1981. as
output, literacy rates, and sanitation.
skills
Peace Corps volunteers were
re-
projects to improve agricultural
the mid-
possess special
developing countries.
fornia at Berkeley. Bloch later
cruiter and continued to
who
and experience needed
1964 after graduating
in
in
unteers, including retired per-
joined the Peace
Peace Corps
has increased
efforts to recruit older vol-
its
Chang
the University of Cali-
from
recent years, fewer
In
Peace Corps volunteers have
could
nuclear-bombing missions
against the Soviet Union.
Bennett reflected on the changing times: "I
my
to
kill
idea
was to
the enemy and not be
But
friends.
is
had a military flavor
The
life.
over.
now
Here
ing dinner [with]
the big threat

I
am now
people
willing to turn into dust."
eat-
was
convince the
market expanded into rain-forest lands or into agri-
growing
cultural acreage formerly devoted to

grain.
The grain
that is still
produced
appeal as they try to help solve the world's social
and economic
these
in
nations increasingly goes to feed livestock rather
than
human
ills.
power of
economic might, but by
the
ideas.
The United
this effort.
Some
States must play a central role in
of the earliest English settlers
America believed they were lighting a beacon

would show
the
way
new
to a
era in
human
ment of
that
history.
America
America and the world face many hazards as

new century dawns. Recent decades, however,
a democratic
government, the idea of
as a world leader took
on new meaning. Of
clear.
course, the nation has often failed to live up to
professed ideals.
has been
gradually, over the years, the United States has
end of the Cold War and the declining threat of
slowly and painfully tried to achieve a fuller and
urgent problems.
the
its
Many groups have been
excluded from the promise of democracy. But
have brought encouraging developments as well as
Most encouraging of
in
With the American Revolution and the establish-
made
these concluding chapters have
This goal will be accomplished
not by military or
populations.
Overpopulation, drought, civil

wars, and a decreased grain supply have contributed to severe
famines in the developing world.
As
of the world of democracy's
rest
all
more complete understanding of
global nuclear holocaust.

history, we Americans have
challenges. As we accept our role as
faced great
the
meaning of
democracy and individual freedom.
Throughout our
Despite a shifting balance of global power
citizens, cultivate a
deepened sense of community,
and changing economic
and understand our
common
individual freedom, democratic self-government,
our
common
to the
have
we
problems,
interest in addressing
shall surely
and opportunity for
prove equal
challenges ahead, just as other Americans
appeal of
remains as strong as ever,
especially to those denied them by repressive

rulers or
in centuries past.
all
realities, the
by grinding poverty. The vision of democ-
racy and freedom can
still
men and women
inspire
courage and heroism.
Commentary
to acts of great
America's Role
shape of the future will be determined by the
in
As has always been
New
Era
willingness of
The end of
the
Cold War has not ended the world's
many
problems. In
racy remains the

the 1990s has
parts of the world, true
dream of a few.
democ-
A key question of
men and women
book you have learned of our

to the present.
1.
2.
The next chapters
in this still-
REVIEW
and explain the significance of the following: Indira Gandhi, Peace Corps.
and explain the importance of the following: Peru, Bangladesh, Ethiopia, Sudan.
MAIN IDEA What has contributed to

MAIN IDEA How are the populations
Africa expected to change
3.
nation's history up
unfolding story will be yours to write.
SECTION
LOCATE
plunge into the
to
fray and grapple with tough problems. In this
been whether democratic nations can
IDENTIFY
true in our history, the
IDENTIFYING CAUSE
in
the worldwide increase
in
crime
in
recent decades?
of India, Mexico, Bangladesh, and the developing nations of
the coming years?
AND EFFECT What factors
have contributed to severe famines
in
the
developing world?
4.
WRITING TO INFORM
an international
5.
Write an essay that explores the reasons why the drug trade became
phenomenon
EVALUATING What
role
during the 1990s.
do you think the United
States should play
in
today's world? Give
reasons for your answer.
AMERICA
IN
TODAYS WORLD
979
CHAPTER
33
Terrorists attack
Israeli athletes at
Chernobyl
Munich Olympics.
nuclear accident
occurs.
i
1970
^REVIEWING THEMES
WRITING A SUMMARY
summary
write a
1.
of the chapter.
European Union and
Number your
and
list
paper
to
5.
2,
the order
in
ond next to
2.
Study the time
first
line
the sec-
in
the 1990s?
3.
Technology and Society
2.
Berlin Wall
3.
Commonwealth
falls.
in
recent decades?
THINKING CRITICALLY
Analyzing How did the end
of the Cold
1 .
of Independent States formed.
what ways has
In
technology proved both beneficial and harmful to
activity
ratified.
role did the United
resolving global conflicts during
the environment
NAFTA
Pacific
Global Relations What

Nations play
which
in
next to
above,
below.
1
might economic
power of the
Rim nations?
influence increase the political
War
affect old global divisions?
4.
Chernobyl nuclear accident occurs.
5.
Operation Restore Hope launched.
2.
Analyzing Why do you think Indira Gandhi believed

it was important to establish family-planning programs
Evaluating
How
might environmental policies
possibly endanger jobs and the

3.
Hypothesizing What
leaders
in
global
economy?
problems might
the 21st century need to face?
in India?
IDENTIFYING PEOPLE
AND
IDEAS
Editorial
lowing cartoon, which appeared
1.
Boris Yeltsin
6.
Chico Mendes
2.
Operation Restore Hope
7.
global
3.
Maastricht Treaty
8.
acid rain
protectionism
9.
Green
5.
Morihiro Hosokawa
Indira
in
975.
What
is
fol-
the Los Angeles
the cartoonist's message?
warming
4.
10.
Times
in
parties
Gandhi

1
What
What
events marked the end of the Cold
impact did the end of the Cold
conflicts
2.
War?
War
have on
around the world?
What various ways
did the
American government
and public propose to deal with increasing foreign
economic competition?
3.
What
tists
are
some
alternative energy sources scien-
proposed during the 1990s?
Why were
these
energy sources necessary?

4.
What
global environmental
nations during this period?
problems divided
What
solutions
were
offered?
5.
What were some
of the problems that developing
nations experienced during the 1990s?
980
CHAPTER
3 3

Writing to Inform Write a pamphlet that
describes one contribution made to world peace or
the environment by an international organization.
Commonwealth
Montreal Protocol
on Ozone
Depletion signed.
Independent States
formed. Maastricht
Treaty signed.
Berlin Wall
falls.
Hope
accord.
held
in Brazil.
launched.
1987
Operation Restore
New York's World Trade

Center bombed. Yasir
Arafat and Yitzhak Rabin
sign Middle East peace
"Earth Summit"
of
NAFTA
Monument
1989
Escalante Nati
ratified.
1993
1992

In
the early 1980s a
new environmental movement,
symbolized by groups such as Earth
emerged.
First!,
The movement abandoned conservative protests

against corporations
such as tree
in
favor of more-radical actions,
sitting, inserting
spikes into trees, and
destroying logging equipment. Read the following
excerpt from the book Green Rage, which profiles
movement.
How
do
this
Daily calories
per person
radical environmentalists justify
~ More than 2,600

J (recommended)
the methods they use?
1,950-2,600
WW
Less than 1,950
In general, however, radical environ-
No data
mentalism has no pretensions of being a

mass movement and does not expect the
huge demonstrations the civil rights and

antiwar movements produced. It aims to
harass more than obstruct, with the hope
that the public
do
the rest.
awareness
generates will
it
BUILDING YOUR
PORTFOLIO
A more
important difference
in
strategy stems from the extreme urgency of

the environmental crisis.
For
the
''constituency" of the biocentric civil rights
movement, however there

row.
Once an
is
often
old- growth forest
no tomor-
is cut, it
not grow back for hundreds of years,
Once a species becomes

lost.
will
if ever
extinct the battle
is
This sense of urgency often motivates
the use of ecological civil disobedience, fiot

to
make far-reaching changes
in society's
views of the environment, but merely to buy

time for legal redress or for the emergence
of public pressure.
99

cooperatively.
GLOBAL RELATIONS
Building
number
in
the right column, which shows the
of nations
in
Africa affected by hunger and
food shortages, as measured by
How many
daily calorie intake.
African nations have food supplies averag-
ing less than 1,950 calories
you
what
effects the
end of the Cold
War
has had on your nation. Your speech should indicate both the benefits of the end of the
and any negative consequences

regional or local conflicts
ing
map
on that experience, write a speech
explaining
2.
Chapter
portrayed a delegate to the United Nations.
BUSINESS
such
Cold
War
as increased
for your nation.
AND TRADE
you portrayed the director of
Study the
In
In
Chapter 32
a private agency assist-
immigrant businesspeople. Building on that expe-
rience, imagine
you are advising your
clients
on
international trade. Research the advantages and dis-
advantages of free-trade agreements, such as the
North American Free Trade Agreement, and then

develop a policy statement to deliver to your
clients.
per person per day?
AMERICA
IN
TODAYS WORLD
98
ere
U N
j^#Mericei#i /Cotters
Stones
of Diversity
More than 10
million immigrants arrived on
American shores
between 1970 and 19H9, most of them from Asia or Latin America.
In the following selections,
Chinese American author Gish Jen,
Mexican American poet Jimmy Santiago Baca, and Philippine -born

novelist Jessica
the struggles of characters
Hagedorn explore
arc fully American yet retain
who
country of origin.
ties to their
A Jimmy Santiago
Yankees had
From
Îjpical
American
are family," echoed Helen.
rooted for a comeback. "Let's go
Helen.
Ralph furrowed
the
in
When
in
his
brow.
turned three they had
Callie
Mona and
front of their newly bought used
decided that
Zenith TV; the one time they
would
should have name. The Chinese
went to an
Chinese. This was what Janis and
Yankees. Call Chang-kees for
had called them names and told

them to go back to their laundry.
They in turn had sat impassive as
with Alexander; Janis didn't want
the scoreboard. Rooting
and Helen,
"Team." said Ralph.
"We
short."
"Chang-kees!" Everyone
laughed.
Ball
fun.
games became even more
Theresa explained
how
the
actual
game, people
in
their
Family
985), by
Tomie Arai
wpi BK
^^^xivVm
^^r>
^jj^^
Hi
Ih^^ ^m
Hm
!
UN
learn English
Callie
first,
and then
Old Chao were planning on doing

him to have an accent. For Ralph
it
was
more practical
seemed con-
hearts, they said later.
Anyway,
decision. Callie had
they preferred to stay
home and
fused by outside people sometimes
watch. "More comfortable."

Portrait of a Chinese
982
thought we agreed the children
are going to be American," puzzled
privacy of their apartment,
"We
"I
Dodgers the year before; they

Chang-kees!" This was
by Gish Jen
the
lost the Series to
Baca
understanding her and sometimes
"More convenient." "Can see

ter,"
bet-
These were the same reasons

Ralph advocated buying a
"Seems
like
Theresa kidded.
We
had a
growing up. Don't you remem-
ber?" Ralph argued that
way they could avoid
in
grabby
and
little
a dragon. Also,
boy had,
in
go,
one
an ensuing
some teeth.
Now Ralph drummed his
fingers. He stopped and smiled.
.
"And what better way
fact this
getting too
Americanized. "Everywhere we
we can keep
this way,
ruckus, lost
"What's so American?
car,
started to cry, and once or twice
to throw things; she had lost a doll
car.
someone's becoming^
one-hundred-percent Americanized,"
not. Playing with other children in
the park, she had several times
they agreed.
to
Ameri-
canize the children than to buy
a car!" J*
the children inside. Also
they won't catch cold."
Italics indicate
words spoken
in
Chinese.
who
"jyiartin IV,"
from
and
JVlcn^tin
My Three
of
on the
jVleditations
vacationed and followed the
Sons for their
Manila to
me
families,
anyone came to
by jimmy Santiago Baca
visiting
own
in
was shuttled back and forth
the
city
"unaMoth"
from
new
by Jessica
Hagedom
football
games and
six
packs
me
ing
announces she
to school
moving there with
of cokes
and hoes, welfare cards and

bottles of goat milk.
indefinite period.
first.
me
am
Everyone else
was caught
the middle
in
between white skinned,
English
speaking altar boy

at the
communion
mother has
railing,
New
with buffalo heart groaning under-
my
We
with
between Sunday brunch
at a
restaurant
and burritos eaten
in
rifle
and the Apache whose red
altar candle in praise of
the buck
lush
of rocks, weeds, and wild ferns.
con-
taker.
down.
about you, but
love the cold
Go
want.
Tell
don't
back to Manila
Raul
miss him
if
he'll
have to
He
Tibo, the care-
unlocks door after door
careful. Rotting
floorboards creak under the
weight of our footsteps.
you
more
room,"
nods.
visit
"My bed-
say to the old man,
am overwhelmed
who
by melan-
choly at the sight of the empty
cryptic smiles.
me here
he wants to see me
her voice
"But
Manong
warning us to be
than he could ever imagine." She
one of her
old
for us, pulling aside cobwebs,
know
"I
An
with bright eyes introduces
himself as
stay here
looks surprised.
has been cut
Pucha whispers,
"Let's go,"
impatient and uninterested.
ask her. She
finally
and sprawling
a forlorn landscape
"Are we going to
smiles
was the
now
is
man
arrow
dripping
remember, and
mother actually sells a few paintings. The months turn into years.
weather.
young Braves,
butting
The bamboo grove
barn,
afternoon movie
The house
windows looks
right.
am not homesick,
and try not to bring up my father
or brother when speak. My
forever?"
visit
anyway, bor-
is
The once
garden
a tin-roofed
between John Wayne on the
shuttered
its
dingy.
world earth powers,
father
smaller than
settle first in
York, then Boston.
vince myself
speaking plains nomadic child
My
money from
inherited
decide to
cars and doesn't need
in
any excuse.
My
her father and pays for our passage to America.
and brown skinned, Spanish
around
ecstatic, at
father cannot stop her
the
goes with me; she loves riding
for an
stunned.
is
my new
falls in
rowing a car from Mi key. Pucha
send-
is
of film.
roll
our old house
America and
in
me
childhood image of home.
take his picture with
my
Without warning, [my mother]

cheerfully
sacks,
noon
my
tells
swimming pool by accident. The

camera is destroyed, along with
cars and gleaming furniture
and leather saddles and burlap
better."
the grandeur
camera, which later
Dogeaters
and rural Lucero sheepherders,
our old
visiting
reality will diminish
of
in
not to bother
Smiling apologetically, he
the
uncles,
between Chavez bourgeois
visit,
Memories are always
parlor.
come home to
my father warns
finally
house. "You'll be disappointed.
visit,
looking at photo albums
days with aunts and
When
sweeping the kitchen before
South Valley
On
trails off.
Hollywood model
room.
if
frightened
mouse dashes
across the grimy tiled floor, t*
"
just killed.
Caught between Indio-Mejicano

rural uncles
who
stacked hundred pound sacks

1
of pinto beans
on boxcars
all
day,
How
do Gish
Jen's characters
become "Americanized"? What
aspects of Chinese culture do they retain?
and worked
2.
the railroad tracks
behind the Sturgis sheds,
In
Baca's
poem, what two
different
of the speaker's family represent?
who
sang Apache songs
with accordions, and Chavez
prefers?
3.
Why
is
ways of
life
do the two
Which do you
sides
think he
Why?
Jessica
her old home?
Hagedorn's character disappointed
Do
you think she
is
happy
in
when she
sees
the United States?
uncles and aunts
AMERICAN LETTERS
::
983
Sti'dtegies for Success

EVALUATrNG NEWS
ments since the story was writ-
go with their
analysis" to
CNN.
reporting. Broadcasters like
STORIES
nformation today comes at us
in a
flood
tabloids,
from
talk
shows to
from the morning
work, and
over the
available
become
news reporting
Choose
will
news
stories
contributes to your understanding
News
of current history
which
sources,
collectively are called the
two groups:
Print
Print
ered both
Media
and
media include newspapers,
weekly newsmagazines
wee/c
like
News-
in
print
frequently
is
and Time, and other publica-
how
tions that cover current events.
Evaluate recent reporting

issue
terms of the cate-
in
particularly such big-
well the reporting covers the
broadcast media and
city dailies as
the
as the who, what, when,
New
Times
Yori<
Remember
or the Chicago Tribune, give detailed
that each story has a
will
whether the story
which have more time to
is
told
objectively. Every reporter has a
prepare their stories, spe-
point of view, so be alert for any
in-depth analyses
expression of
of issues.
bias. Finally,
ments have changed the
Evaluate
as last reported. Evaluate the
reporting for the level of interest
To evaluate news report-
creates, keeping
ask questions
like
the
following:
Coverage.
depth?
Broadcast media include television
include information
background to a story? Does
the
on the
examine reporting about

it
it
by
each of the following: a
TV
work news program,
major
net-
dominant medium for news.
explore long-range implica-
show that Americans are

much more inclined to watch TV
news than to read a daily newspa-
tions of events?
newspaper, a public-radio pro-
Fairness and accuracy.
gram, and a national weekly news-
Does the reporting
magazine. Write a brief essay
per Television,
the facts?
Surveys
like
no other medi-
um, presents the opportunity to

witness history
in
the making.
TV
and radio can provide on-the-spot,

around-the-clock coverage, creating a
sense of immediacy Also,
both increasingly offer "instant
984
in

Choose another current topic and
in-
Does the reporting
and
far.
as a financial
may be hard to present
the subject
Is
treated superficially or
by
it
mind that a
exciting images or film footage.
Arsenio Hall Show, 1992
is.
in
complex subject such

scandal
jamming on The
radio. Television
situation
News Media
ing,
Broadcast Media
note
whether any late-breaking develop-
How to
Clinton
future;
bring out these
connections. Second, consider
occur Newsmagazines,
cialize in
as well
and where.
wider context, a past and a
good reporting
world events as they
Bill
examine
First,
why and how of the event,
accounts of national and
in
and on radio
gories listed above.
Newspapers,
print media.
TV
on the
into
news media, can be divided
a topic that
the news and that has been cov-
the basis of tomorrow's
history, so evaluating
the news
air.
headlines to the nightly news.

Today's
Is
an interesting way?
in
"talk radio" have greatly
expanded the amount and kind of
news
ten or broadcast?
presented
the 24-hour all-news cable net-
Wf
UNIT
anced?
Is
able bias
Is it
fair
stick to
and
bal-
there any recognizin
the coverage?
Immediacy and
interest.
How
is
close
in
time
the
daily
evaluating the treatment of the

issue or event by the different
news media, describing the depth

of the coverage offered by each,
the presence of bias
in
any of the
reporting to the event?
reporting, and the impact of the
Have there been new develop-
story on you.

Outlined
below are four
plete
or cooperatively, comone and use the products to

concepts involved.
historical
POLITICS
affair
challenged the foundation of con-
government. Using the
stitutional
portfolio materials
chapters 3
rial
you designed
Nixon, Ford, and Carter strug-
gious struggles. Using the portfolio
gled with
ways
the 1970s.
in
In
the
1980s President Reagan attempt-
ed to stimulate the economy
sion about the
that highlights the
flicting interests
chapters 31 and 32,
in
which economic actions
sometimes con-
of the super-
powers, industrialized nations,
and developing nations.
in
affect
people by presenting your chart
BUSINESS
TRADE
class.
in
in
which the Watergate scandal was
chapters
new world order
and pamphlet to the
in
in
reli-
and 33, conduct a panel discus-
through conservative reforms.
and 32, write an edito-
that examines the
emerged, however, as new nations
were torn apart by ethnic and
discuss the different ways
scandal
and the Iran-contra
of the eco-
nomic problems presidents
designed
The Watergate
two
are only
crisis
the
AND
last several
GLOBAL
decades, the U.S.
RELATIONS
become
During the
scope. Using the portfolio materi-
970s and
economy
increasingly global
has
in
both similar to and different from
1980s, the United States
the Iran-contra
negotiations with China, improved
33, prepare a presentation
relations with the Soviet Union,
role of immigrants and immigrant
affair.
THE ECONOMY
Stagflation
and the
effects of the
energy
businesses
Union. Regional and local conflicts
Edelsteln,
Hot Pants
images that best
illustrate
the

a script to
Hot Tubs. Dutton
America
History:
Norton
Moore,
99
).
1
in
crit-
Reagan years.
Jim, with Rick Ihde. Clinton:
Young
Group
Man
in
a Hurry.
on the
strengthening
in
the global
economy.
Bill
Clinton to
become
States.
Virga, Vincent. The Eighties: Images of
the Reagan Years.
Overview and
analysis of the
chapters 32 and
the 42nd president of the United
From
(1990). Social history of the 1970s.
ical
class.
Seventies:
Johnson, Haynes. Sleepwalking through
to
in
the rise of
Andrew]., and Kevin
America
1970 and the present. Choose
in
America's position
and the breakup of the Soviet
McDonough. The
the years between
you designed
and witnessed the end of the Cold

in
als
War
Further Reading
Videodisc Review
In
opened
The Summit
(1992). Biography detailing
America.
Edward Burlingame
Books (1992). Photographic essay

on
life in
the United States during
the 1980s.
Woodward,
The
Bob, and Carl Bernstein.
Final Days.
Simon & Schuster
(1976). Chronicle of the last days
of Richard Nixon's presidency.
REVIEW
985
SKILLS
HANDBOOK
988
HISTORICAL
DOCUMENTS
1003
ATLAS
1012
The World:
1012
Political
United States of America:

1014
Physical
United States of America:
1016
Political
Facts
States
1018
Growth in the
790-2020
1019
About the
Population
United States.
Immigration to the United

States.
Changes
1019
1821-1993
in
the Urban and
Rural Population,
1850-1990
1019
Federal Receipts and

Outlays. 1900-1990
Distribution of Outlays,
1020
994
1020
Value of U.S. Imports and

Exports, 1900-1990
U.S.
Trade Balance, 1960-1990
1020
1020
PRESIDENTS OF THE
UNITED STATES
1021
SUPREME COURT CASES
1022
GAZETTEER
1036
GLOSSARY
1045
INDEX
1061
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
1091
D O^ THAI
REFERENCE SECTION
987
HANDBOOK
SKILLS
ôur understanding and appreciation of the past will grow as your study
skills
improve. This Skills
and
strategies
of American
and how
you
to
Handbook contains
social studies skills that will help
history.
explains, for example,
It
to distinguish fact from opinion.
handle historical sources, time
of history, the ability to identify what
is
cen-
3.
in the
cause and
effect
Handbook equip
writing,
and
test-taking abilities.
issue. Boxer's
The American Nation
paragraph
titled
is
history.
Understanding the Main Idea
duces each chapter and the Focus Questions
The
that introthat
begin
each section are intended to guide your reading. The

essential points
the blue
throughout the text
summary statements placed
highlight and reinforce the
ideas presented.
But not everjthing you read
is
structured like
Bayer's The American Nation. Applying the

following guidelines will help you identify
main ideas
in
what you read.
ideas. Pay attention to any
may
provide a basic
outline of the major ideas.
designed to help
American
in
Note the outline of
headings or subheadings. They
key to understanding any complex event or
you focus on the main ideas
the
to identify
IDENTIFYING THE MAIN IDEA
In the study
tral is a
how
maps, and graphs, as well as build
your vocabulary and sharpen your research,
critical thinking
you gain a fuller understanding
The lessons
lines,
on
instruction
4.
Distinguish supporting details.
As you
from the general statements they support.

of facts
may
a main idea.
APPLYING YOUR SKILL

Read
from the subsec-
the following paragraph,
tion in
Chapter 3
its
main
titled
"The Pilgrims."
idea.
THE MAIN IDEA
doctrine had raged
Conflicts over religious

in
England
when Henry
broke with the Roman
since 1534
Read
the title and the intro-
duction,
if
there
often fxiint to the
is
one.
main ideas
They
to be
covered.
2.
VIII
Catholic church to form the
Church of England (Anglican

church). Henry's motives
had been primarily per-
Have questions
in
mind.
sonal
the pope had
Formulate questions that you
refused to grant him a
think might be answered by the
divorce from his
material.
in
988
mind
Having such questions
will focus
SKILLS
your reading.
HANDBOOK
trail
main
identify
Read introductory material.
lead to a conclusion that expresses
HOW TO IDENTIFY
1.
read,
distinguish sentences providing supporting details
At heart
still
first wife.
Roman
Catholic, he had created a
to
church that remained largely Catholic

This deeply troubled
who
As
many
PRACTICING YOUR SKILL
form.
in
English Christians,
longed for a truly Protestant church.
Now
**
questions.
England. Details about Henry
in
The main
idea
best captured in the concluding sentence: There
was
to provide a
background
to the disputes.
no "truly Protestant church"

greatly upset those
in
who wanted
England, and
1.
is
2.
the paragraph's
What
is
main idea?
the relationship of the
3.
Check
for
complex connections. Note,
for example,
were additional causes of a given
themselves caused further events.
immediate
background leading up
a cause
activity that triggered the event?

to the event?
that
Who
had multiple
the
check for other, more
effect,
What
What
the
this
complex connections. Beyond
immediate cause and
investigate
(1) there
the
main ideas of
AND EFFECT
an event took place, and what else happened as a
is
does the
the subsection.
result of that event, historians ask questions such as:

is
How
England? Combine them into one statement

summarizes
IDENTIFYING CAUSE
To
is
paragraph and the paragraph on the Church of
such a church.
crucial to the study of history.
What
author support that idea?
this fact
Identifying and understanding cause-and-effect relation-
why
paragraph of the subsection on the
Pilgrims (pages 66-67). then answer the following
VIII and the origin of the Anglican church are included
ships
last
the lead sentence indicates, the paragraph focuses
on religious conflicts
is
read the
and
effects,
whether
effect, (2)
(3) these effects
were the people involved?
APPLYING YOUR SKILL
HOW TO IDENTIFY CAUSE AND EFFECT

I
Look
for clues.
immediate clues
Certain words and phrases are
to the existence
effect relationship.
of a cause-and-
Note the examples
that follow:
The diagrams on page 990 present an important causeand-effect relationship

the
among
the events leading
up
to
American Revolution. Because of the costs incurred
in the
French and Indian War, Parliament levied taxes on
the colonies to raise revenue
taxation that led colonists
CLUE WORDS AND PHRASES

Cause
^^M-^
Effect
as a result of
aftermath
because
as a
brought about
consequence
depended on
inspired
gave rise to
led to
originating
produced
provoked
outcome
.vunto
Anno ^
lU.êgis.^
from
Geotg^^
spurred
outgrowth
proceeded from
the reason
resulting in
S
P^^^'
;^' a'ji
lonies
2.
Identify the relationship.

identify
always
how
Read
^^^.
C ^^-
carefully to
certain
Swmp\
dcten
dcteu
,ccsot
VUntau^- ; ,,ccsot
VUotau^bN\
a"
^.^,,^c
,,
,A,ne f^"^
the
n to the
^ J
^^^
,
pvintauo"*"\
events are related. Writers do not
state the link
Sometimes a reader of
between cause and
effect.
history has to infer the cause
or the effect.
SKILLS
HANDBOOK
989
Britain incurs huge debt

from the French and
Effect
Cause
Effect/Cause
Effect
Parliament raises taxes
Britain incurs
Parliament
Colonists
on the
colonies.
War.
Indian
on
huge debt from
raises taxes
the French and
the colonies.
Indian
protest taxation
without repre-
War.
sentation
in
Parliament.
"No
to cry.
of the
part ot this relationship
first
diagram
taxation without representation!"
at
is
the top of the next
diagram
shown above. The
column adds
the

From your knowledge of
recent
American
history,
relationship between the British taxation of colonists
choose a sequence of events shaped by cause-and-effect
and the colonial protests, showing how an effect may
relationships.
turn
become
Such diagrams provide a graphic
a cause.
way of seeing complex
Draw
a chart
showing the relationships
between the actions and the outcomes. Then write
relations of events.
may
contain facts and opin
Sources such as
speeches usually express personal views. The
from opinions
is
but sure
reliability
of a historical account.
in
conclusion.
99
Jefferson's assessment
ington was
essential to judge the soundness of an argu-
ment or the
aided by invention or Imagination,
little
and
letters, diaries,
ability to distinguish facts
that
Wash-
neither brilliant nor particularly
imaginative as a thinker, but that he pos-
sessed sound judgment and decisiveness
words and phrasing: great
FROM OPINION
the first order,
Identify the facts.
Ask
yourself:
Can
it
source such as an almanac or encyclo-
in a
pedia. If so.
it
probably factual;
is
if not.
it
sounder,
probably
Read
the excerpt below, in
uates Washington as a
Identify the opinions. Look for clues that signal
answer the questions
statement of opinion:
and
believe,
phrases such as
comparative words
slow
without being of
in operation.
contains an opinion.
2.
is
be veri-
fied? Determine whether the idea can be checked for
accuracy
clearly an opinion. Note the comparative
HOW TO DISTINGUISH FACT

1
paragraph that explains the connections.
DISTINGUISHING FACT FROM OPINION
Historical sources
ions.
in
which Jefferson further eval-
commander
Then
in battle.
that follow.
think
like greatest
more important, and value-laden words
and
like
Hence the common remark
cers, of the advantage he derived
extremely and ridiculous imply a judgment, and
of war,
where hearing
all
of his
offi-
from councils
suggestions, he selected
thus an opinion.
whatever was
planned
APPLYING YOUR SKILL

Read
But
if
best; certainly
his battles
more
deranged [disrupted] during the course of
the action, ... he was slow

the following description of
no General ever
judiciously [carefully].
in
re-adjustment.
**
George Washington
by Thomas Jefferson:
1.
His
nrînd
was great and powerful, without
being of the very
first
was ever sounder.
990
SKILLS
It
order; ... no judgment
was slow
HANDBOOK
in
operation, being
What
fact (or facts)
does Jefferson mention
in his
description of Washington?
2.
Which words provide
clues to Jefferson's opinion of
Washington as a commander?
READING A TIME LINE
Chronology has been called "the skeleton of
Knowing
that
is.
tial to
history."
APPLYING YOUR SKILL
the chronological order of historical events
the sequence in
which they occurred
understanding them.
time line
is
is
a visual
framework representing the chronology of a

historical period.
It
enables you to see
happened when. Studying a time

relationships
at a
Study the time
essenhistory of
line
below.
World War
II in
important events
It lists
in the
the Pacific.
particular
important dates.
1945
'
line involves seeing
between events as well as remembering
1942
1941
glance what
Japan invades Indo-
Battle of
china. U.S. declares
Midway
embargo
occurs.
against
U.S. drops bombs

on Hiroshima
and Nagasaki.
Japan surrenders.
Japan. Japanese
attack Pearl Harbor.
HOW TO READ A TIME LINE

1 .
Determine
its
framework. Note
the years cov-
When more
ered and the intervals of time into w hich the time
2.
Study the sequence of events. Study

in
than one event
listed for the
is
they are stacked with the earliest on top.
line is divided.
which the events appear on
the order
the time line, noting
1941
illustrate the
background
The
same
year,
entries for
to the surprise attack
on
Pearl Harbor.
especially the length of time between events.
3.
Supply missing information. Think about

people, places, and other events associated
item on the time
line. In this
way you can
the
w ith each
"flesh out"

From
1.
the framework.
4.
Note
other events might belong on this time line for
Look
for cause-and-effect
on Pearl Harbor and the
dropping of the atomic bombs?
to
2.
relationships and long-term developments.
In
What
answer the following.
the years betw een the attack
relationships. Ask how an event relates
earlier or later events.
the time line above,
What
cause-and-effect relationship
is
suggested by
the sequence of entries for 1945?
BUILDING VOCABULARY
your study of histon.'. you
may
encounter
many new and
3.
unfamiliar words. But with regular effort you can master

unfamiliar words and turn reading histor>' into an opportunity to enlarge
4.
you
in building
dictionary. Use
words on your
list
a dictionary to learn
how
and w hat they mean.
Review new vocabulary. Look for ways to use

the new words
in homework assignments, conversation, or classroom discussions. The best way to
master a new word is to use it.
your \ocabular>'. Following the steps out-
lined here will assist
Use the
to say the
your vocabular\'.
HOW TO BUILD VOCABULARY

1
Identify unusual words. As you read,

that
2.
list
words
you cannot pronounce or define.
Study context clues. Study
the sentence and
new
term. This setting,
paragraph where you find the

or context,
may
give you clues to the word's mean-
ing through examples or a definition using

familiar words.
more

1.
What
2.
As you
is
context?
How
can
it
provide clues to a
word's meaning?
that
read the next chapter,
you
find.
Write
list
any unusual words
down what you
think each
w ord
means, then check your definitions against those
in a
dictionary.
SKILLS
HANDBOOK
991
REVIEWING MAP BASICS

Directions and distances. Most maps
Questions about history as well as geography can be
answered b\ consultine maps. Maps con\eN
textbook have a
a vNcalth ot
To read and
maps, you must be able to
interpret
in this
rose, or directional indicator,
like the one on "The Underground Railroad" map. The

compass rose indicates the four cardinal points: N for
north, 5 for south, E for east, and W for west. You can
\aried information through ctîors, lines, symbols, and

labels.
compass
understand their language and symbols.
also find intermediate directions
southwest, and northwest
using
northeast, southeast,
the
compass
rose.
TYPES OF MAPS
helps in describing the relative location of a place
A map
location relative to another point of reference. (If a
is
an illustration drawn to scale of
all
or part of
has no compass rose, assume that north
Types of maps include physical

maps, political maps, and special-purpose maps.
the earth's surface.
Physical
area
maps
mark
show
elevation, or the height
The map of
and valleys
and colors
above or below sea
on the
is
illustrate political units
and nations, employing
The
aries, dots for
major
mark bound-
and
stars or stars
cities,
within circles for capitals.
The map of
United Stales on pages 1016-17
map.
Political
maps
is
the
on the earth's surface.
a scale to find the distance
between any two
global grid. The absolute
location of any place
given in terms of latitude (number of
is
Election of
I860
a political
show
are used also to
FRAGMENTED UNION
result
information such as territorial changes or

military alliances. Special-purpose
textbook include a scale, showing
degrees north or south of the equator) and longitude
such as states
lines to
in this
to actual distances
on the earth
maps
the top. east
points.
physical map.
Political
map
You can use
to
level.
1014-15
the United States on pages
its
map
and so on.)
Many maps
the
hills,
is at
both miles and kilometers, to help you relate distances
the earth's surface.
Physical maps often use shading to show relief

existence of mountains,
to the right,
landscape of an
illustrate the natural
the landforms that
is
This
maps
pre-
was
Each section voted
its
interests,
and the
secession.
REGION
How
does the
map show you
that the vote followed
sectional lines?
sent specific information such as the routes
of explorers, the outcome of an election,

regional economic activity, or population
The "Election of 1H60" and "The

Underground Railroad" maps on these pages
density.
are special-purpose maps.
MAP FEATURES
Most maps have a number of features in
common. Familiarity with these basic elements makes reading any map easier.
Titles, legends,
title tells
and
labels.
you what the map
is
about.
includes information on what area
and what time period
The leêml. or
is
tnap
It
is
often
shown
being represented.
key. explains any special

Lincoln
Electoral
Popular
%of
Vote
Vote
Pop. Vote
180
l,86S.593
symbols, colors, or shadings used on the

map. Labels designate things such as
cal
politi-
and geographic place-names as well as
physical features like mountain ranges,
992
SKILLS
HANDBOOK
Lincoln
(Republican)
Douglas
(Northern Democratic)
Douglas
12
1,382,713
29.5
Breckinridge
72
848.356
18.1
Bell
39
592.906
12.6
BreckinricJge
(Southern Democratic)
Bell
'New
jersey cast four electoral votes for Lincoln
three for Douglas
oceans, and rivers.
39.8
and
(Constitutional Union)
(number of degrees
The global grid
is
east or west of the
prime meridian).
created by the intersecting lines of
ARCTIC OCEAN
lat-
EUROPE
itude (parallels) and lines of longitude (meridians). In
Boyer
's
The American Nation, grid
lines
sometimes are
indicated by tick marks near the edge of the map.
maps
also have locator
maps
(right),
ASIA
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
Many
AFRICA
INDIAN
which place the
area of focus in a larger context, show ing
OCEAN
in relation to
it
the entire United States, or the world.
ANTARCTICA
The maps on these two pages are special-purpose

maps.
Above
On
Robinson Projection
the page opposite is an Albers projection.

is a locator map, and below is an example
right
of a tilted perspective.
Tifted Perspective
Projection
90"W
SS'W
Lhe lindergiround Zailiroad

ROAD TO FREEDOM
It
is
estimated that the more than 3.000 members of the Underground
Railroad helped from 50,000 to 75,000 enslaved African Americans escape to freedom.
LOCATION Why
do you think
Cairo, Illinois,
and Cincinnati, Ohio, were important stops on
the Underground Railroad?
SKILLS
HANDBOOK
i:
993
Map
projections. Because
the
most accurately represented by

depict that ylobc on a
ble
is
a sphere,
is
is
to
surface as accurately as possi-
flat
words
to. in the
it
three-dimensional
task ot cartoyiniplwrs. or niapmakers.
The
i:K)be.
eanh
16th-century
ol
mapmaker
(lerardus Mercator. square the circle. Cartographers
do
curved coordinates of
this b\ iransterrinj: the
These
the globe onto the flat surface in a systematic way.
equal-area projections, with Albers Equal-Area projections being the
most common. The Albers projection
used on most of the U.S. maps

cial-purpose
it
is
maps
like the "Election
effective in showing, with a
Not
all
minimum
maps,
The Robinson
because
of distortion,
prt>ji'ctitm.s.
size, shape, distance,
is
projection, used
an effective compromise
for the locator
curved coordinates of a globe, cartog-
of I860"
is
of the spe-
of the projections used in this textbook are
conformal or equal area.
between the two categories.
flatten the
all
large countries with east-west orientations.
two-dimensional views of the earths surface are called
To
including
It
minimizes distortions
in
and direction, although without
raphers must squeeze or stretch the global grid of paral-
preserving complete accuracy in any aspect. Other pro-
and meridians. Thus every map projection, and
jections are used to give unique perspectives. "The
lels
therefore every map. distorts to
extent
one of the following
at least
aspects:
some
the shape of land areas, (2)
their relative sizes, (3) directions, or (4)
Mapmakers choose
distances.
jection that least distorts
the pro-
what they wish
show. Most projections in Boxer's

The American Nation fall into two
tt)
broad categories:
conformal and equal
area.
Conformal projections preserve
the
shape and scale of small areas around a
They cannot, however,
point or a line.
preserve the shape of large countries or
continents because scale varies from

point to point.
map
For example,
in a
world
using a Mercator conformal pro-
jection, sizes and shapes arc accurate
along the equator but distorted toward
As
the poles.
Greenland and
a result,
South America appear to be the same

size
even though South America
is
times
as
nine
actually
as
large
Greenland. The Transverse Mercator

projection used on the "French and
Indian
War" map on page 92 and
"Lexington and Concord"
114
the
map on page
examples of conformal
are
projection.
Equal-area projections show the

relative sizes of different countries or
continents quite accurately
a square
inch or centimeter of paper represents
Indochina
same number of square miles or
the
kilometers of ground
at
any point on the
A TROPICAL PENINSULA
The nations of Indochina occupy a peninsula
stretching from the mainland of Southeast Asia deep into the tropical waters of
map. But the price for

tion
is a
this standardiza-
distortion of distances and
Most of the maps found

Boxer's The American Nation are
shapes.
in
994
^w
SKILLS
HANDBOOK
the South China Sea.
MM
RELATIVE LOCATION How
to
long history of foreign invasion?
its
might Vietnam's location have contributed

Underground Railroad" map on page 993 uses
a tilted
the map to the Albers projection

map on page 992. Note how the size
perspective.
Compare
"Election
1860"
ol"
and shape of the southern
states are fairly accurate while
the states and territories to the north
and west are
dis-
on the tilted-perspective map. The perspective
torted
serves to draw attention to the southern states, the
primary focus of the map.
HOW TO READ A MAP

1.
Determine the focus of the map. Read

map's
its
2.
determine the map's focus
to
subject and the geographic area
map
Study the
become
ors,
3.
and labels
title
the
legend.
it
Read
covers.
the legend and
familiar with any special symbols, lines, col-
and shadings used on the map.
Check directions and
distances.
Use
the
directional indicator and scale as needed to deterIn
mine
4.
Check the
and
and distance.
direction, location,
grid lines. Refer to
map,
latitude, or to a locator
lines of longitude
to fix the area in
PACIFIC L
Determine the projection.

projection
whether
20
40 Kilometers
FORTY-NINERS
from
this
booming
The discover of gold at Sutter's
sawmill on the California Trail drew thousands of people
an equal area or a conformal projection.
it is
Ask yourself why
to a
the California Qold Rush
Determine what
being used for the map, especially
is
village
port of 2S,000 people.
OCEAN
its
larger context.
5.
1849, San Francisco grows
from a
over the world.
all
kind of projection has been
chosen for the particular map, keeping
in
PLACE Why
mind what
did Sacramento and Stockton
become
important during the gold rush?

its
6.
advantages or drawbacks
Study the map. Study

and
keeping
details,
its
are.
the map's basic features
purpose
in
mind.
If
it
is
Study the borders of the countries that make up
special-purpose map, study the specific information
Indochina. Note for which countries the
being presented.
serves as a border Also note that Laos
locked country, while Vietnam, on the other hand, has
APPLYING YOUR SKILL
hundreds of miles of coastline on the Gulf of Tonkin,
map of Indochina on the opposite page. Use the

locator map to determine the region's global location and
to help you understand why the region is also called
Southeast Asia. The locator map allows you to determine
Study the
that
Indochina
States.
and
Note
latitude
across the Pacific
is
that
because the
and a
scale,
Ocean from
map
the United
north and west
in its history.

For each of the special-purpose maps
in this lesson
"Election of 1860" on page 992, "The Underground
of the countries. The scale even allows you to
the
map. Note how the use of
relief clearly
mountains and coastal lowlands. Trace the
Red River and Mekong River

into
its
geographic fact that has been very important
Railroad" on page 993, and "The California Gold Rush"
features in one
mine
a lengthy mountainous border to
rela-
and compare the
compare the size of the countries to your state.

This map combines both physical and political
shows
South China Sea, and Gulf of Thailand. Vietnam also has
has lines of longitude
you can find the absolute loca-
tions of each of the national capitals

tive sizes
Mekong River
an entirely land-
is
to their deltas
what bodies of water each flows.
and deter-
on
1
this
page
What
is
answer
the special focus of the
2.
How
3.
What
4.
What do
is
the following questions.
map
map?
helpful in presenting this information?
special symbols, if any, are used
on the map?
the color variations or different lines
indicate?
SKILLS
HANDBOOK
995
READING CHARTS AND GRAPHS
Charts and graphs are used to organize and present infor-
of an organizational chart.
mation \isuall\. They categorize and display data
often,
variety ot ways,
depending on the type
ot chart or
in a
graph
mullicolumn chart
table
and compare. Tables, such as
Standards of Living, 1940-1955"
being used and the subject matter of the data. Several
"Changes
different types of charts and graphs are used in this
(below
iextbtK)k.
vary greatly or would be
CHARTS
HOW TO READ A CHART
ôu
arc already familiar with the time line,
which
is
a
1 .
chart that lists historical events according to their

chronological order. For an example of another kind of
displaying statistics that
right), are effective in
Read the
title.
more
that presents data in categories
that are easy to understand

in Material
a single, or
is
cumbersome
Read
the
title
in
graph form.
to identify the focus
or purpose of the chart.

2.
chronological chart, see the chart "Major Events of the
Study the chart's parts. Read

ings, subheadings,
Cold War"" on page 800.
and
the chart's head-
labels to identify the cate-
gories used and the specific data given for each
Other charts include fiowcharts. organizational

charts,
and tables.
category.
A flowchart shows
sequence of
events or the steps in a process. Cause-and-effect relation-
shown by flowcharts
ships are often
(see page 990).
3.
ranking or function of
its
An
Bodies of the United Nations" (below
left) is
an example
DECISION-MAKING BODIES
OF THE UNITED NATIONS
General Assembly
Sets policies.
Security Council
Resolves diplomatic,
and political disputes.
International
zational chart, follow directional arrows or lines.
4.
Put the data to use. Form

draw conclusions based on the
generalizations or
data.
Households Owning
Automobile
Handles international
1940
I9S5
50.0%
71.0%
76.1%
Television Set
0.0%
Refrigerator
44.0%
94.
Washing Machine
46.0%
84.1%
Clothes Dryer
0.0%
9.2%
Vacuum Cleaner
38.0%
64.3%
military,
Deals with human welfare and

fundamental rights and freedoms.
Court of Justice
reading
IN MATERIAL STANDARDS
OF LIVING, 1940-1955
Function
Social Council
When
viewing an organi-
CHANGES
Body
Economic and
reading quantities,
When
dates, note intervals of time.
internal parts
and the relationships between them. "Decision-Making
When
details.
note increases or decreases in amounts.
organizatiomil chart displays the structure of an organization, indicating the
Analyze the
legal
disputes.
Trusteeship Council
Supervises territories that

are not independent
Sources:
TTie
An Economic
Overworked Amencan; 1956
History of
Women
work
of the
"THE GOOD LIFE"
UN.
American consumers rushed

Sources: ErKydopîa ofAmcncan Historf Funk
MULTINATIONAL COOPERATION
in
order to give every
member
& Wagnalk New
Encydoptdia
The United Nations was

nation a voice in international
affairs.
The General Assembly includes over ISO countnes and uses
official
languages
English. Russian, French. Spanish,
Bfl ANALYZING
monitonng
Which body
military aggressions
to
Worid War
buy the
SKILLS
HANDBOOK
II
many
latest in
modem
conveniences.
experienced the greatest increase
Which item
ownership?
in
five
and Chmese.
of the United Nations
between nations?
After
is
responsible for
4 The
chart "Decision-Making Bodies of the United
Nations"
is
an organizational chart. "Changes in

940-1 955" is a table.
Material Standards of Living,
996
Stavstical Abstracu
America; The Proud Decodes
Performs routine administrative
Secretariat
established
in
GRAPHS
Analyze the data. Note increases or decreases in

quantities. Look for trends, relationships, and
3.
There are several types of graphs; eaeh has certain

advantages
displaying data for a particular emphasis.
in
graph plots changes
line
axis generally lists
other axis
is
numbers or percentages, while
marked off
in
The
periods of time.
4.
One
graph has a horizontal axis and a vertical axis.
line
changes
over time.
in quantities
Put the data to use. Use
the results of your
analysis to form generalizations and to draw
the
line
in the data.
conclusions.
is
created by plotting data on the grid formed by the inter-
secting axes and then connecting the dots. "Total
Immigration to the U.S., 1860-1900"

line graph.
in quantities
bar graph can be used
is
TOTAL IMMIGRATION TO THE

1860-1900
an example of a
U.S.,
changes
to display
over time. But most often bar graphs are
used to compare quantities within categories. For example, the
bar graphs in the "Allied and Central Resources,
1914-1918" chart on
this
page compare the military
resources of the Allied and Central powers during World
War
I.
A pie graph,
or circle graph, displays proportions
by showing sections of a whole

the
like slices of a pie,
whole equaling 100 percent. "Population
with
in the
South, 1860" on page 998 features two pie graphs.
860
1870
1890
1880
1900
Year
HOW TO READ A GRAPH

Source: Historical
1
Read the
ject
title.
Read
the
title
Statistics
to identify the sub-
COMING TO AMERICA
and purpose of the graph. Note the kind of
graph, remembering what each kind
is
the late
designed to
Immigration increased during
19th century, mainly due to an influx of people
from southern and eastern Europe.
emphasize.
2.
Study the
labels.
To

identify the type of informa-
average number of immigrants arriving
tion presented in the graph, read the labels that
in
What was
the
the United States
from 1870 to 1900?
define each axis, bar, or section of the graph.
ALLIED AND CENTRAL RESOURCES, I9I4-I9I8

87-
Allied
Central
Powers
Powers
c
</)
o 5-
2
I
0-1
Tanks
Produced
Aircraft
Major Naval
Strength,
Vessels,
1918
1914
Troops Mobilized
During the
Sources: Encyclopedia of Military History;
COMPARATIVE STRENGTHS
Concise History
At the beginning of the war,
and was the second greatest naval power. However, the

able to use their economic resources to surpass
Allied
Germany
What was
in
ofWWI
Germany had
countries mobilized
overall
War
the majority of aircraft
more troops and were
war production.
the total aircraft strength
in
1918?
SKILLS
HANDBOOK
i:
997
POPULATION
APPLYING YOUR
IN
THE SOUTH, I860

Slaveholding
Total
Population
SKILL
Households
1%
Stud) the pic iiraphs

ihc
i>n
Souths population
on the eve of the Civil

V^'ar.
From
the
vou can see

tively
first
2S%
graph
that rela-
few whites were

rOonsbvcholdinc
slaveholders; for every
one who was. about

three were not. But it
also
shows
blacks
that verv
in the
SUvM
Siavehoi<l.ng
Less than
whites
10 slaves
Others
Frbbcfcs
Sources Htstoncal Siatavcs ofibc United
States. Siovery
0-49
50-99 sUves
100 or
more
slaves
slaves
and ihe Southern Economy: The Rtock Amencan Reference Book
few
SLAVERY
South were
noi slaves (only about

in 17).
72%
2%
IN
THE SOUTH
Although slavery played an important part
in
the southern economy, only
a small minority of southerners owned slaves.

I
The second graph
focuses on a small seg-
South?
What
percent of
all
Whidi group made up
owned SO or more
slaveholders
the largest section of the population
the
slaves?
ment of the southern

population
slavehold-
ing households.
The graph shows
the population nearly 75 percent
w hile only
3 percent had
that
of
this
had fewer
What
segment of
type of data
illustrated,
is
and what intervals
are used for the horizontal axis and the vertical axis?
than 10 slaves,
Which decade shows
50 or more.
the greatest increase in
gration to the United States? At what
(approximately) does the level of immigration begin

Use the
line
to level out? In
What
graph on page 997 to answer the following
this
occur?
generalizations or conclusions can you draw

in this
graph?
STUDYING PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SOURCES
There are many sources of firsthand historical information, including diaries, letters, editorials,
menls such as w ills and

sources.
w hat year does
from the information
questions.
immi-
number
Newspaper
titles.
reports,
and
legal d(x:u-
All of these are primary-
tcx).
are considered primary
sources, although they are generally written after the

fact.
The same
is
photographs, and editorial cartoons that comprise history's visual record also are primary sources.
they permit a close-up look at the past
of events
sons
person's
life.
who
w ritten
after the events ha\ e occurred
by per-
did not participate in the e\ents. History books,
biographies, encyclopedias, and other reference works are
paintings.
examples of secondary sources. Writers of secondary
late
The
a chance to get
Secondary sources are descriptions or interpretations
true for
biographies, which are usu-
written
primary sources are valuable
historical tools.
personal memoirs and auto-
ally
minds
inside people's
Because
in
sources have the advantage of know ing the
long-range consequences of events. This
mxm-cjiiousA.
t,,Smf 4 JLuac
^..liiliUMi
know ledge helps shape
c..
Sv net
W^
. ,-_
^>
their analyses.
HOW TO STUDY PRIMARY

T
AND SECONDARY SOURCES

I.
Study the material carefully.

Consider the nature of the material.
verbal or visual? Is
e64^
it
Is
it
based on firsthand
information or on the accounts of others? Note the
major ideas and supporting
details.
1.
Consider the audience. Ask yourself: For

whom was this message meant originally? Whether a
2.
message was intended,
may have
influenced
Check
3.
its
2.
What advantage do secondary
3.
Why
Watch
signal a one-sided
should you consider the original audience of a
historical source?
for
words or phrases
that
4.
view of a person or event.
Of
the following, identify
which are primary
and which are secondary sources: a newspaper, a
When
4.
sources have over pri-
mary sources?
style or content.
for bias.
distinguishes secondary sources from primar\-
sources?
for instance, for the general
public or for a specific, private audience
What
possible, compare sources. Study

more than one source on a topic if available.
Comparing sources gives you a more complete,
deed
balanced account.
autobiography.
private journal, a biography, an editorial cartoon, a
to property, a snapshot of a family
magazine
on vacation,
about the history of the West, an
article
9 m CREATING AN OUTLINE
An
outline
logical
a tool for organizing information.
is
summary
that presents the
you have read or plan
to
communicate.
An
outline
An
important part of preparing to write a paper.

outline, for
is
and sketch the details
to express
to include for support.
structure.
It
An
must be fleshed out
outline
in use.
thorough and well thought out.
final
make up
is
much
product
it
is
if
idea of a paragraph.
an
that
you
an outline
makes writing
The sample
to
Note the several levels of headings
I.
tion belongs in an introduction,
\\
main
be highlighted
outline's
List
ideas.
in
Identify the
each section.
to leave for
Settlement of the Trans- Appalachian Wêst
B.
Access
them
i's
to
II.
2.
France regains control of Louisiana

a.
Threat to American trade
b.
Obstacle to U.S. westward expansion
A.
U.S. diplomats purchase Louisiana
Why France made

1
these your
Napoleon
the sale
fails to
build empire
the impor-
b.
Revolt in Saint Domingue (Haiti)
each main idea.
c.
French
2.
for naval base in
fail to
West Indies
regain Haiti
Napoleon needs money
for
war plans
Subheadings
no A's without
B's.
2"s.
Put your outline to use.
Structure your essay or
report according to your outline.
for instance, might
Orleans
Jefferson negotiates with France
as subheadings, using additional
in pairs, at the least:
without
New
Importance of the port of
Need
levels of subheadings as necessary.
must come
River
a.
supporting details. Determine

list
to the Mississippi
main headings.
Rank and
4.
main ideas
Make
tant details or facts that support
no
A.
hat informa-
the conclusion.
3.
Republicans favor westward expansion
what should make up
body of your paper, and what
Identify
that rank the parts of
Decide what you want
material with that in mind. Determine
2.
in
the outline.
emphasize or focus on. Order or classify your
the
below could have been used
the
easier.
Order your material.
outline
preparation for writing about the Louisiana Purchase.
HOW TO CREATE AN OUTLINE

1.
more
essay
only a skeletal
But
the content of the paragraph. In a
lengthy paper, each subheading might be the main
example, would highlight the main ideas that
you intend
want
is
It
main points of what
Each main heading,
form the basis
for a topic sen-
tence to begin a paragraph. Subheadings would then
Read
the subsection in Chapter 17 titled
Reform" (pages 525-26). Then, using
"Urban Moral
the information
you have gained here, create an outline
that
you could
HANDBOOK
999
use in writing about this subject.
SKILLS
DOING RESEARCH
to
Title
I
To complete lesc.nch papers or

special projects, you may need to use
Author
American history in 100 nutshells.
resources other than this textbook.
Tulela, Tad, 1944American history in 100

nutshells / Tad Tuleja. -- 1st ed.
-- New Yo:irk
Fawcett Columbine,
973
Conducting research generally

requires you to seek out the
TUL
resources a\ ailable in a library.
1992.
xiii, 241
21 cm.
Publisher
number
Call
FINDING INFORMATION
To
find a particular book,
(Library of Congress
Catalog number)
you need
know how libraries organize their

materials. Books of fiction are
to
alphabetized according to the
Includes index.
ISBN 0-449-90346-X (pbk.
1.
United States --History-Miscellanea.
I.
Title
II. Title:
American history in one hundred
nutshells.
E179.T85 1992
last
973
Other headings
name of
the author.
To
classify nonunder which book
fiction books, libraries use the

is
Dewey decimal system and
listed
the
Library of Congress system. Both
systems assign each book a call number that

its
To
The catalog
if
ject,
it
you
is
lists
books by author, by
you know the author or
simple. If you do not
just
want
to find
title
know
title,
and
or gazetteers
significant natural
list
of the book,
any book about a general sub-
computerized card catalogs,
Some libraries have

which can make searching
for specific information easier.
book's location. They can also sug-
maps and
included. Atlases contain
visual representa-
tions of geographic data.
To
find up-to-date facts about a subject,
you can use
almanacs, yearbooks, and periodical indexes. References

like
The World Almanac and Book of Facts include
torical information
lation, the
Librarians can assist you in using the card catalog

to a
guides, statistical data, and brief descriptions are also
this information.
look up that subject heading.
and direct you
dictionaries
physical features and place-names. Pronunciation
find the number, look in the library's card
subject. If
finding
or
you
classification.
catalog.
by
tells
and a variety of
statistics
his-
about popu-
environment, sports, and so on. Encyclopedia
yearbooks keep up with recent, significant developments

not fully covered in encyclopedia articles.
Periodical indexes, especially The Readers' Guide to
gest additional resources.
Periodical Literature, can help you locate articles published in magazines.
USING RESOURCES
the
In a library's reference section,
you
will find encyclope-
dias, specialized dictionaries, atlases, almanacs,
indexes to recent material
in
and
magazines and newspapers.
Encyclopedias often will be your best resource.

Encyclopedias include biographical sketches of important historical figures: geographic,
cal data
on individual nations,
economic, and
states,
and
politi-
cities;

1
2.
field.
In
w hat two ways
What
are nonfiction
books classified?
kinds of references contain information about
geography?
3.
Where would you look
to find recent coverage of a
political or social issue?

4.
Specialized dictionaries exist for almost every
stories published in the Times, the U.S. daily
national and world events.
cultural issues. Entries often include cross-references to
related articles.
catalogs
newspaper with perhaps the most in-depth coverage of
and
discussions of historical events and religious, social, and
news
The New York Times Index
Would you look

American
in
an encyclopedia, an
atlas,
or an
history dictionary to find each of the fol-
of Guatemala (b) a
Historical dictionaries such as The Concise Dictionary-
lowing items?
of American History include definitions of historical
biography of Julius Caesar
terms as well as brief descriptions of important laws,
Taft-Hartley Act (d) the major industries of
court cases, social movements, and more. Geographical
Cleveland. Ohio
1000
SKILLS
HANDBOOK
(a) the latitude
(c) the
purpose of the
WRITING A PAPER
11
Boxer's The American Nation provides you with numer-
SOME TYPES OF WRITING
ous writing opportunities. Section reviews have writing
exercises (labeled Writing to Inform, Writing to

Persuade, and so on) that give you the chance to write
about a historical subject with a particular focus in mind.
experiences and recollections (or those of
Chapter reviews contain additional opportunities
someone
diary
an informal, personal log of your
is
else in history). Entries are dated
and consist of brief accounts of the day's hap-
for writing.
penings and your reactions.
WRITING WITH A PURPOSE
letter
is
communication meant
a personal
for a specific individual.
Always keep your purpose
for writing in mind. That
purpose might be to analyze, to evaluate, to synthesize,

to inform, to persuade, to
it
will help
a product or event. Effective ads are

direct and to the point, using memorable
hypothesize, or to take a
language, such as jingles and slogans, to high-
different purpose for writing requires
its
important features.
light
you evaluate how well you
have succeeded.
Each
an announcement to
is
promote
stand. As you begin, your purpose will determine the

most appropriate approach to take; and when you
are done,
An advertisement
own
newspaper editorial
an opinion or point of
form, tone, and content. The point of view you are
is
a public statement of
viev^.
It
takes a stand
on
an issue and gives reasons for that stand.
adopting will shape what you write, as will your

intended audience. For example, you would take a
different tone
when
you would use with
writing to a president from the tone

a relative.
i.
Identify
your purpose
Read
in writing.
the
directions carefully to identify the purpose for your
Many
writing opportunities in Boyer's The American
newspaper
or an advertisement. Often such
editorial, a
Vv'riting
involves using historical imagination
2.
Consider your audience. When
writing for a
choose the tone and
style that will
specific audience,
poem,
best
An
about history
3.
that
is,
may
Create an outline. Think and

begin writing your
require, for instance, that
you write
4.
many
historical crisis.
5.
HOW TO WRITE A PAPER

will
in this
whether you are writing
textbook
how
first
remember
draft
more
effective
and evaluate
to use
tions
column (which apply especially
can help you plan and improve
6.
if
necessary.
if
you have
it.
show
the relationships
a single
main idea or
Be
care-
between ideas and
sentences
that build
to
connec-
between paragraphs.
Review and
draft
In your
your outline as a guide.
of related ideas, with details for support.
use proper transitions
a diary entry
should follow certain basic steps. The guidelines
your writing.
Write a
ful to
to
an essay about the significance of the frontier, you
to longer papers)
an outline.
details at hand.
first draft,
set
describing your experiences as a western pioneer or
outlined in the second
will be
Each paragraph should express
have specific directions about what and
write. But
details into
Collect information. Do research
Your writing
as if living through a specific
Each writing opportunity provided
and supporting
plan before you
Organize themes, main
first draft.
you
address a particular historical figure, such as a former

president, or that
in
writing
ideas,
assignment
purpose
communicate your message.
from the perspective of a person living then rather than

now.
mind
you plan and
that
write your paper.
Nation ask you to create a specific type of writing, such

as a diary entry, a letter, a
Keep
as
writing.
HISTORICAL IMAGINATION
as needed
edit.
to
Revise and reorganize your
make your
points.
Improve sen-
tences by adding appropriate adjectives and adverbs.
Make your
writing clearer by changing the length or
structure of
awkward
sentences. Replace inexact
SKILLS
HANDBOOK
1001
wording wiih more precise word choices. Then
check for proper spelUng. punctuation, and grammar.

7.
Write your
final version.
final version.
Appearance
is
Prepare a neat, clean

important:
your writing
affect the quality of
can affect the way your writing
itself,
is
but
it
you a
comes
to taking a test, for history or
any other
far better
chance for success than hours of
from distractions
late-
is
not
all
you can do
to
test
and
1.
you take
to edit a first draft?
Keep your answer
clear and brief, but cover all
Prepare beforehand. This

the material prior to the lest.
some
of the
2.
Preview the
may wish
material that you
the
4.
Skim through
the entire test to
which areas of
the
difficult for you. You

allow yourself more time to work on
to
difficult sections.
will face
several basic types
5.
A Homework by Winslow Homer
Do
not "watch the
move on to the next question. It is

answer as many questions as you can within
an answer,
know
of choice.
go through the
of.
entire
Then study any
Read essay questions
doing a matching
list,
matching those
that remain.
carefully so that you
and
know
How
can you improve your chances on multiple-
choice questions?
2.
outline of the main ideas and
HANDBOOK
to catch
grammar.
1.
supporting details that you plan to include in your

SKILLS
return
are wrong: this will
When
exactly what you are being asked to write. If time
make an
you have time,
correct any mistakes in spelling, punctuation, or
multiple choice, matching, and
nate any answers that you

field
If
you skipped or were unsure of and
work on them. Review your essays
on
tests:
Review your answers.

to questions that
essay. In answering multiple-choice questions, elimi-
you are sure
test.
the lime limit.
under pressure.
of questions
Concentrate on the
best to
new
something
permits,
more
know
than tr\'ing to learn
first
you are being
clock." but stay aware of the time. If you do not
causes less stress
exercise,
if
takes
and
narrow your
instructions care-
examination will be the most
review. Reviewing
U.S. history
test.
section. Try to anticipate
mere matter of
You
all
determine how much time you have for each
taking a test into
time
Read
Listen closely, particularly
written instructions.
3.
less
means being
told the directions rather than being given
and
you read can turn
know
also
It
test.
Follow directions.
fully.
taking careful notes
already
all-important
physically rested and mentally focused on the day
can also help.
assignments
1002
steps should
step not only involves studying and reviewing
improve
your daily reading
that
important to consider the audience for
you are writing?
HOW TO TAKE A TEST
Keeping up with
it
affect
necessary points.
test-taking
basic
as
What
essay.
scores.
test
Mastering
skills
cramming.
But keeping your mind focused on the
your
is
should
night's sleep added to consistent study habits give
night, last-minute
free
Why
whom
3.
subject, nothing can take the place of preparation.
good
What factor more than any other

how and what you write? Why?
TAKING A TEST
î
it
2.
perceived
and understocxl.
When
1.
ma> not
it
Why
is
it
important to skim through the entire
test
before you begin?

3.
Name
three things that can help
you
in taking
test.
HISTORICAL DOCUMENTS
9!homas Jefferson's Jirst inaugural Address

March
Friends and Fellow Citizens.
1801
4,
Let us, then, with courage and confidence pursue
our
All
will bear in
mind
that will to be rightful
sacred principle, that
this
though the will of the majority
in all cases to prevail,
is
must be reasonable;
that the
minority possess their equal rights, which equal law
must
and
protect,
to violate
would be oppression.
Let
with one heart and one
us. then, fellow citizens, unite
own
ment
Federal and Republican principles, our attach-
union and representative government. Kindly
to
separated by nature and a wide ocean from the exterminating havoc of one quarter of the globe; too high-minded
to
endure the degradations of the others; possessing a cho-
room enough
sen country, with
for our descendants to the
thousandth and thousandth generation; entertaining a due
own
mind. Let us restore to social intercourse [dealings] that
sense of our equal right to the use of our
harmony and
the acquisitions of our
own
dence from our fellow
citizens, resulting not
life itself
which
affection without
And
are but dreary things.
and even
liberty
us reflect that,
let
industry, to
faculties, to
honor and confi-
from
birth,
having banished from our land that religious intolerance
but from our actions and their sense of them; enlightened
under which mankind so long bled and suffered, we
by a benign rehgion, professed, indeed, and practiced
have yet gained
little if
we countenance
cal intolerance as despotic, as

bitter
and bloody persecutions.
of opinion
are
be any
all
among
turbed as
opinion
combat
us
its
But every difference
We
is
same
the
Union
them stand undiswhich error of
the safety with
tolerated
If there
to dissolve this
let
where reason
is left
free to
some honest men
that
government cannot be strong,
not strong enough; but
would
the honest
far kept us free
aban-
government, the world's best hope,
want energy
to preserve itself?
may by
trust not.
believe
believe
it
the only one
where every man,
that
possibility
on the contrary, the strongest government on
this,
earth.
at the call
of the law. would fly to the standard of the law, and
would meet invasions of the public order

sonal concern.
Sometimes
it
is
own perman cannot
as his
said that
be trusted with the government of himself. Can he. then,

be trusted with the government of others?
found angels
in the
Or have we
forms of kings to govern him? Let
history answer this question.
various forms, yet
of them inculcating [implanting]
all
honesty, truth, temperance, gratitude, and the love of man;
acknowledging and adoring an overruling Providence,

which by
all its
happiness of
with
after
make
dispensations proves that
man
all
it
more
shall restrain
a wise
men from
necessary to
is
us a happy and a prosperous people?
which
delights in the
here and his greater happiness here-
these blessings, what
more, fellow citizens
Still
one thing
and frugal government,
injuring one another, shall
leave them otherwise free to regulate their
own
pursuits of
industry and improvement, and shall not take from the
mouth of labor
the bread
good government, and

of our
felicities
About
and firm
on the theoretic [hypothetical] and visionary fear

this
fear
that this
patriot, in the full tide of successful experiment,
don a government which has so
have
principle.
are all Federalists.
who would wish
know, indeed,
that a republican
government
we
republican form,
monuments of
may be
it.
names brethren of
Republicans;
or to change
not a difference of principle.
is
called by different
We
[allow] a politi-
wicked, and capable of as
in
duties
has earned. This
this is
the
sum of
necessary to close the circle
to enter, fellow citizens,
on the exercise of
which comprehend [include] everything dear and
deem
it
is
proper you should understand what
the essential principles of our
government and
consequently those which ought to shape

tion.
is
[good intentions].
valuable to you,
I
it
will
its
administra-
compress them within the narrowest com-
pass they will bear, stating the general principle, but not
all its limitations.
whatever
state or
Equal and exact justice to
all
men, of
persuasion religious or political; peace,
commerce, and honest friendship with
all
nations, entan-
gling alliances with none; the support of the state gov-
ernments
in all their rights, as the
most competent
administrations for our domestic concerns and the surest
1003
bulwarks (defenses) against ami-republican tendencies;

the presenation of the general
government
in its
whole
constitutional vigor, as the sheet anchor [main support]
of our peace
at
home and
safety abroad; a jealous care of
the right of election by the people
a mild and
safe
which are lopped by the sword of
corrective of abuses
repair, then, fellow citizens, to the post
assigned me. With experience enough
in
you have
subordinate
offices to have seen the difficulties of this the greatest of

all. I
to expect that
have learned
of imperfect
man
from
to retire
and the favor
tation
v\
will rarely fall to the lot
it
this station
him
hich bring
into
w ith
it.
the repu-
Without pre-
you reposed
revolution \\here peaceable remedies are unprovided;
tensions to that high confidence
absolute acquiescence in [submission to] the decisions of
and greatest revolutionary character [Washington] whose
from w hich
the majority, the vital principle of republics,

[there] is
no appeal but
immediate parent of despotism; a well-disciplined

our best reliance
tia,
of war,
may
regulars
till
in
peace and for the

relieve them; the
the civil over the military authority:

lic
expense, that labor
est
and
to force, the vital principle
may be
first
supremacy of
economy
lightly
mili-
moments
in the
pub-
burdened; the hon-
payment of our debts and sacred preser\ ation of
public faith; encouragement of agriculture, and of
merce as
its
the
com-
handmaid; the diffusion of information and
arraignment [bringing up] of
abuses
all
at
the bar of the
pre-eminent services had entitled him to the
and destined for him the
his country's love
the
volume of
only as
may
tration of
faithful history.
ask so
your
affairs.
wrong by those whose

of the whole ground.
w hich
shall often
positions
if
seen
in all
to
me
by juries impartially selected. These
be
to retain the
principles form the bright constellation
which has gone
before us and guided our steps through an age of revolution
and reformation. The wisdom of our sages and
it
in
ment. They should be the creed of our political
faith, the
of civic instruction, the touchstone by which to
the services of those
from them
we
moments of
in
and
to retrace our steps
trust;
try
and should we wander
error or of alarm,
to regain the road
let
us hasten
which alone
leads to peace, liberty, and safety.
*Habeas corpus:
iew
my own
my
is
a great consolation
future solicitude [concern] will
good opinion of those w ho ha\ e bestow ed
all
the
good
in
my
power, and to be instru-
mental to the happiness and freedom of all.

Relying, then, on the patronage of your good
I
advance with obedience
from
it
choice
to the
it is
in
your power to make.
And may
w ill.
to retire
better
that Infinite
rules the destinies of the universe lead our
councils to what
is
best,
and give them a favorable issue
your peace and prosperity.
legal provision guaranteeing a prisoner or detainee the right to
work, ready
whenever you b>ecome sensible how much
Power which
for
the cause of his or her detention, as a protection against illegal
advance, to conciliate [win over] that of others by
doing them
blood of our heroes ha\ e been de\ oted to their attain-
text
and
be thought
command
w ho ma\ condemn vs hat ihe\

its parts. The approbation
and freedom of person under the protection of the habeas
for the past,
not
be intentional, and your support
public reason; freedom of religion; freedom of the press;
trial
in
go wrong through
shall often
w ill
[approval] implied by your suffrage
corpus.* and
page
confidence
ask your indulgence for
will never
against the errors of others,
would not
place in
first
fairest
much
first
give firmness and effect to the legal adminis-
defect of judgment. WTien right.
errors,
our
in
be informed of
imprisonmenL
[HISTORICAL
DOCUMENT
Tfie Monroe Doctrine

December:. 1823
At the proposal of the Russian Imperial Government, made through the minister of the Emperor
residing here, a full
power and
instructions have been
transmitted to the minister of the United States at
St.
Petersburg to arrange by amicable negotiations the

respective rights and interests of the
northwest coast of
this continent.
two nations on
the
similar proposal
the great value
which they have invariably attached
to
the friendship of the Emf)eror and their solicitude to cultivate the best understanding with his
government. In the
discussions to which this interest has given rise and in

the arrangements
by which they may terminate the occa-
sion has been judged proper for asserting, as a principle

in
w hich
the rights and interests of the United States are
had been made by His Imperial Majesty to the govern-
involved, that the .American continents, by the free and
which has likew ise been acceded
independent condition which they have assumed and
ment of Great
[agreed]
to.
Britain,
The government of
been desirous by
I
004
this friendly
the United States has
proceeding of manifesting
maintain, are henceforth not to be considered as subjects

for future colonization
by any European powers.
The
citizens of the United States cherish senti-
ments the most friendly
men on
ness of their fellow
Europe].
In the
it
of the Atlantic
that side
wars of the European powers
relating to themselves
does
of the liberty and happi-
in favor
we have
never taken any
comport with our policy
to
do
so.
It is
lin
nor
part,
only
when
we
our rights are invaded or seriously menaced that
make preparation
resent injuries or
With the movements

sity
in this
for our defense.
hemisphere we are of neces-
more immediately connected, and by causes which
authorities of this gov-
of the United States indispensable to their security.
The
matters
in
judgment of the competent
in the
ernment, shall make a corresponding change on the part
Europe
late
is
events
Spain and Portugal show that
in
unsettled.
still
Of
important fact no
this
stronger proof can be adduced [offered] than that the
powers should have thought
allied
proper,
it
To what extent
force in the internal concerns of Spain.
may be
carried,
prin-
have interposed by
ciple satisfactory to themselves, to
such interposition
on any
on the same principle,
must be obvious to all enlightened and impartial

observers. The political system of the allied powers
is
[Holy Alliance]*
most remote, and surely none more so than the United
from
that
exists in their respective
the defense of our

loss of
essentially different in this respect
America. This difference proceeds from
that of
which
is
governments; and to
own. which has been achieved by the
much blood and
and matured by the
treasure,
wisdom of their most enlightened citizens, and under

which we have enjoyed unexampled felicity, this whole
nation is devoted. We owe it. therefore, to candor and to
the amicable relations existing
and those powers
between the United States
to declare that
we
should consider any
which
a question in
governments
differ
all
from
States.
Our policy
adopted
at
independent powers whose
theirs are interested,
even those
regard to Europe, which was
in
an early stage of the wars which have so long
agitated that quarter of the globe, nevertheless remains

the same,
which
cerns of any of
not to interfere in the internal con-
is,
its
de facto [such as
powers; to consider the government
government for
as the legitimate
it is]
us; to cultivate friendly relations with
and
it.
to preserve
those relations by a frank, firm, and manly policy, meeting in
all
instances the just claims of every power, sub-
attempt on their part to extend their system to any por-
mitting to injuries from none. But in regard to those
hemisphere as dangerous to our peace and
continents [North and South America] circumstances are
tion of this
safety.
With the existing colonies or dependencies of
any European power, we have not interfered and shall

not interfere. But with the governments
who have
declared their independence and maintained
whose independence we have, on
it,
and
great consideration
and on just principles, acknowledged,
we
could not view
any interposition for the purpose of oppressing them, or

controlling in any other
European power
in
manner
any other
light than as the manifesta-
toward the United
tion of an unfriendly disposition

States. In the
Spain,
we
war between those new governments and
declared our neutrality
recognition, and to this
we have
tinue to adhere, provided

*Holy Alliance:
by any
their destiny,
alliance
at the
time of their
adhered, and shall con-
no change
shall
occur which.
eminently and conspicuously different.

that the allied
tem
to
powers should extend
It is
impossible
their political sys-
any portion of either continent without endanger-
ing our peace and happiness; nor can anyone believe that
our southern brethren [Latin Americans],

selves,
would adopt
it
of their
impossible, therefore, that

position in any
we
own
them-
if left to
accord.
equally
It is
should behold such inter-
form with indifference.
If
we look
to the
comparative strength and resources of Spain and those
new governments and

must be obvious
still
their distance
that she
from each
other,
can never subdue them.
it
It is
the true policy of the United States to leave the par-
ties to
themselves, in the hope that other powers will
pursue the same course.
between France. Austria, Russia, and Prussia.
HISTORICAL DOCUMENT
The Seneca Jails

Declaration of Sentiments
July 19-20, 1848
When,
in the
course of
human
events,
it
necessary for one portion of the family of
becomes
man
assume among the people of the earth a position

ent
from
that
to
which the laws of nature and of nature's God
entitle
to
them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind
differ-
requires that they should declare the causes that impel
which they have hitherto occupied, but one
them
to
such a course.
1005
Wc
men and women

eiuKmed by
among
that
be self-evident: that
tu)kl these iruths to
are created equal; that they are
their Creator with certain inalienable rights:
these are
life, liberty,
and the pursuit of hap-
governments are
piness; that to secure these rights
destructive of these ends,
and
it.
new government,
to insist
employ agents,
state
shall
circulate tracts [pamphlets], petition the
and national
legislatures,
and the press
pulpit
We
in
our behalf.
by a
tion will be followed
and endeavor
every part of the country.
series
We
hope
to enlist the
this
conven-
of conventions embracing
laying
seem most
shall
its
suf-
upon
and transient causes; and accordingly
for light
Resolved, That
in
likely to effect
governments long established should not be
dictate that
Resolutions
founda-
powers
its
and happiness. Prudence, indeed, will
their safety
changed
them
to
who
the right of those
on such principles, and organizing
such form, as
all
is
it
to refuse allegiance to
it
the institution of a
tion
[means] within our power to effect our object.
Whenever any form of government becomes
governed.
from
insti-
powers from the consent of the
tuted, deriv ing their just
fer
all
shall dictate, or
which place her
in a position inferior to
authority.
woman
Resolved, That
her conscience
to the great precept of nature,
no force or
and, therefore, of
experience has shown that mankind are more dis-
in society as
man, are contrary
that of
woman from
laws which prevent
all
occupying such a station
man's equal
is
was
posed to suffer while evils are sufferable [bearable], than
intended to be so by the Creator, and the highest good
themselves by abolishing the forms to which
of the race demands that she should be recognized as
to right
they were accustomed. But
when
a long train of abuses
such.
them under
absolute despotism,
is
it
throw off such gov-
their duty to
ernment, and to provide new guards for their future secu-
Such has been the
rity.
the
women
under
patient sufferance [suffering] of
government, and such
this
necessity which constrains them to
which they are
station to
The
injuries
history of
is
demand
now
the
Scriptures have
should move
establishment of an
absolute tyranny over her. To prove

.
Having deprived her of
marked out
in the
for her.
and
that
it is
time she
enlarged sphere which her great
Creator has assigned her.

Resolved, That
is
it
the duty of the
women
of this
country to secure to themselves their sacred right to the

a history of repeated
is
in direct object the
submitted to a candid world.
has too long rested satisfied
toms and a perverted [misdirected] application of the
elective franchise.
and usurpations on the part of man toward
woman, having
woman
circumscribed [narrow] limits which corrupt cus-
in the
the equal
entitled.
mankind
Resolved, That
and usurpations [seizures] pursuing invariably the same

object evinces [reveals] a design to reduce
this, let facts
be
Resolved, That the equality of
rights results
essential character] of the race in capabilities and

responsibilities.
of a citizen,
this first right
human
necessarily from the fact of the identity [sameness of
That, being invested by the
Resolved, Therefore,
the elective franchise [right to vote], thereby leaving her
Creator with the same capabilities, and the same con-
without representation
sciousness of responsibility for their exercise,
oppressed her on
He
civilly dead.
Now,
all
made
has
.
in
in the halls
of legislation, he has
eye of the law.
this entire
disfranchisement [loss
of right to vote] of one half of the people of this country,

their social
and religious degradation
view of the
in
unjust laws above mentioned, and because

feel
deprived of their most sacred rights,
which belong
to
In entering
pate no small
tion,
women do
themselves aggrieved, oppressed, and fraudulently
have immediate admission
and
006
them as
upon
we
insist that they
to all the rights
and privileges
citizens of the United States.
the great
work before
us.
we
antici-
amount of misconception, misrepresenta-
ridicule; but
we
is
demonstrably the right and duty of woman, equally with
sides.
her. if married, in the
view of
it
shall use ever>
instrumentality
man.
to
promote every righteous cause by every
eous means; and especially
in
jects of morals
it is
and
religion,
right-
regard to the great subself-evidently her right
to participate with her brother in teaching them, both in
private
and
in public,
by writing and by speaking, by any
instrumentalities proper to be used, and in any assemblies proper to
be held.
Resolved, That the speedy success of our cause
depends upon the zealous and untiring
men and women,
for the
the pulpit, and for the securing to

ticipation with
men
and commerce.
efforts of both
overthrow of the monopoly of
in the
women
an equal par-
various trades, professions,
HISTORICAL DOCUMENT
TAte
tmancipation Proclamation
January
BY THE PRESIDENT OF
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
1,
1863
in
claimed for the

first
purpose so to do, publicly pro-
period of one hundred days from the
full
day above mentioned, order and designate as the
and parts of
states
A Proclamation
my
accordance with
states
respectively, are this
day
wherein the people thereof,
in rebellion against the
United
States the following, to wit:
Whereas on
the twenty-second day of September.
A.D. 1862. a proclamation
was issued by
the United States, containing,
among
the President of
other things, the
following, to wit [namely]:
'That on the
first
day of January, a.d. 1863,
all
persons held as slaves within any state or designated part

of a
people whereof shall then be
state, the
in rebellion
against the United States, shall be then, thenceforward,
and forever
and the executive government of the
free;
United States, including the military and naval authority

thereof, will recognize
and maintain the freedom of such
persons and will do no act or acts to repress such persons

or any of them, in any efforts they
may make
for their
Arkansas. Texas. Louisiana (except the parishes of
Bernard. Plaquemines, Jefferson,
St.
aforesaid,
by proclamation, designate the
of states,
if
St.
the city of
New
States;
shall
that
and parts
Martin, and Orleans, including
Orleans), Mississippi, Alabama. Florida,
Georgia. South Carolina. North Carolina, and Virginia
(except the forty-eight counties designated as West

Virginia, and also the counties of Berkeley,
Accomac,
Northampton, Elizabeth
Anne, and
Norfolk,
including
City, York, Princess
the
cities
Portsmouth), and which excepted

sent left precisely as
if this
aforesaid.
power and
virtue of the
tive
government of the United
day be
state or the
good
in
people thereof
faith represented in the
tary
shall be, free;
States, including the mili-
And
hereby enjoin [order] upon the people so
declared to be free to abstain from
voters of such states shall have participated shall, in the
necessary self-defense; and
absence of strong countervailing [opposing] testimony,
all
be deemed conclusive evidence that such
able wages.
therefore,
the United States,
I,
Abraham
Lincoln, President of
by virtue of the power
in
me
vested as
Commander-in-Chief of the Army and Navy of

the authority
as a
fit
in
when
I
all
violence, unless in
recommend
to
them
that, in
allowed, they labor faithfully for reason-
further declare and
make known
that such
persons of suitable condition will be received into the
United States."
United States
cases
And
people thereof are not then in rebellion against the
Now.
that the execu-
and naval authorities thereof, will recognize and
thereto at elections wherein a majority of the qualified
and the
and
maintain the freedom of said persons.
Congress of the United States by members chosen
state
for the purpose
that all persons held as
slaves within said designated states and parts of states
then be in rebellion against the United

any
and
parts are for the pre-
proclamation were not
do order and declare
and henceforward
fact that
of Norfolk
issued.
are,
and the
on
states
St.
thereof, respec-
any, in
tively, shall
which the people
day of January
Mary,
Lafourche,
And by
first
St.
Charles, St. James. Ascension, Assumption, Terrebonne.
actual freedom.
"That the Executive will on the
John.
St.
the
time of actual armed rebellion against
and government of the United
States,
and
and necessary war measure for suppressing said
rebeUion, do, on this
first
day of January,
a.d. 1863,
and
armed service of
the United States to garrison forts,
positions, stations,
and other places, and to
of
all sorts in
man
vessels
said service.
And upon
this act, sincerely
believed to be an act
of justice, warranted by the Constitution upon military

necessity,
invoke the considerate judgment of mankind
and the gracious favor of Almighty God.
:: 1007
[historical documentI
Abraham
November
Four score and seven years ago our laihers brought
on
forth
this continent a
and dedicated
new
nation, conceived in liberty,
to the proposition that all
men
are created
whether
that
engaged
are
in a great civil
war, testing
nation, or any nation so conceived and so
We
dedicated can long endure.
We
of that war.
field
1863
here, have consecrated
met on a great
their lives that that nation
might
us
live. It is
altogether
fit-
we should do this.
we cannot dedicate we
we cannot hallow this
cannot consecrate [make holy]
ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled
and proper
that
But, in a larger sense,
above our poor power
to
for us. the living, rather, to be dedi-
It is
work which they who fought
here have thus far so nobly advanced.

to
here gave
far
cated here to the unfinished
battle-
who
it
add or detract. The world will little note nor long

remember what we say here, but it can never forget what
to dedicate a portion of
are
have come
that field as a final resting place for those
ting
19,
they did here.
equal.
Now we
Address
Cincoln's Qettysburg
rather for us
It is
be here dedicated to the great task remaining before
that
from these honored dead we take increased
devotion to that cause for which they gave the
measure of devotion;
we
that
last full
here highly resolve that
these dead shall not have died in vain; that this nation,
under God.
have a new
shall
birth of freedom;
government of the people, by the people,

shall not perish
from the
earth.
and
that
for the people,
J*
[HISTORICAL DOCUMENTI
The Jourteen Points

Januarys, 1918
Gentlemen of the Congress:
tutions, be assured of justice
and
dealing by the
fair
other peoples of the world as against force and selfish

will
be our wish and purpose that the processes of
when
they are begun, shall be absolutely open and
It
peace,
that they shall involve
and permit henceforth no secret
aggression. All the peoples of the world are in effect

partners in this interest, and for our
clearly that unless justice be
understandings of any kind. The day of conquest and
done
aggrandizement
is
is
gone by; so
covenants entered into
ments and
of particular govern-
some unlooked-for moment
likely at
the peace of the world.

the
also the day of secret
is
in the interest
It is
this
happy
fact,
to upset
now
clear to
view of every public man whose thoughts do not
linger in an age that
is
sible for every nation
justice
dead and gone, which makes
whose purposes
and the peace of the world
other time the objects
We
it
to
it
still
pos-
are consistent with
avow now
or at any
has in view.
entered this war because violations of right had
of our
own
people impossible unless they were cor-
rected and the world secured once for
What we demand
recurrence.
fit
and safe
It
is
against their
that the
is
world be
and particularly that
it
be
safe for every peace-loving nation which, like our
own. wishes
1008
to live in;
all
war. therefore,
in this
nothing peculiar to ourselves.
made
made
to live
its
own
life,
The program of
determine
its
own
insti-
done
part
to others
we
it
see very
will not be
the world's peace, therefore,
our program; and that program, the only possible pro-
we see it, is this:

Open covenants of peace, openly
gram, as
I.
which there
shall
arrived
at,
after
be no private international understand-
ings of any kind but diplomacy shall proceed always

frankly and in the public view.
II.
Absolute freedom of navigation upon the seas,
outside territorial waters, alike in peace and in war.

except as the seas
occurred which touched us to the quick and made the

life
to us.
own
may be
closed in whole or in part by
international action for the enforcement of international
covenants.
III.
nomic
The removal, so
barriers
far as possible, of all eco-
and the establishment of an equality of
trade conditions
among
all
the nations consenting to the
peace and associating themselves for

IV.
national
its
maintenance.
Adequate guarantees given and taken

armaments
will
that
be reduced to the lowest point
consistent with domestic safety.
V.
free,
adjustment of
open-minded, and absolutely impartial
all
upon a
colonial claims, based
observance of the principle
that in
determining
strict
such
all
The Turkish
XII.
Ottoman
portions of the present
Empire should be assured a secure sovereignty, but

other nationalities which are
now under Turkish
the
rule
questions of sovereignty the interests of the populations
should be assured an undoubted security of
concerned must have equal weight with the equitable
absolutely unmolested opportunity of autonomous devel-
claims of the government whose
opment, and the Dardanelles should be permanently
title
is
be
to
opened
determined.
VI.
The evacuation of
such a settlement of
all
Russian territory and
and commerce of
nations under international guarantees.
all
An independent
XIII.
questions affecting Russia as will
all
as a free passage to the ships
and an
life
Polish state should be
secure the best and freest cooperation of the other
erected which should include territories inhabited by
unhampered
indisputably Polish populations, which should be
nations of the world in obtaining for her an
and unembarrassed opportunity for the independent
own
determination of her
development and
political
welcome
into
the society of free nations under institutions of her
own
national policy and assure her of a sincere
choosing; and, more than a welcome, assistance also of
every kind that she
may need and may
The treatment accorded Russia by her

the
months
to
will, of their
come
herself desire.
sister nations in
will be the acid test of their
comprehension of her needs
guished from their
own
interests,
and of
as distin-
their intelligent
whole world
sovereignty which she enjoys in
No
will agree,
must be
serve to restore confidence
government of
Without
this
common
with
all
among
set
VIII. All
is
affording mutual guarantees of political independence
and
territorial integrity to great
and small
states alike.
In regard to these essential rectifications [righting]
of wrong and assertions of right

intimate partners of
the
all
we
feel ourselves to
be
governments and peoples
We cannot
purpose. We stand
together until the end.
For such arrangements and covenants we are willing

to fight
and
to continue to fight until they are achieved;
but only because

just
one another.
we wish
should be freed and the
the right to prevail and desire a
and stable peace such as can be secured only by
removing the chief provocations
gram does not remove.

greatness, and there
forever impaired.
territory
be separated in interest or divided in
the nations in the
their relation with
French
by international covenant.
general association of nations must be
and determined for
healing act the whole structure and validity
of international law
formed under specific covenants for the purpose of
other
other single act will serve as this will
laws which they have themselves

the
XIV.
territorial
associated together against the Imperialists.
evacuated and restored, without any attempt to limit the
free nations.
and economic independence and
integrity should be guaranteed
good
and unselfish sympathy.

VII. Belgium, the
assured a free and secure access to the sea, and whose

political
impairs
it.
We
We
is
to war.
which
this pro-
have no jealousy of German
nothing in this program that
grudge her no achievement or distinction
invaded portions restored, and the wrong done to France
of learning or of pacific [peaceful] enterprise such as have
by Prussia
made her record very
in
1871 in the matter of Alsace-Lorraine,
which has unsettled the peace of the world

once more be made secure
IX.
for nearly
should be righted, in order that peace
fifty years,
in the interest
of
may
all.
readjustment of the frontiers of Italy shall be
effected along clearly recognizable lines of nationality.
X. The peoples of Austria-Hungary, whose place
among
the nations
we wish
to see
safeguarded and
assured, should be accorded the freest opportunity of
wish to injure her or

influence or power.
free
and secure access
to the sea;
and the relations of the
block in any
do not wish
way
her legitimate
to fight her either
she
if
is
willing to associate herself with us and the other peace-
loving nations of the world in covenants of justice and law
and
fair dealing.
We
wish her only to accept a place of
among the peoples of the world

which we now live. instead of a place
equality
in
Neither do
XI. Rumania, Serbia, and Montenegro should be
to
We
with arms or with hostile arrangements of trade
autonomous development.
evacuated; occupied territories restored; Serbia accorded
We do not
bright and very enviable.
we presume
we must frankly
new world
of mastery.
to suggest to her
ation or modification of her institutions.
sary,
the
say,
But
any
it is
alter-
neces-
and necessary as
preliminary to any intelligent dealings with her on our
we
know whom
several Balkan states to one another determined by
part, that
friendly counsel along historically established lines of
for
allegiance and nationality; and international guarantees
[German
of the political and economic independence and territor-
men whose creed is imperial domination.

have spoken now. surely, in terms too
concrete to admit of any further doubt or question. An
ial
integrity of the several
entered into.
Balkan
states should be
when
should
her spokesmen speak
they speak to us, whether for the Reichstag

legislature] majority or for the military party
and the
We
1009
could act upon no other principle: and to the vindica-
peo-
tion of this principle they are ready to devote their
evident principle runs through the whole program
hase outlined.
the principle of justice to
is
It
all
and everything
that they possess.
ples and nationalities, and their right to live on equal
lives, their honor,
terms of liberty and safety with one another, whether
The moral climax of this the culminating and final war

for human liberty has come, and they are ready to put
made
they be strong or weak. Unless this principle be
foundation no part of the structure of international
its
justice can stand. The people of the United States
IHISTORICAL
their
own
own
own
strength, their
integrity
and devotion
highest purpose, their
to the test.
DOCUMENT
Martin Cuther King, %'s

'9 Have A Dream'' Speech
August 28, 1963
Five score years ago. a great American,
momentous decree came
Proclamation. This
beacon
light
been seared
the
life
It
came
end the long night of captivity.
But one hundred years
Negro
tragic fact that the

later,
who had
tlames of withering injustice.
in the
as a joyous daybreak to
years
as a great
of hope to millions of Negro slaves
we must
later,
is still
of the Negro
not free.
is still
face the
One hundred
sadly crippled by
the manacles of segregation and the chains of discrimi-
nation.
One hundred
years
Negro
later, the
lives
is still
languished
tmds himself an
One hundred
in the
years
later,
the
Negro
comers of American society and
exile in his
own
land.
So we have come
here today to dramatize an appalling condition.

In a sense
cash a check.
we have come
When
the magnificent
to
engage
the architects of our republic wrote
words of the Constitution and the
this
hallowed spot
the fierce urgency of now: This
in the
to
remind
no time
is
to
luxury of cooling off or to take the tran-
Now is the time to make

democracy. Now is the time to rise
quilizing drug of gradualism.

real the
promises of
from the dark and desolate valley of segregation
Now
sunlit path of racial justice.
doors of opportunity to
time to
lift
is
the time to
of God's children. Aôvv
all
to the
open the
is
the
our nation from the quicksands of racial
injustice to the solid rock of brotherhood.

It
would be
overlook
fatal for the nation to
the urgency of the
moment and
to
underestimate the
determination of the Negro. This sweltering
summer
of the Negro's legitimate discontent will not pass until

there
ity.
our nation's Capital to
have also come to
America of
on a
lonely island of poverty in the midst of a vast ocean of

material prosperity.
We
whose
in
symbolic shadow we stand, signed the Emancipation
is
an invigorating autumn of freedom and equal-
Nineteen sixty-three
Those who hope

off steam and will
awakening
if
is
not an end, but a beginning.
that the
now
Negro needed
to
blow
be content will have a rude
the nation returns to business as usual.
Declaration of Independence, they were signing a
There will be neither
promissory note to which every American was to
men would be
until the Negro is granted his citizenship rights.

The whirlwinds of revolt will continue to shake
and the
the foundations of our nation until the bright day of
This note was a promise that
heir.
guaranteed the unalienable rights of
all
life, liberty,
fall
pursuit of happiness.
It
this
is
promissory note insofar as her citizens of color are
concerned. Instead of honoring this sacred obligation.

the
Negro people
bad check: a
check which has come back marked "insufficient funds.*

But
we
refuse to believe that the bank of justice
rupt.
We
funds
in the great vaults
us upon
bank-
of opportunity of this nation. So
to cash this
demand
check
the riches of
a check that will give
freedom and the security
But there
ple
who
is
something that
stand on the
warm
must say
to
my
peo-
threshold which leads into
the palace of justice. In the process of gaining our rightful
place
we must
not be guilty of wrongful deeds. Let
us not seek to satisfy our thirst for freedom by drinking
from the cup of bitterness and hatred.
We
must forever
conduct our struggle on the high plane of dignity and

discipline.
We
must not allow our creative protest
degenerate into physical violence. Again and again
must
rise to the majestic heights
force with soul force.
of justice.
I
is
refuse to believe that there are insufficient
we have come
nor tranquility in America
justice emerges.
obvious today that America has defaulted on
America has given
rest
to
we
of meeting physical
The marvelous new militancy which has engulfed

the
my
little
children will one
will not
be judged by the
four
day
many of our white
brothers, as evi-
color of their skin but by the content of their character.
denced by
freedom
have come
their presence here today,
is
bound
inextricably
their
We
our freedom.
to
cannot walk alone.
And
as
we
we must make
walk,
We
we
the pledge that
march ahead.
who
are asking the devotees of civil rights,
cannot turn back. There are those
"When
will
you be satisfied?"
We
We
cannot gain lodging in
travel,
highways and the hotels of the
from a smaller ghetto
boys and white
can never be satisfied as long as a Negro
No. no, we are not

isfied until justice rolls
and we
satisfied,
down
like
come
and
New
in
York
waters and righteous-
some of you have come
tribulations.
Some
of you have
Some
fresh from narrow jail cells.
of you
You have been
brutality.
ans of creative suffering. Continue to
Go back
back
is
the veter-
work with
the faith
redemptive.
to Mississippi,
to
Northern
cities,
knowing
that
somehow
this situation
and will be changed. Let us not wallow
can
in the valley
of
hew
my
friends, that in spite of the
and frustrations of the moment
dream.
It is
dream deeply rooted
have a dream
live out the true
truths to
I
that
in the
one day
meaning of
be self-evident; that
all
its
still
have a
American dream.
this nation will rise
creed:
men
"We
white
little
sisters
and the crooked places
plain,
and the glory of the Lord
flesh shall see
our hope. This
With
it
is
be
shall
be made low, the
shall
be
shall
together.
the faith with
we
this faith
which
will be able to
we
will be able to transform the jangling
discords of our nation into a beautiful
symphony of
brotherhood.
this faith
we
be able to work together,
will
go
to pray together, to struggle together, to
together, to stand
we
that
will be free
one day.
when
of thee, sweet land of
my
all
of God's children
"My
be able to sing with new meaning,
will
liberty,
of thee
sing.
country
become
if
true.
hilltops of
freedom
let
America
So
New
let
'tis
Land where
fathers died, land of the Pilgrims' pride,
And
to jail
up for freedom together, knowing
This will be the day
from every
ring."
be a great nation,
is to
this
must
freedom ring from the prodigious
Hampshire. Let freedom ring from the
mighty mountains of
New
York. Let freedom ring from
the heightening Alleghenies of Pennsylvania!
up
are created equal."
have a dream that one day on the red
slaveowners will be able to
sit
down
hills
together at the table
have a dream that one day even the
freedom ring from
Lookout Mountain of Tennessee!

Let freedom ring from every
hill
and molehill of
From every mountainside, let freedom ring.

When we let freedom ring, when we let it ring
from every village and every hamlet, from every

and every
all
state of
and oppression, will be transformed into an
freedom and justice.
that; let
Stone Mountain of Georgia! Let freedom ring from
of
Mississippi, a desert state sweltering with the heat of

injustice
of California! But not only
Mississippi.
of brotherhood.
oasis of
Colorado! Let freedom ring from the curvaceous peaks
hold these
Georgia the sons of former slaves and the sons of former
black boys and
Let freedom ring from the snowcapped Rockies of

say to you today,
difficulties
little
out of the mountain of despair a stone of hope. With
despair.
I
and mountain
return to the South.
Alabama, go
Louisiana, go back to the slums and ghettos of our
hill
all
is
mountainside,
go back
South Carolina, go back to Georgia, go back to
to
dripping with
nullification, will be
one day every valley
that
straight,
revealed, and
left
you battered by the storms of persecution and staggered
unearned suffering
made
this faith
will not be sat-
have come from areas where your quest for freedom
by the winds of police
have a dream
With
not unmindful that

trials
have a dream today.
rough places will be made
ness hke a mighty stream.
am
Alabama,
and walk together as
girls
This
believes he has nothing for which to vote.
state of
lips are presently
exhalted, every
to a larger one.
Mississippi cannot vote and a Negro in
here out of great
one day the
that
black girls will be able to join hands with
will be
cities.
cannot be satisfied as long as the Negro's basic

is
have a dream
transformed into a situation where
is
can never be satisfied as long as our bodies,
heavy with the fatigue of
mobility
have a dream today.
and brothers.
can never be satisfied as long as the Negro
the motels of the
words of interposition and
the victim of the unspeakable horrors of police brutality.
We
where they
whose governor's
the
shall
We
live in a nation
to real-
up with our destiny and
ize that their destiny is tied
and
that
to a distrust of all
white people, for
that
have a dream
Negro community must not lead us
city,
we
will be able to speed
of God's children, black
men and
up
that
state
day when
white men, Jews
and Gentiles, Protestants and Catholics, will be able

join hands and sing in the
tual,
"Free
at last!
are free at last!"
Free
words of the old Negro
at last!
to
spiri-
Thank God Almighty, we
$
1014::
ATLA'
ATLAS
:: 1015
016::
ATLAS
CANADA
&6'
Ineapolis
i3t.
Paul
WISCONSIN
'*^^.SVtacv>se
^^
(f
M (MICHIGAN
WbanV-*!
40 V4'
>
'
Madison
1
Milwaukee
îtW
Grand
^Rapids
Lansing*
-^
"
wjafren
Arm^
Jackson*
Rockford
/-
aartford*^,Ki\v\.\V
"
'
Stirling H|
Livonia* fgg'rpit-
Susquehanna
'
En
^yfi
Cedar
l'^
River-
pENNB^^^^S>
, Rapids
=SmIrTTo*e^
Chicago*"
Davenport
Moines
GajL-Bend
Fort Wayne
-"VoungslovKn.'
/^kron
OHIO
Peoria
INDIANA
Springfield
Bartimgre-
Columbus
,WD.
Dayton
Indianapolis
VIBG\N\A
f^^p^^^,^
.Cincinnati
^Charleston
ILLINOIS
LouisvilleTo'
^;^c>
^S^^'f
Richmond^
.Frankfort
Evans>^l'e/^
Udox
yAtexandna;^^
,.
O^îpwo
-36-'
'Lexington
^KENTUCKY
ISSOURI
GreeosboJ^3^
Springfield
Winston-*
''Cf
Kentucky
Lake
,,
Nashville
'^fBaleig*^
n<noxvine
TENNESSEE
Charlotte
Chattanooga^
[KANSAS
SOUTH
National capital
Columbia
Rock
CABOLINA
.Atlanta
Birmingharn
(MISSISSIPPI
ALABAMA
iveport
Jackson
Other
.30'
cities
Macon
.Columbus
SavannahV^^
Montgomery*
State capitals
GEORGIA
Meridian
acksonville
DUISIANA
J)
^Tallahassee
3,.7;],g3
.elob\da'
cape
ortando,
v|i
Canaveral
a^'
GULF OF MEXICO
SCALE
250
250
500 Miles
500 Kilometers
ô.
^.
Projection: Albers Equal Area
ATLAS
1017
FACTS ABOUT THE STATES

1994
Population
Congress
(sq. mi.)
Population
Density (sq. mi.)
1819
4.219,000
51,705
83.1
Alaska
1959
606.000
591,004
I.I
Arizona
1912
4,075.000
114.000
35.9
Arkansas
1836
2.453.000
53.187
47.1
California
1850
31.431.000
52
158.706
201.5
Colorado
1876
3,656,000
104.091
35.2
Connecticut
1788
3.275.000
5.018
676.0
Hartford
Delaware
1787
706.000
2.045
361.3
Dover
69
9,347.1
23
58.664
258.4
Tallahassee
II
58.910
121.8
Atlanta
Honolulu
State
State.
Alabama
District of
Iiood
1845
1788
Georgia
in
Area
570.000
Columbia
Florida
Reps,
13,953.000
7.055.000
Capital
Montgomery
Juneau
Phoenix
Little
Rock
Sacramento
Denver
Hawaii
1959
79.000
6.471
183.5
Idaho
1890
1.133.000
83.564
13.7
Illinois
1818
11.752.000
20
56.345
211.4
Springfield
Indiana
1816
5.572.000
10
36.185
160.4
Indianapolis
Iowa
1846
2.829.000
56,275
50.6
Des Moines
Kansas
1861
2.554.000
82,277
31.2
Topeka
Kentucky
1792
3.827.000
40,4
96.3
Frankfort
Louisiana
1812
4.315.000
47.752
99.0
Baton Rouge
Maine
1820
.240.000
33.265
40.2
Augusta
Maryland
1788
5.006,000
10,460
512.1
Annapolis
Massachusetts
1788
6,04 ,000
1
10
8.284
770.7
Boston
Michigan
1837
9,496.000
16
58.527
167.2
Minnesota
1858
4.567.000
84.402
57.4
St.
Mississippi
1817
2.669,000
47.689
56.9
Jackson
Missouri
1821
5.278,000
69.697
76.6
Jefferson City
Montana
1889
856.000
147.046
5.9
Nebraska
1867
1.623,000
77.355
21.1
Lincoln
Nevada
1864
1.457.000
110.561
13.3
Carson City
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New Mexico
New York
1788
1.137.000
9,279
126.7
1787
7,904,000
13
7.787
1.065.4
Boise
Lansing
Paul
Helena
Concord
Trenton
1912
1,654,000
121.593
13.6
1788
18.169.000
31
49.108
384.7
Albany
North Carolina
1789
7.070.000
12
52.669
145.1
Raleigh
North Dakota
1889
638,000
Ohio
1803
11,102,000
19
Oklahoma
Oregon
1907
3,258,000
1859
3,086,000
Pennsylvania
1787
Rhode
1790
Island
Santa Fe
Bismarck
70.702
9.2
41.330
271.1
Columbus
69.956
47.4
Oklahoma
97.073
32.1
Salem
12.052.000
21
45.308
268.9
Harrisburg
997.000
1.212
953.8
Providence
31.113
121.7
Columbia
77.116
9.5
South Carolina
1788
3.664,000
South Dakota
1889
721.000
Tennessee
1796
5.175.000
42.144
125.6
Texas
1845
18,378,000
30
266.807
70.2
Austin
.908.000
84.899
23.2
Salt
9.614
62.7
Montpelier
Pierre
Nashville
Utah
1896
Vermont
1791
580,000
Virginia
1788
6,552,000
40,767
165.5
Washington
1889
5.343,000
68,139
80.2
Olympia
West
Lake City
Richmond
1863
1,822,000
24,232
75.6
Charleston
Wisconsin
1848
5,082,000
56.153
93.6
Madison
Wyoming
1890
476,000
97.809
4.9
018
Virginia
::
ATLAS
City
Cheyenne

POPULATION GROWTH
1820
1800
1840
IN
1880
I860
THE UNITED STATES. 1790-2020
1900
1920
1940
2020
2000
1980
I960
Year
Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census
CHANGES IN THE URBAN AND

RURAL POPULATION, 1850-1990
IMMIGRATION TO THE UNITED STATES,

1821-1993
9-
100Urban
Rural
8-
7-
6 .-
1850
1870 1890
1910 1930
1950 1970 1990
Year
Source:
o O o o o o
o o
o
00
00
o o o o o o O O O
ON
00 00 00 00 CO 00 00
00
00
00
LO
00
00
1^
00
00
00
00
o o
LO
0^
NO
ON
00
ON
Statistical
ro
ON
ON
ON
On
Year
Source:
Statistjcal
ATLAS
1019
"
Nn
FEDERAL RFC^
ISOO -
^^
~
1200 -
3%
3%
Receipts
utiays
90-
DISTRIBUTION OF OUTLAYS. 1994
'
/
80-
If
70-
billions)
60-
SO-
20-
Dollars
30-
=5
g40-
(in
10-
1930
1900
/
/
I960
Year
300 -
Social Security
Other
and Medicare
National Defense
Interest
Education
on National Debt
Veterans' Benefits
On
1930
1910
1950
Income Security
1990
1970
Year
Source; Hiaohcal
VALUE OF
of the United States;
Statistics
U.S.
Statistical
Abstract
Source:
IMPORTS AND EXPORTS,

1900-1990
500-
U.S.
50
Statitticai
Abstract of the Unrted States
TRADE BALANCE, 1960-1990
Imports
Exports
50-
400-
40-
\
"o
ho.
c
300
ID-
c
g
'S
>
10-
200
0-
0)
\
1
.9
15
^
/
1910
1930
_c
VI
^J^^^
_3
-50 -
-100
1970
1950
Year
>
-150 -
100-
0-
-200
I
1910
1930
1950
1970
I960
1965
1970
Year
Source: Histoncd
020
atla:
Statistics
of the United
1975
1980
1985
Year
States: Statistical
1990
Abstraa
Source:
Statistical
1990
PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES

Years
In
Political
Home
Party
State
Name
Born-Died
George Washington
1732-1799
1735-1826
1743-1826
1789-97
1797-1801
1801-09
None
VA
Federalist
MA
Republican*
VA
No
Office
John Adams
Thomas
James Madison
1751-1836
1809-17
Republican
VA
James Monroe
John Quincy Adams
1758-1831
1817-25
1825-29
Republican
VA
Republican
MA
Andrew Jackson
1829-37
Democratic
TN
Jefferson
Martin Van Buren
William Henry Harrison
10
John Tyler
II
12
James K. Polk
Zachary Taylor
13
Millard Fillmore
14
Franklin Pierce
15
James Buchanan
16
Abraham
17
Andrew Johnson
18
Ulysses
19
Rutherford
20
21
1767-1848
1767-1845
Vice President
John Adams
Thomas Jefferson
Aaron Burr
George Clinton
George Clinton
Elbridge Gerry
Daniel D. Tompkins
John C. Calhoun
John C. Calhoun
Martin Van Buren
1782-1862
1773-1841
1790-1862
1795-1849
1784-1850
1800-1874
1804-1869
1791-1868
1809-1865
1837-41
Democratic
NY
Richard M. Johnson
1841
Whig
Whig
OH
John Tyler
VA
Democratic
TN
George M.
Whig
Whig
LA
Millard Fillmore
1841-45
1
845^9
1849-50
1850-53
1853-57
Dallas
NY
NH
1857-61
Democratic
Democratic
PA
John C. Breckinridge
1861-65
Republican
IL
Hannibal Hamlin
1808-1875
1822-1885
1865-69
1869-77
Republican
TN
Republican
IL
Schuyler Colfax
1822-1893
1877-81
Republican
William A. Wheeler
James A. Garfield
Chester A. Arthur
I83I-I88I
1830-1886
1881
Republican
OH
OH
1881-85
Republican
22
Grover Cleveland
23
Benjamin Harrison
1837-1908
1833-1901
1885-89
1889-93
24
25
1893-97
William McKinley
1843-1901
1897-1901
26
Theodore Roosevelt
1858-1919
27
28
29
30
William
31
Lincoln
William R. King
Andrew Johnson
Grant
S.
Henry Wilson
B.
Hayes
Chester A. Arthur
Democratic
NY
NY
Thomas
Republican
IN
Levi P.
Democratic
NY
Adiai
Republican
OH
Garrett A. Hobart
1901-09
Republican
NY
1909-13
Republican
OH
James
1913-21
Democratic
NJ
Thomas
1921-23
Republican
OH
Calvin Coolidge
Calvin Coolidge
1857-1930
1856-1924
1865-1923
1872-1933
1923-29
Republican
MA
1874-1964
1882-1945
1929-33
Republican
32
Herbert Hoover
Franklin D. Roosevelt
1933-45
Democratic
CA
NY
33
Harry
1884-1972
1945-53
Democratic
MO
34
1890-1969
1917-1963
1908-1973
1953-61
Republican
KS
Richard M. Nixon
1961-63
1963-69
Democratic
Democratic
MA
Lyndon
36
John F. Kennedy
Lyndon B. Johnson
TX
37
Richard M. Nixon
1913-1994
1969-74
Republican
CA
Grover Cleveland
A. Hendricks
Morton
Stevenson
E.
Theodore Roosevelt
W.
Charles
Howard
Woodrow
Warren
Taft
Wilson
G. Harding
S.
R. Marshall
Charles G.
35
S.
Truman
Fairbanks
Sherman
Dawes
Charles Curtis
John Nance Garner

Henry Wallace
Truman
Harry
S.
Alben
W.
B.
Barkley
Johnson
Hubert H. Humphrey
Spiro T.
Gerald
38
Gerald
R.
Ford
1913-
1974-77
Republican
Ml
GA
CA
39
Jimmy Carter
1924-
1977-81
Democratic
40
Ronald Reagan
191 1-
Republican
4!
George Bush
42
Bill
19241946-
1981-89
1989-1993
1993-
Clinton
*The Republican party of
the third through sixth presidents
is
Republican
Democratic
TX
AR
Agnew
R.
Ford
Nelson A. Rockefeller
Walter F. Mondale
George Bush
J.
Danforth Quayle
Albert Gore,
not the party of Abraham Lincoln which was founded
in
Jr.
1854.
ATLAS
1021
LEADING SUPREME COURT CASES

HOW WAS THE CASE DECIDED?
MARBURY V.MADISON
1.
Two
Cranch) 137(1803)
S U.S. (I
WHAT WAS THIS CASE ABOUT?

The
defeated in the presidential and congressional elections.
However, the winners of the election were not due

take office until
March
Federalists chose a
number of supporters
In the
the peace in the District of Columbia.
meantime
as justices of
could take office

ered.
until his
The next day when
3.
But no one
conmiission had been dehvthe
new
president.
Step
which
state.
John Marshall, had not had time
to deliver all of
the commissions. Jefferson immediately ordered his

secretary of state.
James Madison, not
new
to deliver the rest.
had a
mission was not deli%ered. sued Madison. Marbur> took
passed by Congress that allowed him
la\*
make this kind of complaint directly to the Supreme

Court. He asked the Court to order Madison to deliver
to
the
commission even though
ing the president.
this request
meant disobey-
Marbury probabh expected the Court
do as he asked because John Marshall had been

appointed chief justice of the Supreme Court.
to
The
question.
.As
Chief Justice Marshall saw
it.
the
question before the Court had three parts. First, did
Marbur> ha\ e a
if
right to receive the
Step
ment now required
to
ernment was required
w as
the govern-
make amends? Finally, if the govto make amends, would it have to
2.
Columbia
District of
justices of the
Step
commission.
The Court
said that
w hen government
offi-
people by neglecting legal duties, our laws
remedy be found
require that a
3.
for the injury.
Marbury had asked
Supreme Court
that the
order Madison to deliver the commission. Here Chief

Justice Marshall did something surprising.
court could issue such an order, but this
court to issue
w as
He
said a
not the right
it.
Marburv had taken advantage of a law passed b\

Congress
that allow
straight to the
ed complaints such as his to be taken
Supreme Court. However. Chief
Justice
Marshall said that this law was unconstitutional. The

Constitution mentions several kinds of cases that can be
brought straight to the Supreme Court.

cases must go through low er courts
suit, said
the chief justice,
.Ail
first.
was one of
other kinds of
Marbury
must go through low er courts
that
Congress had passed a law saying something
ent because the Constitution
is
"s
law-
the kinds of cases
that
first. It
a higher
did not matter

differ-
laN*
Marshall's cleverly written opinion gave up the
commission? Second,
he did ha% e a right to the commission,
how
right to the
cials hurt
William Marbury. one of the people whose com-
advantage of a
Pointing to a law passed by Congress,
].
told
three steps;
peace should be appointed, the Court said that Marburv
Thomas
Jefferson, took over, he found that the previous secretary
of
Court ruled against ordering
The Court's reasoning went through
to
the
These people w ere
on March
later, the
dehver Marbury "s commission.
GOVERNMENTAL POWERS?
nominated b> the outgoing president and confirmed by

the Senate at the last minute
to
WHAT DID THE COURT SAY ABOUT
story. In early 1801 the Federalist party had been
4.
years
Madison
pow er. granted by Congress, of hearing
law suits such as
Marbiuy 's before lower courts had heard them. But the
way
that Marshall
this power was to claim for

pow er the pow er of judicial
gave up
order Madison to deliver Marbur>'s commission, as
the Court an even greater
Marbury requested^*
review, or the
pow er
to decide if law s
made by Congress
are allowed by the Constitution.
The
issues. Chief Justice .Marshall
be able lo decide
stitutional.
if
law
w anted
the Court to
passed by Congress were con-
>Miether or not the Court had this power of
judicial review
DID THIS CASE
HAVE FOR THE FUTURE?
had not yet been decided. Marshall posed
the question before the Court in the
w ay he did
to discuss judicial review.
1022 :;
WHAT IMPLICATIONS
EADiNG SUPREME CO'
in order
Without judicial reMew. Congress would decide for

self
CASES
on the constitutionality of the laws
it
passed.
it-
By
writing the opinion in Marhiiry

Marshall changed
forever.
all that
the constitutionality of the other

actions, the
Supreme Court
authority on the
meaning of
Madison,
\.
By
deciding on
two branches"
ment had been overruled, but
branches of a state government.
the Constitution.
1816. in an opinion written by Justice Joseph
Story, the
I4U.S.
(I
HUNTER'S
V.
Martin
the nation's final
is
In
2. MARTIN
LESSEE
in this case,
asked the Supreme Court to overrule one of the
Supreme Court did what Martin asked.
It
reversed the judgment of the Virginia court.
WHAT DID THE COURT SAY
Wheat) 304 (1816)
ABOUT GOVERNMENTAL
POWERS?
Justice Story thought that the Constitution gave the
The
story. In 1777. during the Revolutionary
War. Virginia had passed a law saying that the land
who were
of people
longer belonged to them.

this
gave Fairfax's land
to
show why various

taken.
passed to his
Martin. But Virginia
David Hunter.
One
the true
and rented
it
to reverse state courts in
his decision, he first tried to
objections to his view were mis-
objection was that the Constitution
does not affect the
state
governments, but only the
people in them. Justice Stor>' pointed out that the
Constitution
the land. Hunter disagreed
someone
To explain
he died in
Thomas Martin considered himself

owner of
treaties.
When
Thomas
relative.
power
cases involving the federal Constitution, laws, and
affected by
in 1781. his Virginia lands
American
the
One person
law was Lord Fairfax.
England
England no
loyal to
still
Supreme Court
is
affect the state
was
"crowded" with provisions
that
governments. Another objection
that if federal
judges had the power of final
else. Naturally, the renter (called the
decision about the meaning of the federal
"lessee") tried to have Martin evicted. Virginia's
Constitution, laws, and treaties, they might abuse
to
highest court ruled that Hunter
owned
the land.
it.
Martin appealed his case to the United States
Justice Stor>^ explained that the
power of
final
decision has to be put somewhere.
Supreme Court. He reminded the Court of the

treaties between America and England, which
uniformity. If federal judges were not allowed to
promised
reverse state court judgments, then state courts in
to protect the rights of British subjects
who had owned
Finally, Justice Story asserted the
need for
property in America before the
each of the different states might interpret the
Revolution. Because of these treaties, he said.
federal Constitution, laws, and treaties in differ-
Virginia's 1777 law
Court agreed.
It
was not
sent the case
court with orders to change
its
valid.
The Supreme
back
to the Virginia
decision.
But the Virginia court denied that the

Supreme Court had the authority to tell a state
court what to do. So. Martin asked the Supreme
Court to rexerse the Virginia court's judgment.
The
question. In cases
Constitution, laws,
ent ways.
WHAT IMPLICATION
Under
the Constitution,
levels, state
that involve the federal
and treaties, does the
Constitution give federal courts the power to
Supreme Court
the
v.
is
divided into two
histor>' is full
of var-
ious kinds of conflicts between the states and the
national government. Usually, as in Martin
v.
Hunter 's Lessee, the national government has won
power from
issues. Marbury
power
and national. Our
these conflicts. Thus, there has been a slow- drift of
reverse state court judgments?
The
DID THIS
CASE HAVE FOR THE FUTURE?
Madison gave
the
power of judicial review, but
did not settle the issue of
how
judicial review extends. In
Marbury
far the
v.
it
the states to the national government.
Justice Story, however, did not claim that federal
courts could overrule state courts in
all
cases.
He
power of
said only that they could overrule state courts in
Madison,
cases involving the United States Constitution,
one of the other branches of the federal govern-
laws, and treaties.
023
argument more convincing, Washington signed the
3. MCCULLOCH
8 9)
Washington had
story. In 1791 Congress passed a law that set
up
Bank of
of states
ti>ok
the United States.
own
their
An
attempt to
in 1811 failed.
advantage of
War
After the
A number
this situation to charter
of 1812, the federal governto
pay for the war. But instead
of being able to borrow money from one central
many state banks. Thus,

Bank of the United
Second
a
set
up
Congress
States in 1816. The states opposed the new
it
way
to
that
rejected.
Led by Chief Justice Marshall,

the Constitution allowed
bank but
national
that
it
the Court ruled that
Congress
to establish a
did not allow Maryland to
tax the bank.
banks.
ment needed money
bank,
Supreme Court
The
renew the bank's charter
the

a
Now, Maryland wanted
bill.
interpret the Constitution in the
Wheat) 304
7 U.S. (4
MARYLAND
V.
to deal with
had

ABOUT GOVERNMENTAL
POWERS?
Bank of
Jefferson's argument against the First
the
United States had rested on a narrow interpretation

national bank, and several states passed laws that
hindered
it.
For instance, they heavily taxed
branches of the national bank within their borders.
When
Maryland branch of
the
bank
the national
refused to pay the taxes, Maryland sued the bank's

cashier.
battle
James McCulloch.
year
of the word "necessary"
saw
In ordinary
explained,
question. As Chief Justice John Marshall
Does
the question before the Court had
the Constitution give Congress the
when
it
is
two
parts.
power
to
that the
Rather
it
means
said that certain

it
are
mean
usually does not
end cannot be achieved without them.
means
that they are "calculated to pro-
duce" the end. The power
to charter a
bank
is
cal-
establish a national bank? If so, does the
culated to help carry out the other constitutional
Constitution allow Maryland to tax that bank?
powers, so the Constitution permits
it.
The second question before
The
issues. The question of whether or not
Congress had the power
to establish a
bank was
not new. In 1791. after Congress had passed the

bill setting
up the
First
Bank of
the United States,
President Washington had asked his cabinet for

advice.
He saw
that Article
Constitution, which
lists
the
1,
Section
8,
of the
powers of Congress,
does not mention the power to charter a bank.

the other hand,
ers.
it
states that besides the listed
Congress may also make
all
On
pow-
powers.
Thomas Jefferson and Alexander Hamilton

presented Washington with sharply opposing
views. Hamilton considered the
bank constitutional because

tion" to the
ing trade.
power
power
to charter a
had "a natural
rela-
powers of collecting taxes and regulat-
By
was
whether or not the Constitution allows Maryland to

tax the national bank. Marshall said that if the
could tax one of the federal government's
states
activities, they
power
power
to tax," said Marshall, "involves the
to destroy."
the
could tax any of them. But "the
This could not be permitted because
"supremacy clause"
in Article
VI
states that the
Constitution and laws of the federal government
come
before state constitutions and laws.
WHAT IMPLICATIONS DID THIS

As new cases
Court
arise,
try to settle
members of
the
Supreme
them by using principles
have been developed
in earlier cases.
What
that
princi-
ples does this case involve?
contrast, Jefferson said that while the
to charter a
bank may be "convenient" for
carrying out this power,
thus
it
the Court
laws that are
"necessary and proper" for carrying out the listed
024!!
speech, he
the legal
reached the Supreme Court.
it,
said that
Maryland's interpretation of the Constitution was
"necessary" to an end,
The
"necessary and
same argument. Marshall, however,

not broad enough.
later,
in the
proper" clause. The state of Maryland used the
it
was not "necessary." and
was unconstitutional. Finding Hamilton's
The
ers
principle of implied powers.
Some pow-
given the federal government by the
Constitution are listed. These are called enumer-
ated powers. Others, called implied powers, are
citizens. Therefore, the first question before the
understood as given because they are needed to
court involved the Constitution's definition of a
help carry out the enumerated powers.
citizen.
If
The
principle of national supremacy. The
federal
government has only those powers
enumerated and implied
when
the federal
do belong
to
it,
But
government
the states
that are
is
using powers that
must give way.
4. DRED SCOTT
V.
as
slaves are property, then Congress faces
same
the
when
when it makes a law about slavery

makes a law about property. Therefore,
limits
it
the second question before the Court involved
what kinds of
limits the Constitution puts
SANDFORD
The Court
60 U.S. (19 How.) 393 (1857)
ruled that the Constitution denied blacks
the right to sue in federal court and denied
Congress the power

The
brought into a free
story. In 1833 Dred Scott was purchased by
named John Emerson. As the army

Emerson from post to post. Scott went
an army doctor
transferred
with him. First they went to Illinois: later they
moved to the Wisconsin Territor>'. When Emerson

was transferred yet again, he sent Scott to
Missouri, a slave state, to live with his wife. Irene
Sanford Emerson. She inherited Scott when her
husband died
At
and
in
in 1843.
was
illegal in Illinois
Wisconsin Territory. Scott believed
because he had lived for five years on free

should be
that
he
soil,
free.
In 1846
Emerson moved
son. a lawyer,
opposed the
helped Scott
file a
New
to
York and
One
extension of slavery. He
lawsuit asking the Missouri
courts to declare Scott free.

In 1852 the
Supreme Court of Missouri ruled
against Scott. In 1854. however. Scott's original

lawsuit
was revived by lawyers who wanted
to see
the issue of slavery in the territories resolved.
Scott's case got on the docket of the Federal

Circuit Court of Missouri and
the
worked
its
way
to
Supreme Court.
The
saw
a law freeing slaves

ABOUT CONSTITUTIONAL
RIGHTS?
One theme of the Court's opinion was the relation
between race and citizenship, and the opinion
Taney said
reflected the prejudices of the day.
that
African Americans had "none of the rights and
cially starthng
because
it
was espe-
applied to free blacks as
well as to slaves. Taney ignored the important fact

that
many
states
considered free blacks state
citi-
the case as asking
gives the federal courts jurisdiction over various
kinds of suits involving state citizens.
The other theme of Taney's opinion concerned slavery. The 5th Amendment states that no
one may be "deprived of life, liberty, or property,
without due process of law."
First, the
chief justice
reasoned that because slaves are "property," slaves
cannot be taken away without "due process of

law." Second, he reasoned that a law taking
citizens' property just
free territory cheats
away
because they have entered a
them of
their
"due process of
Taney concluded that the Missouri

Compromise was unconstitutional.
law."
question. Roger B. Taney, the chief justice,
two questions.
the Constitution give an African
First,
the Constitution allow Congress to
does
American
right to start a suit in a federal court? Second,
takes slaves
make
zens, and Article III Section 2 of the Constitution
Scott with sons of Scott's original owner.
left
to
territory.
privileges" of citizens. This statement
this time, slavery
on laws
about property.
make
the
does

a law that
away from people who bring them
By
the time the Court
made
its
decision, the
Kansas-Nebraska Act had already canceled the
into a free territory?
Missouri Compromise's ban on slavery in certain
The
issues. If African Americans are U.S.
zens, then thev
must have
all
citi-
of the rights of other
federal territories. Therefore,
it
might seem
Court's judgment that the Missouri
that the
Compromise
1025
wuN uncDnslilulional did
But the
inalier.
ni)t
Kansas-Nebraska Act was unpopular with people
who opposed
Many
the extension ot slavery.
of
them would have liked to have seen a return to

something
like the
Missouri Compromise. The
Court's decision, however,
made such
a return
but the most general
is
the "due process" clause of
Amendment. To apply this clause to the

New York bakery law. the Supreme Court had to
decide: Which freedoms are meant by the word
itherty? What is promised by the guarantee of "due
the 14th
process of law"?
impossible and heated up the controversy over

slavery in the territories.
Furthermore, because ot
freeing the slaves
Amendment was
was not enough
Not
their citizenship.
this case,
until
to
guarantee
when
1868.
merely
the 14th
passed, did the Constitution guar-

In
an opinion written by Justice Rufus Wheeler
Peckham.
the Court ruled that the law limiting the
hours of labor
bakeries was unconstitutional.
in
antee African Americans citizenship.

5. LOCHNER
V.
ABOUT GOVERNMENTAL
NEW YORK
POWERS?
198 U.S. 45(1905)
Peckham argued
that the
New
York
interference with liberty of contract
Peckham did
bids
The
New
story. In 1897 the
York legislature
passed a law that regulated the number of hours

that
employees
in a
bakery could be required, or
Why was
all
not
mean
legislature's
was improper.
that the Constitution for-
interference with liberty of contract. In
fact,
he stressed that the Court had approved a sim-
ilar
Utah law that said
more than
that
no one could work
eight hours a day in an underground
mine "except
in
The legislature thought that workers could be

made to agree to work long hours because they
were afraid of losing their jobs. Even if they
wanted to work such long hours, the legislature
property
imminent danger." Such uses of the
thought that they should not be allowed to do
ference with liberty of contract was "unreason-
allowed, to work.
Bakery work
is
ing long hours
such a law needed?
so.
very hard and very hot. and work-
would hurt the workers'
unconstitutional because
make
a contract.
He
said that the law
Lochner said
that liberty
of con-
promised by a clause in the 14th

Amendment that says that no state may "deprive
tract
is
any person of
life, liberty,
Amendment
it
or property, without due
a violation of the
for a state to limit the
hours that employees
They
appropriate."
it
away.
By
regulate liberty without taking
contrast, he argued.
New
York's inter-
able" and had nothing to do with safety, morals, or
health.

Even though
14th
number of
the Court tries to use the
ples over and over,

their
Is
or
police power, he said, were "fair, reasonable, and
process of law."
The question.
life
was
took away his liberty to
it
cases of emergency, where
general welfare, and was not necessary to protect
health.
Lochner. a bakery owner convicted of violating the law. appealed.
is in
sometimes
minds about controversial
its
same
princi-
members change
issues.
Four justices
disagreed with the Lochner ruling. The most interesting dissenting opinion
was written by
Justice
Oliver Wendell Holmes. "This case." he said, "is
may work?
decided upon an economic theory [laissez-faire]
The
Issues. State governments have a general
power
called the police
power
to
make
regula-
tions that support the safety, health, morals,
general welfare of their citizens.

this ca.se is
how
The
and
basic issue in
the Constitution might limit state
governments" police power.

Various amendments set limits on the states.
026::
which
tain."
to
a large part of the country
According
do what he
to this theory a
likes so long as
does not enter-
person has "liberty
he does not interfere
with the liberty of others to do the same."
on
to say that he thought that the decision
He went
was
for
the citizens and their legislators; his duty as a judge
was
to see if the theory
was
Over
began
membership of
the years the
Supreme Court changed.
In the
the
1940s the Court
to reverse all of the precedents
it
had
By the 1960s this process was

complete. As Justice Huge Black said in a 1963
Ferguson
v.
that
that prevailed in
Lochner
due process authorizes courts
legislature has acted unwisely
We
since been discarded.
to hold
has
long
original constitutional proposition that courts
beliefs for the
eral
issues.
The
amendments
War
to
Amendment
14th
is
one of sev-
were passed soon
that
after the
guarantee the freedom of African
them from unfair
to protect
treat-
have returned to the
their social
Amendment?
Americans and
.
laws unconstitutional when they believe the
do not substitute
The
Civil
Skritpa,
The doctrine
the 14th
set in
cases like Lochner.
case.
"equal protection" clause of
facilities violate the
and economic
judgment of legislative bodies.
ment. The wording of the equal protection clause

is:
"No
State shall
deny
to
any person within
jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws."

just
what does
this
its
But
wording forbid? Louisiana
in
Plessy argued that separate railway carriages could
be equal. For instance, they could be equally clean
and equally
same
safe. In
Brown, Kansas said much the
thing, claiming that their all-black
white schools were equal
in the skill
and
all-
of their teach-
of their buildings, and so on.
ers, the quality
In the days of racial segregation the claim
6. PLESSY V.FERGUSON
that segregated facilities
AND BROWN V. BOARD OF
were equal
in tangible, or
measurable, features was almost always a terrible
EDUCATION
lie.
But the issue facing the Court went deeper.
Even
163 U.S. 537 (1896) and 347 U.S. 483 (1954)
gated
made equal in racially segrewas there something inherently
things were
if
facilities,
unequal about segregation?
WHAT WERE THESE CASES

ABOUT?
The
HOW WAS THE
stories. These two cases illustrate a proIn Plessy
found change
Plessy
V.
of racial segregation.
in the legality
Ferguson begins with a law
v.
Ferguson, the Court ruled that the 14th
Amendment's equal
that required
segregation. In
all
CASE DECIDED?
railway companies in Louisiana to provide
"separate but equal" accommodations for
protection clause allows racial
Brown
v.
Board of Education,
the
Court unanimously ruled that the clause does not

allow racial segregation.
European American and African American passengers.
group of people
unfair recruited
Homer
who
thought the law was
Plessy to get arrested in
order to test the law. Plessy entered a train and
took an empty seat
refused to
arrested
move
and
in an all-white coach.
When
to an all-black coach, he
jailed. In his
he
worked
its
way up
to the
Supreme Court.
neighborhood school. Instead, the school board
ordered her to attend a distant all-black school that
was supposedly "separate but equal." Saying

school segregation violated the 14th
the Constitution. Mr.
Brown sued
RIGHTS?
Justice
Henry Billings Brown wrote
to
the school board.
He admitted that the purpose of

Amendment was "to enforce the absolute
equality of the
two races before the law." But he
said that this statement
meant
political equality, not
social equality. In his view, neither African
mingle.
facilities
In
Brown
said that the argument that separate
implied that blacks were inferior was
Brown
the Court's opinion
was
question. The question raised by the Court

the
same
in
both cases.
Do
racially segregated
false.
was written by
Chief Justice Earl Warren. Separation of African
American schoolchildren from European American

schoolchildren of the same age and
The
Ameri-
cans nor European Americans wanted the races to
that
Amendment
the Court's
opinion in Plessy.
the 14th
More than 50 years later an African American

named Oliver Brown and his family moved into a
white neighborhood in Topeka. Kansas. The
Browns assumed that their daughter would attend
the
was
defense he said that the
1890 law was unconstitutional. The case eventually
ability,
he said,
"generates a feeling of inferiority as to their status

in the
community
that
may
affect their hearts
and
1027
minds
way unlikely ever to be undone:' He

when racial segregation is required by
in a
NUid that
harm
law. the
even
is
greater.
It
makes no
differ-
ence that "the physical facilities and other "tangi-
may
ble" factors
eral trials.
Gideon, however, was accused of break-
ing state laws and
was
tried in a state court.
Amendment promises
14th
deprive people of
But the
that states will not
or property without
life, liberty,
due process of law. Jailed, Gideon had been
be equal."
deprived of
away
WHAT IMPLICATIONS DID THESE
liberty.
Had
this liberty
been taken
without due process of law?
CASES HAVE FOR THE FUTURE?

In
Brown
Board of Education
the Court did not
say that the "separate but equal" doctrine had no

place anywhere.
said that the doctrine
It
had no

unanimous opinion written by Justice Hugo
In a
Black, the Court ruled in Gideon's favor.
place in public education. This statement, although

limited, influenced future cases.
Taken together, Plessy and Brown show the

of the Constitution's legal principles
fle.xibility
whose
changes. The decision
mous.
may change
interpretations
as society
RIGHTS?
Plessy was not unani-
in
In a dissenting opinion. Justice
John
know s nor
among
its
became
the law of the land.
Members of
the Court based their decision that
the Constitution requires the appointment of
Marshall Harlan declared "Our Constitution

color-blind, and neither
is
tolerates classes
citizens." Eventually Harlan's dissent
lawyers for the poor on two different view of the

1
4th
Amendment. One
which holds
clause
that the
V.
liberties view,
WAINWRIGHT
The second
which holds
law" means "whatever
372 U.S. 436(1963)
What
may
story. Clarence Earl Gideon was accused of
breaking and entering a Florida poolroom and

stealing.
When
Gideon's case came
court pay for one.
The judge
was found
While
the U.S.
guilty.
refused, and
in prison,
Supreme Court
to
Gideon
Gideon asked
review his case.
He
necessary for justice."
is
may
eight
first
not include
amendments, but
amendments.
to the
In
Gideon
v.
same conclu-
sion by different means.

Justice Black,
had
tion
to tailor
it
to
who
wrote the Court's opinion,
accommodate both
view and the fundamental
opinion was a compromise.
Amendment's promise of
the incorpora-
liberties view.
It
The
said that the 6th
the "assistance of coun-
sel"
help him. Florida had violated rights promised
did not say that due process covers every other
The
question.
Amendmeni
him
to
Is
it
The
Issues.
that "the
defense."
certain
is
accused shall enjoy the right ... to have
By
in the first eight
trial in
any court, but
it
amendments.
Counsel
itself this
[a
lawyer] for his
amendment
requires that
poor people be provided with free lawyers
WHAT IMPLICATIONS DOES THIS

accused of crimes. One promise
the Assistance of
necessary for a fair
a violation of the 6th or 14th
deny a poor person accused of
The 6th Amendment promises
rights to people
is
promise
major crime the free assistance of a lawyer?
:i
"due process of
claimed that by refusing to appoint a lawyer to

by the 6th and 14th Amendments.
028
that
Wainwright the justices came
he
to trial
could not afford a lawyer, and he asked that the
state
the fundamental
include promises that go beyond anything
in the first eight
The
in the
is
necessary for justice
is
every promise in the

it
amendments
and incorporate them into
court procedures.
GIDEON
purpose of the due process
to take the first eight
is
Bill of Rights
7.
the incorporation view,
is
in fed-
Gideon
v.
Wainw right was one of several Supreme
Court cases guaranteeing that the government
u ould pay lawyers

crimes.
into
to help
The Criminal
law the year
vided funding.
poor people accused of
Justice
after the
Act of 1964, signed
Gideon decision, pro-
informing him of his rights to silence and legal
5, MIRANDA V.ARIZONA
assistance had deprived
him of these
rights.
384 U.S. 436(1966)

RIGHTS?
story. On March 13. 1963, a woman was

kidnapped near Phoenix, Arizona. Ernesto
The
Miranda was arrested
and the victim
for the crime,
Two
picked him out from a police lineup.

then took
him
to a
room
begin as soon as the person
He
then
made
tion of these rights.
Today,
Miranda had
that
understood. The officers also said that he had confessed without any threats or force.
They admitted,
however, that they had not told Miranda about his
judges will rule that what the accused
guilty. Eventually,
he appealed to the U.S.
question.
Is it a
violation of the 5th. 6th, or
Amendment to use a confession from someone who has not been informed of the constituI4th
tional rights to silence
based on what the accused

still
be valid;
ments
that
The 6th Amendment promises
als in federal courts

this
promise
way
about the
5th
to the states.
trials are
tri-
Another promise
conducted
.
the
Amendment
and the 14th
Amendment: "No person
[forced] in
is
it
said.
The
that
arrest
was
may
only the accused person's state-
cannot be used.

Miranda
v.
Arizona has been one of the Supreme
Court's most controversial cases because
given in the
is
shall
be compelled
any criminal case to be a witness against
himself" Thus the 5th
Amendment
deals
it
with the delicate balance between protecting the ac-
cused and protecting society. Even the Court
and legal assistance?
assistance of a lawyer to defendants in criminal
apphes
any evidence police find
court, nor can
five to four.
issues.
not be used as evidence in
Supreme Court.
The
may
police
Miranda was
right to silence or legal assistance.
The
prisoners are not informed of their
if
he might say could
and
in court
a viola-
is
after a short time
tells the
be used against him
found
second issue, the Court said that failing to
rights, then
that anything
rights
With regard
Although
the officers testified that they had
warned Miranda
Amendment
arrested.
is
officers
and signed a written confession.

trial
Court ruled that
inform the accused of his or her rights
he gave a detailed oral confession.
At the
to the first issue, the
an accused person's 5th and 6th
to the
to question him.
Miranda denied the crime,
at first
With regard
Among
split
most
the general public the
hotly debated aspect of the decision has been the

rule that confessions given
by accused people who
have not been informed of
their rights
used as evidence. The Court made
may
vent innocent people from being found guilty.
people accept
this reasoning.
rule prevents guilty people
not be
this rule to pre-
Some
Others think that the
from being convicted.
gives a person
the right to be silent. Without such a right, innocent
people could be tortured until they confessed.
One issue is the point at which 5th and 6th

Amendment rights begin. Do they begin only at
the trial?
Or do
to
be a witness against oneself.
Perhaps keeping a person ignorant of his or her

rights
5th
is
a kind of force. If so, then
it
violates the
Amendment.
The
only a five to four majority, the Supreme Court
ruled that taking Miranda's confession without
During the investigation of the
story.
Dean,
testified before the
Senate that the president
had helped plan the cover-up from the beginning.
Nixon denied
it,
Nixon had
but then another witness revealed

secretly tape-recorded every con-
versation that had ever taken place in his office.
The
By
NIXON
Watergate burglary the president's lawyer, John
that
V.
418 U.S. 683 (1974)
these rights begin earlier?
deeper issue concerns the meaning of
being forced
9. UNITED STATES
tapes
would show whether or not Nixon was
telling the truth.
By 1974
criminal charges had been filed
1029
uguinst seven
tion.
ABOUT GOVERNMENTAL
members of the Nixon administraAlthoujih Nixon was not charged, he was
listed as
acy.
one
people involved
oi the
in the
conspir-
Leon Jaworski. asked Nixon
the time.
to let
him
hear the tapes. Nixon had alread\ ordered a previ-
separation of powers requires the executive and
no one's surprise. Nixon refused
judicial branches to be totally independent. Total
thing,
and
again.
However, Jaworski
to
lor asking the
persisted.
federal district court for help.
He asked
When
the
the judge
ordered Nixon to release the tapes to the court for
Nixon disobeyed.
secret examination.
caused a scandal, but disobeying the judge's order
constitutional crisis
tug of war
between two branches of government. Could
president defy a federal judge?
Nixon claimed
independence means
have
does not
that the president
obey court orders
to
The
to release evidence.
chief justice rejected this claim.

is
Refusing the special prosecutor's request
The Court examined each of the president's two

arguments in turn. One was that preservation of the
same
ous special prosecutor fired
caused
POWERS?
special prosecutor in charge of the case at
The
The Constitution
based on separation of powers, but under
separation
its
own
it
power or branch
gives each
to do. If the president
this
a job of
could withhold evi-
dence from the courts, the courts could not do the

job given them by the Constitution. "The powers."
concluded the chief justice, "were not intended
As
that he could.
president,
to
operate with absolute independence."
he said, he had an executive privilege of keeping
Nixon's second argument was that communi-
communications confidential. He also
cations between the president and his advisers
presidential
said that the privilege
was
absolute,
which meant
need
to be confidential for the sake of the public
nobody could override it for any reason.

Because of the urgency of the case, the U.S.
Supreme Court agreed to skip over the Court of
good. Burger admitted that sometimes confiden-
Appeals
tions are about diplomatic or military secrets, con-
that
The
in
order to settle the case immediately.
tiality,
or secretiveness,
fidentiality is of the
Does
question.
is
important. But
applies in specific instances.
the Constitution give the
other
only
it
When communicaOn
utmost importance.
hand, when communications concern
the
other
president an absolute executive privilege?

subjects, confidentiality
The
issues.
President Nixon gave two arguments
all.
Burger concluded
might not be important
at
that in presidential claims of
for his position. His first
argument was
that the
executive privilege, the need for confidentiality
principle of separation of
powers requires
that the
must be balanced against competing needs on
executive and judicial branches be totally independent of each other.
who
If
His second argument was that the secrecy of
communications between a president and

is
his advis-
necessary for the president to be able to look
after the public good.
advisers
knew
that
In
Nixon said
United States
dentiality
v.
that if a president's
anything they said could
be
Nixon the need for confi-
competed with the need
truth in a criminal trial.
pendence would be destroyed.
ers
case-by-case basis.
presidents had to obey judges
ordered them to release evidence, this inde-
to find out the
The purpose of criminal
justice, said Burger, "is that guilt shall not escape
or innocence suffer." But finding out the truth in

a criminal trial requires that courts
evidence, even
if
it
have
includes presidential
the
all
commu-
needed the
infor-
to carry out their duty.
When
nications. In this case the courts
repeated to the public, they might not give him good
mation on the tapes
advice for fear of what people would think. Nixon
the need to find out the truth in the Watergate
said that if a president didn't receive
would be harder
good advice,
to carry out the duties
it
of the office
trial
for
was weighed against President Nixon's need

confidentiality,
confidentiality
Confidentiality might have
as spelled out in the Constitution.
won had
lost.
the tapes
been about diplomatic or military secrets or had
they not contained crucial evidence. Moreover,
In a decision written by
the complete tapes public.
the district court had not even planned to
Chief Justice Warren
Burger, the Court ruled that executive privilege
030
is
examine them
in secret
not absolute and that Nixon had to turn over the
were necessary for the
tapes as he had been ordered.
open court.
It
make
had planned
and only the parts

trial
to
that
would be used
in

10. ROE

Supreme Court
president had defied the
If the
he had detled the district court,
it
an important sign for the future.

the courts have
One
reason
If the
reason
into question.
The
to
executive branch defies
Supreme
of judicial review
call the entire idea
judicial branch has
lished as the final judge of the
been estab-
meaning of the
Constitution, and defiance by the president
be like saying the executive branch
would
own
is its
final
The
Norma McCorvey,
story. In 1970
woman
ried pregnant
Nixon did not defy
the
obtain a legal abortion in a medical
out of self interest.
He
feared that unless he gave
would remo\ e him from
the Senate
office.
Even
evidence of the tapes turned out to be so
so, the
damaging
(the tapes
showed
that
of the cover-up) that Nixon

resign or the
House would
he had been part
he had to
felt that
start
impeachment pro-
ceedings.
What
principles
emerge from
case? The
this
Court did not say whether or not such a thing as
executive privilege exists. However,

stated that there
is
it
Because
facility.
of Texas* antiabortion statutes, no licensed physi-
would agree
cian
perform the abortion.
to
Financially unable to travel to another state with

less-restrictive abortion laws,
performed
the procedure
McCorvey faced
unwanted pregnancy or having
either continuing an
McCorvey claimed
Supreme Court. He
obeyed, not out of respect for judicial review, but
an unmar-
living in Texas, sought to
in a
nonmedical
which, she believed, would endanger her
judge.
in,
their
have no recourse. Another
that successful defiance of the
is
Court would
410 U.S. 113 (1973)
as
that
is
own. They depend on the executive branch

a court order, the courts
WADE
would have been
no enforcement powers of
enforce court orders.
V.
tion laws
that the
were unconstitutional
facility,
life.
Texas antiabor-
in that they inter-
fered with her right of personal privacy that

protected by the 9th and 14th
is
Amendments. She
took legal action, naming the Dallas County dis-
Henry Wade, in her lawsuit.

McCorvey used the pseudo-
trict attorney.
Throughout
the case.
nym
Jane Roe.
The
question.
Is it
a violation of a person's right
to privacy for a state to pre\ ent a
woman from
ter-
minating a pregnancy through an abortion?
clearly
no such thing as an absolute
The
issues.
The 14th Amendment says
"No
that
executive privilege. The Court put forth the fol-
state shall
lowing principles:
abridge the privileges ... of citizens of the United

States
The
president's need for confidentiality
must
that
the needs of the criminal justice systenL
by the federal
weighing
may
or enforce any law
which
"The enumeration
tain rights shall not
The 9th Amendment
states
in the Constitution of cer-
be construed to deny or dispar-
age others retained by the people."
be done
shall
nor deny to any person ... the equal
protection of the law s."
be weighed against competing needs, such as
In disputed cases this
make
amendments encompass and
protect a
Do
these
woman's
courts.
right to a legal abortion?
Conflicts over executive privilege will probably
continue to arise. For example, presidents have
claimed executive privilege over 50 times just

since 1952. In
most of these cases they claimed the
privilege in order to avoid giving Congress infor-
mation that
the
two
parties
it
had requested. However, so long
principles listed above are accepted
less
these conflicts
chance of hurting the nation.
all
made
have much
particularly that the final decision
by the judicial branch
by
as
is
In an opinion written
by Justice Harry Blackmun.
the Court ruled that the I4th
Amendment's due
process guarantee of personal liberty guarantees

the right to personal privacy. This guarantee pro-
tects a
woman's decision about abortion and
assures that a state's law

ish, this right.
do not abridge, or dimin-
The vote was seven
to two.
03

REGENTS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA V. BAKKE

11.
RIGHTS?
terminating a pregnancy during the
first
three
months, the Court reUed on citizens' right of

vacy. Justice
Blackmun
be founded
it
in the
Fourteenth Amendment's concept of personal
is,
and
restrictions
ruling,
its
ognized the right of a
to
it
encompass
however, the Court rec-
state to regulate abortions as
pregnancy, a
woman
first
three
can
prevent abortions by nonphysicians.
abortions to protect a
months of
final three
woman's
bid an abortion, unless
woman's
The
it
is
health.
Only
in the
state for-
necessary to protect a
ruling also said that a state cannot adopt
when
life
begins. This prevents a state

rights as a
1965 the Court said
in
contraceptives violated the constitutional right to
Wade thus became a
privacy. This right
Roe
v.
different admissions programs. Since the Civil
Rights Act of 1964. there had been pressure for

schools and other institutions to provide special
admissions programs for minority students. There

were, however, no specific guidelines on
accomplish
the basis for the Court's ruling
pivotal issue in
cases that challenged abortion laws.
have been decided
that
some people claim weaken
the legislative impact of
local
Roe
v.
Wade. In Harris
v.
(1980). the Court ruled that the federal and
governments did not have
tions for
women
to
on welfare, even
if
pay for abor-
women who
this
could not afford
the procedure would, like Jane Roe. be faced with
either continuing an
unwanted pregnancy or
ing to dangerous measures to terminate
ing in Webster
(1989). added
v.
restrictions
!S
The
rul-
on the availability
of abortions.
032
it.
resort-
Reproductive Health Services
more
from the regular program, while
students of
races, so long as they
all
requirements, including a
members of
met admission
minimum
grade point
racial minorities
could
apply through the special program, and their

grades did not have to meet the minimum.
white male, applied through the
regular program and
was turned down. He thought
he had been unfairly treated because
in
both years,
students had been admitted through the special
program whose grades and

lower than
his.
He sued
test
scores were
much
the state university system.
said the special program, established to ful-
the racial quota, violated his 14th
Amendment
The California Supreme Court made two
rul-
One
was
illegal
said that Davis's admission system
and ordered Bakke admitted. The other
ordered that
in the future,
admissions decisions
must not take race into consideration. The

California university system appealed to the U.S.
Supreme Court.
the abortions
were necessary for medical reasons. Critics of

ruling claimed that
incoming
used a quota system. The regular program was for
ings.
McRae
filled
in the
right to equal protection of the law.
decades following the ruling, related cases
In the
were
84 of the 100 places
16 were set aside for the special program, which
fill
IMPLICATIONS DOES THIS

to
this.
ical school.
Bakke
WHAT
how
At the University of California. Davis med-
Bakke.
v.
Connecticut that restrictions on the availability of
in
during the years the medical school operated two
newborn.
Griswold
University of California. Davis
at the
average. Only
from giving a fetus the same

In
can regulate
health.
a theory of
school
class
state
pregnancy can a
story. Allan Bakke twice applied to the med-
has an unre-
stricted right to an abortion, although a state
During the second trimester, a
The
ical
feel
or not to terminate her
pregnancy progressed. During the
months of
we
lib-
reservation of
broad enough
is
woman's decision whether
pregnancy." In
state action, as
Amendment's
or ... in the 9th
rights to the people,
upon
pri-
his opinion that
stated in
"This right of privacy, whether
erty
438 U.S. 265(1978)
cannot prevent a uonian from
In ruling that a state
The
quota
questions.
in
First,
does the use of a racial
admissions violate the equal protection
clause of the 14th
Amendment? Second, does
the
equal protection clause require that race be completely ignored?
The U.S. Supreme Court had
to
consider these questions separately, because there
might be ways of taking race into account

not involve quotas.
that
do
The
issues. Historically, most racial discrimi-
nation in our country has hurt
minorities.
members of
Bakke complained about
racial
a different
kind of discrimination. Sometimes called reverse

discrimination,
ity in
hurt
it
the Constitution
members of the
members of
order to help
is
racial
major-
racial minorities. If
"color-blind." then both forms
Purpose
To counteract the effects of racial
2.
discrimination
in society. Justice
Powell said that
was an acceptable purpose. He approved of
this
who belong
helping people
to
groups that have
been hurt by past discrimination. However, he said

that helping
when
them by hurting others
makes up
it
have done
is
right only
for hurts that those specific oth-
them. There was no evidence that
of racial discrimination are unconstitutional.
ers
Amendment was primarily written

because African Americans who had recently been
freed from slavery needed protection from
Bakke had ever discriminated against people of
The
14th
racial minorities.
Purpose
discrimination by the white majority. This fact sug-
who
gests that the equal protection clause protects
nities
racial minorities
that
no
state
the racial majority.
On
purpose was also acceptable. However, California

that racial quotas
may deny
accomplish
purpose.
any person the equal
to
equal protection clause gives the same protection
people of
been
be willing
where there are not enough doctors. This
had not shown
all races.
The
intent
seems
to
have
wording does
to protect minorities, but the
not specify this intent.
this
Purpose
protection of the laws. This fact suggests that the
to
will
number of doctors
to practice medicine in commu-
3: To increase the
what the amendment actually says
the other hand,

is
more than
to
the student
4.
sity
and
to
To improve education by making
body more
was acceptable. But

racial diversity is
were needed
diverse. This purpose, too,
Justice Powell pointed out that
only one aspect of overall diver-
that racial quotas are not the only
way
to
increase racial diversity.

The Court agreed
that the use of a racial quota in
admissions was unconstitutional and ordered that
Bakke should be admitted. But
the Court rejected
the idea that an admissions system
any attention
may
never pay
This decision showed
how
sharply the
members of
the Court disagreed about reverse discrimination.
Furthermore, Powell stressed that the Court's deci-
to race.
sion concerned only reverse racial discrimination.
He warned
or
RIGHTS?
Although
in a
Women
Hogan, for example, the Court ruled
Lewis Powell wrote the Court's opinion.
Justice
He
said that the equal protection clause does not
it
may
that reverse sexual discrimination
may
not have to be treated the same way.
v.
1982 case Mississippi University for
was unconstitutional
that
for a state-run school of
nursing to refuse admission to men.
completely prohibit states from taking race into

account
when
they are making laws and official
policies but that
it
does make the consideration of
When
race "suspect," or suspicious.
such a law or
is
challenged in court, judges must apply a
two-part
First, are the purposes of the law or
policy
test.
policy legitimate? Second,
is
the consideration
72, TEXAS
VJOHNSON
491 U.S. 397(1989)
given to race necessary to achieve these purposes?

California told the Court that
its
racial
quota had
Purpose
The
story.
Heated
political protests
tions, reminiscent of the
four purposes.
1.
To correct the shortage of racial
minorities in medical schools
and among
doctors.
was not
members of any one group
and demonstra-
widespread antiwar
protests of the 1960s and 70s, ensued during the
1984 Republican National Convention held
Many
in
Justice Powell said that this purpose
Dallas, Texas.
acceptable. "Preferring
their opposition to the policies of the administra-
for
no reason other than race or ethnic origin
crimination for
its
own
sake."
is dis-
of the protesters were voicing
tion of President
Ronald Reagan. Outside Dallas
City Hall, where
some of
the demonstrators
had
1033
yaihered. Gregory Lee Johnson set a U.S. flag on
means of
fire as a
Thus, burning the flag as a form of symbolic
speech
political protest.
Johnson was arrested and charged with the
According
Amendment.
may not pro-
protected by the First
is
to
Brennan, "Government
expression of an idea simply because
desecration of a venerated object, a Texas law that
hibit the
made
society finds the idea itself offensive."
crime
it
to desecrate a state or national
Hag. Johnson was convicted and sentenced to one
Citing Texas' interest in preventing breaches
The Texas Court
of the peace and preserving the flag as a symbol of
of Criminal Appeals, however, reversed the con-
national unity. Justice Brennan stated that
viction, maintaining that Johnson's burning of the
Johnson's expression posed no threat to the peace
year
in
was
flag
fmed
prison and
$2,(XXJ.
form of symbolic speech and. therefore,
Amendment. The slate of

Texas then appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court.
Oral arguments were presented in March 1989.
protected by the First
The Court announced
The
First
Amendment
protect
the desecration of the U.S. flag as a form of
sym-
bolic speech?
that
issues.
burning of the flag did not endanger
that the
the nag's status as a national symbol.
As
erated object
was declared
unconstitutional.

Critics of the Court's ruling in Texas
The
"Congress
Amendment
make no law
states, in part,
First
shall
a result,
Texas' statute prohibiting the desecration of a ven-
decision on June 21.
its
question. Does the
The
and
abridging the
v.
Johnson
argued that the Court had interpreted the term

speech too broadly. Since Texas
v.
Johnson, the
freedom of speech." But what actions can be
Supreme Court has had other opportunities
included under the term speech? According to the
erate
Texas Court of Criminal Appeals, which over-
bal expression,"
turned Johnson's conviction, burning a flag falls
under
The Texas Court
this protected term.
stated,
its
Amendment.
is
indeed protected by the First
In direct response to the Court's con-
troversial ruling in Texas, the U.S.
Congress passed
"Given the context of an organized demonstration,
the Flag Protection Act of 1989.
speeches, slogans, and the distribution of literature,
Court ruled
anyone who observed
States
the message.
The
would have understood
act for
V.
to reit-
position that symbolic speech, or "nonver-
The Supreme
this act unconstitutional in
Eichman (496 U.S. 310)
The United
June 1990.
in
which [Johnson] was
convicted was clearly 'speech' contemplated by

the First
Amendment.
that its interest
was
in
."
Texas, however, argued
preserving the flag as a sym-
bol of national unity and in preventing breaches of

the peace.
It
was now up
to the
Supreme Court
to
decide the validity of Johnson's conviction.
13. BOARD OF EDUCATION OF

KIRYAS JOEL VILLAGE SCHOOL
DISTRICT V. GRUMET
114 U.S. 2481 (1994)

In
an opinion written by Justice William Brennan,
Supreme Court
the
ruled that Johnson's conviction
was inconsistent with

other words, Johnson
rights
Amendment.
the First
was within
when he burned the U.S.

was five to four.
In
his constitutional
flag in protest.
The
The
home
story.
to
New
York's Village of Kiryas Joel
more than 10,000 members of
Hasidic religious sect, a
COURT SAY
that
Johnson, Justice Brennan concluded
Johnson's act was "expressive conduct"
he was attempting to "convey a
034
:;
in that
message."
subdivision of Monroe.
York, Kiryas Joel was incorporated as a
governing village
v.
restrictions.
Once an undeveloped
New
RIGHTS?
Texas
of the Torah, speak Yiddish,
and have special dietary
In
Satmar
The Satmars shun most modem conveniences and

strict interpretations
DID THE
the
form of Judaism.
wear distinctive clothing. The Satmars employ
Court's vote
WHAT
strict
is
Monroe. Kiryas
in
1977.
When
it
Joel's boundaries
include only Satmar families.
The
self-
seceded from
were drawn
to
village's chil-
dren attended private religious schools. Because
accommodate
these schools could not adequately
Kiryas Joel's more than 100 children with disabili-
1989 the
ties, in
trict
state created a public-school dis-
specifically for these children. Citing the First
Amendment, Louis Grumet,
New
then president of the
York Association of School Boards, chal-
lenged the legality of a state-funded district created

to serve the children
of
New
District.
of a religious group. The State
York ruled against the Kiryas Joel School
The Supreme Court heard
the case in
question. Did the legislature
when
it
act constitu-
established a state-funded school
district for the children
with disabilities of the
Village of Kiryas Joel, a religious enclave?
The
issues. This
among
Neutrality
was not
the
first
time that the fate
hands of the Supreme Court. The MonroeCentral School District's attempt to pro-
vide special services to these children was

discontinued after the Court's ruling in Aguilar
Amendment, which ensures

neutrality
Aguilar,
some Satmar
cannot favor "one religion over another" or

gion to irreligion." There was no
whether another group
way
state
"reli-
of knowing
in a similar situation
as Kiryas
according to the Court, the
Village of Kiryas Joel had other alternatives to
pursue to alleviate
its
"burden." For example, the
Monroe-Woodbury Central School District could

legally offer an appropriate program at a "neutral" site to serve the children
Kennedy noted
Justice
with disabilities.
a "fine line between
the voluntary association that leads to a political
community comprised of people who share
common
when
the
political boundaries
government draws
explicit
on the basis of peoples'
faith."
families tried sending their
children were "traumatized" by ridicule from non-
When
that their children
the families then claimed
were legally
entitled to special
programs currently unavailable, the
state created a
special school district for the Village of Kiryas Joel.
The key
issues in Kityas Joel
Grumet were
v.
the children's entitlement to receive
needed special
programs, the First Amendment's establishment

clause,
state,
which
religious faith, and the forced separation
children to Monroe's nearby public schools, but the
Satmar children.
that a state act with
toward religion. In other words, a
that occurs
could not be sent into private religious schools. After
religions must be honored."
centered on the establishment clause of the First
v.
Felton (1985) declared that public-school teachers
how-
This,
Justice Soutcr's argument against Kiryas Joel
of Kiryas Joel's children with disabilities was in the
Woodbury
ever, "is not a principle without limits
Joel. In addition,
tionally
would be granted the same privilege
March 1994.
The
."
by alleviating special burdens.
calls for the separation
and the role of the
state in
of church and
accommodating
religion to "alleviate special burdens."
While the government cannot "endorse" or

"advance" religion,
of
it
must also protect the
regardless of religion.
all,
that the
Some
Supreme Court contradicts
efforts to abide
by these
rights
people believe
itself in its
tenets. In his dissent,
Justice Antonin Scalia echoed that criticism:
"The Founding Fathers would be astonished

find that the Establishment Clause
to
which they
designed to insure that no one powerful sect
could use political or governmental power to
punish dissenters'
hibit
In an opinion written
Supreme Court ruled
by Justice David Souter, the

that creating a special school
district for a religious
enclave incorporated as a
village to exclude all but
its
practitioners violated
the establishment clause of the First
Amendment.
has been employed
to pro-
American accommodation of the
gious practices ... of a tiny minority sect.
Once
this
reli.
Court has abandoned text and history
as guides, nothing prevents
from calling
it
reli-
gious toleration the establishment of religion."
The case of Kiryas
Joel
made
it
gious group cannot be granted
What
ment-funded school
to
RIGHTS?
tion to protect the rights of all
be debated
is
district.
clear that a reliits
own
govern-
will continue
whether the government's obligais
counter to the
Court's ruling.
Justice Souter wrote that
"The Constitution
allows the state to accommodate religious needs
1035
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U.S. and Philippine troops surrendered to the Japanese,
m 746
Bay on southwest coast of Cuba. Site of the
Cuban exiles trained by the CIA.
failed
(22N8rW)mSi7
Belarus
Capital of China. (40N
Republic
in
Commonwealth
m564
member
16E) m25.
Eastern Europe:
of Independent States.
Formerly part of the USSR. Independent
in
ml012-13
Belgium Country in northwest Europe. Invaded
by Germany in 1914 and 1940. Scene of the
Battle of the Bulge. Capital: Brussels.
(5V'HyE)m588.nU0I2-13
Arkan.sas (AR)
in
of Algiers, Tunis,
1991. Capital: Minsk. (53N 25 E) m959,
Virginia town where General Lee
surrendered to General Grant, ending the Civil War.
states
1961 invasion by
of the
World War
ml012-13
North African
Peninsula oi western Luzon. Philippines. In World

II
Beijing
through Vietnam. (17'N \05'E}
it
and Morocco. Some warred with the U.S.
Bay of Pigs
southern Pacific Ocean. Administered by the U.S. since 1899.
Town
1800s.
1945.
(38'N l20W)mi25
Range of mountains
southern Asia. Formerly
April 1942. U.S. forces recaptured the peninsula in February
gold-bearing waters started the gold rush of 1849.
Annamite Mountains
states
Tripoli,
War
(48^N 7"E) m588
Anzio
Barbary
Bataan
returned to France by the Treaty of Versailles, 1919.
Samoa
in
became part of Pakistan in

became a separate nation.
it
Capital: Dacca. (24N 90E)
*-
civil rights protests in the 1960s. (31
.American
Country
part of Bengal,
1947. In 1971
southwestern Georgia. Scene of
American River
and nonhwestem Turkey. (43N 24E) m588

Baltimore Maryland city northeast of Washington. D.C.. on
upper Chesapeake Bay. (39N 76W) m75
Bangladesh
southeast Europe on the
20E) m736, m959, mI0l2-I3
in
in 1973. Capital:
m4h ml012-13
Countries that occupy the Balkan Peninsula, including
Balkans
Adriatic Sea. Invaded by Italy in 1939. Capital:
Albany
Ocean con-
Albania. Bulgaria. Greece. Romania, the former Yugoslavia.
U.S. state in northwest North America.
territory in
in the Atlantic
Nassau. (26N 76W)
N87W) W/0/6-/7
bombings during the
m940
hundreds of islands. Gained inde-
pendence from Great Britain
.Alaska
Country
sisting of
in 1979.
Capital: Kabul. (33N eVE) m905. ml012-l3

.Alabama ,AL) Stale in the southern U.S.
Admitted as a state in 1819. Capital: Montgomery.
(33
Capital of Iraq. Scene of U.S.
Bahamas
Counti^ of southwest-central
Asia. Invaded by the Soviet Union
Baghdad
Persian Gulf War. (33N 44"E)
(39N 97W) ni445
GAZETTEER
Beringia
Berlin
Age between
170'W) m4
of Germany. Divided into East
Land bridge formed during
Siberia and what
is
Capital and largest city
Beriin and
the last Ice
today Alaska. (65
West Beriin
in
1945. Reunited in 1989.
(52N 13 E)/?i7i6. m780. m793

=
Birmingham
City in north-central Alabama. Scene of several
(33N 86W) m845

Black Sea Inland sea between Europe and Asia.
(43=N 32=E) m29
Bosnia and Herzegovina Country annexed to
Austria-Hungary in 1908 and Yugoslavia in
1918. Capital: Sarajevo. (44N I7E) m588,
m959, ml012-13
Boston Massachusetts capital on Massachusetts Bay founded in
the 17th century. Leading center of anti-British sentiment in
the 18th century and antislavery thought in the 19th century.
civil rights protests.
(42=N7rW)m/29
Republic
Brazil
in eastern
Colombia
South America.
Largest countrv on the continent: ruled by
Country
in
northwest South America.
Capital: Bogota. (3"N
Portugal from 1500 to 1822. Empire until
Colorado (CO)
72^W) m578. mW12-l3
State in southwestern U.S.
1889. Capital: Brasilia. (9'S 53' W) m97l.
Became
mlOI2-13
1876. Capital: Denver.
City in \Nestem
BufTalo
New York
Erie on the Canadian border.
(43
End
at the eastern
end of Lake
point of the Erie Canal.
N79=W)/n2ii
territon,' in
1861 and a stale in
(39N 107'W) ml()l6-17
Columbus Capital of Ohio. (40^N 83' W) mWJ6-I7

Compiegne City in northern France. Armistice ending World
War signed nearby on November 1. 1918. (49 N 2 E)
m599
Concord Town in northeastern Massachusetts in which (along
w ith Lexington) the first fighting of the Revolutionary War
was fought. (42'N 7rW^) m]14
1
Connecticut (CTj
State in northeastern U.S..
one of the original
Thirteen Colonies. Admitted as a state in 1788. Capital:
Cahokia
Senlement founded by the Mississippian culture near

St. Louis. Missouri. (38'N 90'W) ml5
present-day
California (CA)
State in western U.S.
ml016-}7
Cambodia Republic
Admitted as a
free
Ceded
in
southeast Asia. Independent in 1954.
in northern North America.

by English and French colonists.
to
Great Britain
in 1763.
Declared
equal partner of Great Britain. 1931. Capital:
Onawa. (50
Cape
of
100=W)/n274. ml012-13
Good Hope
Cape on southern
rounded by Bartolomeu Dias
Cape Verde
.Atlantic
Group of
Islands
Ocean
Portuguese
that
in the
uere
in
13'S 150''E)
m746
90
in Peru.
Europe formed in 1918.

it in 1948 and kept power
until 1989. In 1993 peacefully divided into Czech Republic
(Capital: Prague) and Slovakia (Capital: Bratislava).
(49=N \6'E)m608, m736. m959. m]012-13
Czechoslovakia
Communist
Country
in central
forces gained control of
m29
by the
centun.
became
26W) m29. ml012-13

Caporetto Town in Slo\ enia. Scene of World War I defeat of
Italian troops in December 1917. m588
Casablanca City in northu est Morocco. Founded b\ the
Portuguese in the 16th century. Scene of World War II Allied
conference. (33N 7W) m748
Tow n in northeastern Virginia where a major

War battle was fought in May 863. Union forces were
defeated b\ Confederate troops. m377
Chancellors>"iIle
il
Mexico City Mexico: scene of U.S. victor> during the Mexican War. (19N 99W) m313
Chateau-Thierry Tow n in northern France where Allied forces
stopp>ed German ad\ance in World War I. r49'N 3'E) m599
Chernobyl City in north-central Ukraine where a nuclear power
plant exploded in 1986. (5rN 30=E) m971
Chesapeake Bay Inlet of Atlantic Ocean in Virginia and
Mar\land. (3rN 76W) m75
Cheyenne Wyoming state capital since 1 869. Railhead town during the canle boom of the 19th century. (41 'N 104W) m445
Chicago City in northeastern Illinois on Lake Michigan. Major
port and third largest U.S. city. (41 N 87W)
Fort in
(22'N 79^W) w837. ml012-13

Former capital of Inca Empire
(LVS72 W)/7;75
Cuzco
of Africa. First
1975. Capital: Praia. (15N
Chapultepec
II.
islands in
settled
mid- 15th
tip
1488. (34S 18=E)
a colony in 1495. Gained independence in
Ci\
Worid War
Island country in the Caribbean about
miles south of Rorida. Capital: Havana.
Countn.
Settled
(4rN 73"W) mlOI6-17

Part of the southw est Pacific Ocean. Scene of Allied
naval victor\ during
Cuba
Sacramento. (38N 121 "W)
Scene of fighting during Vietnam War. Capital: Pnompenh.

(12=N 104'E)7i65. in] 01 2-1
Canada
Hartford.
Coral Sea
Dardanelles
(40
Strait dividing
Europe and southwest Asia.
26=E) /7779J
Deadwood
City in w estem South Dakota. Founded after gold

w as discovered in Deadw ood Gulch in 876.
(44N 103W) m450
Delaware (DE) State in eastern U.S.. one of the original
Thirteen Colonies. In 1787 became first state to ratify the
Constitution. Capital: Dover. (38N 75'"W) ml016-17
Dien Bien Phu Tow n in northw estem Viemam w here French
1
troops were defeated by Vietminh troops in 1954. leading to the
m233. m495
Country in southwest South America
colonized by Spain in 1541 became indepen-
Chile
end of French involvement

District of
Columbia (DC)
in Indochina.
(2r"N 102'E)
m865
Federal district of the U.S.. seat of
government since 1800. (39=N 77'-W) ml 01 6-1

Kansas cattle tow n during the cattle boom of the
19th century. (37N 100=W) m445
Dominican Republic Island country in the
federal
Dodge City
Caribbean.
Makes up
eastern part of island of
Hispaniola. Capital: Santo
Domingo.
(19N 70=W) m578. ml012-13
Dresden
City in east-central
Warn. (5rN
Dust Bowl
Germany. Bombed during World
WE) m748
Drought-ridden region in the 1930s that included
parts of Texas,
Oklahoma, Colorado,
New Mexico,
and
Kansas. 7?7777
dent in 1818. Capital: Santiago. (35'S 72'W)
m582. ml012-13
(Official name: People "s Republic of
China
China)
ter civil
Country
war
( 1
in eastern Asia.
After a bit-
946-49). became a Communist
republic: nationalists fled to Taiwan. Capital:
m564. m865. ml012-13

southwestern Ohio. (39'N 84'W)
Beijing. (36=N 93E)
Cincinnati
m253
City in
East Berlin
Egypt
See Berlin.
Countr\' in northeast Africa on the
Mediterranean Sea. Capital: Cairo.
(27=N 27-E) m797, m905, ml012-13
GAZETTEER
037
Town in mmhcm Ejiypl on the Mediterranean Sea.

Scene ot World War II defeat of German Afrika Korps. m74iS
E) m748
Kibe River River in central Europe. (52N
Kl
Alamein
Kl
Salvador
Country
in
.San Salvador.
Capii.ll
Ghana
CVntral America.
N y
14
t^
prising mi>sl of the southern part of the island of Great Britain.
Counir>
Estonia
USSR
to the
Ltmdon. (5!
Capital:
Annexed
Became independent in
1991. Capital: Tallmn. (59
W)/26, ml012-13
River with source
in
western
New
lO'W) m3l5
Group of islands in the central Pacific Ocean.
Scene of Worid War II battle. Capital: Tarawa. (0 74 E) m746
Mexico; flows across southern Arizona. (33'N
Town
Goliad
in
south-central Texas. Mission and presidio
established by the Spanish in 1749. Texas forces defeated near
25 E) m6(hS.
here by Mexican troops during the Texas Revolution.
m'^59.
m 10 1 2- 1
Kithiopia
Country
a^'N9TW)m308
formerly
in eastern Africa;
Abyssinia. Capital: Addis Ababa. (7
mn6,
western Africa. Ancient
in
Gilbert Islands
W)//9
northeast Europe.
in
in 1440.
(8
Gila River
Region of the L'niled Kingdom, com-
Kngland
Republic
African trading kingdom. Capital: Accra.
)/;;.'? 7,V.
m 1012- 1.1
m^J2.
Gettysburg Town in southern Pennsylvania. Scene of major

Union victory in the Civil War. Abraham Lincoln delivered
Gettysburg Address here in 1863. (40N 77W) m377
Kingdom
Great Britain
38E)
western Europe.
in
Consists of England, Scotland, and Wales.
m976. mIOI2-IJ
Capital:
Greece
London. (54N 4W)
Balkan country
mWI2-13
southern Europe
in
with numerous islands. Fought civil war,
1946-49. Capital: Athens. (39N ZTE) m793.
Federal Republic- of
Germany
Finland
northeast Europe. Capital:
Country
in
Helsinki. (62
See Germany
26 E) m60S. m736. mlOI2-l3
Slate in southeastern U.S.
Florida (PL)
1822 and a
a territory in
84"W) mlOI6-17
Tallahassee. (30'N
Fort Duquesne
K
a
Scene of French defeat by the British
H\enlually became Pittsburgh.
Fort Sumter
Became
m92
in
1758.
Fort in Charieston. South Carolina, harbor.
Attack here by Confederate forces began the Civil War.
N80W)mi66
(.32
France
Country
in
western Europe. French
Revolution of 1789 overthrew the monarchy.
Capital: Paris. (46
Fredericksburg
w/9, m58H.
War
Scene of Civil
battle in 1862.
Confederate army. (38N 77W)
French Indochina
1946-55.(17
m748
City in northeastern Virginia.
Union forces defeated by
m377
Former French
105 E)m7.?9
m 1012-1
Greensboro
1960s
City
in
northern North Carolina. Scene oi
sit-in to protest
Grenada
Country
segregation. (36N 79'W')
Caribbean made up
in the
of the island of Grenada and the southern
Grenadines. Capital:
St.
George's.
(12'N6rW)m9i2
One
Guadalcanal
of the Solomon Islands
Scene of heavy fighting during World
Guam
Pacific island that
became U.S.
(>eorgia (GA)
Georgia
967-present.
Major trading center since
/29
Capital:
Republic
Guatemala
ml012-13
Gulf of Tonkin
in
Central America.
City.
Part of the
9rW) mSll.
15'N
South China Sea
(20'N 108E) m873
Island located in the South China Sea, separated from
84
Republic,
W)
in
1788. Capital:
//0/6-/7
member
of the
USSR. Independent
in 1991. Capital:
m 101 2-1
T'bilisi. (42
German
43 F) w959.
DemtMrratic Republic
(Jermany
Country
in
Island country in the Caribbean located

on the western part of the island of
Hispaniola. Former U.S. protectorate. Capital:
Hampton
Fa.scist
was sacked by
the outlet of three rivers into
the British in the
War
in
Chesapeake
1610. the city
of 1812. (37N 76W)
ml016-17
Hanoi
German DemcKratic Republic (East German>

L
and Federal Republic of Germany (West
Germany after World War II. Reunified in 1990. Capital:
Beriin. (5 IN 8 E) m736. m793. m959. mini2-l3
Harlem
GAZETTEER
19'N 72 W) m578. m932.
City in southeastern Virginia opposite Norfolk on
Hampton Roads,
during the 1930s and 194()s. Divided into
1038
ml 01 2-1
Bay. Settled by colonists from Jamestown
See Germany
western Europe.
Part of the Chinese
m746
Haiphong Harbor Harbor of a city in northeast Vietnam on the
Red River delta near the Gulf of Tonkin. Mined by U.S. forces
during the Vietnam War (1972). (2rN 107E) m873
Port-au-Prince.
Common-
wealth of Independent States. Formeriy part of

the
strait.
province of Guangdong. (19N 109E)
Haiti
State in southeastern U.S., one of the original
Thirteen Colonies. Admitted as a state

Atlanta. (32
m746
territory after the
territory in southeast Asia,
Controlled by Egypt. 1948-67, and by Israel.
Italy.
Ocean.
(9S 158E)
Guatemala
east of northern Vietnam.
coastal strip along the Mediterranean Sea.
(31 N34E) m797

Genoa City in northwestern
Roman times. (44 N 10 E)
II.
Leizhou Peninsula by a narrow
Narrow
in the Pacific
War
Spanish-American War. Capital: Agana. (I4'N 143E) m746

Guangdong Province in southeast China. (23N 13E) m482
Guantanamo Bay Bay on southeastern coast of Cuba. U.S.
naval station established in 1903. 19'N 75W) m578
Hainan
Ciaza Strip
first
mS45
Capital of Vietnam. (2
Section of
LN
New York
l06E)m65
City in northern Manhattan bor-
dering on the Hariem and East rivers. Influx of blacks beginin 1910 made it one of America's largest African
American communities. (40N 74W) m661
ning
Hawaii (HI)
U.S. state
Hawaiian
the
Islands.
Honolulu. (20
Hiroshima
bomb
(34'
157
Japanese
used
in
in the central Pacific
Admitted as a
W)
in564.
Ocean comprising
mI016-17
U.S. dropped the
city;
warfare on the city
in
first atomic
August 1945.
132 E)/776
Hispaniola
Columbus and
his
crew established the colony of La
Na\ idad here in 1492; today compri.ses the countries of the

Dominican Republic and Haiti. (I7N 73W) m41
Hong Kong
crown colony located on the coast of China

southeast of Guangzhou. Will become administrative region of
China at end of the 20th century. Capital: Victoria.
(21
British
Jamaica
visited in 1494.
British colony in 1655
It
became
and an important sugar
producer. Capital: Kingston. (18'N 78
W)
m4l. mlOI2-l3
Jamestown First successful English colony in America. m57

Japan Chain of islands in the western Pacific
Ocean. World War II military ally of Germany
and
115 E)//j746
Island country in the Caribbean,
which Columbus
Italy.
Two of its
cities
devastated by
atomic bombs. Since the war, has played a

central role in the global
economy.
Capital:
Tokyo.
(37N I34E) m739, m746, ml012-13
^
Iberian Peninsula
Jerusalem
Spain and Portugal. Separated from the

Strait
rest
of Europe by the
of Gibraltar.
(40N5W)//9
Idaho (ID)
Admitted as a state in
15W) mI016-17
Illinois (IL)
State in north-central U.S. Admitted as a state in
1818. Capital: Springfield. (40N 90W) ml016-17
Indiana (IN) State in north-central U.S. Admitted as a state in
1816. Capital: Indianapolis. (40N 86W) ml016-17
Indian Territory Former territory in south-central United
States. In 1834 it was set aside by the government as a homeland for forcibly displaced Native Americans. Western section,
which became Oklahoma Territory, was opened to white settlement in 1889. In 1907 Indian Territory was merged with
Oklahoma Territory to form the state of Oklahoma.
(36N 98W) m244
Iowa (lA) State in north-central U.S. Admitted as a state in
1846. Capital: Des Moines. (42N 94W) ml016-17
Iran Country in southwest Asia where 53
Americans were held hostage during the Carter
administration and which fought a long war
State in northwestern U.S.
1890. Capital: Boise. (44N
with Iraq. Capital: Tehran.
53E) /h905.
ml012-13
Iraq
Country
in
southwest Asia. Iraq's invasion
of Kuwait led to
UN-imposed economic
sanctions and to
war with
Allies in 1991. Capital:
back as the fourth millennium
Jordan
the U.S. and the
Baghdad. (32N 43E)
Amman. (30N
Jordan River
Country
in
southwest Asia on the eastern
the
UN division of Palestine in
1948. Capital:
Jerusalem. (32N 34E) m797, m905,
ml012-13
Italy
Country
in
southern Europe, which fought
World War I.
During World War II it was allied with
Germany. Capital: Rome. (44N 11 E)
ml012-1013
Iwo Jima Small Pacific island that the Americans captured in
World War II after heavy fighting with the Japanese. m746
on the side of the Allies
in
35E) m25.
m797
38E) m797, m905, ml012-13

in
m797
K
Kansas (KS)
Territory in central U.S., created by Kansas-
Nebraska Act
in 1854, in
which the issue of slavery was
to be
determined on the basis of popular sovereignty. Admitted to the
Union as a free state

m345, 1016-17
in
1861. Capital: Topeka. (38N
Kazakhstan Republic; member of the

Commonwealth of Independent States.
99W)
in
1991. Capital: Almaty. (49N 59E) m959,
ml012-13
Kentucky (KY)
State in east-central U.S.
1792. Capital: Frankfort. (37N
Kings Mountain
Site of
Admitted
as a state in
87W) ml016-17
Tory defeat
in
South Carolina (1780).
(35N8rW) m/29
Kuril Islands
Mediterranean coast that Jews established after
(3rN
River of southwest Asia rising
(32N 36E)
the independent Republic of Ireland (Capital:
8W) ml012-13
B.C.
through the Sea of Galilee to the northern end of the Dead Sea.
Korea
Israel
by
Syria and flowing about 200 miles south
m905, m940, ml 01 2-1

Located in the British Isles, Ireland is
divided between Northern Ireland (Capital:
Belfast), which is part of Great Britain, and
Ireland
Dublin). (54N
a holy place
Country of southwest Asia. Capital:
(3rN
West Bank. Considered
Jews, Moslems, and Christians, the city was occupied as far
Peninsula of southwest Europe comprising
Pyrenees and from Africa by the
Capital of Israel, located in the east-central part of
the country in the
Peninsula and former country of eastern Asia between

Yellow Sea and the Sea of Japan. Officially divided into
two independent nations. North Korea and South Korea, in
1945. (38N 128W) m564, m799
the
Island chain of extreme eastern Russia extend750 miles in the Pacific Ocean between Kamchatka
Peninsula and northern Hokkaido, Japan.
(46N 149E) /h746
Kuwait Oil-rich country on the northeast
Arabian Peninsula at the head of the Persian
Gulf Invaded by Iraq, it was liberated by the
Allies in the Persian Gulf War 1991 ).
Capital: Al Kuwait. (29N 48E) m940, ml012-13
Kyrgyzstan Republic; member of the
ing about

in
1991. Capital: Bishkek. (42N 28E) m959,
ml012-13
GAZETTEER
1039
Maryland (MI))
one of the original
State in east-central U.S..
Ihirteen Colonies. Admitted as a state in 1788. Capital:
I.a
N'uvidad
First
and named
in
Spanish scttlcmcni established by Columbus

ot Christmas Day
the day it was founded
honor
(I9*N72*W)m-//
Lake Erie One of the Great Lakes,
1492.
in
River b\ the
New York
and
Hudson
m2J4
State Barue Canal.
Country of northern Europe on the
southwest Asia, and northern Africa. (32'N 13 E) ml()l2-l3
Mekong
Portujial. ni2.^l
Latvia
Large sea bordered by southern Europe,
Mediterranean Sea
linked with the
Central and South America; settled by Spain
Latin .\merica
Annapolis. (39N 76W) mIOI6-17

Massachusetts (MA) State in northeastern U.S., one of the original Thirteen Colonies. Admitted as a state in 1788. Capital:
Boston. (42 N 72W) ml 016-1
Baltic-
Sea. Capital: Riga. (57'N 24 E) ml()l2-IJ
Located in northern Vietnam, the delta has

Delta
formed where the Mekong River empties into the South China
Sea. Fertile rice-growing region. (18N I04'E) m865
.Memphis Tennessee city on the Mississippi River near the
Mississippi border. Founded and named 1819) by Andrew
Jackson. (35N 90'W) ml()16-l7
(
One
Lexington
of two northeastern Massa-
chusetts towns (along \\ith Concord) where

the
fighting of the Re\olutionar\
first
War
Meuse River
took place.
{ATNll'V/)mH-f
Lcyte
Mindanao
N I25E)m7^6
Liberia
in
and
Society for the resettlement of freed African
claims
in the
March
Americas of Spain and Portugal. in45
USSR
from
were sent there
in
1957
to
enforce a
1954 U.S. Supreme Court ruling against segregation
in the
92W) mlOI6-17
City of southern California. Center of a sprawling
metropolitan area. (34N
Louisiana (LA)
I8W) mlOI6-l7
One of the
Lowell
in
in
m315
North America, bounded on
Florida located on Biscayne Bay.
State in north-central U.S.
victory in
Navy
1812. Capital: Baton
(3rN 93'W) m/0/6-/7
Massachusetts city on the Merrimack River northwest of
Boston. (42N 7 rW)m25i
in
1867;
Wodd War II.
Minnesota (MN)
(MS)
Missouri (MO)
of an important U.S. naval
site
St. Paul.
Admitted as a
state
(46N 90W) mlOI6-J7
State in southeastern U.S.
Admitted as a
state
89W) mW16-17
Jackson. (32N
State in central U.S. Admitted as a state in
1821. Capital: Jefferson City. (38N
Mogadishu
state
(28N 179W) m746
1858. Capital:
Mississippi
Admitted as a
Sl'W) mI0I6-I7
Islands northwest of Hawaii occupied by the
Islands
in 1817. Capital:
southeastern states carved out of the
Louisiana territory. Admitted as a state
Rouge.
end
by the U.S. and on the south by
United States
in
Los Angeles
to the U.S. at the
Guatemala and British Honduras. Capital:

Mexico City. (23N 104W) ml012-13
Midway
public schools. (34N
Mexico ceded
1837. Capital: Lansing. (46N
Capital of Arkansa.s, located in the central part of
the state. Federal troops
Mexico.
Michigan (MI)
ITE)
1990. Capital: Vilnius. (55N
Rock
that
Miami City in southeastern

(25N80W)m70y6-y7
m 101 2-1
w959,
Little
1493 to divide the
in
Country of northern Europe on the
Baltic Sea; declared independence

in
Area
Republic
the north
mlOI2-l3
Line established
New
Mexico
Americans. Capital: Monrovia. (6N IOW)
Lithuania
Mexican Cession
California. Nevada, and Utah, and parts of Arizona, Colorado,
IS17 by the American Colonization Pî
Line of Demarcation
western Europe flowing from northeast
of the Mexican War, comprising the present-day states of
Ctuntr> on west coast of Africa
founded
in
Netheriands to the North Sea. (50N 5E) /?i599
Island of the east-central Philippines, north of
(10
River
France through southern Belgium and the southeast
93W) m237.
m 1016-17
Located on the Indian Ocean; capital and largest
city of Somalia. m25

Moldova Republic; member of the
Formerly part of the USSR. Independent in
1991. Capital: Chisinau. m959, ml012-13
Montana (MT) State in northwestern U.S. Admitted as a state
in 1889. Capital: Helena. (47N
12W) ml016-l7
Monterey City in western California, south of San Francisco on
Monterey Bay. (36N I22W) m313
Montgomery Capital of Alabama. Capital of the Confederate
1
Madeira Islands
Archipelago
west of Morocco. Islands are

(33N 16W) w29
Maine (ME)
northeast Atlantic
in the
a part of Portugal.
State in the northeastern U.S.
in 1820. Capital:
Augusta. (45'N 70
Admitted as a
state
W) mlOI6-l7
Mali Country of western Africa. Capital:

Bamako. (1 5'N 0') m26. mlOI2-l3
Manchuria Region of northeast China, which

was invaded by Japan in 1931. (48'N I25'E)
m739
Manila
Ocean
May
States of America, February to
ml016-17
Munich City
in
southeastern
the center of Bavaria. City
Allied
bombing
in
1861. (32N
Germany founded
was
Worid War
in
86W)
1
158. long
largely rebuilt after extensive

II.
(48N
WE) m736
Capital and largest city of the Philippines, located on
southwest Luzon Island and Manila Bay.
China Sea.
inlet
of the South
(U-N 12rE)m56^
Mariana Islands
Group of
5 islands in the western Pacific
Ocean, east of the Philippines. Guam, the largest island of the

group,
is
a U.S. territory; other islands are a self-governing
commonwealth under U.S.

Marshall Islands
protection.
Self-governing island group
Pacific Ocean. Capital: Majuro.
1040 ::
m746
GAZETTEER
ION
165'E)
Naga.saki
Japanese
city;
1945
by the U.S., ending Worid

in the central
m746
Nebraska (NE)
site
War
of the second atom-bombing
II.
(32N 130E) m746
State in central U.S. Admitted as a free state in
1867. Capital: Lincoln.
(4rN lOTW) ml016-17
Nevada (NV)
State in western U.S. Organized as a separate ter-
ritory in 1861
City.
(39N
New Guinea
Australia.
the
and admitted as a
Carson
WT^) ml016-17
Western half
is
Jersey (NJ)
New
(44^N
Guinea. (5'S 140'E)
forms
Admitted as a
state in 1788.
7rW) ml016-17
State in eastern U.S.:
Trenton. (40N
territory that
mlO}6-17
New Orleans
Mexico
in
1848; organized as a
included Arizona and part of Colorado
107W)
Founded
in
1718.
the U.S. as part of the Louisiana Purchase of
803.
One
of the original
1890 and became a
was
state in 1907.
Columbus spotted
1502, and the
first
made by Spain in
m932. ml012-13
its
Caribbean coastline
European settlements were
City.
to traffic
86W) m578,
Pearl
(8N
and Jordan.
(3rN
35 E)
m797
8rW)
m578, ml012-13
Ship canal, about 51 miles
on August
Harbor
1941.
Panama
in the
Canal Zone and
15, 1914.
m571
Port in the Hawaiian Islands where the American
w as destroyed by
a Japanese surprise attack in
(2rN 158=W) m746
Pennsylvania (PA)
State in eastern U.S..
one of the original
French province that was the
site
(35N
Admitted as a
of the D-
of the
as a
Bismarck. (47^N 102W) ml016-17

name: Democratic
People's Republic of Korea) Country on east
bounded on north by China, on

east by Sea of Japan, on south by South
Korea, and on west by the Yellow Sea and Korea Bay. Capital:
P"yongyang. (40=N \21'-'E) m799, ml012-13
North Vietnam See Vietnam
Northwest Territory Region of the north-central U.S., extending
from the Ohio and Mississippi rivers to the Great Lakes. Area
was ceded to the U.S. in 1783; became a territorv in 1787 and
later was split up into the present-day states of Ohio. Indiana,
coast of Asia,
Michigan. Wisconsin, and part of Minnesota. Control
over the territory was a major issue in the War of 1 8 1 2. ml42

Nueces River Texas river that Mexicans claimed was the
boundarv' between Mexico and Texas. (28N 98W) mSlS
D
on the South
Platte River,
52 miles west
(4rN lOrW) m445
State in north-central U.S. Originally part of the
Northwest Territory; admitted as a
Columbus. (40N 83'W) ml016-17
Persian Gulf
Arm
See China
of the Arabian Sea between the Arabian
(27N 50E) m940
Admitted
(Official
city
(4rN 78W) mW16-17
Peninsula and southwestern Iran in southwest Asia.
state in 1789.
8rW) ml016-17
Harrisburg.
People's Republic of China
Nebraska
Israel
Countr> in southern Central America
Pacific fleet
original Thirteen Colonies.
of North Platte.
now divided between
Panama
long, crossing the Isthmus of
Day invasion during World War II. (49N 0) m748

North Carolina (NC) State in southeastern U.S. One
North Dakota (ND)
South-
connecting the Caribbean Sea with the Pacific Ocean. Opened
in
1524. Capital: Managua. (12N
(3rNlirW)/n52
Normandy Northern
in
Asia between the eastern Mediterranean and the Jordan
Panama
Nogales City in southern Arizona, south of Tucson on the

Mexican border and adjacent to Nogales, Mexico.
Capital: Raleigh.
Often called the Holy Land, historical region
Palestine
Panama Canal
Country of Central America on the
Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean.
Ohio (OH)
pan-
occupying the Isthmus of Panama. Capital:
ml 0] 6-1
Albany. (42'N 78=W)
Ogallala
in
its
part of the Louisiana Purchase;
49th parallel. m229

Oswego City in north-central New York at the mouth of the
Oswego River on Lake Ontario northwest of Syracuse.
(43N 76"W) m92
River,
State in northeastern U.S.
Illinois.
State in south-central U.S. Except for
Oklahoma formed
organized as a territory
v\est
(30=N 90W) m209
New York (NY)
North Korea
World War
it
the capital of a French colony in 1722 and passed to
Nicaragua
in
(26'N 128'E) m746
City in southeastern Louisiana between the
Mississippi River and Lake Pontchartrain.
became
1850;
in
1912. Capital: Santa Fe. (34N
in
sides.
Ocean to the
Rocky Mountains; held jointly by Great Britain and the U.S..
1818-46. when the international boundary was fixed at the
State in southwestern U.S.; originally Zuni
admitted as a state
heavy losses on both
California border to Alaska and from the Pacific
one of the original
75^W) mlOI6-17
country, ceded to the U.S. by
Japanese island captured by U.S. forces
after
Capital: Oklahoma City. (36 N 98 W) ml()l6-l7

Oregon (OR) State in northwestern U.S. Admitted as a state in
1859. Capital: Salem. (43'N 122W) mlOl6-17
Oregon Country Region encompassing all the land from the
m746
New Mexico (NM)
II
handle.
State in northeastern U.S., one of the
original Thirteen Colonies.
Capital: Concord.
Ocean north of
part of Indonesia; eastern half
major portion of Papua
Okinawa
Oklahoma (OK)
Island in the southwest Pacific
New Hampshire (NH)
New
Peru Republic in western South America.

bounded on north by Ecuador and Colombia.
on east by Brazil and Bolivia, on southern tip
by Chile, and on west by the Pacific Ocean.
Capital: Lima. (lO'S 75'W)
m976, ml012-13
Philippines, Republic of the
Archipelago of
about 7.100 islands, lying approximately 500

miles off the southeast coast of Asia. Capital:
Manila. (14N 125E) m561,
Pikes Peak
Mountain. 14.1 10
central Colorado.
ml012-13
feet high, in
Rocky Mountains
in
(38N 105W) m450
City in Pennsylvania, located at the point where the
Pittsburgh
Monongahela rivers forms the

Ohio River. Fort Duquesne w as built on the site by the French
c. 1750 and fell to the British in 1758. when it was renamed
Fort Pitt. (40N 80'W) m233
Plymouth Site in Massachusetts where the Pilgrims first landed
in North America in 1620. (42N 70 W) m69
Poland Countrv' of central Europe bordering on
the Baltic Sea. Capital: Warsaw. (52N 17E)
m608. m736. m959, ml 01 2-1
joining of the Allegheny and
Portugal
Country of southwest Europe on the
western Iberian Peninsula.
It
includes the
Madeira Islands and the Azores in the Atlantic

Ocean. Capital: Lisbon. (38N 9W) ml9,
ml012-13
GAZETTEER
041
Puerto Rico PR)
Island cast of
ceded
to the U.S. after the
Cuba and
soulheasl of Florida,
Spanish- American War;
governing commonuealth. Capital: San Juan.
I8'N 67' W)
ml()l2-lJ
w.^6/.
City in southeastern South Korea on Korea
lîsan
IX'\
St.
Strait.
eloped into a major port during the Japanese occupation of
Korea. U)!!) -4S
VS
\ \29l':)m7W
Quebec
now a
Hawthorne's House of the Seven Gables. (42'N 7rW) m69

San Antonio City in south Texas. (29N 98 W) mSOH
San Diego City in southern California on San Diego Bay. an
inlet of the Pacific Ocean near the Mexican border.
permanent French settlement in North America,

in eastern Canada on the St. Lawrence River.
First
city
Lawrence River River in southeast Canada flowing about

750 miles northeast from Lake Ontario along the Ontario-New
York bt)rder and through southern Quebec to the Gulf of St.
Lawrence. (48N 69 W) m57. m92
Village in northeast France on the Meuse River east
Mihiel
of Paris. World War battle here (1918) was the first major
American offensive led by General John J. Pershing.
(49N 5E) m599

Sakhalin Island Island of southeast Russia in the Sea of
Okhotsk north of Hokkaido. Japan. (52'N I44E) m746
Salem City northeast of Boston. Founded in 1626. it is noted as
the site of witchcraft trials. 1692. and of Nathaniel
Q
N7I W)/Hy2
(47
St.
self-
(33N ll7W)m52
San Francisco
Red Ri>er
River of southeast Asia that rises in southern China

and flows about 730 miles, generally south, through Vietnam
to a fertile delta
Rhineland
on the Gulf of Tonkin. (22
Region along the Rhine River
in
1{)4E)
Santa Fe
Island
Rhodesia
mS65
America,
western Germany.
one of the
Stale in northeastern U.S.,
Admitted as a
by Jordan.
Riyadh.
Savannah
American RevoCivil War and major
Strategically important in the
of the Confederacy
in the
Island off the coast of North Carolina
Hnglish settlements failed. (36'N
Russia
Country
in
where two early
77'W) m57
Eastern Europe and North-
Member
Iraq,
and Kuwait; the world's
(2rN
oil.
Capital:
46E) m940. ml012-13
U.S. city on east coast of Georgia captured by
General Sherman during Civil War. 1864. (32N 81
Tow n
Sedan
Alabama
city
west of Montgomery. In 1965 was the
of a voter-registration drive led by Re\
Seoul
alties
River, about 150 miles long, rising in northeast France and
flow ing north and northwest to the Moselle River in western
Twice occupied by Communist
tor") built a school of navigation in the 15th century.
m29
Vast desert of northern Africa extending east from the

Atlantic coast to the Nile Valley and south from the Atlas
10
of Vietnam,
China Sea;
for-
I06'E) m<S65
Augustine City in northeastern Florida on the Atlantic

Ocean, south-southeast of Jacksonville. Founded by the
Spanish
ment
042
in
in the
1565.
it
is
U.S. (30
the oldest
permanent European
N 8rW)m52
GAZETTEER
settle-
on both
sides.
in
Memphis. Site
more than lO.OCX) casu-
m382
(37N
Mediterranean taken by Allied forces
World War
II.
\yE)m748
Sierra Leone
Country
in
western Africa on the Atlantic coast.
in the 1460s; region became a

896 and achieved independence in
1961. Capital: Freetown. (8N l2W)/n29
Somalia Country of extreme eastern Africa on
the Gulf of Aden and the Indian Ocean.
Capital: Mogadishu. (3N 44=E) ml012-13
South Africa Country of southern Africa on
by the Portuguese
British protectorate in
'W) /h26
forces
m799
1862. which claimed
Italian island in the
First visited
Sahara
city
Sicily
battle.
prior to the occupation of Italy during
Germany. River's valley is also known as the Saar Basin. m608

Sagres Portuguese town in which Prince Henry ("the Naviga-
Jr.
Locality in southwestern Tennessee east of
of civil war
meriy capital of South Vietnam.
site
Martin Luther King,
Capital and largest city of South Korea, in the northwest
Shiloh
St.
(32N 87W) m845
during the Korean War. (37N I27E)
the southern part of the country near the South
the
(50N 5'E) m599
of the
Mountains to the region of the Sudan. (23N

Saigon Present-day Ho Chi Minh City. Largest
Meuse River near

in World War I.
of northeast France on the
section of the country.
Saar
W) m387
Washington city bounded by Puget Sound and Lake

Washington. First settled in the 850s; prospered after the
coming of the railroad in 884 and became a boomtown during
the Alaskan gold rush of 1897. (47N 122W) m445
Seattle
Selma
Commonwealth
of Independent States. Capital: Moscow.
(6rN60E)m/0/2-/.?
.
Country on the Arabian Penin-
Belgian border. Site of important battle
west Asia. Formerly part of USSR. Independent in 1991
the territorial capital in 1851 and state cap-
I06W) m52
second-largest producer of
objective of the Union Army: fell in 1865. (37'N 77W) m366

Rio C>rande
"Great River" that forms the border between
Texas and Mexico. (26 N 98 W) mJlS
Roanoke
became
sula in southwest Asia, bordered on the north
Region of south-central Africa south of Zaire, com-
lution. Capital
it
1912. (35N
ital in
Saudi Arabia
modem-day Zambia and Zimbabwe. 18 S 29E)

mini}-/
Richmond State capital, in the east-central part of Virginia on
James River.
of
Cuban seaport captured by American forces during the

Spanish-American War. (20N 76W) m561
origi-
(4rN 7rW) m/0/6-/7
prising
the
in the north-central part
Santiago
RI)
nal Thirteen Colonies.
Providence.
New Mexico,
Capital of
the state northeast of Albuquerque. Important city in Spanish
N6 E)m736
(.'Ô
Rhode
City in western California on a peninsula
between the Pacific Ocean and San Francisco Bay. Discovery

of gold nearby in 848 changed the city from a small community into a thriving boomtown. (37N I22'W) m52
the Atlantic
and Indian oceans. Pretoria
administrative capital.
tive capital,
Cape Town
is
and Bloemfontein the judicial
capital. (28S
25'E) ml012-13
the
the legisla-
South Carolina (SC)
State in southeastern U.S., one of the orig-
Thirteen Colonies. Admitted as a state in 1788. First state
inal
to secede from the Union (1860). Capital: Columbia.

(34'N81 W)i/0/6-/7
South Dakota (SD) State in north-central U.S. Constituted the
southern part of the Dakota Territon, admitted as a state in
;
1889. Capital: Pierre.
(44N
102
W) m/0/6-/7
began
ml
Town in
1956.
Mali, in western Africa near the Niger
west of Kansas City. (39'N 95 W)

east
by the Portuguese but taken
New
in east-
century by the
Dutch, w ho used them as the base for their monopoly of the
Country
in
ml 01 6-17
southwest Asia and south-
Europe between the Mediterranean and

(38N 32W)
Commonw ealth
in
1991. Capital: Ashgabat. (40''N 56'E) m959.
ml012-13
Present-day Volgograd (renamed in 1961
Country
in northeast
).
City of
m748
Africa south of
Egypt. Capital: Khartoum. (14N 28E) m976.
n}1012-13
Historical region of northwest
Czechoslovakia along the Polish border. Seized b\ the Germans
September 1938,
1945.
N 3'W) m26
m29
southwest Russia on the Volga River. (48N 42E)
in
16
m793. ml012-13
Turkmenistan Republic: member of the
Guinea. Islands were
in the 17th
the Black seas. Capital: Ankara.
4^W) ml'oi2-13
Present-day Moluccas. Group of islands
Indonesia between Celebes and
Sudetenland
1500.
c.
Capital of Kansas, in the northeastern part of the state
Turkey
including the Balearic and Canary islands.
Sudan
present-day northern Guatemala,
city, in
center under Songhai rule
Capital: Madrid. (40=N
Stalingrad
in
Topeka
the greater part of the Iberian Peninsula and
spice trade.
Mayan
River; reached height of prosperity as commercial and cultural
mWI2-13
settled
Ancient
Tikai
Timbuktu
South \'ietnam See Vietnam

Spain Country in southwest Europe, occupying
em
Thailand Formerly Siam. Ct)untry in southeast

Asia on the Gulf of Thailand. Was occupied
by the Japanese in World War II and was a
strong supporter of the U.S. in the Vietnam
War. Capital: Bangkok. 16 N 101 E) m746. ml()l2-l3
northeast of Peten Itza; excavation and restoration of ruins
South Korea (Official name: Republic of Korea)

Countr> on east coast of Asia, bounded on
north by North Korea, on east by the Sea of
Japan, on south by the Korea Strait, and on
west by the Yellow Sea. Capital: Seoul. (36N 128E)
Spice Islands
it
was restored
to
Czechoslovakia
in
Ukraine
Republic;
Commonwealth
member
of the
m736
Suez Canal International waterw ay in the Middle East seized by

Egypt in 1956. British, French, and Israeli troops unsuccessfully attempted to end Egyptian control. (3rN 32'E) m8U
Sutter's Fort
Fortified town built by John Sutter on California's
American River in 1839. m325
Syria Country in southwest Asia on the eastern
Meditertanean coast. Capital: Damascus.
(35^N 37=E) m905. ml012-13
1991 Central theater of warfare

.
in
in
both w orld
wars. Capital: Kiev. (49=N 30=E) m748, m959. ml012-13

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland See
Great Britain
United States of America
Federal republic.
North America, bounded on north by Canada
and
(in
Alaska) the Arctic Ocean, on east by
Ocean, on south by Mexico and

Gulf of Mexico, and on west by the Pacific Ocean. Capital
Washington, D.C. (38'N 1 lO^W) ml012-13. ml016-17
the Atlantic
the
Utah (UT)
State in western U.S. First explored
by Coronado
expedition, 1540. Admitted as a state in 1896. Capital: Salt
Lake City. (39N 1 12=W) ml016-17

Uzbekistan Republic: member of the Common-
Taiwan
name: Republic of China) Formerly Formosa.
(Official
Country off the southeast coast of China made up of the island

of Taiwan, the Pescadores, and other smaller islands. Capital:
Taipei. (37\N
Tajikistan
12'E)
Republic:
t7i564,
member
w ealth of Independent States. Formerly part of

USSR. Independent in 1991. Capital:
Toshkent. (42N 60E) m959, ml012-13
the
m746. ml012-13
of the
Common-

of the
USSR. Independent
Dushanbe. (39=N 69=E)
Tennessee (TN)
Admitted as a
in 1991. Capital:
y.
mW12-13
State in south-central U.S.

state in 1796. Capital: Nashville.
(36N 88W)
ml016-17
Ancient name of Mexico City, which w ith
Texcoco and Tlacopan formed the Aztec confederacy and
became the capital of the Aztec empire. 19'N 99'W) ml
Texas (TX) State in south-central U.S., bounded on south by
Gulf of Mexico and Mexico. Know n as the Lone Star State
because it was an independent republic (1836-45) whose flag
Tenochtitlan
feamred a single
star.
Capital: Austin.
(3rN 10rW)/7076-77
Venezuela Country in northern South America

*
on the Caribbean Sea. Capital: Caracas.
(8N 65=W) m578, ml012-13
Venice City in northeast Itah on islets w ithin a
lagoon in the Gulf of Venice, wide inlet of the northern
Adriatic Sea. (45N 12=E) m29
Vermont (VT) State in northeastern U.S., one of the original
Montpelier. (44N 73=W) ml016-17
I
GAZETTEER
1043
\ ickshurg
Cily in
wcsicm
\âs
bcMcgcd 1862-^3) and

(
Ifd b> I'Ksses S, Grant. (42
ielnam
S5
W)
settled in the
it
captured by Union troops
finally
War
w,?.S2
Oregon Trail,
Wisconsin (WI)
Si>utheast Asian country (divided into
1954 and 1975) where United States and
South Vietnamese forces fought a war against
Communist North Vietnamese.

(I8'N \01 E)mfi65. mlOI2-l3
Virj;inia
VA
1848
Capital: Hanoi.
Oregon,
first
1830s by pioneers traveling west along the
mi 7
First settled
Admitted as a sute
by the French, region was ceded
to
Great
763 and became part of the Northwest Territory in

1787. Capital: Madison. (44N 9rW) mlOI6-17
yoming (WY) State in northwestern U.S. Organized as the
Wyoming Territory in 1868 and admitted as a stale in 1890.
Britain in
North Vietnam and South Vietnam between
the
Fertile agricultural region of
Willamette \'alley
Mississippi on blutts above the
MiNMssippi River west ot Jackson. During the Civil
Capital:
Cheyenne. (43N 108 W) ml016-17
one of the original Thirteen

1788. Capital: Richmond.
State in eastern U.S..
Colonies. Admitted as a slate in
(37'N80'W)m/0/6-y7
River forming part of the North Korea-China
Yalu River
border. (4 r'N 126E)
Ocean between
U.S. in 1898. it was a
>Vake Island
Island in the western Pacific
Ha\vaii and Guam. Annexed by the

commercial air base and later a military base, held by the
Japanese from 1941 to 1945. (19
NValtham
167E)
mill in U.S.
and
first
power loom
(42N7rW)m25.?
Washington (WA) State
b> the Pacific Ocean.
paper
for manufacture of textiles.
in
northwestern U.S.. bounded on
Columbia and on west
Admitted as a
N 12rW) ^70/6-77
Washington. D.C. Capital of the United States, on the Potomac

River between Virginia and Marv land and coextensive with
the District of
Columbia. Leading international
educational center. (39N 77 W)
political
and
m214
West Berlin See Berlin

West Virginia WV) State in east-central U.S. Admined as a
state in 1863. Pan of Virginia until the area refused to endorse
(
the
Ordinance of Secession
(39N8rW) ^70/6-77
1044
GAZETTEER
(30^N 117=E)
shore of
in 1861. Capital: Charleston.
Y'sleta
m7i9
Japanese city
in southeast
Tokyo Bay. Almost
quake and
fire in
Honshu, on the western
entirely destroyed
by an earth-
1923. again largely destroyed by U.S.
bomb-
World War n. (35N 139E) 'm564
ing in
north by Canadian province of British
Olympia. (47
first
m799
Longest river of China and of Asia, flow ing
about 3.450 miles from Xizang (Tibet) to the East China Sea.
Yokohama
m746
.Massachusetts city west of Boston. Site of
Yangtze River
First
1681.
permanent Spanish colony

'
in
Texas, founded in
(3rN 106=W) w52
Yugoslavia
Former country
in southeast
Europe bordering on the Adriatic Sea. It was

formed in 1918 as the Kingdom of Serbs.
Croats, and Slovenes after the collapse of the
Ausiro-Hungarian Empire and renamed Yugoslavia
in 1929.
name is claimed b\ Serbia and Montenegro.

(44=N M'E) m608. m959. mlOll-lS
Yukon Territory Territory of northwest Canada east of Alaska.
Today
the
Region first explored by fur traders in the 1840s and acquired

by Canada from the Hudson Bay Compan) in 1870. Capital:
Whiiehorse. (63
135W) m450
GLOSSARY
This Glossan contains terms you need to understand as you study American history. After each term there
is
meaning of the term as it is used in Boxer's The American Nation. The

the page on which the term is introduced in the textbook.
brief definition or explanation of the
page number refers
to
Phonetic Respelling and Pronunciation Guide

Man\
used
o\'
the ke\ terms in this textbook
in the respellings
tion guide.
The guide
ha\e been respelled
to help
throughout the narrative are explained
in the
New
New Biographical Dictionary.
adapted from Webster's Ninth
is
Dictionary, and Webster's
you pronounce them. The
Collegiate Dictionary. Webster's
MARK
AS IN
RESPELLING
alphabet
*AL-fuh-bet
Asia
ay
AY-zhuh
cart,
let.
top
ee
EE-Vuhn, LEEF
IT. TIP.
SYT. BY. Oh-HY-Oh
iris
y
eye
EYE-ris
card
IC\RD
over, rainbow
oh
oh-\-uhr,
ooh
BOOHK. WOOHD
orchid
aw
AWT, AWR-kid
coin
oy
FOYL,
ow
OWT
uh
KUHP, BUHT-Uhr
oo
yoo
FYOO
zh
VTZH-uhn
even, leaf
it.
site.
tip.
British
buy. Ohio
ii
book,
all.
6i
foil,
ail
out
wood
cup, butter
ii
rule,
yu
few
zh
vision
*A
food
syllable printed in small capital letters receives heavier
SYllabie(s) in
TAHP
K.AHRT,
LET.
Geographical
EXAMPLE
ah
New
ten
combinations
letter
following phonetic respelling and pronuncia-
TEN
BRIT-ish
RAYN-boh
KOYN
ROOL, FOOD
emphasis than the other
a word.
Agricultural Marketing Act (1929)

the Federal
Farm Board, an agency
Federal law that created

to help ease the plight of
farmers by buying farm surpluses. 685
AIDS
People
abolitionists
acid rain
makes
who wanted
to put
Atmospheric pollution
lakes unfit for marine
Adamson Act
life.
an end to slavery. 78
that gradually kills trees
and
workers from 10 to 8 hours with no decrease
in wages. 551
which Spain transferred East Florida to the U.S. for S5 million and the U.S.
promised to drop its claim to Texas. 230
affirmative action
Programs giving preference to ethnic
minorities and women in jobs or school admission to make up
for past discrimination. 919
African diaspora Forcible resettlement of millions of African
Agreement
in
people to the .Americas from the 1500s through the 1800s. 30

.Agricultural
Adjustment Act (AAA)
Federal law passed
1933 to reduce farmers' output, increase crop prices, and

Adjustment Administration. 698
establish the Agricultural
deadly
Benjamin Franklin's plan to

aimed at pro-
unite the colonies through a loose confederation
moting
their defense.
91
Alien and Sedition Acts (1798)
by the
from foreign influence, limit
Republican power, and silence government critics. 202
Alliance for Progress President Kennedy's policy of sending
economic aid to Latin America; designed to encourage democratic reforms and to promote capitalism. 835
Series of laws passed
Federalists to protect the country
Allied
Powers
World War
Britain. Russia. Italy,

in
final
human immuno-
deficiency virus (HIV). 949
Albany Plan of Union (1754)
972
Federal law reducing the workday for railroad
Adams-Onis Treaty (1819)
Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome, the
stage of an illness believed to be caused b\ the
American
and
alliance that included France. Great
later the
.A.nti-Slavery Society
United States. 587
First national antislavery orga-
nization devoted to immediate abolition, formed in 1833 by
both black and white abolitionists. 294
GLOSSARY
1045
American Cotonizati
Amrrioin
Group founded by prominent

1817 to peiNuade sla>eholderv
n Society
Battle of the Atlantic
ey
1 them to
mde-
n of
\n
\\
Samuel
Gompcrs 495
Vmrncan
i-^nn-i
Indi;ii
'
t,>i..r:
:-.
<.;..**
s-...i
..ânization that
freedom and
<u>
iriha!
property for
"in
i-ment
\i
Orjan'.'ation. founded in
(AIM*
vxkas. that
.
..:
the
major foTt
in
b51
promoted by business leaders during the

open shops. 632
Federal law that proDisabffitics Act (1990)
American Plan
I
dunng
Policy,
^r
".ni for
Amehi
nation against people with mental or physical
Deal proclamation that temporarily
closed c\er\ U.S. bank to stop massive withdrawals.
Paper money issued by banks
bank notes
Sena 265
New
bank holiday (1933)
in
694
place of gold or
siKer 192
Baruch Plan 1946i Proposal submitted to the UN Atomic

Energy Commission for international control of atomic
i
energy 790
Bataan Death March (1942)
.
Forced march of Allied prisoners
on the Baiaan peninsula to a Japanese detention camp, during

which thousands died. 745
1862) Civil War banle that helped bolster
Battle of Antietam
northern cont'idence while dashing Confederate hopes of win1
ning EuK>pean support. 378
Bunker Hill 1775) Revolutionary War banle in

which British troops defeated Patriot forces atop two hills
o\erlookine Boston Harbor. 116
Revolutionary War battle in which
Battle of Camden 1780)
Battle of
Henn
American System
development;
it
Clay's federal program for economic
included a national bank, a protecti\e
tariff,
and a national transportation system. 227

amnesty Official pardon for crimes committed against the
CON
annex
who oppose
Pei>ple
all
forms of go\ emment. 494
country or territory
ernment and opposed
Africa.
uho
feared a powerful national gov-
ratification of the U.S. Constitution.
Policy of giving in to
demands of
Hearing in hich a third party

Cease-fire.
the
1 .^
539
colonies established a government of states with

its
own
affairs.
Cultioral absorption
Charter (1941
140
in v\hich a
passed along a line of \orkers and assembled
.Atlantic
product
is
646
in stages.
of a group. 434
international relations, agreed to by the United States
and
Atomic Energy Act 1946 Federal law that placed the Atomic
Energy Commission under ci\ilian control to oversee nuclear
weapons research and to promote peacetime uses of atomic
(
energy. 791
automation Maform industn..

.Axis
IaK>r.
process that used machines to perIS faster
and more efficiently than
820
powers Military alliance of Germanv.

Worid War II. 735
Ital\
and Japan dur-
ing
ictory during
General Stonewall
British \ictory in
Egypt during
broke the momentimi of the A.xis advance
that
in
Timbers (1794)
Decisive battle
in the
.Northwest Territory in which U.S. troops defeated a confeder-
weakening Indian resistance on the
ation of Nati\e .Americans,
197
Battle of Fredericksburg
1 862
Confederate victory during
Union troops more than 1 2.000 casualties and led to General Bumside's replacement. 378
863
Battle of Gettysburg
Union victory during the Ci\il
War that halted General Uee's invasion of the North. 379
Battle of Iwo Jima 1 945
.AlUed \ictory in the Pacific during
World War 11 in which Japanese forces lost more than 20.(X)0
troops. 764
Battle of Ley1e Gulf (1944)
Decisive naval victory for the
.Allies during World War n that eliminated the Japanese fleet
as a threat in the Pacific. 764
(
^
baby boom Soaring birth rate between 1946 and 19M. 817
Bacon*s Rebellion (1676) Uprising by \
ulers.
gruntled o\er taxes and
larvd. that
incluc,
looting wealthy plantations, and burning Jamestow-n.
balance of trade
dis-
Iixlians.
77
Difference in value between trade exports and
imfKHts 83
Balfour Declaration (1917i Statement JNsued by Great Britain

declanne iis support for a Jewish homeland in Palestine. 611
GLOSSARY
Midway
Allied naval %ictor> that helped halt
1942)
major Japanese offensive in the Pacific during World

War II. 747
Battle of New Orleans (1815)
Battle in w hich .American troops
defeated British forces after the War of 1812 had officially
ended. 214
Battle of Okinaw a
945
.Allied %ictory in the Pacific during
World War II in which Japanese forces lost more than 100.000
troops. 764
8~6
Battle of Rosebud
Battle against U.S. .Army in which
Naii\ e .Americans gained confidence in their fighting force. 429
Battle of San Jacinto 1836)
Texan victory over Mexican
noops that resulted in the Mexican goNcnmient granting Texas
its independence. 309
777
Battle of Saratoga
Patriot >ictory during Revolutionary
War. that convinced FraiKe to support the .American fight for
indepeiKlence. 130
Battle of Seven Pines (1862)
Civil War battle in which
Confederate general Johnston was seriously wounded and succeeded by Robert E. Lee. 377
Battle of Shiloh
lS62i Costly Civil War battle in which
the
046
South Carolina. 131
Confederate
North Afnca. 749
Battle of
Joint declaration of principles for
Great Bntain. 738
human
II
Manufacturing technique
line
assimilation
that resulted in the death of
settles a dispute.
.Agreement, ratified in 1781. in
each state retaining (x>wer over
assembly
a country or
735
600
Articles of Confederation
u hich
863
the Civil >\ar that cost
countries in an effort to a\ oid major conflicts.
arbitration
Jackson. 379
frontier.
915
appeasement
armistice
150
Hatred of Jews. 733
Racial segregation: former racial policy in South
apartheid
War
Battle of Fallen
563
IndiNiduals
anti-Semitism
the Ci\il
\\orid Vâr
Action by which one country takes control of another
Antifederalists
Battle of ChancelIors\iUe
Battle of El Alamein (1942)
emment. 395
anarchists
British troopvs defeated Patriot forces in
General Grant's troops defeated Confederate forces. 381

Battle of Stalingrad
during World
942-43 )
\\ ar II that
advaiKre in Europe.
Battle of the .Atlantic
So>iet defeat of German troops
broke the
momentum
of the Axis
749
NXorid Vâr
(jerman U-boats and the
.Allied
11
naval
na\A and
war fought between

760
air force.
Battle of the Bulge
World War
Battle of the Bulge (1944)

forces repulsed the final
German
Allied naval victory during
which a joint British- American naval force

stopped the Japanese advance on Australia. 746
World War II naval battle in
Battle of the Java Sea (1942)
which the Japanese navy defeated a fleet of American. British.
Dutch, and .Australian warships. 745
Battle of the Little Bighorn (1876)
Native American victory
II
in
that resulted in the death of U.S.
men
the
in his
Army
general Custer and
Somme
Battle of the
British lost
some
Decisive Allied naval and
Thames
Battle of the
World War
(1916)
6().()()0
II.
762
battle in
troops in a single day.
which the
589
the
War
214
defeat for the Indians and
in
made William Henry
Harrison a hero. 212
Revolutionary War battle in which

Washington's arniy attacked and defeated Hessian soldiers sta-
Battle of Trenton (1776)

tioned
at
Trenton,
New
on
in
which
Revolutionary
War
battle in the
Patriot troops recaptured a British fort
to take control of
Battle of
128
Jersey.
Battle of Vincennes (1779)
West
and went
western lands. 131
Yorktown (1781)
Revolutionary
War
battle in
which
Patriot troops defeated British forces under General
Comwallis, effectively ending the war. 132
Bear Flag Revolt (1846) Uprising by U.S. settlers in California

against Mexican rule in which they declared California an
independent republic. 313
bear market Downward trend in stock prices. 670
Beats
Small but influential group of writers and poets
who
chal-
lenged literary conventions and the life-style of the middle

class in the 1950s.
Organizations formed during the turn of
and aid new immigrants. 469

Beringia Former land bridge between Siberia and present-day
Alaska used by Paleo-Indians to cross from Asia into North
the century to support
America. 4
(1948)
airlift
to deliver
blocked
by U.S. and British
Joint effort
air forces
food and supplies into West Berlin after the Soviets
all
792
routes into the city.
Berlin Wall
Concrete barrier built
in 1961 to cut off

between East Berlin and West Berlin. 836
bicameral Legislature made up of two houses. 147
During World War
Big Four
Woodrow
traffic
if
necessary.
848
Followers of Benito Mussolini. 732
Black Thursday
October 24, 1929; day investors caused
panic on Wall Street by selling their shares. 671
Black Tuesday
October 29, 1929; day the stock market
crashed. 671
Bland-Allison Act (1878)
Federal law passed
in
response to
pressure from farmers; required the government to buy and
German word
blitzkrieg
war carried on with great speed and

war" against Poland
for
World War
II. 737
Branch of the Russian Communist party that seized
power in 1917 following the overthrow of the czar. 598
bonanza farm Large-scale farm usually owned by a large com-
in
441
given to World War I veterans who
marched on Washington, D.C., in 1932 to support a bill granting veterans early payment of pension bonuses. 687
bosses
Powerful political party leaders who used political
machines and patronage to control elections. 469
Boston Massacre (1770) Clash in Boston between an angry
crowd of colonists and British soldiers that resulted in the
death of five colonists. 110
Boston Tea Party (1773) Protest against British tax on tea in
which colonists dumped tea into Boston Harbor. Ill
bourgeoisie The middle class; originated in the Middle Ages
and was made up of merchants and bankers. 20
Boxer Rebellion (1900) Revolt by a Chinese secret society
attempting to drive foreigners out of China. 567
braceros Mexican farm workers who came to work in the
like a factory.
Bonus Army
Name
Southwest during World
War
II
and
after.
757
Lines formed by people waiting for free food, such
breadlines
as those that occurred during the Great Depression.
brinkmanship
677
Policy promoted by Secretary of State Dulles
order to confront
British Invasion
1964
Communist
Revolution
prime minister Vittorio Orlando, and British prime minDavid Lloyd George. 607
Bilingual Education Act (1974)
Federal law encouraging pubister
aggression.
in
810
popular music inspired by the
bands such as the Beatles and the
arrival of English rock
Rolling Stones. 856
Brownshirts Nazi storm troopers. 733

Supreme
v. The Board of Education of Topeka (1952)
Court case challenging segregation in public schools; in it
the Court ruled that separate educational facilities were
unequal. 822
bull market
Upward trend in stock prices. 670
Brown
Bureau of Indian Affairs
term for U.S. president

Wilson, French premier Georges Clemenceau,
I.
Italian
lic
focused on
during the 1950s, which called for threatening all-out war in
825
benevolent societies
Berlin
equal rights, by force
Blackshirts
pany and run
Battle of Tippecanoe (1811)

Battle in Indiana Territory
between U.S. troops and a confederation of Native Americans;
ended
that
Bolsheviks
of 1812 that helped break the British hold on the Northwest

Territory.
movement
force, used to describe Hitler's "lightning
American victory during
(1813)
African American
mint silver each month. 499
1944)
over the Japanese during WorldWiir
air victory
all
detachment. 429
Battle of the Philippine Sea
Black Power
gaining control of economic and political power to achieve
offensive. 761
Battle of the Coral Sea (1942)
World War
which Allied
battle in
I!
capitalism
War Department
vations.
in
1824
Federal agency established within the

to administer
Native American reser-
427
Regular ups and downs of business
economy. 674
business cycle
enterprise
in a free-
schools to provide instruction to students in their native
languages until they learned English. 923

bill
of attainder
Law
that punishes a
person by
ment, or seizure of property without a court

Bill of
Rights (1791)
First 10
amendments
that protect individual liberties.
fine,
trial.
imprison-
163
Materials, such as wood or waste products, that can be

burned or used to make fuel. 970
black codes Laws adopted by former Confederates after the
biomass
Civil
War to
blacklists
freedom of former slaves. 398

of union supporters drawn up by employers
Lists
denying jobs
to
union workers. 495
cabinet
by,
Camp
Heads of government departments who
and serve as advisers
to,
are appointed
the president. 191
David Accords (1978)
Middle East peace agreement

916
capitalism Economic system based on a free market and private
ownership of property. 192
drafted by the U.S., Egypt, and Israel.
limit the
the purpose of
to the Constitution
191
for
GLOSSARY
047
Cruxtiics
carpvtba^^crrs
...
Nor*
carpelbagjieni
the Cisil NVar U) he
h after
>
unsnlcd condjliiMis under Reconstruction governments. 406

c-audillos
Latin
Amencan
miliiar> leaders
dunng
the 1930s \%ho
used fiKce to mainiain order. 729

(
a>U5>e
War
thai bcjian
senes of Indian \Aars in Orcei>n CountPi

IS47 after the murder of missionano .Marcus
Fip.t ol a
and Nartissa
V\
hitman and 12 iHhcrs by Cayuse Indians. 322
Agency (ClAi Federal agency created to

794
Central Powers World War alliance led b\ Germans. .AustnaHungary. the Ottoman Empire (Turke> and Bulgaria. 587
C'entraJ Intelligence
gather information overseas.
Charter of 1606 CKKumeni. issued b> King James of England,

that licensed the Plymouth Company and the London
Company to organize settlements in Virginia. 59
checks and balances Svstem giving each branch of the federal
gvn emment the means to restrain the powers of the other tuo
I
branches. 155
Chicano movement
Brown Power movement organized by
young Mexican American college students

in
to
emphasize pride
.\ct
(1882)
bom
Federal law that denied U.S.
China and prohibited the immigration of Chinese laborers. 471

chloroduorocarbons (CFCs) Com|x>unds. containing carbon,
chionne. tluonne. and sometimes h\drogen: the> are suspected
of damaging the ozone layer. 972
circumna\igate To sail around the world. 45
Civilian Con*>ervation Corps (CCCi
New Deal agency established in 19.^3 to emplov men on conservation projects. 6%
civil liberties
Peoples rights as indi\ iduals against the power of
the government. 163
Civil Rights Act of 1866
Federal law that granted full civil
nghts. but not \oting nghts. to everyone bom in the U.S. 400
Civil Rights .Act of 1957
Federal law that made it a federal
cnmc to prevent qualified persons from voting. 825
Civil Rights .\ct of 1964
Federal law that barred discrimination
in emplov ment and public facilities and gave the Justice
Department the power to enforce school desegregation. 847
Civil Rights Bill of 1875
Federal law that prohibited discrimination bv businesses serv ing the public. 408
Civil Works .Administration (CWA>
New Deal agency
citizenship to people
in
designed to create jobs during the Great Depression.
6%
Clayton .Antitrust Act (1914) Federal law that clarified and

extended the 1890 Sherman Antitrust .Act. 549
Clayton-Bulv*er Treaty (1850) .Agreement between the U.S.
and Great Britain
that
proposed an equal partnership
ing and ranning a Central
Clean
.Air
Act
1970)
American
canal.
in build-
570
and tough emissions guidelines for car manufacturers. 903

Workplace where the employer hires only union
closed shop
for global ptiwer
and the Soviet Union
and influence. 789
Massachusetts group formed
in
the 1770s to inform the colonies about British policies. Ill
191"
waged a vigorous propagainla campaign to con\ ince Amencans to support the war effort. 604
commonwealth Political unit founded on law in which members are expected to w ork together for the common good. 69
048
that
GLOSS
southern DemotraLs that gave the f)residency to Rutherford B.
Haves
1876
in
in
exchange for
promise not
to use the
military to enforce Reconstruction laws in the South.
frantic prospecting
in 1859. 449
Powers granted jointly
beginning
concurrent powers
States Constitution to the federal
in the United
government and the state
govemment. 154
Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO)
organized
in
group
rights
408
Rich Nevada silver vein that was the center of
Comstock Lode
Labor group
1935 to unite workers in various industries. 705
Northern-based
civil
launched a protest against segregation
that
interstate transportation in
in
1%1. 845
Spanish soldiers who helped conquer the

46
conscription Compulsory draft into military service. 368
conspicuous consumption Lavish spending to increase social
prestige. 473
Meeting called in 1787 and held in
Philadelphia to strengthen the govemment. during which delegates wrote and adopted the U.S. Constitution. 145
containment Cold War strategy proposed by George Kennan to
stop the spread of communism. 790
contras Nicaraguan armv recruited, financed. aiKl armed by the
Cl.A to overthrow the Sandinistas. 931
Convention of 1818 .Agreement by which Great Britain and the
U.S. set the U.S.-Canadian border at the 49ih parallel west to
the Rocky Mountains. 229
convoy system Use of armed escort vessels to accompany
unarmed vessels transporting troops or supplies. 598
cooperatives Groups that p)ool members' resources to sell products directly to urban markets and buy goods at wholesale
prices. 498
conquistadors
.Americas.
Copperheads
Northem Democrats who sympathized with
the
South during the Civil War. 375
Tvpe of business in which the money needed

company is obtained by selling shares of stock. 462
corporation
run the
Machine
inv
Whimey
ented b> Eli
in
793
to
to separate
seeds from cotton fiber. 234
Council of Economic .Advisers Federal agency created b> the

Emplov ment .Act of 1946 to counsel the president on economic
policv 784
counterculture
Culture that holds values and beliefs different
the hippies in the 1960s.
covenant
Contract.
creditor nation
Committee on Civil Rights Group established bv President

Truman in 1946 to document civil rights abuses. 786
Committee on Public information (CPIi .Agencv established
in
South over slaverv issues. 342

Deal between leading Republicans and
of 1877
Compromise
from those of established society
C>^lumbus"s vovages. 44
Committee of Correspondence
Resolution proposed by Henry Clay that

of 1850
temporarily settled differences between the North and the
Compromise
the U.S.
Columbian exchange Transfer of people, ideas, plants, animals,

and diseases among the Americas. Europe. Asia, and Africa:
initiated bv
International
Lkraine. and Belarus. Other former Soviet republics later

became members. 959
company town Community where housing and businesses are
owned bv one firm. 493
cotton gin
Federal law that set air-quality standards
members. 520
Cold War Competition between
Independent States (CIS)
sovereign slates organized in 1991 by Russia.
tit
Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)
.Mexican culture and heritage. 851
Chinese Exclusion
Ith of
Con>
from
for e.xample. the culture of
853
69
Countrv that loans
Crittenden Compromise
Civil
money
to other nations.
War-era plan
726
to resolve conflict
between North and South by calling for the westward extension of the Missouri
territories.
Compromise
line
through the remaining
364
crop-lien system
in which sharecroppers offered

exchange for supplies. 411
Crusades Series of wars between 1096 and the late 1200s in
which Christian crusaders fought .Muslims for control of the
crops to
.Arrangement
merchants
Holv Land. 19
in
escaJation
cultural diffusion
Prcxress of spreading cultural practices or
cultural difTusion
from one group to another. 8
beliefs
Earth Summit (1992) United Nations Conference on

Environment and Development held in Rio de Janeiro.
V
Dawes General Allotment Act
Brazil, in 1992.974
economies of scale Principle of buying supplies
887
Federal law that estab-
producing goods
in large quantities to
in
bulk and
lower production costs
434
June 6. 1944: day when Allied soldiers crossed the
English Channel to begin their invasion of France. 760
debtor nation Countr. thai owes money to other nations. 726
Declaration of Independence (1776)
Document adopted
and increase profits. 463

ecosystem Interaction of lining beings with the environment. 970
Education .Amendments .Act (1972) Federal law prohibiting
sexual discrimination in higher education. 921
by the Second Continental Congress that justified and outlined reasons for the American separation from Great
Britain. 118
Declaratory Act (1766) Law passed by Parliament that
law requiring public schools to provide education for children
lished private ownership of Indian land.
D-Day
assened the right of Great Britain to make law s governing

.American colonies. 108
its
Chemicals designed to strip land of vegetation. 873

delegated powers Powers granted to the federal go\enmient in
US
from \\artime preparations
Shift
to a peacetime
economy. 622
denominations
Religious groups consisting of a
number of
283
Department of Energy
Federal agency created in 1977 to

oil.
activity'
accompanied by
ris-
ing unemployment. 143
Lessening of
direct
and diplomatic tensions between
known
24
which voters choose
535
printed book. China, a.d. 868.
Nominating election
in
candidates to run in a general election.
disarmament
Reduction or limitation
725
in the
amount of
nation's militarv weapons.
People
dissenters
majority
holders.
who
disagree with opinions expressed by the
its
stock-
462
States" Rights part\
influence, rather than military force, to protect U.S. interests in
Latin .America.
domestication
domino theory
574
.Adaptation and control of plants and animals.
ing countries
Foreign policy principle of the 1950s and the
1960s statmg that
doves
if
w ould
one countn.'
also
fall.
fell to
communism, neighbor-
Scott decision (1857)
a sla\
e.
who
Supreme Court case
in
which
Scott,
was declared not to be a citizen and therefore not able

freedom in U.S. couns. 350
to bring a suit for his
drivers
Slave assistants
who
helped overseers supervise other
269
dry farming Techniques to conserve moisture in areas of litde
rainfall. 440
Dust Bowl Fifty-million-acre region in the Great Plains that
suffered a severe drought in the mid-1930s. 711
duty
Ta.x on imports. 106
slaves.
that
T went) -first Amendment. 525

Policy designed to counter
aid to those nations seeking help in resisting
Communist
"Necessary and proper" clause that allows

its pow ers beyond those limits outlined in
elastic clause
the U.S. Constimtion.
157
People selected by stale legislatures to cast electoral
votes for president and vice president. 150

.Act
(1965)
Federal law that provided 51. 3 billion to aid schools in impov-
Federal law that prohibited shippers from
Elkins .Act (1903)
Emancipation Proclamation Decree freeing all slaves living in

those areas of the Confederacy that were still in rebellion
against the U.S. as of Januarys 1. 1863. 384
Embargo .Act 1 807
Measure that stopped shipments of food
(
all
foreign ports in an effort to
maintain U.S. neutrality in European conflicts. 211
(1933)
.Act
Federal law authorizing
only banks that were financially sound to reopen after the
New Deal bank

Employment .Act
holiday.
(1946
lished the Council of
694
Post-World War
Economic
II
law that estab-
.Advisers and pledged the
promotion of fuU employ ment and production. 784

empresarios Businesspeople who agreed to recruit and lake
responsibUily for new settlers in Texas in remm for land grants
from Mexico. 307
encomienda System that gave Spamsh colonists the right to
ha\ e a certain number of Indians work for them. 40
Enforcement Acts Three acts passed by Congress between
1870 and 1871 allowing the govennment to use

to stop violence against .African .Americans.
Enlightenment
867
People u ho support negotiation and compromise and
oppose was. 876
Dred
amendment
Soviet intluence in the Middle East by offering military
Emergency Banking
68
formed by southern Democrats

in 1948; supported continued racial segregation. 787
doctrine of nuUification Theon. of the states' right to refuse
to obey any act passed by Congress that they consider
unconstitutional. 245
dollar diplomacy
President Taft's policy of using economic
Dtdecrats
beverages: repealed by
and other .American products to
Portions of a company's profits received by
dividends
Constitutional
barred the manufacture, sale, or importation of alcoholic
accepting rebates. 540

First
primary
Federal
erished areas. 842
military'
904
Diamond Sutra
1975)
Elementary and Secondary School Education
913
Sharp drop in business
countries.
with physical and mental disabilities. 919
Eighteenth .Amendment (1919)
electors
reduce U.S. dependence on
detente
.Act
Congress to expand
local congregations.
depression
Handicapped Children
aggression. 812
Constitution. 154
demobilization
.All
Eisenhower Doctrine (1957)
defoliants
the
Education for
Intellecmal
movement of
military force
407
the 18th century that
rejected traditional political, social, and religious ideas and
emphasized human reason and progress. 84

en\ironment Physical surroundings. 5
En>ironmental Protection Agency (EP.A) Federal agency
ated in 1970 to enforce environmental laws. 903
Equal Pay
.Act
employers
the
to
cre-
Federal law that made it illegal for

(1963)
pay female w orkers less than male w orkers for
same job. 834
Equal Rights .Amendment (ERA) Proposed constitutional

amendment barring discrimination on the basis of sex. 921
escalation
Increase or buildup of military forces or

weapons. 871
GLOSSARY
049
Fundamencaiism
Espionage Act
Federal law designed lo silence dis-
K>piuniii!r \cl (1917)
hurup<
Western European trading bkv formed by ihc

in 1993 with ratification of the
II
European CommunitN
Maastncht Treaty. 964
Exodusters
who moved
Black settlers
west during the
late
.Amendment (1869)
amendment
Constitutional
that
Law passed "after the deed"; sets

was not illegal when committed. 163
ex post facto law
of race 404
Run
1861
Confederate victory
at
.Manassas Junction, outside of Washington. D.C.. that proved

the Ci\ il VS ar would last longer than a few months. 371
Mame (1914) Worid War 1 battle in which

French and British forces stopped the German advance in
First Battle of the
1K(KK to find economic and political freedom. 439
an act that
Fifteenth
guaranteed that the right to vote could not be denied because
WorldVSarl 605
a penalty for
589
Congress
northeast France.
First Continental
1774)
Meeting of delegates firom
12 colonies to discuss grievances against Great Britain, including those resulting from the Intolerable .Acts. 113
Five
Manufaciurmg system
factory system
increases output by relying on machines to
the
example, a national health insurance program. 787
election: for
Employment
Practices
mission created
race or ethnic background.
companies
Committee (FEPCi
Federal
com-
1941 to prevent job discrimination based on
in
Family and Medical Leave

large
do
President Truman's proposed reforms after the 1948
Fair Deal
Fair
and
work. 235
that cuts costs
to provide
(1993)
Federal law requiring
workers up to 12 weeks of unpaid
192
Arrangement between the U.S.,

set limits on each
nation's naval strength.
725
and Japan to
women" whose
World
womanly behavior. 655
Strategy adopted by the Kennedy administraflexible response
tion of keeping a range of options open for dealing w ith interflappers
\N ar
".New
dress and conduct after
defied traditional standards of
835
Government agency responsible
Food .Administration
and supply of food during World
lating production
for regu-
War
I.
602
leave for family and medical emergencies without losing their
Foraker
medical co\erage or jobs. 949
go\emment. 570
Tariff .Act (1922)
Federal law that
placed high duties on imjwried farm products in an effort to
boost domestic crop prices and lo help farmers. 632
forty-niners
Nickname for gold-seekers who went to
California, beginning in 1849. lo seek their fortune. 324
Four Power Treaty (1921) Agreement between the U.S.. Great
Britain. France, and Japan to respect one another's territory in
the Pacific. 725
Fouiieen Points (1918) President Wilson's program for world
peace after World War I that contained 14 principles, including
the creation of the League of Nations. 606
Fourteenth .Amendment (1866) Constitutional amendment
Family .Assistance Plan

families a
1433
created in
farmers low -interest, long-term loans. 695
Powerful farm organization formed
.Alliance
that lobbied to
Farm
New Deal agency
.Administration
to give
Farmers*
would guarantee
minimum income. 901
Farm Credit
1877
in
help farmers economically and politically. 498
New
Security .Administration (FSA>
Deal agency cre-
ated in 1937 to help tenant farmers and sharecroppers buy
farms through low-interest, long-term loans. 706

Fascist party
Political party,
founded by Benito Mussolini
in
1921. that supported a military -dominated government in control of all aspects of Italian society. 732
Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) New Deal
agency created in 1933 to insure bank savings deposits. 695
Federal Emergency Relief .Administration (FERA) New Deal
agency created
local agencies.
Federal
1933 to funnel
in
relief aid
direcdy to state and
.Act
Federal law proposed during F*resident
NSoodrow Wilson' s administration that provided low -interest

loans to farmers. 551
federalism
Division and sharing of powers between a strong
central government and state governments. 146
Federalist, The
Essays written to support ratification of the U.S.
Constitution: also called Federalist Papers. 150
Federalists
Federal law outlining the organization of
1900)
Fordney-McCumber
that granted full citizenship, civil rights,
under the law
to .African
Freedmen's Bureau
ex-slaves.
Members
of a political party
who
advocated strong
left
homeless by the war and to help
400
Right of workers and employers to agree
to certain conditions of
Freedom Riders
employment. 519
w ho protested segregation in
845
Freedom Summer Campaign to register .African American voters during the summer of 1964. 847
freemen People w ho enjoy full political and civil liberties. 69
Freeport Doctrine (1858) Position, held by Stephen Douglas,
that people in a territory have the power to prohibit slavery by
Integrated group
interstate transportation in 1961.
national government and favored ratification of the U.S.
refusing to pass local laws necessary to
Constitution. 149
work. 353
New Deal program established in 1935

1
unemployed artists. 716
Federal Reserve Act (1913) Federal law that created a ihreele\el banking system controlled by both private banks and
the government. 549
Federal Trade Commission (FTC) Government agencv estabFederal Project No.
to aid
lished in 1914 to enforce antitrust laws and to investigate corp<irations
Federal
engaged
in
unfair or fraudulent practices.
Workmen's Compensation Act
549
Federal law providing
System
in the
military assistance
protection. 17
050
Middle Ages
and loyalty
GLOSSARY
in
to rulers
which nobles pledged
return for land
and Democrats
Political party,
in
make
a slave system
formed by anlislavery Whigs
848. that opposed the expansion of slavery
into the territories. 339

French Revolution Revolt beginning in
to the o\ enhrow of the monarchy and
Paris in 1789 that led
the creation of a
new
French Republic. 195
Go\ emment agency responsible for regufuel during World War I. 602
Fugitive Slave Act
Law passed as part of the Compromise of
850 that made it a federal crime to assist runaw ay slaves. 343
Fundamental Orders of Connecticut 1639) First wxitten constitution in the colonies; adopted by Thomas Hooker's congreFuel .Administration
and supply of
Federal Writers' Project (FWPi Program that hired unemployed wnters to produce a variety of cultural works. 716
feudalism
Free-Soil party
lating production
benefits to federal workers injured on the job. 551
and equal protection
Americans. 401
Organization established by Congress in
1865 lo aid southerners
freedom of contract
695
Farm Loan
.Act
I*uerto Rico's
President Nixon's proposal to
(F.-\P)
replace the welfare system with a plan that
Italy,
national crises.
756
.Act
Power .Agreement
Great Britain. France.
and
gation in
its
Connecticut Valley settlement. 72
Fundamentalism
Protestant
in a literal interpretation
movement w hose
of the Bible. 656
followers believe
human
Gadsden Purchase
S
Gadsden Purchase (1853) Agreement by which the U.S. acquired
Mexico's territory south of the Gila River in present-day
Arizona and New Mexico for $10 million. 315
gang labor Work system in which groups of slaves performed
specialized jobs.
interior,
for
Reuniting of East
Harlem
involved sinking deep mine
that
452
Period of African American
Renai.s.sance
opment during
the 1920s in
New York
artistic
hawks People who support war or a

Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty (1903)
as one nation in 1990. 959

Rights (1944)
Servicemen's Readjustment Act,
which provided pensions and government loans to help veterans start their own businesses, buy homes or farms, and attend
college. 784
Gilded Age Name applied to post-Civil War America to
describe the corruption and greed that lurked below the surface
of industrial society. 486
glasnost
Policy of openness introduced in the Soviet Union by
Mikhail Gorbachev in 1985. 934
global warming
Gradual increase in the temperature of the
earth's atmosphere. 972
Glorious Revolution (1688) Bloodless English rebellion in
which the Catholic king James II was replaced by the
Protestant rulers Mary and William. 84
glyph Picture or symbol used in the Olmec and other picture
Hay-Herran Treaty (1903)
Monetary system in which each dollar is equal to

and redeemable for a set amount of gold. 499
Good Neighbor policy FDR's policy of promoting goodwill
toward Latin America. 728
government bonds Certificates issued by a government in
exchange for loans. 192
graduated income tax System in which the rate of taxation
499
Gramm-Rudman-Hollings Act (1985) Federal law requiring
across-the-board cuts in government spending when the deficit
exceeds a certain point. 933
Great Awakening Period of religious revival that swept
through the colonies in the mid- 18th century. 84
Great Compromise (1787) Plan approved at the Constitutional
Convention in which each state, regardless of size, was given
varies according to income.
in the
lower house was determined by population. 147
Great Depression Deep economic downturn that gripped the

U.S. between 1929 and the beginning of World War II. 672
Great Migration Mass movement of Puritans from England to
the Americas beginning in 1630. 68
Mass movement of
African Americans from the South to the North between 1915
and 1930. 603
Great Society President Lyndon Johnson's economic and social
programs during the 1960s. 841
Great Upheaval 1 886) Year of intense worker strikes and violent labor confrontations in the U.S. 494
Green parties Environmentalist political parties in Europe. 974
gross national product
Total value of all goods and services
produced by a country in a given year. 671
guerrilla warfare
Military tactic of using hit-and-run skir131
of
warlike policy. 876
Agreement with Panama
canal in
Proposed agreement with
would have given the U.S.

Panama. 572
Colombia
that
a lease to build a
Haymarket Riot (1886)
Violent confrontation in Chicago

between workers, anarchists, and police that helped turn public
support against the labor movement. 494
Hay-Pauncefote Treaty (1901) Agreement with Great Britain

by which the U.S. could build and control a Central American
canal. 572
Hepburn Act (1906) Federal law that authorized the Interstate
Commerce Commission to set railroad rates and to regulate
other companies engaged in interstate commerce. 540
Highway Act (1956) Federal law that expanded the nation's
highway systems. 817
hippies
Name
given to people
who
1960s
in the
thing connected with mainstream America.
Ho
writing systems. 11
gold standard
battles.
War
giving U.S. control over a lO-mile-wide Canal Zone. 572
Bill of
devel-
660
City's Harlem.
Hartford Convention (1814) Meeting of New England

Federalists who debated seceding from the Union and negotiat-
Germany and West
an equal voice in the upper house, while representation
hippie
its
1812.215
Alternative energy source from the earth's
mishes while avoiding direct
known
ing a separate peace with Great Britain during the
Germany
GI
Pilgrimage. 26
hard-rock mining Technique
852
such as from geysers and hot springs. 970
reuniflcation
district
hajj
Deliberate annihilation of an entire people. 767
geothermal power
San Francisco
population during the mid-l96()s. 853
shafts to get at ore in quartz veins.
elders during the 196()s.
German
Haight-Ashbury
270
General Court Massachusetts Bay Colony's elected legislature.

which made laws for the colony. 69
generation gap
Difference in years, attitudes, and cultural
beliefs between generations; applied to baby boomers and their
genocide
rights
rejected every-
853
Chi Minh Trail Network of jungle paths used by the North

Vietnamese to move weapons and supplies to the Vietcong in
South Vietnam. 872
film directors and writers who went

answer questions from the House Committee
on Un-American Activities. 794
Holocaust Systematic slaughter of European Jews by the Nazis
Hollywood Ten
Group of
to jail rather than
during Worid
War II. 767
Home Loan Bank

money
Act (1932)
Federal law that provided
to savings banks, building
and loan associations, and
insurance companies for low-interest mortgages. 685
Home Owners Loan
Corporation (HOLC)
New
Deal agency
created in 1933 to grant low -interest, long-term mortgage

loans to home owners. 695
Homestead Act (1862) Federal law
any citizen willing to
live
that
gave public land
to
on the Great Plains and cultivate the
land for five years. 436

a company by
same business. 463
"hot line" Telephone connection between the U.S. and the
Soviet Union that allowed leaders to communicate directly
during a crisis. 838
horizontal integration
Method of expanding
buying other companies involved
in the

Congressional committee established
Activities
in
1938
(HUAC)
to investigate
anti-American propaganda. 794
House of Burgesses Virginia's colonial governing assembly. 77

Housing and Urban Development Act (1968) Federal law
that, along with the Omnibus Housing Act, provided money
and created the Department of Housing and
Urban Development. 842
human rights Basic rights and freedoms to which all people are
entitled, including freedom from unlawful detention or
torture. 914
for urban renewal
GLOSSARY
1051
Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions
hunter-gatherer*
sfari-li
I't
uho moved from
Pcuple
hunler-Kulherers
place to place in
hydraulic mining
mountains
Technique
o\ graNel.
hvdrogen bomb
that uses
expoNmg
Weapon
water pressure to remove
mmeraN
the
approximatels
punish .Massachusetts for the Boston Tea Parly, while

strengthening British control over the colonies; also called the
CoerciNC
underneath. 452
I.IMK)
times mure ptiw-
.\cts.
Ill
Iran-contra afTair
Name
given to the illegal actions taken by
in the
1980s to fund Nicaraguan contras. 934
White House aides
atomic bomb. 808
erlul than the
Series of laws passed by Great Britain
Intolerable Acts (1774)

to
jiame and edible planls. 5
Period during which 53

were seized by followers of militant Islamic
Iran hostage crisis (1979-81)

.Americans
in Iran
Khomeini in an attempt to force the return of

Shah Reza Pahlavi from exile in the U.S. 916
Iroquois League Confederation of Indian tribes formed in the
leader Ayatollah
15th or 16th century; also called the Six Nations. 91
Immigration .\ct (1990) Federal law that updated U.S. immigration laws from the 1960s and increased the number of
immigrants allowed into the United Slates each year. 946
Federal law reducing the immigration
.Act of 1924
quota tor each nationalitv to 2 percent of the 1890 figures. 638
Immigration
Group founded
Immigration Restriction League

v^
who
ell-to-do Bostonians
1894 by
in
sought to imf)ose a literacy
test
on
immigrants. 471
all
Formal charge of wrongdoing or misconduct
impeachment
brought against a government
imperialism
Fourteen Republican senators who opposed the

League of Nations and rejected the Treaty of Versailles after
World War I. 609
irreconcilables
island-hopping
.Allied military
during World
War
II
in
in the Pacific
Policy of avoiding international political or eco-
isolationism
nomic alliances; followed by the U.S. during most of the 1920s

and 1930s. 724
155
official.
Practice of extending the
power of a nation by
558
direct territonal acquisition of colonial empires.
impressment
tactic
which certain strategic Japanese-held islands

were seized, w hile others were bypassed. 762
Practice of kidnapping and forcing people into
public service; used by Great Britain in the late 1700s and

early 1800s to secure sailors for the British nav\. 196
Person \^ho agreed to work for a specified
indentured servant
time for the person
Indian Removal
who
paid his or her
to
America. 61
Federal law that provided for the
(1830)
.Act
way
relocation of Indian nations living east of the Mississippi River

to Indian Territory in present-day
reM\e
tribal rule
.Act
Oklahoma. 243
(1934)
by funding
tribal
Federal law that sought to

business ventures and pay-
ing for the college education of Native Americans.
Industrial Revolution
Shift
production that began

inflation
of
Great Britain
in the
mid- 1700s. 234
Rise in prices resulting from an increase in the amount
money
in circulation relative to the
able for sale.

initiative
in
710
from hand production to machine
amount of goods
avail-
58
both houses of their legislature, but delayed independence until

a stable
Jones
.Act
government was established. 565

of 1917
power
to intro-
legislation.
interchangeable parts
Parts
made
in large quantities that
can
be substituted for other parts during construction of a final

product. 234
Law
that granted U.S. citizenship to Puerto
Ricans and gave them the right to elect both houses of their
legislature.
Election reform that gi\es voters the
535
insider trading
Use of confidential financial information by
stockbrokers for personal gain. 933
duce
Treaty in which Great Britain agreed to

abandon its forts in the Northwest Territory in exchange for
U.S. payment of debts owed to the British. 197
Jim Crow laws State laws adopted in the South thai were
designed to enforce segregation. 413
Companies in which in\estors share the
joint-stock companies
siart-up and maintenance costs as well as profits or losses. 59
Jones Act of 1916 Law that gave Filipinos the right to elect
Jay's Treaty (1794)
570
judicial review
Supreme Court's
right to
determine whether
laws violate the U.S. Constitution. 157
Law
Judiciary .Act of 1789
that created the federal court sys-
tem, including district courts, circuit courts of appeals, and the
Supreme Court. 191

juvenile delinquency
Antisocial behavior by the
subject to legal action.
young
that is
826
Intermediate-range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty (1987)

Agreement that eliminated ail medium-range nuclear weapons
from Europe and
up inspection procedures to enforce pro934

internal improvements
Advances in lransf>ortation networks
set
visions of the treaty.
such as roads and canals, undertaken at public expense. 228

Internal Security .Act (1950)
Federal law that required
Communist party members and organizations to register with
the federal government. 795
Internet
A worldwide computer-based communications and
information system. 950
internment Imprisonment; practice of forced relocation applied

to Japanese Americans living on the West Coast after Pearl
Harbor. 754
Interstate
Commerce Act
railroad freight rates

activities.
Interstate
Federal law that regulated
and created an agency
to
monitor railroad
498
Commerce Commission
ated by the Interstate

panies, but having
1052
(1887)
(ICC)
Commerce Act
little
GLOSSARY
Organization cre-
to oversee railroad
{xjwer of enforcement. 498
com-
kamikaze
Japanese planes during World
War
11
assigned to sui-
cide missions against Allied ships. 764
Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854)
Federal law that established
newly organized territories and overturned the Missouri Compromise. 347

Keating-Owen Child Labor Act (1916) Proposed federal law
that outlawed the interstate sale of products produced by child
popular sovereignty
in
labor. 551
Kellogg-Briand Pact (1927) Agreement signed by 62 nations
that outlawed war as an instrument of national policy but
allowed countries to declare war in self-defense. 726
Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions State resolutions passed
between 798 and 799 that declared states should be the final
judge of whether a law was unconstitutional. 202
1
Kerner Commission
Kerner Commission
196()s riots
Federal
and reported
the \iolence. S50

Klondike Gold Rush
trict ot
that
Commission
thai investigated the
white racism was responsible tor
Fkxxl of prospectors
Canada" s Yukon Territory
to the
in the late
Klondike dis-
1890s
in
search of
450
gold.
Knights of Labor
sisted of skilled
National union founded
in
1869 that con-
and unskilled workers. 493
Name given to members of the nativist

American party prominent during the 850s. 262
Know-Nothings
Medicaid
Generation Name given by Gertrude Stein to writers of

whose works expressed disillusionment after World
War I. 662
Louisiana Purchase (1803) U.S. purchase from France of
Louisiana for some S15 million. 206
Lowell girls Single women who worked in the textile mills of
Lowell, Massachusetts, in the early 19th century. 257
Americans loyal to Great Britain during the
Loyalists
l>ost
the I92()s
Revolutionary War; also called Tories. 119
Kristallnacht
nesses in
1938.
when
down synagogues and destroyed Jewish
busi-
"Night of broken glass," November
Nazis burned
9.
German\ 733
.
Theory that opposes government regueconomic matters. 462

Land Ordinance of 1785 Federal law that established a system
for sur\eying western lands by townships and selling smaller
laissez-faire capitalism
lation of
parcels to the public. 141
Landrum-Griffin Act (1959) Federal law designed

corruption in labor unions. 820
land speculators
from
resale.
its
People
v\
to
reduce
ho bu> land expecting a quick
profit
gave voters the right
Proslavery Kansas constituto decide
whether more slaves
could enter the territory, but not the means to interfere with
slavery already present.
Lend-Lease Act (1941)
349
Law
that appropriated
money
for the
U.S. to lend or lease arms and other supplies to non-Axis

countries. 737
Lewis and Clark expedition ( 804-06) Expedition responsible for mapping the boundaries of the Louisiana Territory and
cataloging its natural resources. 208
limited liability
Legal guarantee whereby stockholders are not
held responsible for a corporation's debt. 462
Limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (1963) Agreement by the
1
U.S., the Soviet Union, and Great Britain to end the testing of
nuclear
bombs
in
in the
atmosphere or under w ater. 837
Tests requiring proof of a person's ability to read
order to vote: used in southern states to deny voting rights to
African Americans. 412

"Little
Rock Nine" Name given to the African American stuwho were admitted to an all-white school in Arkansas in
dents
1957.
lockouts
824
Tactic used by employers of barring workers from
from workers are obtained. 495

Overland treks on which cowboys herded cattle
from ranches to rail lines. 444
Long March Exodus of 1934-35 when Communist Chinese
marched nearly 6,000 miles to northern China, helping cement
Mao Zedongs leadership of the party. 798
Long Walk Forced march of Navajos to Bosque Redondo, a
reservation in eastern New Mexico, following their surrender
in early
864. 435
loose construction
Theory set forth by Alexander Hamilton that
the federal government possesses all powers not specifically
forbidden by the U.S. Constitution. 193
plants until concessions
long drives
the
(1215)
power of
for nobles,
Charter signed by King John that limited
the English monarch, guaranteed basic liberties
and protected
trade.
20
mandate system Provision of the Treaty of

required new colonial rulers to report to
territories.
Versailles that
the
League of
608
Manhattan Project
91
Lecompton Constitution (1857)
literacy tests
Magna Carta
Nations on their administration of former Central Power
League of United Latin American Citizens (LULAC) Hispanic

group that lobbied for national aw areness of Hispanic concerns
and issues. 918
tion that
Maastricht Treaty Agreement between European countries that

weakened economic barriers and made plans to create a unified monetary system in Europe; ratified in 1993. 964
Maginot Line Line of defenses built by the French after World
War 1 along their border with Germany. 737
w hich
scientists
manifest destiny
Top-secret U.S. project begun in 1942
developed the
first
in
atomic bomb. 765
Phrase coined in 1845 to express the belief
was destined to extend its boundaries westward to

the Pacific Ocean. 306
Mann-Elkins Act (1910) Federal law that extended the regulatory powers of the Interstate Commerce Commission to telephone and telegraph companies. 543
manor Land a noble received from the ruler under the feudal
system in exchange for military assistance and loyalty. 17
Marbury v. Madison (1803) Legal case in which the Supreme
Court first exercised its right of judicial review. 204
March on Washington (1963) Demonstration in Washington.
D.C.. called by .African American leaders to show support for
President Kennedy "s civil rights bill. 847
margin buying Purchasing stock with borrowed money. 670
Mariposa War (1850-51) California raids by the Miwoks and
the Yokuts to reclaim Native American lands taken over by
miners. 327
market revolution Creation of profitable national markets during the 1800s brought about by new transportation systems and
regional specialization. 234
Marshall Plan (1948) U.S. program that provided some S12
billion in economic aid to Western Europe after World War II:
also called the European Recovery Act. 792
mass production Manufacture of large quantities of goods, usually by machines. 234
mass transit Public transportation systems, such as commuter
trains and subways, that made it possible for workers to li\e
farther away from their jobs. 472
Mayflower Compact (1620) Document that established
Plymouth Colony as a self-governing colony based on the
majority rule of male church members. 67
Meat Inspection Act (1906) Federal consumer-protection law
that required the government inspection of interstate meat
shipments. 540
Medicaid State programs established in 1965 and funded by
Congress to provide free health care to the needy. 842
that the U.S.
GLOSSARY
1053
H|
new immigrants
Medicare
Great Stvicty program established
Medicare
in \^f^5 to
F.ct>nomic policy based on the view that a

inercantilism
natum's pt)wer de|X'nded on maintaining a favorable balance
of trade bv exporting more gixxls than it imported. 83
mergers Combining of two or more companies to achieve
and higher profits. 632

that includes Central America and the
southern and central regions of Mexico; also called Middle
tircatcr efficiency
Mesoamerica
Area
America. 10
and New Mexico. 315

Mexican War IS46-48 Conflict between Mexico and the
U.S. brought about by the U.S. annexation of Texa.s and its
.\rizona. Colorado,
(
Social class that occupies a position between the
ucalths and the
256
pix>r.
Voyage made by slave ships from Africa

.Atlantic Ocean during which many slaves suf-
Middle Passage
across the
Glonfication of armed strength and aggressive mili-
reads
Members of the
al a
colonial militia
who promised
to be
Act that maintained the balance
1820)
of slave and free states
in
Maine
spread of slavery
Congress by admitting .Missouri as a
as a free state, while prohibiting the
in the territories to
238
modern Republicanism
areas north of latitude
Name
given to President Eisenhower's
attempt to balance liberal domestic reforms with conservative
Exclusi\e control, such as
Monroe Doctrine
in
in trade or industry, that
462
which the Americas were declared off-limits
to
European
Central bank with branches in major cities. 192
bank
.Money owed by the federal government to
national debt
creditors.
Group of civil
rights leaders in .Montgomery. .Alabama, whose membeis
included Martin Luther King. Jr. 823
Montreal Protocol on Ozone Depletion (1987) International
agreement that set standards tor reducing the emission of
CFCs and other gases. 974
Moral Majority Fundamentalist Christian political organization
founded in 1978 by Reverend Jerry Falwell. 928
moratorium Authorized period of delay in paying a debt or fulfilling a legal obligation.
(1862)
its
192
National Defense Act (1916)

established prior to
Military "preparedness" program
World War
that increased the size of the
594
Federal law that
National Defense Education .Act (1958)
appropriated money to improve education in science, math.
and foreign languages. 810
National Energy .Act (1978)
on foreign
Federal law that relaxed controls

in
an effort to ease U.S. dependence
913
oil.
Fanners" group founded
in
1867 as a social
organization that grew into a political force; also called

National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA)
in
Federal law passed
1933 to stimulate industrial and business activity and to
reduce unemployment. 696
Sense of pride or loyalty to a nation. 226
nationalism
To
assert
business or industry
government control or ownership over a

731
National Organization for
Women
(.NOW)
National Recovery .Administration (NRA)

as
to
Group founded
women. 854
by
.Association (.MIA)
727
Federal agency that
draw up "codes of
fair
competition"
one means of achieving business recovery during the Great
Depression. 697
National Security Council (NSC)
expansion. 231
Morrill
national
encouraged businesses
U.S. government [)olicy statement
(1823)
benefit African
feminists in 1966 to promote equal rights for
spending during the 1950s. 814

eliminates competition. 28.
would
.Americans and end racial discrimination. 527
nationalize
^f>My.
monopoly
Civil rights organization founded in 1909
for various social reforms that
Patrons of Husbandry. 497
minute's notice. 114
Missouri Compromise
slave state and
work
National Grange
Mry preparedness. 587
minutemen
(NAACP)
People
on the price of natural gas
fered and died. 78
militarism
exploration. 810
National Association for the Advancement of Colored
National Guard and the U.S. regular army
more temtory 312
middle class
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)

Federal agency established in 1958 to direct American space
to
Mexican Cession (IS4S) .-Xrea surrendered h\ Mexico to the

IS. in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo; included the presentday states of California. Nevada, and Utah, and parts of
quest for
provide
841
natu>nal health insurance for people over age 65.
by Congress
Organization created in 1947
to ad\ ise the president
War Labor Board
on strategic matters. 794
Group of representatives
from business and labor who arbitrated disputes between
workers and employers during World War I. 602
National Youth .Administration (NY.A) New Deal agency that
provided part-time jobs to people between the ages of 16 and
25. 702
nativism Policy of favoring native-bom Americans o\ er immiNational
grants.
(N"W1,B)
261
Navigation .Acts
165
1 )
Series of mercantilist laws designed to
Federal law that gave land to states to
increase English merchants' profits by limiting direct trade
establish agricultural colleges. 436

mountain men Name given to fur trappers in the Far West. 318
muckrakers Nickname given by President Theodore Roose\elt
between English colonies and other European nations. 83

Nazi party- Political party, led by Adolf Hitler, that controlled
Germany from 1933 to 1945: also called the National Socialist
pany. 733
New Deal President Franklin Roosevelt's program of pro\ iding
relief and recovery to the U.S. during the Great Depression. 694
New England Way Cooperation between church and state that
was the basis for the Puritan commonwealth. 69
.Act
to progressive journalists in the early

p<ilitical
and social
evils.
1900s
who exposed
514
"mugwumps"
Nickname for Republican reformers who supported Democratic candidate Grover Cleveland in the 1884
489
multinational corporations
Companies
that invest
money
in
\dnel> of international business ventures. 965
Munich Conference
1938)
Meeting attended by government
leaders from Great Britain. Italy. France, and
which
a pact
Germany in
was signed giving Germany control of the
Sudetenland. 735
mutualistas
Mutual-aid societies formed by Mexican American

to help local residents. 676
communities
054::
GLOSSARY
New Freedom
Name
given to
Woodrow Wilson's
progressive
program of reform as proposed during the 1912 presidential

election. 546
New Frontier President John Kennedy's political, social, and
economic programs of the early 1960s. 833
new immigrants People, mostly southern and eastern
Europ)eans.
and
who came
earl v 1900s.
466
to the
United States
in the late
1800s
Newlands Reclamation Act

Newlands Reclamation Act (1902) Federal law
mone> from the sale of public land to be used
that
allowed
for irrigation
and reclamation. 541
Nationalism Name gi\en to Theodore Roose\clt's program oi social legislation first proposed during the 1910 congressional elections. 545
New Right Conser\atives who showed increased political influence during the 1980s. 928
Nine Power Treaty (1921) Agreement arising from the
Washington Conference that guaranteed China's territorial
integrit\ and promised to uphold the Open Door policy. 725
Nineteenth Amendment (1920) Constitutional amendment
that granted women full voting rights. 552
New
no-man''s land
that separated
Thin
strip
of territon, along the Western Front
opposing armies during World
War
I.
to
buy or import British goods. 107
Non-Intercourse Act (1809) Federal law

trade with Great Britain and France. 212
nonviolent resistance
that prohibited U.S.
Inter-
national treaty ratified in 1993 to relax trade barriers between
in the
Orders
sels
in the late
that the
1
8(M)s.
British acts thai forbade neutral vesin Council (1807)

from trading with France or from entering ports under
French control. 211
Oregon Country
Disputed area of Pacific Northwest occu-
pied jointly by the U.S. and Great Britain after the
War
Oregon Trail Route to Oregon Country during the 800s. 318

Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)
Group of oil-producing countries, mainly Arab, formed in
1
1960
to get higher prices for oil exports.
override
power
Constitutional
a presidential veto
w ith
902
that allows
Congress
to overrule
a two-thirds vote. 155
People who supervise workers. 269

ozone layer Thin veil of molecules, located some 10 to 30 miles
above the earth's surface, that protects the earth from UV
rays. 972
and Mexico. 965
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

formed in 1949 whose member nations agreed to
another
Grazing land
ranchers to use
overseers
Strategy of peaceful protest. 844
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)

the U.S.. Canada,
government allowed cattle

446
open shops Nonunion workplaces. 520
Operation Desert .Storm (1991) U.S. military mission that
joined allies in driving Iraqi forces from Kuwait. 938
Operation Restore Hope (1992) United Nations plan to ensure
that relief efforts reached famine-stricken Somalia. 960
Operation Rolling Thunder U.S. bombing campaign against
military targets in North Vietnam that began in 1965. 872
open range
of 1812. 229
589
nonaggression pact (1939) Temporary alliance in which

Germany and the Soviet Union agreed to divide Poland
between them. 736
nonimportation agreements Documents signed by colonial
merchants promising not
Pentagon Papers
Alliance
protect one
event of attack. 793
Northwest Ordinance (1787)
Federal law that established a
system for governing the Northwest Territory: also called the
Land Ordinance of 1787. 142

northwest passage Northern water route from Europe to Asia
sought by earh European explorers. Many European claims in
North America resulted from the search for such a route. 56
Northwest Territory Area organized in 1787 that extended
north of the Ohio River to the Great Lakes and west of
Pennsylvania to the Mississippi River. 142
Nuremberg trials Trials of Nazi war criminals by the Allies
thatbesan in 1945. 781
n
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)
Federal agency created in 1970 to protect workers from
unhealthful working conditions. 903
Government agency
Office of Economic Opportunity (OEO)
formed in 1964 to coordinate antipoverty programs, including
the Job Corps. VISTA, and Head Start. 840
Okies Negative term for farmers, many from Oklahoma, who
migrated in 1939 to the West Coast to find work. 714
old immigrants
People, generally Protestants from northwestem Europe, who came to the U.S. between 1800 and 1880. 466
Olive Branch Petition (1775)
Final plea for peace sent by the

Second Continental Congress to King George III. 116
Omnibus Housing Act (1965) Federal law that, together with
the Housing and Urban Development Act of 1968. provided
money for urban renewal and housing assistance for lowincome famihes. 842
Open Door policy (1899) U.S. policy, proposed by Secretary
of State John Hay, that called for all nations to have equal
access to trade and investment in China. 567
Military tactic used by U.S. troops during the

Vietnam War that involved moving residents to refugee camps
and burning their villages. 874
Federal law that gave land for
Pacific Railway Act (1862)
development of a transcontinental railroad. 436
Pacific Rim
Countries on the western edge of the Pacific
Ocean. 964
Paleo-Indians First people who crossed Beringia into North
America during the last Ice Age. 4
Palmer raids (1919-20) Raids to capture alleged radicals:
launched by Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer during the
Red Scare. 626
Panama Canal treaties (1978) Agreements granting Panama
control over canal operations by the year 2000. 914
Pan-German movement German plan prior to World War I to
unite all German-speaking peoples under one flag. 586
Panic of 1819 Economic collapse caused in part by the Second
pacification
Bank of
state
the United States' attempt to curb lending policies of
banks. 236
Pan-Slavic
movement
Russian plan to bring together
all
Slavic
peoples of central and eastern Europe, in direct opposition to

the
Pan-German movement of the
partnerships
early 1900s.
586
Business enterprises that are owned by two or
more people who are responsible for the businesses' debts. 462
Mining technique de\ eloped in Mexico and South
America during the 1700s that used mercury^ to extract silver
from ore: used in the western U.S. 449
Peace Corps Program established by President John Kennedy in
the early 1 960s that sends volunteers to developing countries. 835
Pendleton Civil Service Act (1883) Federal law that created a
Civil Ser\ ice Commission to administer competitive examinations to those seeking government jobs. 488
Pentagon Papers Secret government documents, published in
1971. that showed how the go\emment had misled Americans
about the Vietnam War. 882
patio process
GLOSSARY
1055
pons
rendezvous system
pi'ons
Landless laborers. nusily Indians,
uho worked on
Mikhail Gorbachevs plan to restructure the Soviet
ptrrsiroika
and government during the late |4X(K. 934

State banks that received deposits ot federal funds
because ot their olticers' loyaliN lo the Democratic party and
L-cunniiiN
pvl
banks
lo President
Pueblo Revolt (1680)
Attacks by the Pueblo Indians that tem-
porarily d\o\c the Spanish
Spanish haciendas. 53
from
New Mexico.
51
Pure Food and Drug Act (1906) Federal consumer-protection

law that provided for government inspection of food and
drugs.
Puritans
540
English Protestants
who sought
to "purify" the
.Anglican church of Catholic rituals and traditions.
Andrew Jackson. 247
66
Chantable efforts to promote public welfare, such
philanthropy
museums, and art galleries; endowing

and establishing theater or music groups. 474
Federal law decreeing that
Philippine (Government .\ct 1902)
ihc Philippines would be ruled bv a governor and a two-house
as financing libraries,
universities;
legislature.
564
People
Pilgrims
who
left
England because of religious contlict

to North America, where they
and sailed aboard the Mayflower
huindcd Plv mouth Colony in 1620. 66

Pinckney's Treaty (1795) Agreement negotiated with Spain
that set the
:<
parallel
St
southern boundary of the U.S. near Florida
at the
the colonists to
requiring
house and supply British troops. 109
Law enacted by Parliament extending

Quebec's boundaries south to the Ohio River and granting full
religious rights to French Roman Catholics. 112
Quebec Act (1774)
Holy book of Islam. 23
Qur'an
197
Law enacted by Parliament
Quartering Act (1765)
planned obsolescence Practice of making products that are

dcMgned ti> gt> out i.i\ style. 664
Addition to Cuba's constitution, enacted in
Piatt .Amendment
1902 and renounced
over Cuban
Plessy
V.
affairs.
in
1934, that gave the U.S. greater control
569
Ferguson (1896)
Supreme Court case
in
which the
court upheld segregation by ruling that "separate but equal"

facilities
did not violate the Fourteenth
Amendment. 414
machines Political organizations, headed by bosses,

appointments to government jobs to control
elections. 469
political
that used
Fixed taxes imposed on every voter by southern states
poll taxes
in
an effort to depriv e African Americans of the right to vote. 412
Pontlac's Rebellion (1763)
Indian war led by Ottawa chief
art
Art form begun in the 196()s that uses everyday objects
works themselves. 854

popular sovereignty Right of the people to rule, used as an
argument for letting citizens of each new territory decide
whether \o pemiit slavery there. 339
Populist party
Political party founded by farmers, labor leaders, and refomiers in 1892; also called the People's party. 499
Potsdam Conference (1945) Overseas meeting attended by the
U.S.. Britain, and the Soviet Union that laid the foundation for
as subject matter or in the
Germany's postwar status. 780

Pottawatomie Ma.s.sacre (1856) Revenge attack by antislavery
raiders, led by John Brown on proslavery settlers along
Pottawatomie Creek in Kansas. 348
precedent
actions.
Action that
may
serve as a guide for future, similar
190
Declaration issued by Great Britain that
barred settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains. 105
Reform movement concerned with curing the ills

caused by industrialization. 512
prohibition
Legal ban on the manufacture, transportation, and
sale
alcoholic beverages. 289
proprietorships
Small businesses owned by individuals or
families. 462
protectionism
Practice of imposing higher tariffs and stricter
barriers against foreign exports in an effort to encourage
Americans to purcha.se domestic goixls. 966
protectorate Country dependent on another for protection. 569
Protestant Reformation
Religious upheaval in Europe begun
progressivism
i."!^
by Martin Luther
in
1517
to protest corruption in the
Roman
Catholic church. 57
Public
Works Administration (PVVA)
New
Deal agency estab-
lished in 1933 that contracted with private firms to construct

roads, public buildings, and similar projects.
1056
GLOSSARY
located along a railroad; long cattle drives usu-
Federal agency that reorganized
rail-
roads and set limits on transportation rates and workers' wages
during World War I. 602

Reaganomics President Ronald Reagan's economic program
built
on big
tax cuts to
Approach
realpolitik
encourage business investment. 928

to foreign policy,
adopted by Henry
903
remove an elected
official from office by calling for a new election. 535
reclamation Process of making damaged land productive. 541
Reconquista Ongoing battle to recapture Spanish lands from the
Moors that ended in 1492. 22
national interests over moral or ethical concerns.
recall
Election reform that allows voters to
Reconstruction
697
Rebuilding of the former Confederate states to
395
Reconstruction Acts (1867)
reunite the nation.
Federal laws that gave radical
Republicans military control of the South. 402
Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC) Federal agency

created in 1932 to stimulate the economy by lending money to
railroads, insurance companies, banks, and other financial
institutions.
recycling
Pr(K.'lamation of 1763
Town
ended there. 445

Railroad Administration
ally
Kissinger and President Richard Nixon, that emphasized
Pontiac against settlers of western lands. 105
pop
railhead
685
Collection and processing of used items for reuse.
Red Scare (1919-20)
the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia.
referendum
535
Midwestern
stressed local folk themes
rehabilitation
625
Election reform that allows voters to place a mea-
sure on the ballot.
regionalists
973
Period of anti-Communist hysteria after
Treatment
artists
popular
and customs
to restore
in the
in their
someone
1930s
who
work. 719
to a useful
and
constructive place in society. 287
Rehabilitation Act (1973)
Federal law forbidding discrimina-
tion in education, in jobs, or in
housing because of physical
919
Relocation Act (1956)
Federal law passed to relocate Native
Americans to urban areas. 815
Renaissance Rebirth of European art and learning spurred by
the Crusades. 20
rendezvous system Arrangement to cut costs and increase profits in the Rocky Mountain fur trade by having trappers gather
once a year to sell furs and buy supplies. 318
disabilities.
reparations
Payments of damages. 607
ot government in which leaders receive authority
from citizens to make and enforce laws. 138
Republican senators who would support the
reservationists
Treaty of Versailles only if the League Covenant were
amended. 609
reserved powers Powers kept by the states because they are not
specifically granted to the federal government or denied to the
states by the U.S. Constitution. 154
Right to temporarily unload goods at a port
right of deposit
v\ ithout paying a dut\
198
Popular music introduced in the 1950s that
rock 'n' roll
reworked black rhythm and blues. 826
Roe V. Wade 1973) Supreme Court case that overturned a state
law limiting a woman's access to an abortion. 921
Roosevelt Corollary (1904)
Policy that extended the Monroe
reparations
republic
Form
Doctrine by allowing the U.S. a greater role
in maintaining
Western Hemisphere. 573
Periodic replacement of officeholders. 241
rotation in office
nigged individualism Idea that success comes through individ-
peace and order
ual effort
in the
and private enterprise. 683
Rural Electrification Administration (REA)
New Deal
agenc\ that brought electricity to isolated rural areas. 702
Rush-Bagot Agreement (1817)
Disarmament plan between
the
U.S. and Great Britain that limited each nation's military pres-
ence on the Great Lakes to a few armed ships. 229
War
Russo-Japanese
War between
(1904-05)
Russia and
Japan that began with a Japanese attack on Russian forces
in
Manchuria. 568
Second New Deal
Sixteenth
Government programs passed
Amendment
after the
1934
elections that provided relief and recovery but emphasized
reform. 701
Second Seminole
Seminoles
lives than
to their
(1835-1842)
Resistance by the
removal from Rorida; cost more money and
any other Indian war
in
U.S. history. 244
Loyalty to a particular area of the country. 198
sectionalism
sedition
War
Act of
stirring
up discontent or rebellion against a gov-
ernment or other lawful authority. 202

Federal law enacted during Worid
Sedition Act (1918)
War
government a crime. 605

Separation of the races. 413
segregation
Federal law that required men
Selective Service Act (1917)
that
made
written criticism of the
595
Selective Training and Service Act (1940)
to
register with local draft boards.
provided for .Amenca's
first
peacetime
draft.
Federal law that
753
Right of people to govern themselves. 606

Seneca Falls Convention (1848) .Meeting held in Seneca Falls,
New York, that marked the birth of the organized women's
rights movement in the U.S. 298
separation of powers Allotment of powers between the legislative, executive, and judicial branches of government to prevent
any one branch from becoming too powerful. 155
Separatists
Radical group of Puritans, including the Pilgrims,
who separated from the Church of England and came to North
America seeking religious freedom. 66
serfs
People who li\ed on a feudal manor and worked the lord's
land in exchange for crops and protection. 17
settlement houses Community centers in poor neighborhoods
that provided food, shelter and other services. 476
Seven Days' Campaign (1862) Civil War battle in which
self-determination
Confederate troops forced General McClellan to retreat before

he could take Richmond. 377
Seventeenth Amendment (1913) Constitutional amendment that provided for the direct election of United States
senators. 535
sexual harassment Use of unwelcome sexual language or
Sand Creek Massacre (1864)

by U.S. troops
Sandinistas
Slaughter of Cheyenne Indians

.
Nicaraguan rebels
who
overthrew the dictatorship
Somoza Debayle
in 1979. 931
between Missouri and Santa Fe. New
Mexico, important for taking merchandise to the West. 317
satellite nations
Countries under the control of the Soviet
Union. 789
Saturday Night Massacre (1973) Resignation and firing of top
government officials who refused to aid President Richard
Nixon in the Watergate cover-up. 908
scalawags Southern whites who backed the Union and supported Reconstruction after the Civil War. 406
scientific management
Theory, promoted by Frederick W.
Taylor, that every kind of work could be broken into a series
of Anastasio
Santa Fe Trail
Trail
of smaller tasks and that rates of production could be set for
each component
scrip
task.
Paper money
647
that
workers
in
company towns received
as
wages. 493
search-and-destroy missions
Military attacks that involve
looking for and annihilating hidden
Second Battle of Bull Run (1862)
War
enemy troops. 873

Union defeat during
the
General McClellan's appointment as

commander of Union forces in the east. 377
Second Continental Congress (1775) Convention held in
Civil
that led to
Philadelphia during which the delegates established the

its
com-
faith that
sw ept
Continental .Army and chose George Washington as
mander. 114
Second Great Awakening
Renew al of religious
282
the U.S. beginning in the 1790s.
beha\ ior that creates a hostile working environment. 940
shantytowns
Colorado Territory 427
in
Makeshift shelters built by homeless people:

were built during the
Great Depression. 677
sharecropping Arrangement under which a sharecropper
for example, the Hoovervilles that
agreed to work a parcel of land
in return for a
share of the
410
Share-Our- Wealth (1933) Radical relief program proposed by
Senator Huey Long to empower the government to confiscate
wealth from the rich through taxes and pro\ ide a guaranteed
minimum income and home to every family. 701
Shays's Rebellion (1786-87) Farmers' revolt against high
taxes and heavy debts, led by Daniel Shays. 144
Sherman Antitrust Act (1890) Federal law that declared
monopolies and trusts illegal. 464
Sherman Silver Purchase Act (1890) Federal law that
required the government to buy silver each month and mint it
into coins. 499
silent generation
Name given to middle-class youth of the
1950s who seemed willing to conform to consumer culture
w ithout protest. 826
silent majority
Name given by President Richard Nixon to
middle-class voters weary from the social upheaval of the
1960s. 900
sit-down strike Work stoppage in w hich workers occupy factories until management meets their demands. 705
sit-in
Strategy of nonviolent protest in which a group enters a
public place and refuses to leave. 844
crop, a cabin, seed, tools, and a mule.
Sixteenth
Amendment
(1913)
Constitutional
amendment
that
authorized an individual income tax. 543
GLOSSARY
1057
:>iwooC-Hawiey Tariffs Tet offensive

larifT(|y3U)
Smo(>(
SiK'ial
ct>
High-tari!t
.onomic downturn
tn
Darwinism
luvk
of the 1930..
Theor>. pn>pi>Ned
m the
late
that
coninbulcd
1800s. that soci-
pr)^ressed through competiti>n. with the fittest rising to
positions of wealth and power.
Movement
Social (lOspel
462
b\ Protestant ministers in the late
IS(MK that called lor people to appl> Christian pnnciples to

address sivial problems. 477
System under which government or worker cooperaall means of production and distribution. 520
socialism
tives
Strategic Defense Initiative (SDl)
Space-based missile-defense
system proposed b> President Ronald Reagan
674
own
in the
1980s to
movement; also called "Star Wars." 930

Theory set forth by Thomas Jefferson that
strict construction
the federal government possesses only those powers that the
U.S. Constitution specifically allows. 193
Tactic used by labor unions in which workers refuse to
strike
work until employers meet union demands. 258
blunt the nuclear-freeze
.Nonunion workers brought
strikebreakers
in
b\ a
company
to
495
replace striking workers.
Federal law that provided a system
Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)
unempiosmenl compensation and retirement pensions. 702

Organization formed by Native
Society of .American Indians
.Amencans to address Indian problems. 528
formed in 1960 by student activists from through844

Pay ments made to fanners to reduce their production
subsidies
of a crop or commodity. 698
Social Security Act
1935)
of
Polish independent trade union and social
Solidarity
thai
was formed
movement
Sons of Liberty Secret groups of Patriots formed in 1765 to

t>ppose the Stamp Act and to protest British authority in the
colonies. 107
Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) Alliance

of church-based .African American organizations formed in
1957 and dedicated to ending discrimination. 844
President Richard Nixon's plan to woo consouthern strategy
ser\ati\c stiuthern white voters away from the Democratic
party b\ cutting back on new civil rights legislation. 901
Southern Tenant Farmers* Union (STFC) Arkansas sharecropn
pers who lobbied government in 1934 to halt tenant evictions
and to force landowners to share payments w ith tenants. 698
space shuttle Reusable space vehicle first launched by NASA
in 1981.951
898
Spanish-.American War
War declared by the U.S. on
Spain to protect U.S. investments and to help Cuba overthrow
Spanish rule. 560
Spanish .Armada Spanish naval force defeated by England in
15XS. 58
Spanish Civil War War that began in 1936 between Fascists
and Loyalists in Spain. 733
specie
Gold or silver coins that a bank held to back up its
notes. 226
Specie Circular (1836) E.xecutive order issued by President
(
>
.Andrew Jackson instructing the Treasury to accept only gold
and siUeras payment

spheres of influence
for public land.
247
566
Songs that are rich in Biblical lore. 275
spoils system
Political practice, introduced by Andrew Jackson.
of giving government jobs to supporters. 241
Sputnik (1957) Satellite launched by the Soviet Union that led
the U.S. to focus more on technological development. 810
Square Deal Theodore Roosevelt" s 1904 presidential campaign
railroads.
spirituals
slogan pledging fair treatment for business, workers, and the
539
Economic condition in which inflation is accompanied by unemployment. 902
Stamp Act 765
Law enacted by Parliament that placed a tax
on all printed matter in the colonies. 106
Stamp .Act Congress
765
Delegates from nine colonies who
public.
stagflation
gathered
in
New
t'ork City to seek repeal of the
and to deny Parliament" s

stock
Certificates of
right to tax the colonies.
ownership
Stamp Act
107
company. 462
stockholders Owners of certificates in a corporation who
receive a certain percentage of the corporations profits
through di'. idends. 462
Strategic .Arms Limitation Talks (SALT)
.Agreement between
the U.S. and the Soviet Union, limiting the number of interin a
continental nuclear missiles each nation could have.
1058
GLOSSAo>'
crops for survival. 8

beyond city limits that came about
parth as a result of mass transit. 473
Right to vote. 299
suffrage
Sugar .Act (1764) Law enacted by Parliament that set an import
tax on foreign sugar, molasses, and other goods to the
suburbs
Residential areas
colonies. 106
Southern and western states having
Sunbelt
suburban
life-styles.
superpowers
dominant
climates and
Nations that possess great power and become
in
global politics.
supremacy clause
Clause
the federal constitution

stitutions
warm
922
and
state law
768
in the U.S. Constitution stating that
and
all
federal laws outrank state con-
155
s.
Sussex pledge (1916) Promise by Germany not to sink ocean

liners without warning or without assuring the passengers'
safety. 593
Swahili
Bantu language spoken by people
in
East .Africa. 25
.tm
Taft-Hartley
.Act
1947)
Federal law that extended government
regulation of labor unions and included a provision allowing

courts to end strikes. 785
Ports or regions in a nation where a for-
eign country retains exclusive rights over trade, mines, and
Grow ing just enough
subsistence farming
930
in 1980.
.Association
out the South.
904
Tariff Act of 1816
Federal law that placed a 25 percent duty on

most imported factory goods. 227
Taxes on goods. 148
tariffs
task system
System in which plantation slaves were given specific duties
Ta.\
each day. 81
Reform Lav* (1986)
Federal law that eliminated special
tax breaks for certain groups.
Tea
.Act
933
Law enacted by Parliament that allowed the

India Company to sell tea directly to American
1773)
British East
agents without paying certain duties. Ill
Teapot
Dome
scandal (1926)
Scandal
in
which Secretary of
was convicted of accepting bribes fcM"

leasing the government oil reserve in Teapot Dome. Wyoming.
to private oil companies. 630
Teller .Amendment (1898)
Act that stated the U.S. claimed no
sovereigntv junsdiction. or control over Cuba. 560
temperance movement Reform efforts to curb or limit alcohol
consumption. 288
Tennessee \alley .Authority (TVA) New Deal agency created
in 1933 to develop power stations and dams throughout the
Tennessee River Valley. 699
termination Government policy during the 1950s designed to
end the reservation system. 816
Tet offensive (1968) .North Vietnamese attack on South
Vietnam during Tet. the Viemamese New Year. 879
the Interior Albert Fall
Texas longhorn
Hardy breed of
Texas longhorn
that
helped
make long
developed by the
catllc
drives possible.
K5()s
after the loss of state power. 308

Conference on the Law of the Sea (1982) International conference in which participating nations agreed to
protect the world's oceans. 974
Thirteenth Amendment (1865) Constitutional amendment that
abolished slavery. 398
and American
Third
settlers in
Texas
UN
Border between North Korea and South Korea
38th parallel
by the Allies
Three-Fifths
in
set
1945.799
Agreement made
railroads connected to surrounding areas
by
459
Cjroup of companies that give control of their stock to a
trust
board of directors, which then runs the companies as a single
enterprise. 462
Tweed Ring Corrupt political organization that controlled New
York City government during the Gilded Age. 486
Twelfth Amendment (1804) Constitutional amendment that
requires electors to vote for presidential and vice-presidential
candidates on separate ballots. 203
Twenty-first
Compromise (1787)
Major
Freedom
feeder or branch lines.
444
Revolt against Mexico by Tejanos
Texas Revolution (1835)
trunk lines
at the
Constitutional Convention that counted only three fifths of the

slave population in determining total state population. 148
Amendment
that repealed Prohibition.
Twenty-sixth
(1933)
Amendment
(1971)
lowered the voting age from 21
that
Constitutional
amendment
Constitutional
amendment
656
to 18.
884
Toleration Act (1649)
Maryland colonial law that guaranteed

74
Tonkin Gulf Resolution (1964) Act that gave the president
authority to take all necessary measures to repel an armed
attack against U.S. forces. 870
Strategy used in the Civil War of striking at the
total war
enemy's economic resources in addition to fighting enemy
troops. 387
Townshend Acts (1767) Law enacted by Parliament that
placed duties on goods imported by the colonies. 109
Trail of Tears (1838)
Forced relocation of Cherokees from
Georgia to Indian Territory, during which many died. 244
Trans-Appalachian West Area between the Appalachian
Mountains and the Mississippi River. 205
New England intellectuals who believed
transcendentalists
people could attain perfection and could acquire knowledge
about God, self, and the universe. 285
treason Offense of openly attempting to overthrow a government to which a person owes allegiance, or of killing or personally harming the head of that government or his or her
family. 164
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (1918) Agreement signed by the
Bolsheviks in which Russia made a separate peace with the
Central Powers and withdrew from World War I. 598
Agreement that set boundaries
Treaty of Fort Laramie
85 )
for Native American groups and allowed the U.S. government
to build roads and forts through Indian Territory. 321
Treaty of Ghent Agreement signed in 1814 that ended the War
of 1812. 214
Treaty of Greenville (1795) Agreement with Native Americans that gave the U.S. title to Native American lands that
make up much of present-day Ohio and part of Indiana. 197
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo Agreement ending the Mexican
War in 848 by which Mexico ceded Texas and the rest of its
western territory. 313
Treaty of Medicine Lodge (1867) Agreement that ended a
long-standing war between the Sioux and the U.S. 428
Treaty of Paris (1783) Agreement signed by Great Britain and
the U.S. granting the U.S. independence, territory, and fishing
rights. 132
Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) Agreement that divided control
over new territories in the Americas between Spain and
Portugal. 45
Treaty of Versailles (1919) Agreement ending World War I
that provided for the establishment of the League of Nations. 608
trench warfare Strategy used during World War I in which
opposing armies fought from behind fixed fortifications. 589
Triple Alliance Military alliance formed by Germany, AustriaHungary, and Italy prior to World War I. 587
Triple Entente
Military alliance formed by Great Britain,
France, and Russia prior to World War I. 587
Truman Doctrine U.S. policy of giving military and financial
aid to those countries resisting Communist rule. 791
religious
freedom
to all Christians.
( 1
14
ultraviolet solar radiation
(UV
Radiation from the sun
rays)
can cause skin cancer, damage marine
that
972
unconditional surrender
life,
and harm
crops.
Arrangement whereby
the loser
agrees to the terms of the victor. 750
Underground Railroad
Network that helped slaves escape to

Canada before the Civil War. 273
Underwood Tariff Act (1913) Federal law that reduced tariffs
to their lowest levels in 50 years. 549
unilateralism
One-sided or independent action in foreign
affairs. 724
the North or
United Farm Workers (UFW) Organization of migrant workers formed to win better wages and working conditions. 851
United Nations (UN) International organization formed in

1945 to work for world peace. 783
Supreme Court deciUniversity of California v. Bakke (1978)
sion that struck down quotas as a means of achieving racial
equality; in institutions of higher learning, for example. 920
urban renewal Programs designed to replace or restore run-
down
inner-city buildings.
821
Government agency created
U.S. Department of Agriculture

in
862
Utopias
440
communities. 284
to help farmers.
Ideal
vertical integration
Strategy whereby one
company acquires
other companies that provide materials and services necessary
company. 463
Power to reject a proposed law. 155
viceroy Governor who rules a country in place of a king. 39
Vietcong Vietnamese Communists. 868
Vietminh Resistance movement organized by Ho Chi Minh in
1941; also known as the League for the Independence of
Vietnam. 866
Vietnamization President Richard Nixon's plan to end the
Vietnam War by turning over the fighting to the South
Vietnamese army and withdrawing U.S. troops. 881
Virginia Plan
James Madison's proposal during the
Constitutional Convention of shifting power away from the
to the first
veto
states
toward a central government. 146
law
Freedom
that called for separation of
(1786)
church and
Virginia state
state.
GLOSSARY
139
1059
Volstead Act
zoot-suit riots
Federal law thai enforced the Eighteenth
Nuklead Act (I9I9)
Georgia (1832) Supreme Court decision that forof Georgia to seize Cherokee lands. 244
Works Progress Administration (WPA) New Deal agency
formed in 1935 to create jobs for people on relief. 701
Worcester
v.
bade the
Xincndnicnt (Prohibition). 656
NolinK KiKhts Act l%5l Federal law that put voter registraliDii under go\emniont (.ontrol. 848
Voting Rights Act of 1975 Federal law requiring states and
communities with large numbers of non-English speakers to
print voting materials in various foreign languages 923
(
state
Wounded Knee
Massacre that occurred

.Massacre (1890)
between the Sioux on Wounded Knee Creek and the army sent
to confiscate the Indians' rifles. 432
Legal document that forces a jailer to
writ of habeas corpus

release a person
from prison unless the person has been
mally charged with, or convicted

writs of assistance
IV
Wagner-Connery Act (1935)
labor"
and working
War
Industries
ci>ndilions.
Search warrants issued to aid customs
cers in the search for
for-
164
offi-
smuggled goods. 109
Federal law that guaranteed
unions and bargain for better wages
right to organi/e
of, a crime.
705
Board (WIB)
U.S. agency during
World War
responsible for allcKating scarce materials, establishing pro-
XYZ
duction priorities, and setting prices. 602
war of
Civil
attrition
War
strategy of wearing
down
the
Confederates through constant attack. 386
affair (1797)
Foreign policy scandal
in
which the French
sought bribes from U.S. diplomats before beginning treaty

negotiations.
201
War on
Poverty President Lyndon Johnson's Great Society

programs designed to end poverty in the U.S. 840
War Powers Act (1973) Federal law limiting the president's
power to send U.S. troops to foreign conflicts. 888
War Production Board (WPB) Government agency during
World War II that directed the conversion of existing factories
to wartime production. 752
Warren Commission Group assigned in 1963 to investigate the
assassination of President John Kennedy. 839
Warsaw Pact 1955) Alliance formed by the Soviet Union and
other Communist countries in Eastern Europe. 794
(
Water Quality Improvement Act (1970) Federal law requiring oil companies to pay some oil spill cleanup costs and
setting limits on discharge of industrial pollutants into
water.
903
Name
Watergate
in
1972 and led
given to government scandal that began
to President
Richard Nixon's resignation
Yalta Conference (1945) Postwar peace meeting between the

U.S.. Britain, and the Soviet Union in which plans were made
to divide
and occupy Germany. 761
Newspaper stories that featured sensational478

yellow-dog contracts Agreements many job applicants signed,
promising not to join unions. 495
yeoman farmers Small farmers who own and cultivate their
own land. 267
yellow journalism
ized reporting.
in
1974.906
Wealth Tax Act (1935)

taxes on the rich.
Federal law that sharply increased
702
Whiskey Rebellion (1794)
Uprising by western Pennsylvania
farmers against a tax on whiskey. 194
Wilmot Proviso (1846)
Proposed constitutional amendment
would have banned slavery in all lands acquired from

Mexico. 339
Wisconsin Idea Program of progressive reforms proposed by
Wisconsin governor Robert M. "Fighting Bob" La Follette
that
group
in
Christian Temperance Union
(WCTU)
Reform
favor of temperance, moral purity, and the rights of
women. 525
Woodstock (1969)
Three-day rock concert in upstate New

York that was one of the high points of the counterculture
movement. 857
060
::
GLOSSARY
Zimmermann Note
Germany was
during the early 1900s. 537
Woman's
Huge corporations run by single families that had

monopolized the Japanese economy prior to World War IL 781
zero population growth (ZPG) Birthrate that replaces existing
population but does not increase it. 922
zaibatsu
(1917)
Document
that
showed
that
trying to establish a military alliance with
Mexico. 594
Zionism
Movement,
originally intended to
promote the foundhome-
ing of a Jewish national state, that called for a Jew ish
land in Palestine. 796
zoot-suit riots (1943)
Racial attacks by U.S. sailors on
Mexican American youths
in
Los Angeles. 757
Abilene, KS. 445.
m445
1900,
m498: Olmec,
447, p447: and economic advance-
tions,
266-67; post-World
abolitionists, 78
in
abortion, opposition
to.
Roe
928; and
v.
Wade. 921. 1031-32

Brigade, 734
992
of,
l>26-21,p45I: and
Deficiency
p709:
Syndrome (AIDS), p945. 949-50.

975; and HIV infection, in976
Adams, Abigail. 114. 118, 181
Adams, Henry. 404
Adams, James H., 359
Adams, John. 201. p201: absence from
Constitutional Convention, 146; at
Boston Massacre, 110;
in election of
in
New
Deal, 708-10,
northern migration of, 603-04, 635-36,
Reconstruction, 405-06, p405, p406,
215.p275.
negotiation of Treaty of Paris
ployment
of,
of, in
New
p706. 785, 913, 929; and
president. 189
in
236
Adamson Act (1916), 551
Adams-Onis Treaty (1819), m229. 230
Adams, Samuel, \07.pl07, 111. 114
Adams, Samuel Hopkins, 540
Addams, Jane, 476, p476; and founding
state,
of
NAACP.
527; as peace activist,
Vietnam War, 87 1 and War of
rights,
301
World War L
Worid War IL
in
595, p595, 599-600; in
756, p756, p758. See also civil rights
movement;
literature;
music; segrega-
Italian aggression
toward. 736,
754), 91
Alba, Victor, 835
Thomas
Bailey,
Aleutian Islands,
in
World War
Alexander
396
II (Russia).
Algeria, infant mortality

Algiers, 211.
(AME)
in.
c976
m212
Alien and Sedition Acts (1798), 202
m26
Allen, Cary, 85
Allende, Salvador. 904

Allen, Frederick Lewis, 626, 629
Allen, Richard. 283,
p283
Alliance for Progress, 835
Agent Orange, 873, 886, 887

Agnew, Spiro: in election of 1968, 881;
Alliance movement, 498-99, p503

Allied Powers, 587
All Quiet on the Western Front
affirmative action, 9 1 9-20
Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1933
Affluent Society, The (Galbraith). 825
(AAA), 698, c703

Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938
(AAA), c703. 706-07
Agricultural Marketing Act (1929), 685
Alsace-Lorraine: post-World
agriculture: and Agricultural
Amazonian rain forest,

American Anti-Slavery
of.
915,
930; Soviet withdrawal from, 935

Africa, European colonization of, 583,
m583
African Americans:
in
American
Revolution, 8-9; colonial, 60-61, 74,
Revolution, 124-25, 135;andanti-
75-76, 87, p87: and cotton
lynching movement, 415, m527; and
production, 263; and dry farming.
antislavery
movement, 292-93, 294;
and black nationalism, 636-37; and

Black Power, 848-50;
in Civil
War,
440;
in
Hawaii, p565; Incan, 12; and
Middle Ages,
17;
and
New
(Remarque), 613
608; in Worid
War
I,
War I,
m588
586-87,
Alvarado, Pedro de, 47

Alvarez del Vayo, Julio, 734
970-72,
m971
Society, 294-96,
297
land use, 642, m642-43: Mayan,

in
II,
746-47
slave trade
1
470
Aldrin, Edwin "Buzz," 900. p900
Alexander, Sadie. 786
resignation of, 908
Afghanistan: Soviet invasion
of,
m829
tion; slave revolts; slavery; slave(s);
African diaspora, 30-3
affair,
p449, 450;
582; statehood,
of,
Aldrich,
women's
in.
p969, 973; purchase
449; resources
Aldrich, Nelson, 544
Church, 283, p2Si, 414

African National Congress (ANC), 947,
960
African trading kingdoms, 25-27,
p650
544-45; gold discovered
ment. 322, 323, 439, p439; and
African Methodist Episcopal
(Twain). 479
Alamo, 308, m308
Alcott, Bronson, 285
ment, 476, 516, pJ/d. 523
advertising, 464-65. p464, p465, 650-51.
356, 364
of,
1812, 213, 214; and western settle-
605, 725; and settlement-house move-
Adenas, \4,p]4
Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, The
(Twain). 479
Adventures of Tom Sawyer, The
p654
Alabama, secession
m736
unem-
unions, 258; and urban renewal, 821;
tion of 1824, 238-39; as secretary of
airplane: Atlantic crossing of, 654-55,
Albania,
132; quoted. 137, 138, 196; as vice
238, p238; in elec-
p565
AIDS. See Acquired Immune Deficiency
Syndrome (AIDS)
oil spill in.
2S3-M,p283; in temperance movement, 288; and theater,

276, p276,
South, 4]2-l4,p413. p414:
Adams, John Quincy,
West, 440-
Alaska: and Ballinger-Pinchot
785,/? 7S5. 786; in
foreign policy under. 200-02; and

783).
in
752. See also
II,
Warn,
660-61 p660: treatment
World War
Alami, Musa, 798
religion,
I,
U.S. regions of, 1900, m498; subsis-
m635. p636; population of, c79,

m340. m635, 955. c955; post-World
A\l.p417; and
War
642-43, c642:
in,
farmers
1950s, pS05, 815, p821;
1796, 200; in election of 1800, 203;
on planta-
Aguinaldo, Emilio, 560, p56l, 564,
459, 461,
p46l: and Ku Klux Klan. 637, p637;

in labor movement, 258, 625; and
p973
1;
tence farming, 8; tenant farming in
43; in
Louisiana Purchase, 210; mining by,
acid rain. m97]. 972-73.
623; production
i7//, 714; in
1.
South, 410-1 1,/>4//;
South, 267-68, p268; and Great
Depression, 615, p675, p706; and
p667. 772: inventions
Abzug, Bella. /?92y

Acheson, Dean, 800
Immune
290-
Harlem Renaissance, 660-62, 667,
Abraham Lincoln
9,
of. 100,
9\.p290. Al^.p47H, 709, 822, 842; in

factories, 491-92, 675, 756, 785; free,
movement
abolition. See antislavery
Acquired
698-99, 706-07, 71
ment. 414-15; education
Abnakis. 96-97
absolute location,
369, p369. 383-85, p383, p3H5: in

colonies, c79. S\.p8I: cowboys,
Deal,
American Civil Liberties Union

(ACLU), 657
American Colonization Society,
265,
292, 293
INDEX
1061
\merican
Crisis,
Anu-rican Dcfensi'
WM
SK-k't\.
Anu-rii-an Kederatitm of
Americans
Labor (AH,),
ol.
New
520; and
tion
t)t.
Deal. 705; organiza-
4^5
30; events leading to, 104- 1 2, p/34:
I.abor-Connrevs of Industrial
Americans
pH5;
American Kreedman's Aid

Commission. 37(i
American Independent party, 8SI
American Indian Defense Association,
I
.Vmerican Indians, and American

RevDiuiiun. 125; assimilation of. 43435; in Battle of Fallen Timbers (1794),
197; in Battle ot Little Bighorn (1876),
429;
of Rosebud
in Battle
and Cayuse
Civil
War
1876). 429;
S47). 322; and
War. 369; conflict with
settlers.
61. 77. 88-91. 94. 196-97. 212, 243-
45, 322. 327. 426-33; and cultural
Dawes
renewal. 948. p94S: and
634; early cultures

of,
of. 12-14.
m/5.
16;
encomienda system. 40-43. 53. 54,

p54. 62; in French and Indian War. 91635;
to.
impact of early colonization on. 37.

p37, 39-43. 46-49; and Indian
Removal Act (1830), 243. c243, m244.

Ircxûois League origins. 91;
p245: and
96-97. 331. 893; and
literature of.
Mariposa
War
Deal. 71 0-1
1
1; in
85
).
in
960s.
851. 859; in 1970s, 899, 920-2
p921:
in
New
1920s. 634-35; in
950s, 805, 8 5- 6, 82
1
327; and
/j920.
Pontiac's Rebellion. 105; pro-
gressives. 528; and Relocation Act

1 ;
243-45. m244. 250. 25
and reserva-
battles of. to
890.
of.
and
m42H: and Roman
Catholic church. 49. 52-53. 318-20:
and Sand Creek Massacre. 427;
in
Second Seminole War (1835-42), 244;

and settlement of Pacific Northwest.
196-97. 321-22; and Society of
American Indians. 528; and trade with
U.S.. 318; and Trail of Tears (1838).
244. m244: and Treaty of Greenville
(1795). 197; and Treaty of Medicine
Lodge
unemployment of.
948; and World War I. 595; and World
War II. 763; and Wounded Knee
(
1867). 428;
Massacre
names of
890). 429. 432. See also
indi\ idual tribes
American Indian Movement (ALM),

851.92()./>92/. 948
Americanization process, 469-70. p469

American Liberty League, 700
American Plan, 632
American Protective League, 604

American Railway Inion (.\RU), 496
American Red Cross, 369
062
INDEX
131-32,
15,
pi 35: victory
women
/?/-?2.-
in,
125-26.
pl26
American Samoa, 559. c568
Americans with Disabilities Act (1990),
949. p950
American System, 227-28
American Temperance Society, 288,
p2HH
Amherst, Jeffrey. 93
Amistad mutiny, 295, p295
amnesty: after Civil War, 395-96; to
Vietnam draft evaders. 909. 912
Amnesty International, 957. 963
Amos 'n' Andy (radio and TV show). 819
Anasazi, \}>.pl4
Anderson, John. 917. m9l7

Anderson, Marian. 276. 660, 708-09.
p709
Anderson, Mary. 633
Anderson, Robert. 365
Anderson, Terry. 96\. p96
Andrews, Avery. 533
Andros, Edmund, 84
Angel Island. 468
Annamite Mountains, 864, m865
annex, 563
Anson, Adrian "Cap." 479
Antarctica, m97l. 972
Anthony, Susan B.. 300. p300. 301. 552
Antietam, Battle of 862). 377-78, p378
1
Antifederalists, 150
Anti-Imperialist League, 564
Anti-Saloon League (ASL), 525
Aragon, 22
Arai, Tomie, lithograph by, p982
Arapahos, 427
Arbenz (luzman, Jacobo, 81
arbitration, 539
archaeologi.sLs, 4
architecture, 664;
in the
1920s. 664
Arias .Sanchez, Oscar. 963. p963

Aristide, Jean-Bertrand. m932. 945
Arizona: mining
Americans
in.
in.
449; Native
m32: Spanish
exploration and settlement of,
46.51
Arkansas: and
Bill Clinton.
942; seces-
sion of. 366: statehood. 338
Armenia, 959. m959. 960

armistice, and World War I. 600. p^X)
Armory Show, 550. p550
Armstrong, Neil. 900. p900
Army-McCarthy
hearings, 808
753
Arnaz, Desi.818./7<sy
Arnold, Benedict. ml29
art: and Armory Show. 550. p550: and
Ash Can School. p5l3: of Mexican
muralists. 662-63. p663: and New
Deal. /7692-W. 716-17; l\9.p719: in
1920s. 663. p663\ pop. 854. p854
Arthur, Chester A.. 489, p489\ succeeds
to presidency. 488
Articles of Confederation, pi 38. 14041. 161
Ash Can School, pi/i

Ashe, Anhur. 950
Ashley, William. 318
Asia: empires of. 583; foreign investment
in. c5H3
Asian Americans: and Angel Island,

468; art of. p982: boat people. 886-87.
p886: and Chinese Exclusion Act.
471. 494; immigration after Chinese
anti-Semitism, 733
antislavery
oil
Army Nurse Corps (ANC),
xxii
removal
(1956). 815-16./7<S/5. 82
tion policy. 427. 453; reser\'ations
125; and religion.
anarchists, 494-95
434, p434. 528, 710; and
93; granting of citizenship
in,
in,
soldiers '\n.pl()3.
Analyzing,
General Allotment Act (1887). 434.

education
in.
financing of. \42-43, pl43: Native
(f
()rani/alions (Al I,-CI()I, S20
710. 71
Eurof)ean aid
of, 133;
Arab
Arafat, Yasir, 960
130-32; cau.ses of. 117-18; con-
sequences
1
American Federation
124-25; battles. /j/02-
pi I J. \\A.mH4. 116. 124-28.
03.
ml 29.
493. 520-21. 54.V 705; mcmbci'slup
in.
War, 797. m797. 798

embargo (1973). 902. c902
Arab-Israeli
American Revolution: African
(Paine). 12"'
7"/i<'
Exclusion Act. 471: immigration
mo\ement, p280-81 m303:
late
in
800s. 482. c482. m482-83;
1970s. 899. 922-23.
and American Anti-Slavery Society,
immigration
294-96, 297; and Amistad mutiny,
p922: immigration in 1980s. 945-46:

and labor unions, 470, 482; literature
295, p295: call to action. 293; early,
78-79, 292-93, p292: and

rights,
women's
of.
297-98
in
773. 982: and mining. 324. 325.
326. p326. p449: and railroad con-
antitrust legislation, 464. 540. 543. 549
struction. 438.
antiwar movement, S76-71. p876. p892:

and election of 1968, SS0-S\,p88l;
growth of. 882-83
Antrobus, John, painting by. p275
tlement. 439-40. p439. p449. 45
Apaches: impact of horse on. -M; literature of. 96-97; and reservations. m428.
432-33: in Texas. 51.307
Apalachees. 50
apartheid. 915
Appeal to the Colored Citizens of the
HorW (Walker). 293
appea.sement, 735
Appomattox, Confederate surrender at.
388.
Arabic
p388
(ship).
p438: and western
452; and Worid
War
754-56./? 754. p755.
II,
set-
p743. 745,
m755
As
I Lay Dying (Faulkner). 682

assembly line, 646-47. p646
Assignment in Utopia (Lyons). 529
assimilation, 434: literature about. 893
Association of American Painters and
Sculptors (AAPS), 550
Atahuallpa, 48
Atchinson, David. 347

Atlanta,
GA:
capture of.
386-87. p3H7: and
in Civil
civil rights.
War.
844
Atlanta Compromise, 415
593
Atlantic, Battle of the (1941-43). 760
Alexander Graham. 460

354-55
Atlantic Charter (1941), 738
bank holiday, 694 95
Bell,
Atlantic Pact. 793
banking:
Bell, John.
the depression. 671-72; in
in
atlases. KMK)
early 18(K)s. 226. 227; Hamilton's
atomic bomb: deadlock over. 790-91

development of. 765; testing of. p790:
in World War II. 765. p765. 769
proposal
Atomic Energy Act (1946), 791

Atomic Energ> Commission (AEC),
791
Attlee. Clement.
780
192-93: and Jackson,
for.
New
246-47. p246:
for,
694-95;
in
Deal programs
1980s and 1990s. 934;
Bank
Berger, Victor, 605
p7()8
Bentsen, Lloyd, 936, p937
of the United States: charter of
Auschwitz. Poland. 767

Austin, Moses. 307
1811, 226; Jackson's opposition to
I.
m5S8
586. 587.
Bennett, Charies. 978
Benton, Thomas Hart. 719; painting by,
first,
307
Australia, c5H3. 964
Austria-Hungary, and World War
benevolent societies, 469

Ben-(;urion, David, 796-97
andPanicof 1819. 236

Banking Act of 1933, fZOJ
bank notes, 192
Attacks, Crispus. 110./?//0
.Austin. Stephen F.,
Belo, Carlos Ximenes, 963
192-93; failure to recharter in
second. 246-47. p246: second. 236

Banks, Nathaniel. 384
Banneker, Benjamin. "Letter to Thomas
Jefferson." 219
Baptists: membership of, c284; in
Revolutionary War. 15; and separation of church and state. 139; and slavery issue, 340; and Social Darwinism,
462
Beringia,
4.
m4. 34,
m34
Berkeley, William, 76,/? 77

Berlin
p789. 792-93
airlift (1948),
Berlin Wall, 836. p836. p956-57, 959
Bernadotte, Folke. 797
p907
Bernstein, Carl, 907,
Berry, Chuck. 826. 829. p829
Barbary states, 211. m212

barbed wire, 448. p448
Henr>'. 458
Bessemer process, 458
Bethel African Methodist Episcopal
(AME) Church, 283. p2Si
Bethune, Mary McLeod, 709-10, p709,
756
Barbie. Klaus. 782
bicameral legislature, 147

Bicentennial celebration, p898-99
Ayllon, Lucas Vazquez, 50
bar graph, 997

Barkley, Alben W.. 786
Barnett, Ferdinand. 415
Azerbaijan, m959. 960
Barnum &
Azores, 30
Barrett, Janie Porter. 477
automation. 820
automobiles, p648. p649: energy-efficient. 969:
impact
of.
648. 650: and
Japanese. 942, 965. 966: production

of,
646-47, p646, p666
autotouring, 649
Aver> College, 290

Axis powers, 735
Axum,
Aztecs.
25, ni26
ml 5,
1-12. p72.
p47
46-48, p46,
Bailey's Circus, 479
Barshefsky, Charlene, 967

Bartlett, Caroline.
^
Babbitt (Lewis). 662. 772-73
Bessemer,
Biddle, Nicholas. 247

Big Foot, 432
Big Four, 607
Bilingual Education Act (1974), 923,
p923
477
Billion Dollar Congress,
Barton, Clara, 369
bill
Baruch, Bernard. 602. 790

Baruch Plan (1946). 790-91
Bill of
baseball, 479. p479, 653. p653. 681.
Bingham. George Caleb,
489
of attainder, 163
Rights (1791). 164-65.
-76^, 190-
91.c-797,textof. 177-78
painting by.
p224-25
biomass, 970
p681
Babson. Roger, 670
Basie, Count. 718
baby boom,
Basques, 446
bionics, 95
Bastille, 195
Birch, Thomas, engraving by. pl45
in World War II. p744, 745

Bataan Death IVIarch (1942), 745, p746,
Birch, William Russell, engraving by,
81
p794
Back-to-Africa movement, 636. 637
Bacall, Lauren.
Bacon, Nathaniel. 77. p77, 95

Bacon's Rebellion (1676). 76-77, c76,
p77
m771
Middle Ages. 23:

Persian Gulf War. 939, m940
Bagley, Sarah G.. 258
Iraq: in
in
Bahamas, Columbus
239
Bake, Henr> Jr.. p763
Baker, Ella. 676. 849
Baker, Howard. 908
Baker, Ray Stannard. 515. 621
fiait^rv. Ca/T(I962). 842
Bakke, Allan. 920. 1032-33
Balanced Budget and Emergency
MD:
p544
Blackshirts, 732
Black Star Steamship Company, 637
Black Thursday (October 24. 1929). 671
Black Tuesday (October 29. 1929), 671
Blackwelder, Julia Kirk. 855
Begin, Menachem. 915. 916. p924
Blake. Eubie. 660
Beiderbecke, Bix. 659
Bland- Allison Act (1878), 499

Blatch, Harriot Stanton. 603
"Bleeding Kansas," 341-4S,p347, p348
blitzkrieg, 737
960
protests in,
in.
Black Kettle, 427

blacklists, 495
Blackmun, Hany, 901
Black Muslims, 849
black nationalism, 636-37
Black Panther party, 849-50
Black Power, 848-50
de, 287
Beauregard, P.G.T., 365, 381
bebop, 754
Becknell, William. 317
Beck, Walter. 681
Beckwourth, James. 318. pi/S
Beecher, Catharine. 291, 299
Belarus, 959.
264: settlement of, 76
Bangladesh, m976, 911
Drums!" (Whitman), 419
Beijing, China: in Middle Ages. 24:
African Americans
of.
m837
Beats, 825-26
Ball, Lucille. 818. /7<S7S
267: growth
of Pigs, Cuba. 835-36,
Beaumont, Gustave
Control Act (1985), 934
Baltimore,
See Truth. Sojourner
Beatles, 856
balance of trade, 83
Balboa. Vasco Niinez de. 45. 56. 570
Balch, Emily Greene. 725
Ballinger, Richard. 544,
Blackfish, 212
"Beat! Beat!
9 1 7 ). 6
Blackfeet, 426
Isabella.
Bear Flag Revolt (1846), 313

bear market, 670
and, 37, 39
( 1
black codes, 398
Baumfree,
Bay
Baillie. John.
Balfour Declaration
p825
Batista, Fulgencio, 835
Bautista de Anza, Juan, 52
Bagot. Charles. 229
pl45
Bird, Ella, 446
Bates, Daisy.
Baez, Joan, pS56, 857
Baghdad,
Bataan.
m959
Belgium: in European Union. 964; at

Washington Conference. 725; and
World War
I,
588, m588, 589
Blackwell, Elizabeth. 369. p370

Blaine, James G.. 488-89
Bloch, Julia Chang. 978
"Blue Meridian, The" (Toomer), 772
Boardman,
Elijah.
pl99
INDEX
1063
RiHird of luluiiilion of Kin as Joel Village
School District
Koârt, Hiiinphrey,
II).
Bli\ar,
'
'
SX6-S7. pHSf>
b(.at ptM>pU',
BoLst,
'
Grunul
/>7V-/
451
Simon. lyo.pZM). 730
-42.
p44
(ship).
plM
p52S
Bonus Army (1932). 687-88. p687
B.>oth, John Wilkes. }96.pJ97
IxMitlcgginK, 656
Bork. Ri>bert. 908. 933
Cit-rtrude S.. 52S.
in.
MA:
962-63; and
immigrants
in.
Liberty
in.
in.
259;
624. p624: in
Revolutionary War.
16:
Sons of
107
549. p549. 55
busing, 901 919-20. p9]9. 925. 928

.
\. The Board of Education of

Topeka 1952). 822-23, 842, 1027-28
Brown, William Henry, painting by,
p336-37
Brown, William Wells, 271
Bruce, Blanche K., 409
Butler, Nicholas Murray. 462
Bryan, William Jennings:
in election
of
1896, 501, /507.- in election of 1908,
543; in Scopes
658; as secretary
trial,
of
in election
NY: growth
235; immigrants
of,
259
Building Vocabulary, 991
in,
Bulge, Battle of the (1944), 761
bourgeoisie, 20
bull market,
Bourke-White, Margaret. 715. p720

Bow, Clara. 653
Bowen, Louise DeKoven. 522
Bowser, Elizabeth. 369
Boxer, Barbara. 942
Boxer Rebellion (1900). 567
Brace, Charles Loring, 524
braceros, 757
Braddock, Edward. 92
Bradford Singers, p276
Bradford, W illiam. 65. 67-68
Brady, Matthew, photograph by. p396
Brain Trust, 694
"Brandeis Brief," 519
Brandeis, Louis D.. 5\9.p5J9
Brando, Marlon. 826
Brant, Joseph. See Thayendanegea
Braun, Carol Moseley. see MoseleyBraun
Bull
in,
970-72. m97l:
and Earth Summit, 974; infant mortality in, c976
"Bread Line" (Converse), 691

breadlines, 677, p691
Breckinridge, John, 355,
Breed's Hill, MA, 116
m355
Brezhnev, Leonid, 904

Briand, Aristide, 726
Bulgaria,
World War
in
Moose
II,
747
670
party, 545,
p545
Bull Run: First Battle of
861), 371-72,
p37]: Second Battle of (1862), 377

Bulwer-Lytton, Edward, 367
m57
in.
14;
American Revolution
battle
131
Cairo, Egypt: 1943 conference
in.
750.
973
Cajamarca, Peru. 48. 49
Calhoun, John C: and American System,
227, 228; and election of 1824, 23839; as senator, 339, 34\. p341; as vice
president, 245, 246; and War of 1812,
212
California: admitted to Union in. 342;
African Americans in. 326-27. 946-47;
bonanza farms in, 44\. p441; Chinese
Americans in, 470-71 p470, c482: catp750: recycling
in,
tle
ranching
in.
446; counterculture
Bunker Hill, Battle of (1775), 116, 125

Bureau of Indian Affairs, 427, 433, 453,
p324, m325; Great Depression
528. 920. 948
in.
852-53. p852. pH53: election of 1860,
355; election of 1968, 880; and the

in.
714; Japanese Americans
323-27.
in,
in,
678,
754-55,
burial sites. Native American, 13
m755: and Mexican Cession. 315,

m3l5: Mexican immigration to. 603,
m638, 639. p639: Mexican muralists
in. 662-63; in Mexican War. 313.
m313: migrant workers in. 71 1, 713,
Burleson, Albert. 625
p713, 1\1. 851: mining
in.
p424-25.
450; Native Americans
in.
327. 426;
Burger, Warren: appointment
of, to
Supreme Court. 901 retirement of. 933

Burgoyne, "Gentleman Johnny," 30
;
Burma (Myanmar):
and military
II,
rule,
and drug
963;
in
trade, 975;
World War
745
Burnham,
Burns, Anthony, 344, p344

Burnside, Ambrose E.. 378
Burr, Aaron. 200; duel between
920, 946-47; routes
Spanish settlement
of, 52,
323; zoot-suit riots
in,
call
Bush, George, 94\. p94]: domestic problems of, 940-42; and Earth Summit,
974; economic policy of, 942;
in elec-
of 1992,
p240. 927, 943; and Immigration Act

(1990), 946; and legacy of Vietnam
Brook Farm, MA, 285. p285
War, 888; and NAFTA, 965; and

Persian Gulf War, 938-40; plot to
Brooks, Preston, 348
assassinate, 962; as vice president.
917
mi/P.-
757
number, 1000
Calusas, 50
Calvert, Cecilius (Lord Baltimore), 74,
p74
Cambodia,
864. m865: spread of

Vietnam War to, 885; UN in, 962;
U.S. bombing of. 882; U.S. policy
toward. 910
Camden, Battle of (1780). m/29, 131
campaign, first modem, 240-41

Campbell, Ben Nighthorse, 943, p94
Camp David Accords 1978), 916, 960
Canada: and acid rain, 972; and
(
Convention of 1818, 229,

of.
to,
m52, m57,
m325
Heart at Wounded Knee

(Brown). 431
business: deregulation
922; racial
Californios, 323, p323. 326, 450
My
in election
in,
to.
California Trail, m3l9, 323, 324,
Hamilton and, 203, p203

Bursum Bill, 634
Bury
population migration
unrest
Daniel, 523. p523. 525
tion of 1984, 933; in election of 1988,
INDEX
m57
Cabrillo, Juan Rodriguez, 52,
environment. 903; gold
936-37, m937:
064
m57. 63
Bunche, Ralph, 797,/; 797
brinkmanship, 810
British Invasion, 856
Brodie, Fawn, 207
Brown, Dee, 43
Brown, James, 276
Bunau-Varilla, Philippe, 572
Bridger,Jim, 318
Br(M)ke, Ed,/79/9
Cahokia,
Warley, 527
Buchenwald, Germany, 767. p767

budget deflcit: under Bush. 942; under
Reagan. 934. c934
Buffalo Bill's Wild West Show, 431
"Buffalo Folktale" (Old Lady Horse), 331
Buffalo,
cabinet, 191
Cadiz, Spain. 45
854, 349
v.
Cabeza de Vaca, Alvar Nunez. 45-46,
Cabot, John, 56,
592, 593-94
state,
Boston viassacre (1770), 10. pi 10

Boston Tea Party (1773). Ill
Boulder, CO. 45
Brazil: deforestation
under Theodore Rcwsevelt. 539rise of big, 462-64; and Wilson.
Butler, Andrew. 348
Buchanan
colonial period. 86.
10-1 \,pl 10:
police strike
business cycle, 674
Buchanan, James, 357, p357;
World War I. 586

Bosque Rcdondo. NM. 435
bosses, 469
in
41
Brownshirts, 733
of
Bosch. Juan. 843. /J.SJJ

Bosnian. \S illiam. 77
Bosnia: cihnic fighting
of,
Bonaparte. Napoleon. 201
Ronltomme Richard
Boston,
353-54. p353
of,
Brown
Bolshoiks. 5y
bonanza Tarm, 44
Bonnin.
Brown, John, 348; raid

Brown. Linda. 822
Brown, Moses, 234
Brown Power, 851
Brown, Ron. 942
929; regulation
/?i229.-
exploration of, 56-58. m57: and
French and Indian War, m92. 93; and

Montreal Protocol. 974; and
NAFTA.
in Revolutionary War, 130; and

Underground Railroad, 273-74. m27J:
U.S. trade with, c966: and War of
1812.212-14
canals, development of. 228, 232, m233,
965;
253.
m253
Cause and
989-90
oi\ 242. ni244. 245.251

Chief Joseph. See Joseph, Chief
Cayugas,91. 125
Cayuse War, 322
censorship, 657
Child, Lydia Maria, 354
and contras, 93
Pigs, 836;
card catalog, 000

Cardenas, Lazaro. 13\, p731
Cardozo, Francis L., 409
m445
movement
Century of Dishonor (Jackson), 433

CFCs. See chlorofluorocarbons
chain stores, 465
tality in.
shuttle),
Neville,
01
950
735
566-67;
in,
in,
798-99; and
in
p958, 960; infant mor-
in.
m976; and Korean War, 800Middle Ages, 24, p24, m25;
Nixon
visit to,
tion of
Vietnam, 865;
903, 904; and occupa-
964; Portuguese
Chambers, Whittaker, 795

Chamorro, Emiliano, 730
Champlain, Samuel de, m57, 88
Carl, Prince of Solms-Braunfels,
victory
decline of empire, 583; democracy
Central Powers, 587, c589
Chamberlain,
p434
China: U.S. involvement
Communist
Challenger (space
Children's Aid Society, 524

Chile, U.S. policy toward, 904
794
Central Pacific Railroad, 438.
656
5\l,p5l7
child labor, 257, 492, /j492,
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA): and
of,
caravel, 38
Carlisle Indian School, 434,
Chicano movement, 85
Chickasaws: in Civil War, 369; removal
KtTect, Identifying, xxii,
covert activities of, 810-12; creation
capitalism, 192; laissez-faire, 462

Al.
,1
caudlllos, 729-30
Bay of
Canary Islands, 39. m4l

Cane Ridge, KY. 283
Cannon, Joseph "Uncle Joe." 545
Cape Verde Islands, 30
Capone,
in,
Rim,
mass cul-
in Pacific
31; U.S.
Washington
ture in, 968; in
Conference. 725
Chinese Americans: and gold mining,
309
Carnegie, Andrew, 462-63, p462. All
495-96
Chancellorsville, Battle of (1863), 379,
Chaney, James, 847
m482. 946;
Carnegie Steel Company, 463, 464
Chapultepec, Mexico, 313, m313

Charles I (England), 68, 74
road construction, 438, p438; and
Caroiinas, settlement
of.
80-8
1 ,
386,
p80,
m81. See also North Carolina; South

Carolina
Carpenter's HaW, pi 17
carpetbaggers, 406
Carranza, Venustiano, 520, 576, 577-78,
Carson, Kit, 3
Carson, Rachel, 819
1
912, /?972
Carter, Jimmy, 913, p9 13; criticism

916-17; economic policy of, 913;
of,
(England), 77, 80, 81, 82
(France), 27
m382
of,
913-14, p9}3, p914; foreign policy
of,
Chernobyl nuclear
1980, 916-17,
1;
in election
of
914-16, p914, p915; presidential style

of, 912-13, ;7972
Carter, Lillian, 912

Carter, Rosalynn, 912. /7972, 913
Cartier, Jacques, 56-57, m57, 88
cartographers, 994
Casablanca, Morocco, 750
Casa
Irujo,
Marques
de,
208
Castile, 21,
22
Castillo, Sylvia,
WY, 445. m445

Cheyney State College, 290
Chiang Kai-shek, 750, p750,
Castroville, TX, 309

Catcher in the Rye, The (Salinger),
826
Chicago,
Chapman, 552, 603,/? 726

industry: end of boom, 447-48,
Catt, Carrie
p448;
profits in, 446;
446-47, p446, p447;
and ranch
m483
life,
rise of, 444,
m483
cattle towns, 445-46,
m445, 483,
IL: African
483,
496; race
798,
Americans
social reform, 5
735,
p768
of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day
Saints. See
Mormons
CIA. See Central

Cincinnati,
Intelligence
OH, growth
of,
Agency
235
States
Cisneros, Henry, 942
America, 76; culture
478-79, p478, p479; growth
p798
in,
635-
riot in,
768,
Church
cities: in colonial
in, 5 1
555, p555; Mexican
American migration to, 639; planning
in, 523, p523; and Pullman strike,
1
II,
Cinque, Joseph, 295

graph, 997
circumnavigate, 45, m45
CIS. See Commonwealth of Independent
36. p635; antiwar protest in, 880-8

p881: growth of, 235; and Haymarket
Riots, 494-95; and Hull House, 47677; immigrants in, 259; meat-packing
industry
Worid War
749. 750, 762; at Yalta Conference,
circle
Catholic Church, 20, 259

cattle
w 75
Cheyenne,
Castro, Raul H., 840, 1024
Howard Chandler, pi 36-37
speech, 790; in
Cherokee Phoenix (newspaper), 243

Cherokees: in Civil War, 369; removal
of, 242, p242, 244, m244: and
renewal, 948; and Tecumseh, 212
Chesapeake (ship). 2\l, p21
Chesapeake Bay, settlement of, m57, 59-
430; and Treaty of Fort Laramie, 32
Castro, Henri, 309
and Journal (news-
paper), 318-19
Charter, 738; and Iron Curtain
disaster, 969-70,
Cheyenne: and Indian Wars, 427, 429,
Castro, Fidel, 835-36, p835. 947
212
Christian Advocate
Churchill, Winston: and Atlantic
Chevalier, Michel, 255
946-47
Chinooks, 322
Chisholm, Shirley, p921
Chivington, John. 427
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), 972, 974
Choctaws: in Civil War, 369; removal of.
242, m244, 245, p245; and Tecumseh,
Christy,
m97]
61,74-76,
Castaiieda, Carlos E., 756-57
rail-
Christian Coalition, 943
Chesnut, Mary Boykin, 372, 395

Chesnutt, Chades W., 479
Cass, Lewis, 339
and
Christian Century, 723
m917; energy policy
election of 1976. 91
literature of, 982;
p449,45\,452,4S2,c482
Chinese Exclusion Act (1882), 471, 494
p368, 385; as colonial town, 81; as
Chavez,Cesar, 714, 851,856

checks and balances, 155, 162, 163
Cheney, Richard, 938
in
466, 410-11, p471, 482, c482,
western settlement. 439-40, p439,
II
port city, 264

Charter of 1606, 59
Charts and Graphs, Reading, 996-98
Chateau-Thierry, France, 598, m599
Chattanooga, Battle of ( 1 863), p362-63,
p577
Carson City, NV, m450, 451
Amy,
Charles
Charles
324, 325, 326, /?i26, 329; immigration

of,
Charleston (dance). 276, 660

Charleston, SC: American Revolution
in, 131; in Civil War, 365, pi65.
Carpenter, Liz, 840-41
Carter,
m387
635-36, p635; and
in,
of, in
1800s, 235, c235, m473, 772-73;
impact of railroads. 459; impact of

skyscrapers, 472. 664; impact of tech-
nology, 472-73, p472: middle classes

in,
474-75, p474; planning
p523, 525; poor
in,
in,
523,
475, p475: popula-
tion of, c360, c361, 860; reforms in,
416-11, p477, 522-23, p523, 536-37;
upper classes
in,
473-74, p473. See
also specific cities

city-states, East African, 25-27, ni26
INDEX
1065
CMlian Consenation Corps (CCO,

696. {^^. c70J. 70X
ci\il liberties,
ti\il
(i>il
i>il
163
RightsAct (1866(. 44HMH./Mf//

Kiahts \ct ilM57i. v:>
Rights Act
Ci%il Rights Bill
I875>, 408,
ciîi rights
mo\emenl: and
p408
Bnmn
and labor movement,
affirmative
acuon. 919: backlash
p9l9: and
'
9-20.
Cleveland,
in.
OH:
290: planning
in,
Clifton, Peter, 269. 272
Clinton,
Summer, 847-48: for Hispanic

Amencans. 85 9 8: legac> of. 9 819; and .March on Washmgton. p8301
31. 846-47; under Martin Luther King,

Jr..
823. 844. pS44. 850; .Montgomery
bus boycon
in.
1 .
920-2
non-
8-W; and people with dis-
violence
in.
abilities.
918-19. p9/9.- and
segregation fight in Little Rock. 824in. 846. See also women's rights
movement
Civil War: African Americans in, p369.
backs
369; armies
in.
in.
368-69, p373. p390.
p391: banles \x\.p362-63. 31\-11.

p371. 376-88. m377. p378. p379.
p386. m387. p387: casualties
of.
European response
fall of Fort Sumter
erature of, 419;
in.
of.
389. 394-95;
366. m366:
to.
367. 372-73;
in.
365. p365:
74. 39 1
lit-
Mexican Americans
369; military experience
in.
in,
northern opposition
373-
to.
374-
75. p374. p375: strategies in. 372-73,
383; surrender
in.
the West. 380-82,
388, p388: war in
m382: women
in.
369-70. p3^0
C\\\\
Works
Clark. Dick. p826

Clark, George Rogers. 131. 132
Clark, William. 208-09. m209
Clay. Henr\: and American System. 227;
and election of 1824, 238-39; and
election of 1832. 247; and Latin
American rebellions, 230; and

Missouri Compromise. 238; as secretary of state. 239; and slavery issue.
340-42: and tariff issue, 246: and
Texas annexation, 311: and \N'ar of
1812. 212; as Whig, 248
aa>ion Antitrust Act 1914). 549
Clayton-Bulwer Treaty 1850), 570
Clean Air Act (1970). 903
(
SDEX
in election
of 1992. p240.
927. 943; and Family and Medical
41; journal of. 39; legacy of. 43-44;

of.
m4]
39-40.
Comanches: and
horse. -U; and Indian

in
Texas. 51,
Committee for a Sane Nuclear Policy

(SANE). 8 K)
Committee for Unemployment Relief,
684
Committee of Correspondence,
Committee on C\\i\ Rights, ~S6
Committee on Public Information
1
(CPI),604
Lea\e Act. 949; and health care

reform, 942: and Middle East accord.
Committee on the Cause and Cure of
W ar, 735
Committee
Clinton, George, m/29. 132. 150

Clinton. Hillan Rodham. 94I-42,p947
to Re-elect the President
CREEP), 90~
closed shop, 520
Common
Clovis points. '!.p7
commonwealth.
69-''
Commonwealth
of Independent States
Labor Union Women, 856
cocaine, 975
915; corrununism in China, 797-99;
containment
791-92; and Cuban
in.
m837: deadlock
in.
790-91.
p790: defenses. mSll: and detente.

904. 935; and domino theory 866-67;
end of. 979; and Eastern Europe. 812,
p812: and Eisenhower. 810-12; and
.
Ford. 910; and Freedom of Informa-
and Kennedy. 835; and

Korean War. 799-801. m799. p801.
tion .Act. 961;
807; Middle East tensions
in.
796-97.
m797: and Nixon. 903-04; and nuclear

bombs. 808-10.pOS. c810: and
Reagan. 930-3
in L^S..
1.
935; roots of. 789-90;
794-95. p794.
710
Colonial .America: agriculture
in.
60-
61. 74. 75-76. Sl.)>87: cities in. 86-
87. p86: cost of protecting. cl06:

in.
76; growth of. 86-87;
indentured servants
in.
p75: Indian relations

91; logging
in.
p87: protests
torial
in.
61. 74-75,
in.
60-61. 88-
89; pioneer life in. 87.
in.
106-08. clll:
69-70. 73. 84-85. 139;
expansion
of,
reli-
terri-
104-05, ml05:
trade in, 75-76, 83,pi. 106-12;
witchcraft
in,
70-7 \, p70. See also
m959
in.
459-60.
951
communism:
in .Asia.
797-99. 866-68:
and McCanhyism. 807-08; and Red

Scare. 625-26. p625. 794-95.
Communist party
p794
and
787; and Red Scare,
(U.S.):
FVogressive party
625-26, p625. 794-95. p794: and

Scottsboro case. 687; and Share-Our-
Wealih program. 701
company town. 493

Comparing and Contrasting,
compass
rose,
xxi
992
Compromise of
Compromise of
1850, 342-43
1877, 408
computers, 950-51
Comstock Lode. 449. 452
391. p391: fall of Fort Sumter. 365.

p365: resources of. 366-67. c367: war
strategy of. 372-73
Confederation, weaknesses
in.
142-43,
145
conformal projections, 994

Confucius, 24
Congress, 166: and .Army-.VlcCarthy

hearings. 807-08; and House
Committee on Un-American
.Activities. 794-95; and Iran-contra
affair. 935-36. p936: powers of. 169;
and Reconstruction. 399-W)4. m400.
specific colonies
Co/or (CuUen), 661

Colorado: mining in, 449, 45 1 Sand
Creek Massacre in. 427. m428
Colored Farmers* .Alliance. p499
;
Columbia. 975
communicatiotis. advances
Confederate States of .America, 356.

m366: army of. 368-69. p368. p390.
Collins. Elizabeth. 45
gion
Concord. Battle of. /7//i. 114.m//4

concurrent powers. 154. cl54
p795
487
Colfa-x, Schuyler.
education
S^nse (Paine). 117. pi 17. 119
(CISt, creation of. 959-60.
Cold War, 789. c800. m811: and Berlin

crisis, 792-94, p792. 836; and Carter.
Collier, John!
.Administration (CVV.A),
696. c703
Clansman, The (Dixon). 409
Clapton, Eric. 276
066
943-44;
missile crisis. 836-38.
and Crittenden Compromise. 364;

declaration of sides
crisis.
over atomic weapons
c389: comparison of sides. 366-68.

c367: consequences
%2; and
%3; economy under.
Bosnian
Coalition of
25. p824. pS25: successes and set-
384-85, p385: American Indians
942; and bombing of
Iraqi Intelligence Service.
960
823-24. p823: for
Native Amencans. 85
of.
p38. 38-40; colonizing efforts of. 40-
Wars. 425. 426. 427;
523. 525
941. p94/. 944.^94^;
appointments
c43
Columbus. Bartolome. 40
Columbus, Christopher. 10. il.p36-37.
307
Education. 822-23. 842; Committee
Bill.
Columbian exchange. m34-35. 43-44,
voyages
African .American school
on Civil Rights. 786.- events in. c&4650. pS92. pS93: Freedom Rides in,
845. mS45. p845: and Freedom
1 .
4%
Clifford, Clark, 878
>/
652
Clemenceau, Georges, 607, p607

Clemens, Samuel Langhome. 5^^ Twain,
Mark
Clermont Ntcomboat), p232. 233
(
413-14
Civil Rights Cases .1X83).
Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS),
1972), 973
Cleveland. GroNer, 490, p490: in election

of 1984, 489; and immigration. 471;
l'H>4\. n4". 854
Oean Water Act

dear-cutting. 89
p402. p404: and Thomas-Hill hearings. 941. p94 1: and Watergate

investigation. 907-08. See also specific acts
Congressional Quarterly. 168
1 1
Congressional Union for
Woman
Cornish miners, 450-5
Suffrage, 552
Congress of Industrial Organizations

(CIO), 705
Congress of Racial Equality (CORE),
845
Conjure Woman (Chesnutt), 479
Conkling, Roscoe. 488
Connecticut: industrialization
1
der of, \3\ -32, pi 32
Coronado, Francisco Vdsquez
de. 46.
m57
government, 486-87, 534-
in
253.
35; under Grant,
Corry, John, 927

Corsi, Edward, 468
conscription. See draft
cost of living: post-World
Considerations on This Trade
and
Finances of the Kingdom (Whately),

105
War
completing, 148-49; drafting
of,
pl56;
evaluating, 152; federalism in, 153-55;

federalist vs. antifederalist position on.
149-50; flexibility
of.
156-57; and
Great Compromise, 147; and
New
Jersey Plan, 147; ratification of. 15051, p]51,
powers
ml 59,
in.
163; separation of
155-56; signing
of.
pi 36-
37; and Three-Fifths Compromise,
147-48; and Virginia Plan, 146, 147.
See also
Bill
of Rights
Constitutional Convention, 145-46,
E..
701
Cuzco, Peru. 12
covenant, 69
cyberspace, 95
cowboys, 447; African American, 447,

p447: on long drives. 444-45;
Mexican American. 447. p447;
vaquero origins of. 53
Cowley, Malcolm, 62
Czech Americans, 466, m483, m954

Czechoslovakia: fall of Communist government in. 958. m959: German
Craddock, Thomas, 15
Crane, Stephen, 479
Crawford, William, and
1
Army:
election of
&4H
of.
14;
124; soldiers of, 130
Continental Congress:
in 1920s.
First,
113-14;
Second, 114, \l6,p]17, 118,p727,
Daladier, Edouard, 735
War, 369; removal

242, 245; and Tecumseh, 212;
Creeks:
in Civil
andWarof
crime: and drugs, 975; as issue
criollos,
dance, African
in
Critical
Thinking
Skills,
xx-xxiv
Crittenden Compromise, 364

Crittenden, John
J..
in.
p824
Vietnam. 864
ring, 276; Charleston,
276; marathons, p676,- in \920s, p655,
659-60
Darrow, Clarence, 657-58, p658

Darwin, Charles. 657
53
Cripple Creek, CO. 451
364. p364, 366
presidency, 630-31
Croghan, George, 104. 105

Croly, Herbert, 516
Cromwell, Oliver, 68
Corbin, Margaret, 125
1988
assassination.
Daniels, Josephus, 731
Croatians, 960, 962
Copperheads, 375, p375

Coral Sea, Battle of the (1942), 745-46,
in
1920s, 656; in 1980s, 938, c938: and
labor relations, 624; succession to
Cooper, Gary. 653

Cooper, Thomas, 245
Copeland, John, 353-54
Copland, Aaron, 660, 718
839. p839; segregation
Moscow, 975, 977;
Warren Court. 842
881
J.,
TX: and Kennedy
Da Nang,
contras, 931. m932, 935-36
cooperatives, 498
Dallas,
Creel, George. 604
election, 938; in
Convention of 1818, 229. m229

Converse, Florence, 69
convoy system, in World War I, 598
Conwell,'RussellH., 462
Coolidge, Calvin, p630, 63\.p631: and
Daley, Richard
of,
1812. //!274
pl43
Continentals, 143, pl43
124, 138, 143,
m746
Dachau, Germany, 767

da Gama, Vasco. 3
673
Company, 487
creditor nation, 726
African Americans
124-25; establishment
in,
dependence on.
Credit Mobilier
containment, 790-92
in.
Czolgosz, Leon, 538, p538
credit,
shortages
War I, 608, m608;

War 11, 768; Solidarity
931
consumer protection, under Theodore
in.
aggression toward. 735-36;
post-World
post-World
Cox, Archibald, 908

Cox, Jacob, 408
Cox, James M., 628
crack (cocaine). 975
Crazy Horse. See Ta-sunko-witko
Continental
3].p430
coureurs de bois, 88
Constitutional Union party, 354-55

Roosevelt. 540
p232
Custis, Martha Dandridge, pi 16
1824.238-39
153
800s, 226,
Custer Died for Your Sins (Deloria), 43

Custer, George Armstrong, 428-29, 430-
counterculture, 852-53, p852

166-
print by,
431
m264
Constitution Handbook, 160-85

of.
Currier and Ives,
in early
Custer Battlefield National Monument,
m642. m643
Council of Economic Advisers, 784
163, cl63, cl64;
currency, problems
227-28
market revolution, 233, 234, 236; pro-
Coughlin, Father Charles
to,
m837
missile crisis, 836-38,
duction of, 263, p279. c416, c642,
constitution(s), state. 138-39
amendments
of Pigs,
Miami. 947
Currier, Nathaniel, print by, p234

Curry, John Steuart. 719
conspicuous consumption, 473
84;
in
Cumberland Road, 228

622-23
1,
sion of production, 263, m264, p359;

and Indian Removal Act, 243; and
cotton gin, 234,
Constitution, \].S..pl60: text
836;
cultural diffusion, 8
cotton: and crop-lien system, 411; expan-
in New Deal. 696, p696;

under Taft. 543, 544; under Theodore
Roosevelt. 540-41. /j5^/. m542
Cullen, Countee. 661
m57
Cortina, Juan Nepomuceno. 316
conservation:
Columbus. m4l early Indian settlements in, 39; early U.S. interests in,
346; missile crisis in, 836-38, mH37:
and Spanish-American War, 559-62
Cuernavaca, Mexico, 54
Cortes, Hernan, 46-48, p46. 54.
xxii
as U.S. protectorate. c56H, 569-70;
and Bay of Pigs, 836-37; and
Cuban
487-89
conquistadors, 46-49
Consequences, Assessing,
Cuban Americans: and Bay
corporation, 462
settle-
in.
m253: and Quebec Act. 12;

ment of. m69. 72-73
Connor, T. Eugene "Bull." 845
Cuba:
Cornish, Samuel, 293, p293

Cornwallis, Charles. 28. ml 29: surren-
corruption:
Daugherty, Harry. 630

Daughters of Charity, p370
Davies, Arthur B., 550
da Vinci, Leonardo. 21
Davis, Allison, 823
Davis, Angela. 856
p680
Davis, Bette. 680,
Cronkite, Walter, 879-80
Davis, David, 348
crop-lien system, 41
Davis, Jefferson. 356. 372, 397
Crows, 426. 427

Crucible, The (Miller), 807
Daw Aung San Su
Crusades, 19-20.
ml 9. p20
Cruz, Juana Ines de la. 55

Crystal Globe (Cetron and Davies). 967
Kyi, 963, p963

Dawes, Charles, 629
Dawes General Allotment Act (1887),
434,528.634.710
Dawes, William. 14
1
INDEX
067
Dickinson. Emily. 330-31. />.U0
CoiistiHiiional Convention. 146
Dickinson. John.
D-lhiy tJiinc6. 1944). 760

I)|)|. SI')
Deadwood,
SI). ni4'^()
4'=;
Dean, James, 826

Dtanjohn. 'KW
debates: Kennedy-Nixon. pS32. 833;
l.iiKoln-Douglas. 352-53. p.^52
V.; in election of 1912.
Debs, Eugene
547. m547: and opposition to World
War
!.
6()5:
and Pullman
496
strike.
Declarati(m or Independence (1776).

IS- 9. 145: text of. 120-23
1
Deelaration of Resolves,
Deelaration of Sentiments (1848). 298-
Dietrich, Marlene. 680. p6H()
Dresden, Germany,
dime
Dinwiddle, Robert. 92
drivers, 269-70
dry farming, 440-41
disarmament, 725
disease: in cities. 259. 475. 523;
War, 373;
in
in Civil
Colonial America. 60.
Panama Canal. 571
War
11.
II.
744.
794
deforestation, 89. 970-72. m971. 977
Deism, 84
Delany, Martin. 385
DeLarge, Robert C. p406
Spanish-American
See also individual dis-
Union,
World War
drugs, 853. c858. 975. p975

Duarte, Jose Napoleon, 932, p932
Du Bois, W.E.B., 526-27, p526. 53
Columbia, and slavery

340,341
dividend, 462
divorce rate, 922
Dix, Dorothea, 286-87, p286
Dunbar, Paul Laurence. 418

Dunraven, Windham T., 452
Dupuy de Lome, Enrique. 560
Durand, Asher Brown, painting
issue,
m787
delegated powers, 154, c/54
North America. m57. 81-82.
in
90. 262, m483.
m954
Dutch West India Company,
81
duty, 106, 109
m932
Duvalier, Jean-Claude,
Dylan, Bob. 857, 892

dynamo, 461
Dole, Elizabeth. 933
City, KS. 445,
de Leon, Martin. 307
Dole, Robert. 911,943
Earhart, Amelia, 655
Deloria, Vine, 431
dollar diplomacy, 573-74
Delors, Jacques, 964, p964
Dom
demobilization, 622-23, p622

Democracy and Social Ethics (Addams),
domestication, 8
Earth Day, 903, p903

Earth First!, 981
Earth Summit (1992), 974
516
Afonso. See Mbemba, Nzinga
Dominican Republic: and Columbus. 40;

and Roosevelt
Democratic-Republicans Republicans):
(
in election
of 1800, 203, 205:
in elec-
and sectionalism,
tion of 1816, 228;
198-99,/j/99,andWarof 1812, 213

demographics, of 1990s. 949, c949
in
European Union, 964;
in
Middle Ages, 21
Den of Lions
(Anderson), 961
denominations. 283
Denver. CO, 45
Department of Energy,
department store. 465
depression, 143;
U.S.,
1819, 236; in 1930s,
in
Description of the World {?o\o). 24

detente, 904, 935
Detroit, MI: African Americans
Mexican American migration
War of
in,
to.
635;
639:
m2y4
18 12.
Dewey, George. 557. 560

Dewey, John. 478. 5
Dewey, Thomas E.: in election of 1944.
1
in election
of 1948. 787.
Corollarv'.
m787
East India Company,
p290
Donner party, 320. p320
Doolittle, Amos, engraving
Dorsey, Thomas A., 71
Dos Passos, John. 662
East- West trade, 28-29.
Donnell, Darius
m959
by.
959
strations in,
L..
pl49
policy: of Bush. 942; of Carter,
913: of Clinton, 943-44: of Kennedy,
833-34: of Reagan. 929-30

economies of scale, 463
economy: and Great Depression. 672-74;
Hoover's attempts to boost. 684-86.
American suffrage. 393; and African

American troops in Civil War. 384;
p684: Keynesian view
and Equal Rights party. 300; and

Fugitive Slave Act. 345; and Mexican
War. 312-13; and slavery. 271. 359,
p601:
ecosystem, 970
383
Ederle, Gertrude. 654
Douglas, Stephen A., 339. 342, 345. 347.

349. 35
debate with Lincoln. 3521
53. p352: in election of I860, 354-55.
m355
in
lization of. for
War. 368;
696; mobi-
of.
Worid War
I.
601-02.
1990s. 942. See also
New
Deal
(1933), c703
Edison, Thomas Alva. 461
p46L All
Editorial Cartoons, Interpreting. 332
education: of African Americans. 2901
p290. 478. p478, 709. 822, 842;

p923; colleges and uni-
bilingual, 923,
in
in Worid War
WoridWarll. 753
Drake, Edwin L., 460
War. 87
in
Economy Act
Civil
m29
Eckford, Elizabeth. p824

Economic Data, Interpreting. 506
economic
Douglass, Frederick. 294; and African
draft:
INDEX
m26
812. p8l2,
in.
Donat, Alexander. 771
Diamond Sutra (first printed book). 24

Diario del Hogar (newspaper). 520
Diaz, Adolfo. 730
Eastern Europe, uprising
East Germany, pro-democracy demon-
Douglas, William. 790

doves, 876
East African city-states, 25-27.
Dominion of New England, 84

Domino, Fats. 826. p827
domino theory, 866-67
Dewson, Molly. 695

Dew. Thomas R.. 266
Dias. Barlolomeu. 3
m561. 573
Doubleday, Abner. 365

doughboy's pack, 596-97, p596. p597
Douglass, Anna Murray, 294
913
672-74
068
p330
m445
Dodge
Dogeaters (Hagedom), 983
by.
Dixon, Thomas, 409
Delavvares. 92. 105
753;
637
doctrine of nullification, 245
364. 366
and
1 .
Dudley, Thomas, 7
Dukakis, Michael, 936-37, m937
Dulles, John Foster, 810
Dutch:
dissenters, 68
Delaware Prophet. See Neoiin
Denmark:
II.
DustBowL7ll.m7//. 714
Dixiecrats, 787,
of. 82; in
on Native
District of
defoliants, 873
Delavâre: settlement
effect
321; in Revolutionary War, 124; of
eases
War
Americans, p42, 43, c43. 44. 322.

327. 426. 435. 710; and Oregon Trail,
defense spending: oi Reagan administra930; during World
in
direct primary, 535
War, 561
c752: after World
5\.p3.'il. 353,
761./; 76/
novels, 480. p4H()
slaves, 270; in
99. /72yy.- text of. l(K)5-06
355,400-01. 1025-26
Dreiser, Theodore, 5 15-16
Declaratory Act (1766), 108
tion.
14
Diem. Ngo Dinh. 868-69. pH6H

Dien Hien Phu, Vietnam. />.S66-67. 867
68, 72, 75; and construction of
debtor nation. 726
Drake, Francis. m57, 58

Drayton, Percival. 367
Dred Scott v. Sandford (ISSl), 295, 350-
Dfaz, Porfirio. 575
l)u>tun, Ji>iia(han. us delegate lo
Vietnam
1.
595: in
versities, m360. m361: colonial, 76;

and compulsory attendance laws, 478,
m523: and court-ordered busing. 91920. p9 19: in 1800s, 360-61; in Japan,

967, p967; of Native Americans, 434,
p434. 528, 710; and people with dis-
918-19; public. 478; reforms
abilities,
oi 180()s. 289-91,
of
women,
/?2<S'9.
p290, p29l:
291, /)2y/, 478, 513-14,
p5l3, c5l4
Education Amendments Act (1972),

921
Education for All Handicapped

Children Act (1975), 9 19
Edwards, Jonathan. 85
Egypt: and
Camp David
Accords, 916;
and Middle East conflict. 904, m905:

in Persian Gulf War, 939; relations
with
Israel,
797; under Sadat. 915-16
Eichmann, Adolf. 782
Eighth
(1919, repealed
(1791), 178, cl91
Einstein, Albert, 769

1
civil rights.
824-25; domestic policy
of. 814^-17.
820-21;
in election
of
1952, 805. 806, p806: in election of

1956, 812; foreign policy of, 807.
810-13. 866-67; as supreme
War
NATO forces.
II.
comman-
793; in World
759. p759, 760
Eisler, Benita.
460-
818
El Alamein, Battle of (1942). m748, 749
policies on. 9()3./>90i;
m445
Erie Canal, 228, 232, 233,
639
tion to,
peacekeepers
m932
Dinsmore
in.
Elaw, Zilpha, 283

El Caney, Cuba. m561. 562
Elcano, Juan Sebastian de. 45
El Congreso, p678, 679
Elders, Joycelyn, 942
962; U.S. policy
396; text
of,
Embargo Act
stories,
1007
(1807), 211
Emergency Banking Act
(1933), 694,
c703
Emerson, John, 350

Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 285. 330, 354
Emigrant Aid Company, 347
with, 966, c966. See also
energy: alternative, 970; Clinton's pol-
Evald,
944; coal, 458; conservation pro-
1824, 238-39. p238: of 1828, 239-41;
grams. 970;
913-14; development of
248-49; of 1844, 3
of.
crisis in 1970s.
902. c902,
new
sources
458. 460-61; electricity. 460-61;
of 1852, 343; of 1854, 348; of 1856,
geothermal. 970; global consumption
349; of 1858, 351. 352-53; of 1860,
of,
354-55. p354, m355. p355; of 1864,
969;
969; hydroelectric, 969; nuclear,

oil,
460; Reagan's policy, 929;
387; of 1866, 401-02; of 1868, 403;
solar,
of 1872, 487-88; of 1874, 408; of
Valley Authority. m698, 699, p699;
1876, 408. 488; of 1880, 488; of
wind. 970
Energy, U.S. Department of. 913
Enforcement Acts (1870-71), 407
England: and American Revolution, 1 14,
116-19. 127-28. m729. 130-32; and
538. c546: of 1904, 539; of 1908,

543. c546; of 1910, 545; of 1912,
970; steam. 458; and Tennessee
545-47. m547; of 1916, 552, 594; of
colonial protests, 105-12, c7 77,- and
1920, 628. p628; of 1924, p628, 630;

of 1928, 63 1-32. p63]; of 1932, 688-
colonial trade. 83, 106-12; early claims
89. p688.
p689; of 1936, 702. 704; of
1938, 707; of 1940, 737; of 1944,

753; of 1948, 786-87. p786, m787; of
1952, 806, p806; of 1956, 812; of

1960, 832-33. p832, m833; of 1964,
841.;?5^7;of 1968, 880-81; of 1972,

884. 902. 906-07; of 1976, 91
of
trade
European
Union
(ship).
of 1832, 247; of 1836, 248; of 1840,
500; of 1896, 500-01, mJO;,- of 1900,
also individual countries
European Community (EC), U.S.
European Recovery Act (1948), 792,

p792
European Union (EU), 964-65
icy,
1884, 488-89; of 1888, 489; of 1892,
Escobedo v. Illinois, 842

Espionage Act (1917), 605
Estevanico, 46
Estonia: post- World War I, 608, m608;
Soviet aggression toward, 736, m736;
in World War II, 768, 789
Ethiopia, 583, 733, m736, m976, 977
Europe, foreign investment in, c583. See
566
encomienda, 40-43, 48. 53, 54
endangered species, m971, 972
Empress of China
of 1848, 339;
& Sons, and patent of
460
Ervin, Sam, 907
escalation, 87
478
Emancipation Proclamation, 384, p384,
200; of 1800, 203; of 1816, 228; of
in,
932,
Elsie
Remington
typewriter.
empresarios, 307
election(s), 167; of 1789, 190; of 1796,
11
UN
729;
m233
Eriksson, Leif, 56
E.
in.
layer,
under Roosevelt, 540-41
p469
p825
Ellsworth, KS. 445.
o/one
Environmental Protection Agency

(EPA), 819. 903
equal-area projections, 994
Equal Pay Act (1963), 834, p834
Equal Rights Amendment (ERA), 63233. 856, 92 -22, p922
Equal Rights party, p300
Equiano, Olaudah, 78. p78
Era of Good Feelings, 228, 236
Ellis Island, 468, 469,
Ellison, Ralph, 825,
972;
972; protection of international. 974;
Robert B.,/7406
Elliott,
in.
and disasters, 903. 969-70, p969. 973;

ecosystem, 970; and global warming.
972; and Green parties, 974; Nixon's
Authority, m698. 699, p699

Elementary and Secondary School
Education Act (1965), 842
elevator, impact on cities. 472
Eleventh Amendment (1798), cl78
Elizabeth I (England). 58, 59
Elkins Act (1903), 540
Ellington, Duke, 660, 718
Emmanuel, Dillip, 951

Employment Act (1946), 784
elastic clause, 157. 169
970-74; chlorolluorocarbons
of,
646, c647: and Tennessee Valley
El Salvador: caudillos
Eisenhower Doctrine ( 957 ). 8 2

Eisenhower, Dwight D., 813.p5/i; and
der of
of.
El Paso, TX, Mexican American migra-
525. 656; text of, 181
Amendment
power: development
and generator. 461 production
Ellsberg, Daniel, 882-83, 906
Amendment
in 1933),
61
Ellison, William, 268
Ehrhart, William, 891

Eighteenth
electrical
of, 56,
m57, 58; and French and Indian
War, 91-93, m92: Glorious Revolution

in. 84; and Jamestown settlement,
m57, 59-61; religious conflict in, 66;
and Roanoke colony, 59; and Spanish
Armada, 58; and western settlement.
104-05,
ml 05. See
also Great Britain
Emmy,
551
Evaluating, xxiv
Evans, Hiram Wesley, 640

Evans, John, 427
Evans, Priscilla Merriam, 454
Evans,Walker, 712, 715
evolution, theory of, and Scopes
trial,
657-58, p658
Exodusters, 439
ex post facto law, 163
Fact from Opinion, Distinguishing,

xxiii.
990
factories, 235. c367, 646-48. 671. 675.
705. 752. 784-85.^964. 965; African

Americans and. 491-92. 675, 756.
785; child labor in, 257, p257, p48485, 492, p492,
working class
517.p577. 551; new

in.
491-93; southern,
264, c367, 411; wages
in.
508;
women
English High School of Boston, 290
workers
1980, 916-17. m9]7; of 1984, 933,
Enlightenment, 84, 115
p937; of 1988, 937-38, p937, m938;

of 1992, 942-43; reforms in, 535,
p535; of 1994, 943; of 1996, 943-44
Enola Gay
p5]2, 517-18, 757-58, 785; working

conditions in, p254-55, 257-58. 492-
electors, 150
(airplane),
765
enslaved persons. See slave(s)
environment, m971, 972; acid rain, 972;

activism on behalf of, 903, 929. p969.
in,
p254-55, 257-58, 492.
97>,p492,5\l-\9,p518. See also

labor
movement;
strikes
factory system, 235
INDEX
1069
Fair Dtal. 7S7 SS

Kair Kni|jlo>nient Practices
Committee
(KKI'O, 756. 757

Kair labor Standards Act (1938), c703
tallacii-s in Ki-asoninj,
Recognizing,
202-03: and Louisiana Purchase. 205:

and sectionalism. 198-99
Federal Project No.
1,
794).
97.
252.
fall line,
Workmen's Compensation
Act, 55
809
Federal Writers' Project (FWP), 716-17
Family and Medical Leave Act (1993),

^M9
Family Assistance Plan (FAP), 901
family life: 75-76. 256. 475: on farms.
Feinstein. Dianne. 943
909; domestic policy
Feminine Mystique, The (Friedan), 854

Ferdinand, Franz. 587, p587
Ferdinand II of Aragon, 22. p22. 39,
40
p9U9:
New
in i93()s.
679:
in
England. 71-72:
1950s.'817-18:
in
i990s. 947. 949. c949: on ranches.
446-47: under slavery, 274-75

to
early civilizations. 8. 10-13. 14: in Far
Amendment
p404. 409. 412: text
Amendment
(1870), 403-04.
of.
(1791),
180
Ml.
immigration
1.
Tariff .Act
983;
in
of,
946, p946; literature
Spanish- American War.
497:
p557. 560. p561. p563. 564-65;
settle-
World War H. 745, p746. 764
Fort Duquesne, 92. m92

Forten. Charlotte. 412-13
in
W illiam
Fort
214. /2/4
p365
365.
fall of.
Henry, 92.
//i92
forty-niners, 324-27. p324. m325.
For
Whom
the Bell Tolls (Hemingway),
734
Fillmore, Millard. 342. p342. 349. 567
Four Power Treaty 1921 ).
Financier, The (Dreiser). 515
Fourteen Points (1918). 606:
Finland: post-World
Security .Administration (FSA),
c703. 706.712-13.715
War I,
608; Soviet
aggression toward. 736

Finlay, Carlos. 569.
p325
Yuma, 327
Fort
sharecropping
Farm
1922),
Forster, William Edward. 354
ment, 436-43. See also agriculture:
Farmers' Alliance, 498-99
632*
Fort Sumter,
Filipinos: during Great Depression. 714:
of,
tenant. 410-1
p908
FortMcHenry,
Labor Union, 714
Populist party, 499-501: protests by,
1:
vice president. 908; as president. 899.
908,
Fort Hall Reservation, 948
76-77. 143-44. p9/i.- southern, 75-77,
Texas. 307, 309: and western
c 191.
519
Filipino
in
policy of. 910, p910: nomination as
Forrest. Nathan Bedford. 407
p678
Fifteenth
497-98: and Great Depression. 677-
266-67. 410-1
909-10.
of.
of 1976. 911: foreign
Fordney-McCumber
Fierro de Bright, Josefina. 678-79,
"Fifty-four forty or fight," 320
and
in election
Ford Motor Company, 646-47. p646
493
feudalism, 17-19
West. 3 18-19: and Grange movement,

78. 685. 698. 706-07. 71 1-15:
9\0.p91(): criticisms of,
R..
Ferraro, Geraldine, 933
Fifth
Ford, Gerald
Ford, Henry p646. 647

Ford, Henry (Mrs.), p59i
Ferlinghetti, Lawrence. 893
Ferrell, Frank,
Arms, A (Hemingway). 662

Farm Credit Administration (FCA),
695. c703
farmers: 16. 71-72. 234. 497. 503; and
Alliance movement. 498-99, p503:
and bonanza farms. 441-42. p441; in
Farenell
Food Administration, 602, p602. 603

Foraker Act (1900), 570
Forbes, Charles, 630
Ford, Betty. p908
Falwell.Jerr>.928./>92S
262. 442-43: in
p277
Following the Color Line (Baker). 5

Fontaine. Andre. 907
1913), 549
Federal Trade Commission (FTC), 549.
Federal
m252
fallout Nhelters.
04: and Treaty of Paris
Foch, Ferdinand. 598
551
/)/V7
folktales, African American. 277.
716
Federal Iheatre Project, 7
Fallen Timbers, Battle of
763 ).
(1783). 132
flowchart, 996
Federalists, 149-51
Federal Music Project, 717

Federal Reserve Act
Fall. Albert. h3()
( 1
p725
text of,
1008-10
Fourteenth
p569
725.
Amendment
409. 519: text
of.
868), 401
179-80
Farragut, David. 367. 381
Finley, James. 282-83
Fourth Amendment (1791). \ll.cl91
Farragut, George. 130
Finley, Martha. 478
Fox Indians, 96
James T., 682

fascism: in Germany. 733:
Finney, Charles Grandison. 283. 284
France: aid to American colonies. 130;

North American colonies of, 88. m88:
Farrell,
in Italy.
732-
33: in Spain. 733-34: world response

to.
734-35
(1791). \ll.cl91
Congress (1774).
First Inaugural Address (Jefferson),
Faubus, Orval. 824

Faulkner, William. 682. p682
Federal Arts Project, 717
Federal Council on Negro Affairs. 709
Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation
(VDIC), 695. c7()
Federal Emergency Relief
Administration (FERA), 695-96,

c70J. 708
Federal
Amendment
First Continental
113
Fascist party, 732-33
Federal
First
Farm Board, 685

Farm Loan Act. 551
Federal Housing .Administration
(FHA), c703. 817
1003-04
Fisher, Orr
93,
C. mural
pi 50. 157. 162

Federalist party. 149-51 and Alien and
Federalist. The. \50.
p692-93
by.
in
Fisk University Jubilee Singers, p4/8

"Fists of Righteous
Harmony," 567
/?j92,-
and heroin. 975: involvement
China. 566; occupation of Vietnam.
p864. 865-68. p867: response to fascism. 735:
at
Washington Conference.
War
p584-85. 586-
Fitzgerald, F. Scott. 662
725; and Worid
Fitzhugh. George. 266
87. 588, m588. 589: and
Power Agreement
flappers. 655. p655
Five
1921
).
725
flexible response,
835
Florida: and Adams-Onfs Treaty. m229.
I.
760-61,/? 76/.- and the
200-0]. p201
Franco, Francisco, rise
Franklin, Aretha. 276
flatboats. 232
Worid War
XYZ
of.
affair.
733-34
Franklin, Benjamin. 132: and Albany
230; and Cotton Kingdom. m264:
Plan of Union. 91
m638: and Indian

removal. 244. m244: and Pinckney's
Constitutional Convention. 146
Franklin. John Hope. 210
Treaty. 197: racial tensions
Frederick Douglass
immigration
federalism. 146-47. 153-55, 170
m57: and
European Union. 964: explorations of.
m57: and French and Indian War, 91early claims of. 56-58.
to.
in.
947;
secession of. 356. 364: and Second
paper).
's
as delegate to
Paper (news-
294
Seminole War. 244; and Senator

Connie Mack. 945; Spanish explo-
Fredericksburg, Battle of (1862). 378
of 1800. 203: and Hartford Convention.
rations of. 45. 50. p50: Spanish mis-
Freedmen's Bureau, p392-93. 400.
215; and the judiciary. 204; and
sions
.Sedition Acts. 202: collapse of. 228;
and election
oi'
796. 200: and election
Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions,
1070
INDEX
97.
m52: as Spanish territory. 50.

m209. 2 2; and Treaty of Paris
in.
Freed, Alan. 826
m400
freedom of contract,
II,
Freedom of Information Act
(1966),
Freedom Riders (1961 845. m<SW5

Freedom 's Journal, 293
Freedom Summer 1964). 847-48
).
Freeman,
Daniel,
p436
freemen, 69
Freeport Doctrine
Free-Soil party, 348:
858). 353
in election
of 1848.
339
Fremont,JohnC.. 313. 349
French and Indian War, 91-93. m92
French Huguenots, 81
French Indochina: Japanese occupation
738.
of.
m738
French Revolution, 195-96. /?/ 95

Frick, Henr> Clay. 496
Friedan, Betty. 854. p92/
Fuel .Administration, 602
Fugitive Slave Act (1850), 343. 344-45.
p344. p345
Fulbright,
J.
William. 878
General Federation of Women's Clubs,

514.635
generation gap, 852
Genet, Edmund. 196./;/96
Geneva Conference 1954). 867-68
Genoa, Italy. 20, 28-29, ;7i29
genocide, 767
Genthe, Arnold, photograph by. p529
Gentilz, Theodore, painting by, p3l6
geography: of Africa, m583: of agriculture, W2-43. m642-43; of Asia, m583;
of Australia, m583: of cities, m860,
m86I: of Europe, m583: five themes
of, 9: and immigration, 482, m482-83,
m954-55: and imperialism, 582-83,
m582-83: and industrialization, 252-53,
m252-53: of North America, m582;
and railroads, 253, m253: regions, 36061, m360-61: and schools, m360-61; of
South America. 582, m582; of the
(
West. 186-87, ml86-87, m483

George, Henry, 457
George
Fuller, Margaret. 285
Fulton, Roben. 232-33
III (England),
(1639), 72
356. 364: settlement of, 83.
geothermal power, 970

German Americans, 8
Garrison, William Lloyd: and equal rights
women. 296: launch of the
Liberator, 293: opposition
to.
and passage of Fifteenth Amendment,
404
W.
Arthur.
p919
Garvey, Marcus. 636-37, p637

Gates,
82. c259, 260-
m482,
Berlin
airlift.
p7S9, 792.
Bill.
950,
p950
gazetteers, 1000
Gehrig, Lou, 681
General Court, 69
glyph,
(ship),
58
Goldman, Emma, 626, p626

Goldmark, Josephine, 5)9, p5J9
gold rush,
in California,
323, 324-27,
p324. m325. p325
gold standard, 499, 500
Goldwater, Barry M.. 841
Gompers, Samuel. 495. 520. 655

Gone with the Wind (Mitchell), 717,
p717
Goodman, Andrew, 847

Goodman, Benny, 718
Good Neighbor policy, 728-29
958-59
B., 377
Gore, Al, 943
Gorgas, William C, 569, 571
"Gospel of Wealth," 477
Gould, Jay. 487. 494
government bonds, 192
graduated income tax, 499. 500
Grady, Henr>W.. 411
Graf von Hiibner, Joseph Alexander, 474
Gramm-Rudman-Hollings Act (1985),
933
Grange movement, 497-98
Grant, Madison, 528-29
rations on, 726-27,/? 727; inflation
Grant, Ulysses S.; in Civil War. 380-82,

3S6. p386, m387, 388,piS<S. 403.
/? 727:
involvement
in
in,
China, 566-
m252
67; and Maastricht Treaty. 964-65:
p403; and corruption, 487-88; elected
Nazis
president
in.
p722-2i, 133, p733, 734-35,
m736; post-World War

of,
II
occupation
Soviet Union. 736: and
World War
in
Worid War
II,
735-38, 747.
Geronimo, m428. 432-33

Gershwin, George. 659-60
Gettysburg Address, The (Lincoln),
"graying of America," 922

Great Awakening, 84-85. 1
Great Britain: and
and trade of, c582-83, m582-83;

Green party in, 974; and impressment,
196: involvement in China. 566: and
Jay's Treaty, 197; and Lend-Lease
Act. 737; and Maastricht Treaty, 96465; and Panama Canal, 570, 572;
post-War of 1812 relations with, 228-
Rights (1944), 784, p784

ainwright (\963), 842, 1028
Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, 59
Gilded Age, The (Twain and Warner),
Ginsburg, Ruth Bader, pl65, 943

Gladden, Washington, 477
p738: and border
settlement, 320; foreign investment
Ghana, 26, m26

Ghost Dance, 429, p429, 432
Gingrich, Newt, 943-44, p943

Ginsberg, Douglas. 933
Second.
early Republic, 137,
blitzkrieg. 737-38.
p379, p381
754
Gilpin, Charies, 660
15:
143: and Atlantic Charter. 738; and
Gettysburg, Battle of (1863), 379-81,
Gillespie, Dizzy,
p406
282-84. p282, c284
380, 1008
v.
of,
Gravier, Charles, 103
p747, m748. 749. c767, 761-62
Bill of
868). 403, p403;
Grasse, Francois de. 132

I.
587. 588-89. m588, 591-92, 593,
p612;
( 1
Reconstruction policies
Grapes of Wrath, The (Steinbeck), 717
780-81, 789: reunification. 959:
signing of nonaggression pact with
GI
Golden Hind
Graniteville, SC, 252,
485. 486,/74S6, 505
Garrity,
Glorious Revolution (1688), 84

Glory-Hunter iVdn de Water), 431
767-68: impact of war debt and repa-
Gideon
294-95:
global warming, 972
p792; foreign investment in. c582-83:

Green party in, 974: and Holocaust,
727,
(Gold Mountain), 326
Gandhi, Indira. 977

gang labor, 270
Gannett, Deborah Sampson, 125
Garbo, Greta. 680. p680
Garcia Calderon, Francisco, 573
Garcia, Hector P., 840
Garfield, Harry, 602
Garfield, James A., 489, p489\ and election of 1880, 488; and Reconstruction.
408
Garland, Hamlin, 443, p443. 454
Garner, John Nance. 689
Garnet, Henry Highland. 292. p292
Garreau, Joel. 947
Garrison, Nicholas, painting by. p64-65
for
of,
p83
reunification (1990). 959
Germany: and
Gagarin, Yuri, 833

Gage, Thomas, 110, 114
Galbraith, John Kenneth. 825
Galveston, TX. reforms in. 536-37, p5i6
Galvez, Bernardo de. ml29. 130. pl30
448
global grid, 993
Gorbachev, Mikhail, 934, p934, 957,
m483, 591, m954
German
Gam Saan
62, 309-10, 466, 469, c482,
Gadsden, James. 315

Gadsden Purchase (1853). 315, m315
Hugh. 318
Gordon, John
Georgia (CIS). m959, 960

Georgia (U.S.): in Civil War, 386-88:
Great Awakening in, 85: secession
Furness, Bettv. 840
(;ia.ss,
(ilidden. Joseph,
13-14, /?/7i. 116.
118. 146
Fundamentalism, 656-57
Fundamental Orders of Connecticut
glasnost, 934. 957
29.
.
m229: response
to facism. 735;
and the South. 266, 372-73; and

of 1812, 21 1-15, m214, p215;
War
at
Washington Conference, 725, p725;

and World War I. 587-89, m588,
p590. 591, c6]l: in World War D,
p766. See also England
Great Compromise (1787), 147
INDEX
1071
o(.
07 1-7:. causes
family
670. 672-74;
of.
679. p679: fami crisis
life in.
685; gUh.il impact
o(.
HixniTN philosophN
in.
m673. bll:
on. 683-89. p6H4:
dunng. 711.712-13.
p7l2. I\4,p7l4: photographing. 712l3.p7/2. r713. 714-15. />7/5.- psychomigrani
lafH>r
logical impact of. 679-80; niral life in.
bll -19: stivk market crash in. 671.

1-671: unemployment in. blS-lb, p675.
m676: urban life in. blt>-ll,p677

Great Galshy, The (Fitzgerald). 662
Americans. 603-04
(ireat Plains: geography of. 5; Native
o\.
in.
16; Pike's description
209; trunk lines crossing. 459
(;reat Swiety. 841-42. 843.
Great
'Great
phcaval (1886). 494-95
White
Fleet," 568
Greece: and Maastricht Treaty, 964-65;

in World War II. 747
(Jreek Americans, 466. 470. 937.
m954
Greenback party, 500

Green Berets, 835
Greene, Graham, 863
Greene, Nathanael. 131
greenhouse effect, 972
Greenhow, Rose O'Neal, 369
Green parties, 974
Greenpeace, 972
Green Rage (Manes), 981
Greensboro, NC. 844
Grenada. L S. invasion of. m932, 933
GrifTith, D. W.. 409
Grimke, Angelina. 297-98. p297

Grimke, Sarah. 281. 297-98. /?297
gross national product, 67
Felix.
212
Guacanagari, 40
Guadalcanal, in Worid War II. m746. 747
Gualdape. San Miguel de. 50
Guam, in Worid War II. 745. m746. 762
Guanahani. 39. 40
Guangdong.
Hainan. post-World War

Haiphong Harbor, 883
II.
326. 482.
768
Haiti: revolt in (1791). 206. 208; U.S.
policy toward. 574. 945, p945; with-
drawal of U.S. marines from. 728
Miami, 947
hajj, 26
Haldeman.
m4S2
Guantanamo Bay,
569. 570
Guatemala: coffee
plantations
in.
p54:
H. R. (Bob). 883
Thomas. 411
Heckler, Margaret. 933
p66
as delegate to
Hellman.
Hemingway,
796. 200; federalist view s of.
150; and Jefferson, 207; and judicial
review, 157; letter from, 135; as secre-
l9\-94,pl92
Hamlin, Hannibal, p354, p355

Hammond. James. 354
Hammond, Jesse. 284
Hammond, Matthew. 41
Hancock, Winfield Scott. 488
Hanna, Mark. 538-39
Hanoi, Vietnam, 864, m865, 866, 879,
883
Hanson, Ole. 623
Harding, Warren G.. 628-30. p629: death
of,
630; domestic policies of. 629-30;
election of. in 1920. 628; scandals
under. 630.
p630
hard-rock mining, 452

Hargreaves, James. p234
Harlan, John Marshall. 414
Harlem Experimental Theatre, 661
Harlem Renaissance, 660-62. m661:
literature of. 772
Harper, Frances Ellen. 419
Harpers Ferry, 353. 354
Harper's \yeekly (magazine). p40I
Harrington. Michael, 840
Harris, Charles. 409
p277
Harrison, Benjamin. 437, 486, p486,
intervention
489. 490. p490, 500

Harrison, Jesse Burton. 264-65
81
(Ehrhart). 891
guerrilla warfare: in American
Revolution. 131;
in
Vietnam War. 872
Guinea, m976
Guinea-Bissau, m976
Guiteau, Charies. 488
Gulf of Thailand, 864. m865
Gulf of Tonkin, 864. m865. 870

Gullah,81.4l2
gun control. 928
Gutenberg, Johannes. 2
Gypsies. 78
1072 :S
INDEX
p835
Helena, MT. 451
between Burr and. 203. p203; and elec-
Harris, Joel Chandler.
in.
Heit, Molly.
Constitutional Convention. 146; duel
Harrison, William Henry. 212. 248-49,
p24S
Lillian. 718. /77/S
Ernest. 662. 734

Henderson, Fletcher. 660
Hendrix, Jimi. 856-57. p856
Henry VII (England). 21
Henry VIII (England). 66
Henry. Edward L.. painting by. p232
Henry of Portugal,
Henry.
Patrick.
15.
30. p3})
1
17. 146. 161
Henry Street Settlement,

Hepburn .Act (1906). 540
477.
p477
Heritage Foundation. 928

heroin, 975
Herzegovina: ethnic fighting

and Worid War I. 586
Hessians,
in
in.
962-63;
16.
128
Hessing, Valjean. painting by. p245
Hickok, Wild Bill. 451

Hicks, Edward, painting by, p82
Hidalgo, Father Miguel. p230
Highway Act (1956). m816. 817
Hill. Anita. 940.
p940
Hilton, James. 682

hippies, 853
Hirohito. Emperor. 745. 78
1 .
p781
Hiroshima. m746. 165.p765. 781. 808. 970
Hispanic Americans: and civil rights

movement. 899. 918; and riots.
946-47; in 1930s. in638: and poverty.
805; unemployment of. 913. 929; and
urban renewal. 821; in Vietnam War.
87
in Worid War II. 757. See
Cuban Americans; Mexican
1 ;
also
Americans; Puerto Ricans

Hispaniola, 39. 40
Harris, Patricia, 918
"Harry Wilmans"
949-50. p950: and
crisis in.
944
military dictatorship in. 729; U.S.
War"
Haywood, "Big Bill." 520-21

Head Start, 840
Hearst, W'illiam Randolph. 478. 559-60
population growth of. m976: rise of
"(Juerilla
(1886). 494-95, p494

Hayne, Robert. 245
Haynes, Lemuel. p281
Hay-Pauncefote Treaty (1901), 572
Hayslip, Le Ly. 885
national health insurance. 787; reform.
Halsall, William, painting by.
tion of
B.. 408, 433, 488,
Haymarket Riot
health care:
Halberstam, David, 875
tary of treasury. 169,
Greeley. Horace. 372. 383. 487
Grundy.
Jessica.
Hamilton, Alexander, 137;
p525
I
p4HH
Hay-Herran Treaty (1903), 572
Hay, John. 567. 57(). 572. p572
Hall,
900
Great Train Robbery, The (mo\ie). 52526.
Hayes, Rutherford
983
Haig. Alexander. 930
Haighl-Ashbury, 853. pS53
Hagedorn.
Half-breeds, 488
Mound, /j/-^
(Jreat Serpent
hacienda, 53. 54
Haitians: immigration of, 945,p945: in
(Jreal Migration, 68; of African
Americans
Hawaiian League, 565-66

hawks, 876
Ha>-Bunau-Varilla Treaty (1903), 572
Ha>den, Sterling. p794
(Jrval Depression, /VVS,S-6y, beginning
Hiss. Alger. 795
(Masters), 615
Hartford Convention 1814). 215

Hartford Female Seminary, 291
Hart. NancN. pi 26
(
Harvard College, 107

Hawaii: Japanese attack on. 743. p742-43,
m746: labor in. p565: and statehood,
m829: U.S. acquisition of. 565-66
Historical Documents. See individual

titles
of documents
Historical Imagination, Using, xxi

history, and geography. 9
"History of the Standard Oil

Company" (Tarbell). 514-15
Hitler. Adolf. 727. 733, 735, p737. 738.
762
Howe, William.
Hmong, 886-87
Hobby. Oveta Gulp. 8 4. p8}4
Ho Chi Minh, 865-66. p866. 867. 868.
116. \27.
pi 27. 128.
130
Canadian, 466. 470; French Huguenot.

8
Gemian, 8 82. c259, 260-6
1
How the
Other Half Lives
533
(Riis).
309-10. 439, p456-57. 475; Greek,
Holley, Alexander. 458
Huddle, \V liliam H., painting by, p309

Huerta, Victoriano. 576-77
Hue, Vietnam. 864, m865
Hughes, Charles Evans, 594. p629, 725
Hughes, Langston. 660, 661-62, p662
Holly. Buddy. 827
Huitzilopochtli, 12
Hollywood ten, 794

Holmes, Oliver Wendell. 605. 625
Holocaust, 767-68./? 76 7. 779
Holocaust Kingdom, The (Donat). 771
Holy Land. 19
Hull House, 476-77, p476, 523
new, 466-70; Norwegian, 439;
human-environment
interaction, 9
466; Polish. 466-67, 470; Puritan, 68;
914-15
Russian, 466: Scotch-Irish, 81: Scots,
883
Ho Chi Minh
Ho Chi Minh
m865
City, Vietnam. 864.
Trail, 873. m873. 882
Hoffman, Bruce. 962
homelessness:
in 1893,
500:
Great
in
Depression. 677, p677. 679:

929.
in
Hubert: in election of 1964,
841:inelectionof 1968, 880-81
Hungary: changes
in,
p930
in.
931; free elections
958: national monarchy
21
in,
uprising in (1956), 812, pS/2,- in
World War
686
(HOLC), 695. c70i

Homer, Winslow. painting by, pl002
Homestead Act (1862), 436
Homestead strike, 495-96
II,
747,
w74S
Great Depression, 676-78. 679. p69]:

and Great Society. 841: and Irish, 258-
Harlem (McKay). 661

Honduras, 729. m976
59: at Jamestown. 60; and
Honecker, Erich, 959

Hong Kong, in World War II, 745, m746
Hooker. Joseph "Fighting Joe." 378-79
Hooker, Thomas, 72. p72
698: in
Americans. 676-78: and
Hoover Dam, 685. p685

Hoover, Herbert, 672, p672, 693:
domestic policies under. 632, p632:
in election of 1928, 63 1-32, p631:
and election of 1932, 688-89; and
Great Depression, 671, 672, 676; as
head of Food Administration, 602.

p602: and moratorium on reparations
and war debts, 727: philosophy
New
Mexican
New
Deal.
England, 68; worid, 977,
c977. 979
hunter-gatherers.
5. 8
Huntsville Female Seminary, 29 1
Hurons, 13
Hurston, Zora Neale, 717
Hussein, Saddam, 938
Hutchinson, Anne, 73, p73
Hutchinson, Thomas, 107, 110
hydraulic mining, 452
hydrogen bomb, 808-10
Hypothesizing,
xxiii
horse, introduction
of, to
New
(Feriinghetti),
893
World,
Hosokawa, Morihiro. 967
Slovak, 466: Swedish, 8 1 439;

,
in
West, 439-40, p439: West Indian, 8

working conditions of, 259-60, 470,
520
470-71. 482. c482. m482-83, 922-23:
boat people, 886-87; debate over, 94546; in 1800s, 258-61, c259; European,
c482, m482-83; late 1800s, c482.
c955; Latin American, 325, 815. 92223, 945-46; nativist response to. 26162, 470-71: 1920s restrictions on, 638;
to Texas,
307-08
Immigration Act (1924), 638

Immigration .\ct (1990), 946
immigration bill (1996), 946
Immigration Restriction League, 471
impeachment, 155, 167: of Andrew
Johnson, 402-03: and Watergate, 908
imperialism, 558-59, 582-83: and
American expansionism, c568; and
and government of
Rico. 569-70; and
Idaho:
m445; Indian
m428: mining in. 449.
cattle trails in,
reservations
in,
and Latin America. m578; and

Mexican Revolution, 576-78; and
Pacific territories, m564; and
American War, 559-62, m561
m450
Idrisi, Abo al-. map drawn by. p21
"I Have a Dream" Speech (King),
1010-11
Dlinois: immigration
to.
259, 260-61: and
"hot line," 838
Northwest Territory, 142: and social
Houplines. France. p584-85
reform. 517: and Underground

Activities (HUAC), 794-95, p794
House Judiciary Committee, 908
House of Burgesses, 77. 106
House of Mirth (Wharton). 478-79
Housing and Urban Development Act
Railroad,
(1968), 842
Philippines. 563-65; and Spanishin. 3
Ickes, Harold, 697, 708-09
44
Horton, WiUie. 937
old.
Hawaii, 565-66; and Japan, 567-68;
Ice .Age, 4: hunters
cî.
Cuba and Puerto
Am Waiting"
Ibn Sina, 23
p663
260, 467,
life of,
and temperance movement, 288:
tary on. 578-79:
"I
by.
labor relations, 623:
Monroe Doctrine. 572Panama Canal,

570-72; and China, 566-67; commen-
commerce, 629: withdraws U.S.

troops from Nicaragua, 730
Hoover, J. Edgar, and Palmer raids,
67, p469, 470; Korean, 946. p946: and
application of
of,
625-26
258-59, c259. 439;
74; and building of
683-88, p683, p684: as secretary of
Hope, Bob, 754

Hopewells, \A.pl4
Hopkins, Harry 695-96
Hopper, Edward, 663; painting
horizontal integration, 463
Horry, Ben. 270
Irish,
466-67, 470: Jewish, 81, 466-
immigration, c467; Asian, 326, 468,
hunger: and African Americans, 400,

676: in American Revolution, 130;
and Chinese Americans, 676-77; in
to
Italian,
469-70, c482. c955: Mennonite. 439:
rights, of Carter.
Humphrey,
1980s.
Home Loan Bank Act (1932), 685.

Home Owners Loan Corporation
Home
human
466, 470; Haitian, 945; Hungarian.
466-67;
m273
I Love Lucy (television show), 818,
impressment, 196
Incas, 12, 48-49
indentured servant, 61, 74-75, 77
Independence Hall, 145
India, 977
Indiana: and agriculture, m498; and
Northwest Territory, 142, ml42; and
production of plows, 441: roads and
canals
in.
m233
Indian Affairs. Bureau
Indian Removal Act (1830), 243

Indian Reorganization Act (1934), 710
Indians. See American Indians
assimilation of, 469-70, 528-29, p529;
Indochina, m865,
Houston, Sam. 308-09, /?J09, 310

Houston, TX, 309, p309
Chinese, 439-40, 470: communities
Indonesia. 964
Hovenden, Thomas, p353

Howe, Frederic, 457
HoweUs, William Dean, 473, 479
War
259-61. 467. 469-70: and Civil

draft riots. 369:
427. 433
m244
p818
immigrants: c467: Arab. 466;
Armenian. 466: Asian, 326, 468, 47071, 482, c482, m482-83, 922-23, 946;
of.
of.
Indian Claims Commission, 921

Indian removal, under Jackson, 243-45,
Czech. 466:
m890
industrial design, 664

industrialization, 252-53, m252,
Danish. 439; English. 81; Filipino,
after 1850, 457; sources of
946, p946: French, 309; French
458
INDEX
m253:
energy
for,
1073
2M^5
Industrial Ri'\olution.
island-hopping,
WW),
520-21.605
industry: after World War 1. 646-47;
automation m. 820: and changes in
(I
Israel:
p2J4: in
growth ot. 458-61. /^/5. c459. p460:
post-Reconstruction South. 411;
257;
in
World War
War
II.
751-52
in early
602;
I.
1800s.
World
in
m976
infant mortality rates,
Ford. 909-10; under Nixon. 902;
under Reagan. 929
and Arab
conflict. 796-97.
Camp
of.
m797,
David
796-97.
and Suez
crisis.
m746
Jay's Treaty (1794). 197
Jazz Age. 659-60

Jazz Singer, The (movie), 653
Jefferson
754
Americans. 37-41. 43-44. 46667. 470. 626-27
Italy: and heroin. 975; and Maastricht
Issei,
7"/if
Italian
(Peterson). 207
Jefferson, Thomas. 189.210.^2/0;

absent from Constitutional
Convention. 146; as author of
in. 732-33; and World War I. 587.

m588. 598; World War II invasion of.
m748. 760
Iwo Jima. Battle of (1945). m746. 764
See Industrial Workers of the
Declaration.
18; drafting
Statute for Religious
election of
796.
Embargo Act of
foreign policy
of
21 1-12;
and French Revolution. 196; and

Hamilton. 169, 193; image of 207;
p428. 432
insider trading, 933
and Kentucky Resolutions. 202; and
Mexico (Reed). 581

interchangeable parts, 234-35
cal
Louisiana Purchase, 206. 208;
Insurfienl
Jackson. Andrew p239. 246. p246: and

banking issue. 246-47; and Battle of
internal improvements, 228
1950). 795
New
Church of the
International
656
International Ladies (larment
Foursquare
Workers
(iospel,
(ILGWl
nion
W oman
International
internment, 754
(
(ICC), 498. 540
(Ellison). S25.
p825
Republican
Irish
Army
p9l6
Iraq: bombing of
).
916-
7.
Iraqi Intelligence
Service. 962; and Persian Gulf
939-40. rn940; relations with
War.
Israel.
797
Ireland: conditions
in.
258-59; and
Maastricht Treaty. 964-65
Americans, 258-59. c259. 261-62.

438. 450. 45
466. m482. c483.
m483. 493. 591 638. m954. See also
Irish
1 .
Scotch-Irish
Republican Army (IRA). 962

Iron Heel, The London 5
Iroquois and Iroquois League: in colonial Amenca. m88. 90-91; in French
and Indian War. 93; in Northwest
Territory. 196; origin myth of. 96; in
Revolutionary War. 125
irreconcilables. 609
Isabella of Castile. 22. p22. 39. 40
Irish
).
Ishigo, Estelle. painting by.
Islamic world, 23.
1074
m25
N DEX
p754
469. p469. 470. 471. p5]5. 529. 626;

in
767-68. 782-83
and land acquisition. 243-
Spain. 22: in
World War
589
Joffre. Joseph.
John (England). 20
John I (Ponugal). 21.30
Johnll(Ponugal). 38
John III (Portugal). 42
system. 241
Jackson. Graham, p764

Jackson, Helen Hunt. 433
Johnson, Andrew 397. p397; congressional opposition to. 400-03; impeach.
ment of 402-03: Reconstruction
Jackson, Rachel. 239-40. p240

Jackson, Stonewall. 371. 379
Jacobs, George. p70
Jamaica. 955. c955
James I (England). 59. 66. 68

James II (England). 82. 84. pS^
Jamestown, 59-61
in.
trade policies of. 966; U.S. trade
734;
w ith.
Washington Conference. 725World War II. 745-47. m746,
-966.- at
26; in
762-65
Hiram W.. 724

S.. 697
James Weldon. p636
Lyndon B.. 841 p84I. p880:
Hugh
in election
of 1960. 833: in election of
1964. 841
and election of 1968. 880;
foreign policy
of 843. 870-71. 872-73.
878; response to antiw ar protests. 87778. 880: succession to presidency.
839-40, p839: and Vietnam

lation.
p754. m755: literature
of.
in
Johnson, Tom. 536

Johnson, William "Judy." 681
Johnston. Albert Sidney. 381
Johnston. Joseph E.. 371-72. 377. 388
88
Jolson. Al. 653
773; and
World War
II,
War esca-
870-71. 872-74
Jolliet. Louis.
of.
466; internment of. p743. 754-55,
754-56. 761
Eastman, painting by. p463

Edward. 72
joint-stock companies. 59
Japanese Americans: immigration
migrant work. p714:
Earvin "Magic." 950
domestic policy of 840-43. p842. 900;
1 ;
of militarists
under. 397-98
Johnson,
Johnson,
Johnson,
Johnson,
Johnson,
Johnson,
Johnson,
decision not to run for reelection, 880:
Japan: aggressive actions of. 726. 734.

738. m739: and bombing of Pearl
Harbor. 743; economy of. 967; emergence of. 567-68; and global economy. 964; and invasion of Manchuria.
726; post-World War II occupation
of. 78
recycling in. 973; and rise of
rise
733.
Jim Crow laws, 413
46; and Panic of 1837. 247-48; and
empire. 583;
II.
Jicarilla-Apaches. 96-97
45. c243: and nullification crisis. 245-
Jackson, Mahalia. I\%.p718
Iran-contra affair. 934-35
Iran hostage crisis (1979-8
construction. 193
Jennings. Samuel, painting by, p219

Jews: in America. 81. 260-61, 466-67.
1828. 239-4\. p239: in election of
Jackson, Jesse. 936. p936. 952; opposition to NAFTA. 967
Iowa, 443
IRA. 5^^
in elec-
Jacksonian Democracy, 24
Jackson, Janet. 276
Intolerable Acts (1774). 111-12
Man
p2 1 5:
Seminoles. 229-30, p229: and spoils
Commerce Act 1887), 498

Commerce Commission
Interview, Conducting an, 894
Invisible
Orleans. 2\4-\5.
m244. 25
Internet, 950-951
Interstate
strict
tion of 1824. 238-39; in election of
1832. 247; Indian policy of. 243-45.
520
),
Suffrage
Conference (1902). 551
Interstate
and
Jen. Gish. 982
(INF) Treaty (1987), 934
politi-
views of 139. 193: as secretary of
state. 191:
Intermediate-range Nuclear Forces
Internal Security Act
in
of
inaugural address, text
first
of 1003-04;
of Virginia
Freedom. 139;
2(X); in election
1800. 203. 205; and

1807. 211;
World
Inouye. Daniel, 935
1942). 745.
J.
811-12
lyotake, Tatanka (Sitting Bull). 428-29.
535
Battle of the
Kdgar Thomson Steel Works, 463

and His Time (Malone). 207
Jefferson Image in the American Mind,
m797: and 1993 peace accord. 960;
IWW.
Intemiediate-range
Nuclear Forces Treaty

initiative.
Java Sea.
762
Treaty. 964-65; rise of Fascist party
inflation, 5S; under Carter. 913; under
INF Treaty. See
II,
Jay, John. 132. 150. 197
Accords. 915-16; creation
Great Depression. 671-72;
working conditions
World War
811-12. 9(U. m905: and
workstyle. 647- 4S; in IS(X)s. 234-35,
in
in
isolationism, 724
Industrial NN orken. of the NN orld
Jones Act (1916). 565

Jones Act (1917). 570
Jones, George. 493
Jones, John Paul, pi 3
Kennett, Douglas. 939
Industrial
Jones, Mary Harris. 493. p493. 55
Kent State University, 882. p882

Kentucky, in Union. 366
Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions,
Jones, Samuel M.. 536. p5.^6

Jordan, Barbara. 840. 9\\.p9n
Jordan, relations with
Israel.
797.
m797
879-80. 882-83; and coverage of
Khrushchev,'Nikita. 812, 813
Worid War
Kicking Bear, painting by. 43 p431

Kim II Sung, 799
King, Coretta Scott. p850
King George's War (1744-48). 91
Ah in
M..
Jr.,
431
journalism: and coverage of Persian
Gulf
\\ ar.
939; and coverage of
I.
591; popular. 478; and
progressive movement. 514-15.^574.
p575. 533; and Watergate. 907. p907:

yellow. 478. 559-60
Joyce, James. 657. p657
551
Kelley, Abby. 296,
p296
Ladies'
Kelley, 01i\ er Hudson. 497
Kellogg-Briand Pact (1927), 726

Kellogg, Frank, 726
Kelly, William, 458
Kennan, George. 790, 876

Kennedy, Anthony. 933
Kennedy, Jacqueline. p832, p839
Kennedy, John F.. 834, p834: assassination of, 839; and civil rights move-
of.
833-
34, 846; election of, 832-33,
p832;
and foreign policy, 835-38, m837;
p832. 833; and
Vietnam War. 868-69
inauguration
of.
Kennedy, Robert
880; as
F.:
anomey
Kennedy, Ted.
assassination of.
general, 845
;797 9
11.
785. p785:
496, and Square
520-21.623-25,785
Garment Workers Union, 520
La
Follette, Robert M., 537. p5i7. 605,
630
laissez-faire capitalism,
462
land sales, public, c243
Dream" Speech,
text of. 1010-1 1;
oppo-
Vietnam War. 843. %16-11
in.
land speculators, 9
Lange, Dorothea, 712-13, 715. p7 1 5:

photography by, p713
131
War
(1689-97), 91
Kino, Eusebio. 5
La Noche
Kiowas, 331.426
Kirk, George H.. p763
Kirkpatrick, Jeane, 933
Lansing, Robert, 594, 608
Kissinger, Henry. 881. 882, 884, 903,
La Raza Unida
Triste, 47,
p47
Laos, 864, m865: drug trade

spread of Vietnam
904; quoted. 906
War
in,
to,
975;
885
party, 85
Larsen, Nella, 661
Kitchener. Lord, 589
La
Klickitats, 322
Las Casas, Bartolome de, 41-43

Las Guasimas, Battle of. p562
Latimer. Lewis. 461. p461
Klondike Gold Rush, 450

Knights of Labor, 493-94. c502
Know -Nothings, 261-62. 348-49
Knox, Henry:
in
128; as secretary of war. 191
Koran. See Qur"an

Korean Americans: immigration
946, p946: in L.A.. 946
Korean War, 799-801, m799.
Salle.
Rene-Robert
de,
88
Latin America: and Alliance for Progress,
835; and Cuban missile crisis. 836-38,

m837; and depression of 1930s. 72930; and Eisenhower, 810-11; exports to
of,
FDR's policy
Good Neighbor policy
U.S. 1920-40, c729:

toward, 728;
toward, 728-29: immigrants from. 325,
c800,
p801: end of, 807

Kosciuszko, Tadeusz, 130, ;77iO
Kovic, Ron, 887
815, 922-23, 945-47; independence
movements
in,
230-31. m231:
Johnson's policy toward, 843; and
m939
Monroe
Doctrine, 230-31, 572-73;
Reagan's policies toward. 931-32,
m932, 933;
rise
U.S. interests
of dictators
in.
in,
729-30;
m578. 728-29. c729;
U.S. inter\'entions
in.
559-62, 569-70,
572, 574. m578, 730, 810-11, 835, 843,
931-32. m932: U.S. relations with
Kyrgy zstan, 959-60, m959
Mexico, 307-08. m308, 31 1-15. m313,
m315. 576-78. m578. 965

latitude,
992
Latvia: post-Worid
post-Worid
creation of Peace Corps.
835. 978; domestic policies
strike.
King, Rufus. 228
assassination of,
ment. 846-47; and Cold War. 835-38.
m837: and
War
King, Rodney. 946
Jr.;
Kristallnacht
Kelley, Jimmy. 919
622-25, p623. p624.
I.
Lafayette, Marquis de, 130, 132

.
846-47. 848. 850. c850: "I Have a
sition to
I,
Deal, 539; and strikes, 258, 494-96.

WI495.
(November 9, 1938), 733

Kublai Khan, 24
Ku Klux Klan, 407, p407, p634, 637,
p637, 640, 786; in literature, 409
Kush, 25. m26
Kuwait, and Persian Gulf War. 938-39,
Kelley, Florence, 517-19
War
and Pullman
850. 880; and civil rights. 823. 844,
King WUIiam's
World War
of. for
Deal. 705-06; in
Lamont, Blanche. p45J

La Navidad, 40
Landon, Alfred .M.. 702. 704
Land Ordinance (1785), \4l. mI42
Land Ordinance (1787), 142. ml42
Landrum-GrifTm Act (1959), 820
land "run," in Oklahoma, 431, p437
Revolution
Kalakaua, 565-66
Kalb, Johann de. 130
kamikaze, 764
Kansas: cattle industry in. 444-45; Dust
Bowl in. 111. m7]]; slavery issue in.
345.347-4S.p347.p348
Kansas Fever Exodus of 1879, 439
Kansas-Nebraska Act 1854), 345,
m345, 347
Kantor, Morris, painting by. p681
Kaskaskia, American Revolution in, 131
Kaunda, Kenneth. 950
Kazakhstan, 959. m959
Kearney, Dennis, 470
Kearny, Stephen. 313. tn3]3
Keating-Owen Child Labor Act (1916),
New
602-03; and
p64I: post-Worid
Kings Mountain, SC. American
IC
Workers of the Worid, 520-
605; and Knights of Labor. 493-94.
post-Worid
King, Martin Luther.
Juarez City, Mexico. 974

judicial review, 157. 204
Judiciary Act (1789), 173. 191. 204
Judiciary Act 1801), 204, 205
Jungle, The (Sinclair). 511, 555
juvenile delinquency, 826
1950s, 820; 833-34; in 1960s, 833-34;
Spanish-American War. 559-60; and

coverage of Vietnam War. 875, p875,
Josephy,
c502: mobilization
202-03
Kenya, 25
Kerner Commission, 850
Kerouac, Jack. 826
Key, Francis Scott. 214
Keynes, John Maynard. 610
Khomeini, Ayatollah. 916
Joseph, Chief. 432. p432. 455. p455
War
War I.
II.
608. m608;
768. 789. m793;
Soviet aggression toward, 736,
Labor. Department of. creation

labor movement: and American
m736
257-58; and election of 1908, 543;
Lavender. David. 321

Lawrence, Amos A., 345
Lawrence, Jacob. 719; painting by, p206
League for the Independence of
Vietnam. 866
growth of unions
League of Nations, 606-08. 609-10.
of,
543
Federation of Labor, 495, 520, 714; in

depression, 705-06, 714; in early 1800s,
in.
519-21. c579.- and
Haymarket Riot, 494-95, p494; and

Homestead strike, 495-96; and
p609; ineffectiveness of, 734; 1932

World Disarmament Conference, 726
INDEX
1075
on
I.i-ut:uf
Wiir. 312: Reconstruction plan of.
American
iiitcd I.atin
p394. 395-96: and secession. 357

Lincoln and His Generals (Williams). 391
Cili/cns(i.lI-AC), yiS
Read"
"I.earninK lo
l.far>. IiinothN.
419
(Harper*.
Lincoln-Douglas debates, 352-53. p352
X53
Mar> Eli/aheth. 4W. 501

l.fbanon. rclatiDiis v.\\h Israel. 797
l.t-ase.
l.ecompton C'oiuttituUon
iss~i
^49
LeDucTho, S8I.884
I.ee,
Ann. 284
Lincoln I ni>ersit>, 290, p290

Lindbergh. Charles. 654-55. p654
line graph, 997
Lin. Maya Ying. 889
Lippmann, Walter. 625. 686
growth
Remedy"
"Origin of the Iroquois League"

(Iroquois creation myth), 96: "Plea to
Those
literacy,
Lee, Jarena. 283. p2SJ
literacy tests,
Lee, Jason. 319
literature: African, 33; African
(Wright). 303: "Origin of
Fire" (Jicarilla-Apache myth). 96-97;
478
Lee. Henry "Light-Horse Harry." 368
of.
Mountain of Gold: The Story of the

Chinese in America (Sung). 329: "My
Name," The House on Mango Street
(Cisneros), 983: Nature (Emerson).
330; "Of Existing Evils and Their
Who Matter"
(Welch). 893; The
Quiet American (Greene). 863: "Roll
412
Lee, Richard Henr>. 118
Amencan.
Lee, Robert Edward. 368. p36S: and John
479. 66\ -62. p661. 1\1, 772. 825. 893;
Over Beethoven" (Berrv). 829; "Some

Keep the Sabbath Going to Church"
(Dickinson). 330-3
"The Song of
of American Revolution, 218-19; anti-
Borinquen" (Rodriguez de Tio). 614;
slavery. 78-79. 219. 344: Asian
"A Song
Brown' s
raid.
353; as leader of
Confederate army. 372. 377-79. m377.

386. mJS7. 388.
Lee, Russell, photograph by. I\l.p712
Leibowitz, Samuel. p687
15; late 1930s.
876
World War
Curtis.
II. 749
Lend-Lease Act (1941), 737. 741
Lenin. \ ladimir Ilich. 598
Uopard, H.M.S. (ship). 21 1,^2//
lend-lease, in
Thomas
Jefferson"
717-18: local color.
804-06).
m209
(anonymous). 615: "The
perance. 288: Transcendentalist, 285.
Passaic" (Vorse). 641
literature, excerpted: All Quiet on the
in
Utopia (Lyons), 529;
Line" (Converse). 691: "Buffalo

Folktale" (Old
Own
War
Lithuania: post-World
in
I.
608,
m608: post-World War II. 768. 789.

m793: Soviet aggression toward,
736.
m736
Bighorn. Battle of the (1876), 42829. m42H. 430-31. p-ZiV
Little
Little
Lady Horse). 331;
War
The WoundDresser" (WTiitman). 419

;
Richard, 826
"Little
Rock Nine," 824
Leyte Gulf. Battle of (1944), m746, 764

Liberal Republican party, 487-88
Joseph). 455: "The Declaration of the
Litvinov, Maksim, 735
Liberator (newspaper), 293. 312
People" (Bacon). 95; Democracy and
Livermore, Mary Ashton, 363
Social Ethics (Addams). 516; diary
living standards, in 1950s. 817-18.
Liberia:
civil
war
in.
960: founding
of.
265. 293: and U.S.. 583
Liberty
Bond
drive, 601
(painting).
p2]9
p854
Lie, Tr>gve. 783

IJfe
Winnemucca). 433
the Mississippi (Twain). 504-05
light bulb, invention of. 46\.
p46l
Liliuokalani, 566,
Yokohama
p566
\96-91.pl97
Color Line (Baker). 515; The Gilded
location, 9
Age (Twain and Warner), 485. 486.

505; Governor's Message (Adams).
359; Green Rage (Manes). 98
"Guerilla War" (Ehrhan). 891: "Harry
locator maps, 993

Lochner v. A>h' York
Wilmans." Spoon River Anthology
Company"
Standard Oil
(Tarbell), 515;
"I
905), 5 1 9,
1026-27
Locke. John, pi 38
lockouts. 495
Locust Street Social Settlement, 477

Lodge, Henr> Cabot: and foreign policy.
557. 567: and League of Nations.
609-10
limited liability, 462
Insurgent Mexico (Reed). 58 1
Limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty

(1963), 837-38
Invisible
(Hughes). 66 1 -62; 772^ Jungle
London.
Lincoln, Abraham. 351-52, pi5/, 374.
(Sinclair). 51 1. 555;
long drives. 444-45. p444,
p374. p376: assassination

call to
of,
396: and
arms, 363, 365: in election of
1860, 355, m355. p355. p35H: in election of 1864. 387;
and Emancipation
Proclamation, 384.pi4. 1007
and
fall
(text):
of Fort Sumter. 365: and
Gettysburg Address. 380. 1008
(text):
inauguration of. 364; and Mexican
076
INDEX
c817
Livingston. Robert R., 206. 209
Lloyd George, Da\ id. 607. p607, 723,

726
The Holocaust Kingdom (Donat). 771;

Am Waiting" (Feriinghetti). 893;
(Mori). 773
Little Turtle,
Mystique (Friedan). 854; Following the
(Masters). 615; "History of the
Lilienthal, David E.. 699. 790. 803
Lil'
Farewell to Arms
Among the Piutes
Ufe on
Stor>" (Chief
(Hemingway), 662; The Feminine
and Sciences
"Liberty Tree" (Paine). 218

Lichtenstein, Roy. 854.
"Chief Joseph's
entry (Martf). 614:
p60I
Liberty Displaying the Arts
Hon.
433, 455, 893; of 1960s, 891. 892: tem-
Lewis, Sinclair. 662, 772-73
mH4
the
(Twain). 615: Typical American (Jen).
Lewis, Meriwether, 208-09
14.
"To
(Dylan). 892:
Winthrop. Esq." (Warren). 218; "To
982: "The Voice of the Hispano"
Drums!" (Whitman). 419: "The Blue

Meridian" (Toomer). 772; "Bread
Changin"
American. 96-97. 217. 251. 331. 431.
Babbitt (Lewis). 772-73: "Beat! Beat!
MA.
(Kouyate). 33; "Sympathy" (Dunbar).
418; "The Times They Are A-
the Person Sitting in Darkness"
Assignment
Lexington.
418: "Strange Origin of
(Abnaki myth). 97; Sundiata
511,514-16, 535, 555; Native
Western Front (Remarque). 613:
705. 785
spiritual).
Com"
Mexican American, 982; muckraking.
Lewis, John, 847

L..
of the Moon" (McKay). 772;

"Song of the Sky Loom" (Tew a song).
331; "Steal Away" (African American
J.
Lewis, Jerr\ Lee. 827
Lewis, John
1 ;
479, 504-05: Lost Generation. 662;
330: urban realism. 478-79. 481
(Banneker), 219
Lewis and Clark expedition
208-09.
62. m661. 667. 772: Hispanic. 63, 614-
479
Le Loi, 865
"Letter to
825-26; of Civil War. 419: colonial. 95;

dime novels. 480. p480: early 1930s.
of farm life on the Plains.
682, 69
442-43: of Harlem Renaissance. 6611
Leisler. Jacob, 84
LeMay,
417.418.419.
American. 329. 773. 982-83: the Beats.
p3SS
legend. 992
leisure time,
78. 2 1 9. 277.
Man
(Ellison). 825; "I.
"Learning to
Read" (Harper), 419; "Letter
Thomas
Lodge. Henrv Cabot.
Too"
to
Jefferson" (Banneker). 219:
"Liberty Tree" (Paine). 218: Life on the
Jr..
Jack. 515
Long. Huey,
/7
700. 701
longitude. 992
Long. Jefferson
'Yokohama (Mori), 773: "Luna Moth."

Dogeaters (Hagedom). 983; McTeague
Long March, 798

Long Walk, m428. 435
Lynd). 650;
Middle town (Lynd and
"Midway"
(Madgett), 893;
m445
Longfellow. Henry Wadsworth. 430
Mississippi (Twain). 504-05: Lil'
(Norris). 481
833
London Company, 59
F.,
p406
93
Lopez, Narciso, 346, p346
loose construction,
Lords Of Trade, 84
Lorenft, Pare. 7
Los Ani^les, CA. Hb0-b\.m860. mH6l:

aqueducts of. 861, mH6l: El Congreso
in.
679; ethnic distribution of, c860,
mS60. 861. mS6l: and Hispanic

migrant workers, 678-79. p67H: immigration
in.
mH60: in 1950s. mH61:

1980s. m86I; population growth of,
663;
in
639; Mexican muralists
to.
1920s.
in
c860:
riots in,
946-47; settlement
of,
323; and Japanese company, 966;

transportation
m86l:
86.
in.
Macintosh, Ebenezer. 107

Mack, Connie. 945
Madeira Islands, 30
Madero, Francisco. 575-76
Marshall Plan, 792. See also European

Recovery Act
Marshall, Thurgood, ^22-23, pH22, 920;
Madgett, Naomi Long, 893

Madison, Dolley. 214
Madison, James. 137. 2]?>,p2IJ:
Marti,Jose, 559, /7559. 614

Martinez, Maximiliano Hernandez, 729
pJ47. 151; domestic policy under,

227. 228; federalist views of, 150,
153, 157, 162; and
War of
Lost Horizon (Hilton). 682
Louis XI (France). 21
Mahan,
Lost Generation, 662
Louis
XIV
XVI
(France). 88
(France). 195
Louisbourg,
War. 93
Louisiana:
fall of. in
French and Indian
m264: French settlement
of, 88;
Huey Long, 701 and Louisiana

Purchase, 208-10, m209, mil 6;
and
Revolutionary War,
tlement
of. 93.
in
30; Spanish set-
206; and transportation
m233: and War of
m45
in,
(England), 84
.Maryland, 84; settlement

Marysville,
Mason
OH,
965,
p965
policies, 84; early
industrialization in, 234-35; 253,
m253. 257-58; and Great

Awakening, 85; life in, 71-72, p72;
and ratification of Constitution, 149;
settlement of, 69-70,
log-
89; and Missouri
Compromise, 238; and

289; and slavery, 238
Maine (ship). 560
106-07. cl 11;
in.
and colonial trade
Rebellion
in,
m69; Shays's
143-44, pi 44; state
constitution of, 139; witchcraft trials
prohibition,
Main Idea, Identifying the. 988-89

Main Street (Lewis). 662
Main-Travelled Roads (Garland), 443
in, 70-71, pZO

mass culture, 967-68
mass marketing, 464-65, p464, p465,
664-65
mass media,
effects of, 664-65. See also
journalism
mass production, 234

mass transit, 472-73, p472
Louisiana Purchase (1803), 205-06, 208,

m209. m216: importance of, 209-10
Malaysia, 964
Masters, Edgar Lee, 615
Louisiana Territory, exploring, 208-09
Mali, 26-27, 33, 960
L'Ouverture, Toussaint, 206, p206. 208

Lovejoy, Elijah, 295
Malindi, 26
m2/4
1812. 214.
Lovell,
Tom,
painting by,
p388
Love, Nat. 447. p447

Lowell, Francis Cabot, 235
Lowell girls, 257, 258, 279
Lowell, MA, 257, 258; growth
of, 235
Lowell Offering (magazine), 258, p258,
279
Loyalists,
19
Malcolm X,
849,
p849
Malone, Dumas, 207

Manchuria: Japanese invasion of, 726;
post-World War II, 768
Mandans, 208
mandate system, 608
Mandela, Nelson. 947, p947, 960
Manhattan Project, 765
Manhattan Transfer (Dos Passos), 662
manifest destiny, 306-07
Luhan, Antonio, 710

"Luna Moth," Dogeaters (Hagedom),
Manila Bay, Battle

560, m561
983
Lmitania
Manila, Philippines, in World

745, m746, 762-64
591-93, p591, p592
Matteson, T. H., painting by, p70

Mayaguez (ship) crisis, 910, p9]0
Mayas,
Mayflow er Compact, 67
Mayflower (ship), 65, p66
1
Malintzin, 46
LSD, 853
(ship),
of,
557, p556-57,
War II,
Mayflower II
(ship),
920
Mayhew, Sir Patrick, 962

Mbemba, Nzinga. 42
McAdoo, William. 601, 602
McAuliffe, Christa. 95 1 p951
,
McBarron, H. Charles, painting by,

p215
McCarthy, Eugene, in election of 1968.
880
McCarthyism, 807-08, 818

McCarthy, Joseph. 807-08, 961
McClellan, George
p376, 378. 387
376-77,
B., 372,
Luther, Martin, 57
Mankiller, Wilma. 948. p948
Luxembourg, 965
Mann-Elkins Act (1910), 543
McClendon, Rose. 660-61. p660
lynchings, 407, m527, 786
Mann,
Lynch, John R., 409

Lynd, Helen, 650
Lynd, Robert, 650
Lyon, Mary, 291, 1029
Lyons, Eugene, 529
manor,
McClure's (magazine) 514,515

McCord, James. 907
McCormick, Cyrus. 262
McCulloch V. Maryland ( 8 9).
MacArthur, Douglas; and Bonus Army,

688; and Korean War, 800-01
occupation of Japan, 78
745, 762-64,
17
1 ;
p762
in
and
World
McDowell,
Marquette, Jacques, 88
Marshall, George C, p759, 791-92,
McNamara,
p791
Marshall, James W.. 324
Marshall, John, 204, p204. 244
69,
1024-25
Marbury v. Madison ( 803). 204. 1022-23

March on Washington, p830-31, 846-47
margin buying, 670
Marianas, in World War II. 762, 763-64
Marie Antoinette, 195
Mariposa War, 327
market revolution, 233-34, p234, 257
Marne, First Battle of the (1914), 589
1
Maastricht Treaty (1993), 964-65

Macao, 964
War U,
Horace, 289
manufacturing, 252. c252

Mao Zedong, 798-99, 866, p900
Map Basics, Reviewing. 992-95
in
Children, The (painting). p<^0
Majdanek, Poland. 767, 771

Makahs, 322
revolution. 233.
74-75;
of,
Union. 366
colonial protests
Alfred Thayer, 559

Maidus, 426
mail-order companies, 465
Maine: in colonial America, m8J;
ging
Cotton Kingdom. 263,
in
1812,
Mary
Massachusetts: and abolition. 293;
Magellan. Ferdinand. 45.
Maginot Line, 737, m74l

Magna Carta (1215), 20
Magruder, John B., 377
Louis
at
Constitutional Convention. 146. 147.
212-15
zoot-suit
757
riots in.
retirement of, 941
In. in.
371
McGovern, George,
in election
of 1972,
884
McKay, Claude. 661.772

McKeilar, Kenneth D.. 803
McKinley, William. 500-01 p500, p501:
assassination of. 538, p538; and foreign policy, 560, 563
.
Robert S.. 870, 878, p878

McPherson, Aimee Semple, 656-57,
p656
McTeague (Norris), 481, p^S/
Meade, George, 379
INDEX
:: 1077
Means.
Michelangelo, 21
\<a^Â\,^2{). p92()
.Mcam.(.o -0. x:().

Miat inspection Act
Michigan: admission to Union, 338;

Northwest Territory, \42,ml42
X)2
(1906), 540
Michikinikwa. See Little Turtle

Middle Ages: Asia in, m25; Crusades
in. ml9. p20: early, \l-\9.pl7: feu-
Mtdiiiiid, S4:
care,
iiu'<lical
Civil
in
War. 369-70.
373
Medicare, 84
I'.ro.
Mediterranean, containment
Mein kampji Hitler). 733
791
in,
Delta, Vietnam. 864,
mS65
Mehin. John. 290

Memphis, TN. race riots in, 401
Mendes, Chico, 970-72. p970
Menende/ de Avilfe, Pedro. 50
Menêle,
Josef.
18.
Roman
Suez
War
in,
461
286-87
crisis in, 81 1-12;
War
Millay, Edna
in
Great Depression,
p66H-69. bib. 678-79. p67H. 714, 721;

literature of. 615,
983: after Mexican
War, 315-1 6: migration of
in
920s,
639. p639: and mining, 449. 450-5
muralists, 662-63: in 1950s, 805, 815,
821:
in
1970s. 899, 918. 922; in
1990s, 946-47. 949: as replacement
workers. 625: unemployment
785;
of,
Vietnam War. 87 in Worid War I,

595: in World War 11, 15b-51.p757;
and zoot-suit riots, 757. See also
Hispanic Americans
Mexican Cession (1848), 315. m3l5,
340
in
Mexican Revolution, 575-76. p575.

p576: American intervention
77: and Carranza, 577-78
Mexican
War
12.
576-
in.
See also Aztecs
NAFTA.
965. 967; pop-
ulation of. 977: revolution
575-78.
in.
p575. p576: and settlement of

California, 323;
Texas
relations with,
305, 307-09; U.S. relations with, 731;
U.S. trade with, 317
Mexico City, Mexico. 47. 313, 576

Miami, FL: immigration to, 923;
Republican convention of 1968
88
social unrest in.
Miamis. 196
Miantonomo, 90
078
3.
in.
INDEX
947
Vincent.
228-31. /2i/,- and French
in.
Montreal, Canada: in French and Indian

War. m92. 93: and ozone layer. 974
259
mining: as big business. 452-53. p452:

and California gold rush. 323-27.
ni325. p325: and western settlement.
449-53. p449. m450. p45l. p452

mining communities, life in. 450-51
Minnesota: bonanza farms in. 441
Indian reserv ations in. m428; railroads
m445
1
(\9bb). 842. 1029
missions, Spanish. 52-53. m52, p53

Mississippi: in Civil War. 380-82; cotton
263; Freedom Riders
845, mH45: and Freedom

riot in,
in.
Summer.
846: secession
of.
Mississippian culture, 14
Miss iMnelyhearts (West). 682

cattle
ranching
in.
444-45; and
gold rush. 324: and Santa Fe Trail.

317-1 8; settlement of. 237-38. m237.
261; in Union. 366
Missouri Compromise (1820), 237-38.
m237: extension of, 338
Missouri (ship). 765
Mittelherger, Gottlieb, 82
Miwoks. 327, 426

Mobile, AL, 264
Moctezuma
II,
Association
Monticello, p207
Milwaukee, WI. immigrants

Mineta, Norman, 755, p755
in.
boycott, 823-24.
p32
Mills, C. Wright, 825
minutemen, 14
Miranda \. Arizona
m445
Montcalm, General Louis-Joseph de, 93

Monterey, CA. settlement of, m52, 323
Montezuma, Carios, 528
Montgomery, Bernard, 749
(MIA), 823. 844
Mitchell, Margaret, 717

in,
137, 230, p2iO. 1030; in
p823
Miller, Glenn, 718
Missouri:
(1823), 230-31. /n2i/.
Montgomery bus
734
p627
356. 364
Mexico: and Mexican Cession, 315.

m3l5: Mexican War. 311-13. m3l3.
314, 315; and
St.
847-48; race
/7i29
768
Battle of Little Bighorn in,

m428. 429; Indian reservations in,
m428; mining in. 449. m450: railroads
Miller, Arthur, 807
industry
846-48), 312-13, m3l3.
314, 315; soldiers
Mexicas,
in,
II,
Montana:
Miller, Alfred Jacob, painting by.
in.
976,
Revolution, 196; and Louisiana
Miles, Nelson A.,p432
447, p447: discrimination against,
Purchase. 206
militarists, rise of. in Japan,
Texas, 310:
of,
(Madgett), 893
Mexican Americans: and

in
of
election of 1816, 228; foreign policy
militarism, 587
cattle indus-
tion of 1984, 933

Mongolia, post- World War
Monk, Thelonious. 754
monopoly, 28, 462
Monroe, James,
migrant workers, and Great Depression,

b7S.p706. 712-13,714
cultures of, 10-12
in election
election of 1980, 917; in elec-
Monroe Doctrine
Kippur
Middle Passage, 78
Middletown (Lynd and Lynd), 650
Middle West, settlement of, 262
Midway, Battle of (1942). m746. lAl,
Methodists, and slavery issue, 340
try.
904;
1; in
application of, 572-74; text of, 1004-05
Mier y Teran, Manuel. 305

Migrant Mother (photograph),
p7l3,l\5
p55
Metacom, 90. p90
90, 91, 125
Moldova, 960
91
p747
mestizos, 54.
Mohawks,
Mombasa, 26
in,
904
in.
Meredith, James. 846, p850

merger, 632
Mesoamerica,
in,
Yom
"Midway"
Mesa Verde National Park, p 14
Mogadishu, Somalia, 26
Mohaves, 327
Mondale, Walter:
mercantilism, S3
meridians, 993
Model T Ford, 647

modern Republicanism, 814
.Moluccas, 3
Catholic
plH; trade routes
915-17, /79/6; Six-Day
782
of.
17-19;
in,
peace accord, 960; policy of Carter,
Menio Park, NJ. Edison's workshop

Mennonites, 439. 735
mentally ill, treatment
in.
middle class: development of, 256;

grow th of. 474-75
Middle East, m60H. m9()5; and 1993
Andrew W.. 629. 686, p6S6
Mell)n,
dalism
church
m29
Meir, Golda. 904. pf^M
Mekong
in
46. p46. 47
Montreal Protocol on Ozone Depletion

(1987). 974
Moody, Deborah. 73
Moral Majority, 928. p928
moratorium, 727
Morgan, J. P.. 463
Mori, Toshio, 773
Mormons,
284-85. 360
Morocco, 26. 21
Morrill Act (1862), 436
Morris, Gouvemeur. 149
Morriss, Mack. 762
Morristown, NJ. 24
Morse, Samuel F. B.. 459
Morse, Wayne. 870-71
Morton, "Jelly Roll." 659. p659
Mosaddeq, Mohammad. 810
Moscow, Russia. 975. 977
Moses, Anna "Grandma." 719; painting
by. p7 19
Moseley-Braun, Carol. 942
Moss, Alfred. A.. Jr.. 210
Mother Earth (magazine). 626
Motown Records, 856
Mott, Lucretia. 298. p298
1
mound
builders, \A.pl4
mountain men, 3
Mountain of Gold, (Sung). 329
Mount Holyoke Female Seminary, 29
p291
movement, 9
1
movies: before 1920. 525-26;

652-53.
/j65.?.- in
1920s.
in
1930s. 680. /;6m- in
195()s. 826: in World War II. 754

Moynihan, Daniel Patrick. 839
NEA.
National Association of Colored
Women,
national bank, 192
Nebel, Carl, print by. p3()4-05
National Broadcasting
Company
"mugwumps," 489
National Child Labor Committee, 5
Muhammad,
National Committee for a Sane Nuclear
23
Miilier-Freienfels, Richard. 654
Muller
Oregon
V.
MumBett,/;//tS
Munich, Germany. 735: 1972 Olympics
in. 962
Munich Conference (1938). 735
Munn V. Illinois (1877). 498
Murdoch, Rupert. 965
Murphy, Charles. p534
Murray, J. B.. 695
Murray, Judith Sargent. 140
Murray, Patty. 942
Murrow, Edward R.. 754, 807
Musa, Mansa. 26-21, p27
music: of African Americans, p81. 275.
p4 18, p644-45.
541
Women,
National Council of Negro
709
national debt, 192: payment
of.
193-94
Endowment
(NEA), 657
National Industrial Recovery Act
586-87;
Neruda, Pablo, 729

Netanyahu, Benjamin. 960, 962
Netherlands: and Maastricht Treaty,
965: at Washington Conference. 725
II,
rise of,
in
World War
m746
neutrality, of U.S.. 735
New
(1933), 696-97. c70i
nationalism: black. 636-37; as cause of

I.
Neolin, 105
Nevada: Indian reservations in, m428;

mining in, 449. m450: railroads in,
m445: Sarah Winnemucca in, 433;
Wovoka in, 429
New Braunfels, TX. 309
for the Arts
National Energy Act (1978), 913

National Grange, 497-98
World War
Netherlands East Indies,
National Defense Act (1916), 594
National Defense Education Act (1958),

810
National
Nebraska: and cattle ranching. 445,

m445; slavery issue in, 345, 347
"necessary and proper" clause, 93
Negro National League (NNL), 681
Negro People's Theatre, 661
Policy, 876
multinational corporations, 965-66
276. 278. /7276, 41S.
National Conservation Commission,
(1908). 519
See National Endow ment for the
Arts
5 14
(NBC), 652
niuckrakers, 514-15
226-27
Deal, c703: arts programs ,716-19.
p716, p717, p718. p719: criticisms of.

700-01 emergency aspects of. 694;
659-60. p659. 70S-09. p709. 718: and
nationalize, definition of, 731
95; recovery programs. 696-99: relief
New
National Labor Relations Act (1935),
programs, 695-96,^696.- second. 701-
Deal, 718: in 1920s, 659-60,
p659, p660:
in 1960s.
S56-57, p856,
p857: rock. S26-21,p826. p827;
in
World War II. 754

Muskie, Edmund. 880
Muslims: in Azerbaijan. 960: in Bosnia,
962; and the Crusades, 19-20; in
Middle Ages. 20-21, p27. 23
Mussolini, Benito, 760;
rise of,
732-33,
c703, 705. See also Wagner-Connery
02, c703, 705-07: and
Act
704-05
National Liberation Front (NLF), 868

National Organization for
(NOW),
Women
854. 921-22
National Park Service, 5A\.p541,
m542
(NRA), 697. c703
New England:
Supreme Court.
Indian relations
Newfoundland, English claim to, 56

New France, 88, m88; conflicts in. 8990; fur trade
in.
88-89
National Security Council (NSC), 794
mutualistas, 676
national supremacy, 155
New Guinea, in Worid War II.
MX missile, 930
National Trades Union, 257
New Hampshire,
National Tuberculosis Association, 523
m81
new immigrants. 466-67
Muste, A.
J..
686
Mydans, Carl, 713; photograph

p715
Myers, Dee Dee, 942
by,
My Life on the Plains
430
'
(Custer),
National Urban League, 527-28

National
War Labor Board,
National
Woman's party, 552, 632-33

Woman's Peace party, /759i
Women's Political Caucus,
National
National
602-03
856
National Youth Administration (NYA),
702, c70i, 709-10
NAACP.
See National Association for

NAFTA. See North American Free
Trade Agreement
the
nations, rise
of,
21-22
Native American Grave Protection and

Repatriation Act (1990), 13
90-9 1
in.
New Freedom, 546-47

New Frontier, 833
National Road, 228
p732
in,
m69
New England Way, 69-70
settlements
New Jersey:
Edison" s workshop
Revolutionary
tlement
745. 763
663; as colony. m69.
War in,
of. /69,
81-82,
128,
in,
461;
ml29;
New Jersey Plan, 147

New lands Reclamation Act
(1902), 541
New Lights, 85
Newman, Pauline, 633
New Mexico:
art in. 663. 719; and Civil

War. 369: Dust Bowl in. 71 1. m711:
Mexican Americans in. 316: Mexican
603: in Mexican
Native Americans. See American Indians
immigration
Nagasaki, Japan, 765. 781

Napoleon, 230
Native Son (Wright), 717-18
Revolution, 577; in Mexican War,
nativism, 261-62, 470-71
313, 314, 315; migrant workers
Narragansets, 73. 90
Narrative of the Life of Frederick
NATO.
711; Native Americans
Douglass (Douglass). 294

Narvaez, Panfilo de. 45-46
Nash, Diane. 845
Nature (Emerson), 330

Navajos: burial sites of, 13; communities
of, 426; and Long Walk, 434-35,
p434, p435; in Worid War H, 763,
Nasser, Gamal Abdel. 8 1
National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA), 810. 951

National American Woman Suffrage
Association
(NAWSA), 552
National Association for the
See North Atlantic Treaty
to,
in,
in,
426. m428,
New Deal and Native

Americans in. 710; ranching in, 446;
and Santa Fe Trail, 317; and slavery
432. 434-35;
Organization
p763: reservations. m428

Navarre, 22
Navigation Acts, 83
issue, 340, 341;
Spanish settlement
New Nationalism, 545

New Netherland. See Dutch
New Orleans, LA. 233, 264;
Battle of
(1815), 214-15, /7275, 240; in Civil
Nazis: and anti-Semitism. 733; and
War. 381; founding

in. 401
German
709. 819, 822-23, pS22. 846
733; support
aggression. 735-38: and
Holocaust. 767-68: rise of Hitler, 727,

for,
p722-23, p733
of.
46,p5ft51
Navy Nurse Corps (NNC), 753

(NAACP), 527-28. 636. p636, 708,
set-
mS/
New
of, 88; race riots
Right, and Republicans, 928
New Spain:
encomienda system
INDEX
in,
1079
Roman
4()-4l. 42. 43:
42
in.
affair.
No
iU'spapcrs: antislavery. 293-94;
reform
Vietnam War, 881-85; and Watergate
Catholic church
Horse, drawing by, p427
to.
ml 42:
no-man's land, 589
142.
loumalism, 478
ncmaujiression pact (1939). 736

nonimportation agreements, 107
Gospel
Stories, li\aliiating. 984

Newton, Huc> P.. 849-50
Ne York: and Erie canal. 228. 232.
m2JJ: gi>\emors in. 139; land claims
and
141;
in.
Constitution. 151; settlement of. 8182; transportation
unemployment in. m676: and

Woodstock concert, 857. pS57
New ^'ork City, NY: African Americans
635. 660-62. nt66l: Alexander
in.
Hamilton
painting
in,
663-64; bombing
962;
in,
tional ratification debate in. 151;
depression of
Depression
893
500; Great
in.
672. 677. p677. 684;
in.
Harlem Renaissance in. 660-62.

m66l: immigrants in, 259, 467-70;
War
opposition to Civil
/7.?7-/.panicof 1837in. 248;
War
Revolutionary
Sojourner Truth
in,
127. 130;
in.
Stamp
294; and
Act Congress, 107; stock market crash

in,
934; Supreme Court
Tammany
in.
portation
UN
in.
Hall
in.
486, 514; terrorism
Thomas Edison
962;
in.
in,
232; Triangle
783; urban growth
461; transfire in,
in,
518;
235,
472-73, m473. 475; working condi-
257
tions in,
New York
State
Tenement House
bill
(1901). 522
New
Norris, George, 545
m360: compared
c367: ethnic diversity
in, in
in 1800s,
population
I860. c360
1
Zealand, 964
ml 5,
12-14,
16; foreign
1754.
c582:
in
1783.
m/i9
mHH;
in
mSl; secession
80,
of,
in.
nickelodeon.s, 653
m428
North Korea, 799-801, m799
North Star (newspaper), 294
Northwest Ordinance (1787), 142, 337
northwest passage, 56
Northwest Territory, 142. ml 42: Native
Americans in, 196-97
for
Women
nuclear power, 969-70
Nuremberg
226
Nusseibeh,
trials,
Sari.
0,
pSOS. c810:
Amendment
603; text
Nisei,
754
(1920), 552,
79
).
78. cl9l
901-02;
in
election of
1960. 832-33; in election of 1968.
of 1972, 884, 906-07;
energy programs
of,
ronmental program
902. c902: envi-
of.
903. p9()3: for-
eign policies of. 903-04; and foreign

policy. p9()0:
doning
of.
tions. 881
and
HUAC.
795; par-
909; and peace negotiaresignation of. 898. 899.
908; Supreme Court appointments
of,
Obregon, Alvaro. 576. 578

Occupational Safety and Health
Oliver, Joseph "King." 659
Olmecs, W-W.plT
Olympics, 654; Soviet boycott of
cott of
in
U.S.,
1972, 962; U.S. boy-
summer. 915
Omaha, NE. 483. c483. m483

Omnibus Housing Act (1965), 842
One Feather, Gerald. 816
Oneidas,91, 125
O'Neill, Eugene. 660
Onondagas,
91. 125
On the Nature of Created Things, p29

On the Road Kerouac 826
Open Door policy (1899). 567
).
open range, 446

open shops, 520
Operation Ajax, 8
Operation Desert Storm ( 1991
).
p926-
m939. 963
Oglethorpe, James. 83
Ohio: abolitionists in. 296; antiwar
demonstration
291;
Vietnam
in election
cease-fire. 884-85;
INDEX
and
in
in.
882; education
229. 318-20. L?/9
Administration (OSHA), 903

O'Connor, Sandra Day. 933
Octopus, The (Norris). 515
Office of Economic Opportunity
(OEO). 840
Office of War Information (OWI), 754
Ogallala, NE. 445. m445
901; as vice president. 812-13; and
080
Oliver, James. 441
in election
16
21
Orders in Council ( 807 ), 2
Oregon: confiict in, 321-22; settling,
Oberlin College, 291
Nixon, Richard M.. 900-01 p90l:

domestic policies of. 901 economic
881;
261
Amendment
of.
/)<*</
Operation Restore Hope (1992). 960

Operation Rolling Thunder (1965). 872
Operation Torch (1942). 759
Oppenheimer, J. Robert. 808
Order of the Star-Spangled Banner,
781-82. p782
939
of. 181
Ninth
program
Horse, 331
Old Lights, 85
Old Plantation, The (painting).
Olive Branch Petition (1775),
Oliver, Andrew. 107
27. p938. 938-39.
Nina (ship). 39
Nine Power Treaty (1921), 725
Nineteenth
436-
under Reagan, 930
Nimitz, Chester, 745
OldLady
931; terrorism
North Dakota: cattle trails and railroads

in. m445: Indian reservations in,
nuclear weapons, 808-
Niles, Hczekiah,
in,
1763. in]05; in
nuclear-freeze movement, 930
730; U.S. policy
of,
investment
(NATO), 793-94
North Carolina,
in.
unemployment in. m676

OldDeIuderLaw(1647). 70
Oldenberg, Claes. 854
old immigrants, 466
North, Oliver. 935
Nicaragua: and dollar diplomacy, 574;

and Iran-contra affair, 935-36; U.S.
in.
714; and Indian Territory, 243, 24431. p437:
NOW. See National Organization
intervention
460; Social
45, m244. 425. 426; land runs
Nez Perces, 432, 455
931./7W/
in.
Okinawa, Battle of (1945), 764

Oklahoma: Dust Bowl in, 71 \.m7ll,
860,
256; urban
c360; society
in
in,
to South, 366-68.
366. See also Carolinas
pl57;
in,
industry
industry, 460, 463-64. 514-15

Ojibways, 105
O'Keeffe, Georgia, 663, p664, 719
Okies, 714
North American Free Trade

Agreement (NAFTA), 965, 966-67
North Atlantic Treaty Organization
374-75,
in,
oil
477; and Treaty of Green-
oil
North Africa, in World War II, 747,

p747, 749
North America: early Indian cultures
in colonial period, 81. 86; constitu-
in.
Noriega, Manuel. 938
North, Frederick, Lord,
192; architecture and
in.
in
ville, 197; women's rights in. 299

Ohio Gang, 630
Ohio Valley, settlement of, 91-92
North: colleges and universities
m23J:
232.
in.
235;
of.
Non-Intercourse Act (1809), 212

nonviolent resistance, 844
Norris, Frank. 479. 4S\,p481, 515
ratification of"
536; growth
260, 262; and Northwest Territory,
loreign laiieuage. 469; and yellow
Nf>
in,
Harding scandals, 630; immigration
906-08, 1029-31
in,
election of 1896. 501. /50/.-
of 1920, 628; governmental
Oregon Country, 229

Oregon Trail, 318-21, mJ/9
Oregon Treaty (1846), m3l5
organizational chart, 996
Organization Man, The (Whyte). 825
Organization of Petroleum Exporting

Countries (OPEC), 902. 913. c966
Orlando, Vittorio, 607
Orozco, Jose Clemente, 662, 663
orphan trains, 524. p524

Osawatomie, KS. 545
Osceola, 243
O'SulIivan, John
L..
306
Oswald, Lee Harvey. 839

Oswego, 92
Otis, Elisha. 472
Ottawas, 105
Ottoman Empire, after World War
Sheeler, 664; of Civil War, p368,
Pemberton, John, 382
p373. p376. p379, p386: of Dorothea

Langc. 712-1 3, p7l3, 7 5, p7l5; of
Pendleton Civil Service Act (1883), 488

Peninsula Campaign, 376-77
I.
559
999
(Strong),
Outline, Creating an,

override, 155
147; education
energy
in.
m971, 972
in,
Warin. 372. 375. 379-81;

overseers, 269
ozone laver, hole
261
in,
crisis in,
labor
296; Civil
in.
p290, 434, p434:
914; immigration
to,
Americans of, 91; oil industry in, 460;

and industry in, 459; religion
Pacific, U.S. territories in.
m564
15; settlement of, 82, 86, 87,/?S7;
peons, 53
World War I. 605

Pacific Railway Act (1862), 436, 438
Pacific Rim, 964
Pago Pago, American Samoa, p558
Pahlavi, Reza. 810. 916
Pequot
pacifism,
in
4,
7 5; post-Civil
1
p7l2: of Toyo Miyatale,/? 754; of
Vietnam War, 875; of Walker Evans.

712
physical maps, 992
Pickens,
F.
W.. 365
Pickett, George, 379, 380
Pierce, Franklin, 344, p344, 356; in election of 1852, 343; foreign policy of,
346; inauguration of, 343-44,
War
p343
Pike, Zebulon, 209
636-37), 90, p90
( 1
p6S
Peralta, Pedro de, 5
Pilgrims, 65. 66-68,
Percy, George. 60
Pimas, 426
perestroika, 934, 957
Pinchot, Gifford, 544, p544
Perez, Jesse. 721
Pinckney, Charles, 203
Paige, Satchel. 681
Perkins, Frances, 695, 758
Paine, Thomas, 117,p777, 119, 127,218
Perlot, Jean-Nicolas, 326
Pinckney's Treaty (1795), 197-98

Pinckney, Thomas, 197; in election of
Paiutes, 426, 429, 433
Paleo-Indians, 4-5, 7-8
Perot, H. Ross, 921,p927, 941-42, 967

Perry, Matthew, 567, p567
Pine Ridge Reservation, 432, 859
Palestinians, 960
Perry, Oliver Hazard, 213
Pine, Robert, painting by, pl21
Palmer, A. Mitchell, 625-26, p625

Palmer raids, 625-26
Pershing, John
Pinta (ship), 39
Panama: and drug
Persian Gulf War (1991), 888, 938-39,
trade, 939, 975; revo-
572
Panama Canal, 570-72, m57]. p572
Panama Canal treaties il97S), p9]4,
914-15
lution in,
Panay
J.,
577, 596, 598. 599,
1796.^200
Pisa, Italy, 20
791
m939
Pitcher, Molly, 125
Pittsburgh, PA: corruption
growth
Peru, 975
pesticides,
819
Pitt,
Petain, Philippe. 737
of,
235; strike
in,
in,
William, 92-93
Pizarro, Francisco, 48-49, p48
pet banks, 247
place, 9
Peterson, Merrill, 207
Plains, farm
Panic of 1819, 236

Panic of 1837, 247-48, 257
Panic of 1873, 407, 470
Pan-Slavic movement, 586
"paper sons," 47 1
Paper, Writing a. 1001-02
Philadelphia, PA: Constitutional
Plains Indians, c422. 425-32
735
Papua New Guinea, 964

parallels,
993
Parker, Alton, 539
C, 528
Parker, Charlie, 754

Parker, Ely S../7i56, 388
Parker, John, 114
Parks, Gordon, 715
Parks, Rosa, 823, p823
partnerships, 462
Passing of the Great Race, The (Grant),

529
Paterson, William, 147
in,
145; corruption
in,
534; demonstration of telephone
in,
life
on, 442-43,
p442
planned obsolescence, 664

The (painting), p76
Plantation,
460; department store
in,
465; First
plantations, southern, 74-75, 266-67
Continental Congress
in,
113; growth
Piatt
of,
235; immigrants
in,
259; impact of
railroads on, 459; labor in, 493; reli-
gion
Paris Peace Conference {\9\9), p606,

607-08, p607
Parker, Arthur
Convention
534;
p624
Pan-German movement, 586
(ship),
E.
pie graph, 997
Square Deal in, 539

Penn, William, 82, /?S2
Pentagon Papers, 882-83, 906
pacification, 874
Stryker and, 712-1 3; of Russell Lee,
145,
railroads
in,
663-64, 7 2- 1 3, 7
War, p395, p4U, p413, p4I4: Roy
493, m495, 496; Native
in.
Great Depression, /7669, p672, p679,
p684, p7l2-l3: and photographers,
peninsulares, 53
Pennsylvania: abolitionists
608. indOH
Our Country
Pemba, 26
in,
in,
86; strike
in,
14, 117; settlement of,
p623;
in
Worid War
I,
(Welch),
893
1027-28
Plunkitt, George Washington, 486
Plymouth,
p601
MA,
65, 66-68, tn69
Plymouth Company, 59
Pocahontas, 60, p60
philanthropy, 474
Philip II (Spain). 58
Poindexter, John, 935
Philippa of Lancaster, 30
Philippine
(1902), 569, 728
Who Matter"
Plessy V. Ferguson (1896), 414, 822,
283; Second Continental
Congress
Amendment
"Plea to Those
Government Act
(1902),
Point of View, Recognizing, xxi

Points of View, Comparing, 420
564
PhiUppines, ;756i, m564, c568, 964; conquest and rule of, 564-65: debate over
annexation
of,
poison gas,
in
World War
Poland: German invasion
War
post-Worid War
post- Worid
563-64; Spanish
American War in, p556-57, 557, 56365; in Worid War II, 745, m746, 762-64
I,
I.
590
of,
736;
608. m608;
II,
789; and
Solidarity, 930-31, /79i7
patio process, 449
Philippine Sea, Battle of the (1944), 762
Polish Americans, pl30, 466, 467, 470,
Patterson, John, 537
Phillips,
David Graham, 534-35

phonograph, development of, p457,
political
machines, 469, 486
political
maps, 992
Patterson,
Mary
Jane, 291
Paul, Alice. 552, p552
Pawnees, 427
Payne-Aldrich Tariff (1909). 544
peace activists, 724-25, p724
Peace Corps, ;jSi5, 835, 840, 91^,p978
Pearl Harbor, p742-43, 743, 754
461
photography: of Alfred
64; as
art,
Stieglitz,
663-
663-64; of Arnold Genthe,
p529; of Arthur Rothstein, 712, p7]2;

of Ben Shahn, 7\2.p713; of Carl
Mydans, Il3,p715; of Charles
tn483, 931.
m954
Polk, James K., 3 1
pi7 7,
3 1 2, p3]2,
313; and slavery issue, 339; and Texas

annexation, 311-12; and western settlement, 320
Polk, Sarah, ;7i 7 7
INDEX
1081
poll taxes, 4
progresslvism, 512-1
pollution, y7:-73
I'oniu
de A>ala, Felipe Guumun. drawing
I'oncf df Ia'oii, Jimii. 45

INinliuc. I()>
INmliac's Ki-hellion (1763). 105
poorhouses. rctorins
l'M)r
in,
287
Pi'opk's March, SSO
P(M)r. S.ilcMi. 125
pop
art, S54.
p5IJ:
pS54
Pope. 5
popular soMTclgnty, 339

population: change. 1970-80. m925:
in
the North. cJ6(): in the South. cJ6l:
Works Administration (PWA),
697, c7()3
/75/,
634,710.921
6\4,p614;
literature of,
in 195()s. 815./7S/5,
562; U.S. territory, c568. 569, 570,
Portugal: explorations
of,
29-30; and
Pulitzer, Joseph, 478. 559-60
improvements
233. m233, p25l,
in.
459; and industrialization. 253.
m253: mileage
of.
459; and transcon-
tinental lines. 436-38, p438. 459;
and
western settlement, 437, 438. p438,
rain forests, 970-72. 977

Rain of Gold (Villasenor). 639
Raleigh, Sir Walter, 59
Ramos-Hora, Jose. 963
in
Spanish America. 53
Randolph, A. Philip, 756. p785, 786. 847

Randolph. Edmund: as attorney general.
1
p/iO
Pulaski, Kazimierz, 130,
with Spain, 45; unification of. 21; at
in late
1800s, 459; and immigration, 467;
pt47
as Virginia governor. 146.
Randolph.John. 212. 228

Rankin, Jeannette. 594-95. p595. 605.
p570
Maastricht Treaty. 965; negotiations
m445: economic impact of
ranchos,
821; after
Spanish-American War, 570. p570

Puerto Rico, in Spanish-American War,
m746
Port Moresby, 745.
754
p455
"Rainbow Coalition," 937
Rainey, Joseph H.. p406
Public
Puerto Ricans:
Portola, Caspar de. 52
II,
public schools, 289-90
Pueblos. 51.
Port Hudson, LA, 382
1930s, 680, 682.^694. 695;
World War
Railroad Administration, 602

railroads: and cattle industry, 444-45,
pueblos, 13
Porter. Andrew. 372
in
Promise of American Life, The (Croly),

516
propaganda. World War I. 604-05. p604
Propaganda, Recognizing, 774
proprietorships, 462
Pros.ser, Gabriel. 272
protectionism. 966
protectorate, 569
Protestant Reformation, 57-58
cJ60: world, c976. 977; zero popula-
922
p656
railhead. 445
Pueblo Revolt (1680), 51
Populist party, 499-500
radio: development of commercial, 652,
projections. 994
urban. S60; U.S.. 977; in the West.
tion growth.
limits of.
/;652.- in
prohibition, 289. 525. 656.
38
I'olo, M,irLO. 24.
6.
526. 528
725
Washington Conference, 725

Potawatomis, 196
Potsdam Conference (1945), 780-81, 791
Pottawatomie Massacre (1856), 348
Pullman, George, 496
RazI, 23
Pullman strike, 496. p496

Pure Food and Drug Act (1906), 540.
p540
poverty: California gold rush and, 327;
Puritans,
Reagan, Nancy. p928

Reaganomics. 929
Reagan, Ronald. 927-29. p928, p929\
and bombing of Libya. 962; communi-
in cities.
475. p475, 491-92, p5/i,
in
/765.-
and Great Migration, 68;
Massachusetts Bay Colony, 69-71;
settlement in Plymouth, 65. 66-68;
problems
p439; in Great Depression, 669,

676, 683; and New Deal, 695-96,
and settlement of Connecticut and

Rhode Island. 72-73
of.
4?i9.
698, 708- 1 5; in
950s, 815-16, p8]5.
S2\.p82]: post-Civil War, 394. 39596; post-Mexican War. 316;

post-World War I, 635; and
Pyle,
17,
Howard, painting by, pl44
of.
933-34; economic policy
929-30, 935-36;
1976, 91
Purvis, Robert, 350-51
1;
m917;
in election
952; foreign policy
America, 677-79, p679. p712, p713.

714-15; and single-parent families.
in election
of
of 1980, 916-
in election
of 1984. 933,
of,
930-32, 935-
933
36; popularity of,
Reconstruction, 412-13; in rural
realpolitik. 903
recall,
535
recession, of 1990s. 942,
966
reclamation, 541
949; and social reform. 286-87. 476-
Qaddafl, Muammar, 962
Reconquista, 22. 39.
77. p476. p477. p5l6. 522-23. 528;
Quakers:
as early abolitionists, 79; oppo-
Reconstruction: congressional. 399-404,
82
m400. p40], p402, p403, p404: impact

on South. 405-07. p405, p406. 408-09.under Johnson. 397-98; and Ku Klux
and Vietnam War, H16-ll\
War
on.
Powderly, Terence
V.. 493, p493.
494
Powell, Colin, 938
Powell, Lewis, 901
Powers, Francis Gary, 813

Powhatans, 60. 77
POWs, in Vietnam War, 887
14
Presley, Elvis. 826. 827.

Price. Leontyne.
Quartering .Act (1765), 109.

Quayle, Dan. 936. 943. 947. 949
Quebec Act (1774), 112. m//2
Quebec, Canada, founding of. 88
Queen Anne's War ( 702- 3 ). 9
QuetzalcoatI, 46-47
Quicksand (Larsen). 661
Quiet American, The (Greene), 863
Quincy. Josiah. 10
1
precedent, 190
Prescott, Samuel,
sition to war, 735; in Pennsylvania.
Quang Due, p869
840. p840: world. m976. c977
pS27
276
Quintanilla. Luis. 573
Primary and Secondary Sources,
Qur'an, 23
Studying. 998-99
primary sources, 998

Princip. Gavrilo. 587.
p587
287
Pritchett, Laurie. 846
prisons, reforms
and. 544-45
082
INDEX
military' districts.
of.
553; Taft
Rabin. Yitzhak. 960

race riots: in Chicago. 635-36. p635: in
late 1960s. 850; post-World War L
604.
p604
for.
m402:
northern attitudes toward. 407-08; perspectives on. 409;
poem
about,
419
Reconstruction Acts (1867), 402

Reconstruction Finance Corporation
(RFC), 685-86
recycling, 973-74
Red Cloud, 432

Red Power movement, 85
Red Record, A (Barnett), 415
Red River Delta, Vietnam. 864
Red Scare (191 9-20), /7625. 625-27,
War
II,
p795
Proclamation of 1763, 105

Progressive party: legacy
ml
Klan. 407. p407: Lincoln's plan
395-96; and
post-World
in.
Problem Solving, xxiv
cation skills of. 928-29; domestic
676. 815.821. p82]: and Exodusters.
Reed, James, p320

Reed, Margaret. p320
Reed, Walter. 569
referendum, 535
794-95. p794,
637;
reforms:
522-23, p52J. 525-26.
in cities,
536-37; education. 289-91; election.

535. p535: of institutions, 286-87;
in,
281; of state government, 537. See
movement
also temperance
Prize. 568;
719
539-40;
tion of business.
Hill,
533
974
Rise of Silas luipham, The (Howells),
479
m36l
and Panama Canal. p5M,
538; as Progressive. 513; and regula-
98
Rights of Great Britain Against the

Claims of America, The, 119
Rio de Janeiro,
570. 571. 572. p572: as president.
Brazil.
562; Square Deal
Taft, 545;
Riis, Jacob. 467. 475. 524.
regionalism, 233-34, 360-61, m360,

regionalists,
Ridgway, Matthew. 801

Riesman, David. 825
right of deposit,
women
progressive, 512-19; role of
and U.S.
San Juan
at
of 539; and
neutrality.
593
Root, Robert Marshall, painting hy, p352
Rosebud, Battle of 876), 429

Rosenberg, Ethel, 795,/? 795
Rosenberg, Julius, 795, p795
Rostow, Eugene. 754
(
regions, 9
Rivera, Diego, 663; mural by, p663
rehabilitation, 287
Rivlin, Anne. 840
Reliabilitation Act (1973), 919
roads, building of national. 228
rotation in office, 241
Rehnquist, William, 901, 933

Rejon, Manuel Cresencio, 314
Roanoke
Rothstein, Arthur, photograph by. p712
in
American Revolution,
pi 15: and dissent. 73; and

Fundamentalism. 656-58; and Great
1
15.
Awakening. 84-85; of immigrants. 469;

in
Middle Ages,
18;
trial,
1.
49. 710; and Scopes
Awakening. 282-84. p282, c284: and

slavery issue, 340; and Social Gospel
movement, 477. See also Mormons;
Roman
J.
Robertson,
Pat, 943
Robeson, Paul. 276. 660, p660. 667
Rochambeau, Comte
de. 132
Rockefeller, John D.. 463, p463, 514-15.
499. p499;
'n' roll,
826-27. p826,
1
V.
Wade
Shakers
religious revivals, 282-83, p282, p302
Relocation Act (1956), 815-16
Great Depression. 677-
p497; in South. 266-67, p267;

West, 440-43. p441, p442
p827
Rodney, Thomas. 28
Rodriguez de Tio, Lola, 614-15, p614
Roe
in
79; and National Grange. 497-98,
(1913), 92\, 922, 1031-32
in
Rush-Bagot Agreement (1817), 229

Rusk, Dean, 837. 878
Russia: and breakup of Soviet Union. 959.
Rolling Stones, 856
m959, 960: and China. 566; and Peace

Corps. 978; Russo-Japanese War, 568;
Roman
and
Rolfe,John, 60. 61
Catholic church;
Jack,
Rural Electrification Administration

(REA), 702. c703
rural life: and Farmers' Alliance. 498-
908
rock
Riders, 538. 562
839
Ruckelshaus, William, 908
rugged individualism, 683-84
]..p265
Rockefeller, Nelson, as vice president.
657-58. p658: and Second Great
Quakers;
Roberts,
625
and Moral
Majority. 928-29. p928: and Native
Americans.
Ruby,
p240
religion: of African Americans. 275. 276.
p276, 283-84;
Rough
Robards, Rachel Donelson, 239-40,
992
relative location, 9,
Island, 59
Catholic church: and election of
sale of Alaska. 449;
and Treaty of
1928. 631; and election of 1960, 832;
Brest-Litovsk, 598; U.S. territorial dis-
Remarque, Erich Maria. 613
and missions
putes with, 23 1
Remington,
m52, p53: and founding of Maryland.

74; and nativism. 261-62; and
Russo-Japanese
Protestant Reformation. 57-58; and
Russwurm,
religious freedom, 74; role of, in
Ruth, George Herman "Babe," 653,
Frederic,
560
Renaissance, 20-21
rendezvous system, 3 1
Reno, Janet. 942
reparations, 607. 609
Spanish America, 51.
republicanism, and women. 140
c976:
Republican party: and Civil War. 364;

division of, in 1910, 545-46; and
in election of 1860.
354-55. p354, m355, p355: in election

of 1920. 628; influence of
New
Right
on, 928; origin of. 348-49
in
Worid War
Rommel, Erwin.
II,
747,
War
and Worid
I,
War (1904-05).
John, 293,
568
p293
p653, 681
m748
747, p747. 749
Roosevelt, Alice Lee. 538
Roosevelt Corollary (1904), 573

Roosevelt, Edith Kermit Carow. 538
Saar, post-Worid
Roosevelt, Eleanor: 65
Sacagawea, ;7205, 208
1932, 688; and Fair
in election
of
Employment
War I. 608
Sacco, Nicola, 626-27. p627
Research, Doing. 1000
Practices Committee, 7S5, p785; and
Sadat, Anwar, 915, p91 5, 916, p924
reservations, Indian, 427, m428, 432-33
human
Safer, Morley,
reservationists, 609
695. 708
reserved powers, 154. cl54

Resistance, in France. 737.
retailing, advances in, 650-51.
Revels, Hiram R.,
p657
p406
Richmond, VA:
in.
908
272
Benedict, /77S
704; in election of 1940, 737;
St.
Good Neighbor
in,
policy
New
264; slave
in elec-
New
Deal,
Lawrence River,
St.
Peter. 125.;7725
Salem witchcraft
Salinger,
Court, 704-05; and U.S. neutrahty,
Salvation
750, 753;
Yalta. 761, 768. See also
New
at
Deal
Roosevelt, Theodore, p538, 539, p539: as

assistant secretar>' of
Navy, 560: and
m542:
early career of, 533, 538-39; in election of 1912, 546-47,
m547; and
New
Nationalism, 545; and Nobel Peace
of
Leger, Barr\\ 130
Salem,
694-99, p694, p697; and Supreme
War II.
exploration
m81. 88
of
of 728-
York, 65
conservation. 540-41, p547,
as Confederate capital.
366; manufacturing
revolt in,
Augustine, FL, 50
inauguration of, 693; and
Constitution. 151; settlement of, 73

Elliot,
St.
St.
29; as governor of
253, m253; and ratification of
Sagoyewatha, 2 1
Sagres, Portugal. 30
764; in election of 1932, 688-89,
735; in Worid
Island: early industrialization
of.
p688, p689; in election of 1936, 702,
695;
Reynolds, Albert. 962

Rhee, Syngman, 799
p875
Sagan, Carl. 381
tion of 1944, 753; "fireside chats"
Revere, Paul. 110, 114

reverse discrimination, 920
revisionists, 769
Richardson,
783, p783; and reform,
and Atlantic Charter. 738; death
Revenue Act of 1935, 702, c703. See

also Wealth Tax Act
Revenue Act of 1938, c703
Rhode
rights,
Roosevelt, Franklin Delano. 63\. p768:
p737
586,
587. 588. See also Soviet Union
Middle Ages, \S,pl8; in Oregon, 319

Romania: post-Worid War II, 768. 789.
republic, 138-39
Eisenhower, 814;
in
J.
D..
trials,
70-7
\.
p70
826
Army, 477. p684

Samoa, 558-59^ m564. c568
San Antonio de Valero mission, 5
San Antonio, TX: founding of 51; Juan
Seguin in, 310; Mexican American
migration
to.
m638, 639;
Revolution. 308.
in
Texas
m308
San Carlos Reservation, 432

Sand Creek Massacre 864). 427
(
INDEX
1083
San
1.
.Sedgwick. Susan, painting by, pll
323
nit'so. C.\. settlement of.
Sandinistas, ^3
Sandino. Augusto Cesar. 730. p7J0

San Francisco, CA: Chinese immigrants
in.
/OJV.
ci\il
city
planning
523. 525;
in.
nghts in./>V/y. counterculture
S53; founding of. 52.
m.'>2:
in.
and gold
nd25: Insh immigrants in.

259; Nati\e American protest near.
rush. 324.
851; settlement
323; and transconti-
of.
Wilma Mankiller
nental railroad. 438;

in.
[jJO*^.
313
SantaFe, NM. 3l7./>iy7

Santa Fe Trail, 317
Santiago Baca, Jimmy. p982, 983
Sanla Maria (ship). 39. 40
San \a>ier del Bac mission, p5i
Saratoga. Battle oi (Mil),
28, 756. 82
412-14;
in military. 125.
756; post-Worid
War
II.
ml 29,
130
20.
Savage, Edward, painting by. pl21
Savannah, GA.
American Revolution,
13I;inCivil War, 387-88
Savings and Loan (S&L) crisis, 934
scalavâgs. 406
Scalia. Antonin. 933
Schenk v. United States (1919), 605
in
p922
Schneiderman. Rose. 5\%,p5l8
Schwarzkopf. H. Norman, 938
Schwerner. Michael, 847
scientinc management. 647-48
Schlafly. Ph\ His. 922,
Scopes, John. 657-58;
trial of.
p386. 395.413
Sherwood, Robert. 718
786; in
Shiloh, Battle of (1862). 381
Sholes, Christopher. 460.
southern support of, 828, 901
Shoshonis, 427,
Selective Service Act (1917). 595

Selective Training
and Service Act
81.236
pijy
Scott, Wintleld. 343; in
313
493
Sea Islanders, 412-13
Scale, Bobby. 849-50
search-and-destroy missions, 873
scrip,
WA,
general strike
in.
623,
p623
secession, constitutional issues
in,
356-57
Second Amendment 79 ), 77. c/9/

secondary sources. 998
Second Continental Congress (1775).
(
114-15
Second Great .Awakening, 282-84.

c2H4. pM)2
Second Seminolt War 835-42). 244
(
sectionalism. 198-99
Securities
and Exchange Commission
(1934), c70J
INDEX
25. See also Gannett,
War
II.
m748, 760
826
900
silent majority.
(Sewall). 79
The
Silliman, Benjamin.
Jr..
460
Sinclair, Upton. 511. 555
Singapore: and global economy. 964;
World War
745.
II.
Sioux, 426. 427-32
Senecas, 91, 105. 125
Sirhan. Sirhan, 880
Seoul. South Korea, m799. SOO, pSOl
Sister Carrie (Dreiser), 515
separation of church and state, 139
sit-down strike, 705
separation of powers, 155, 162, 163
sit-in.
Separatists, 66
Sitting Bull. See lyotake, Tatanka
Sequoya, 242-43. p242

Serbia, and World War l, 586, 587
Serbs, 960, 962
serfs, \l,pl7
Serra, Junipero. 52
Servicemen's Readjustment Act (1944).
Six-Day
5e'fGI
Bill
in
m746
Siqueiros, David Alfaro, 663
1005-06
844
W ar. 904
Six Nations. 9
Sixteenth
text of,
Amendment
(1913). 543-44;
180
Sixth
Amendment
Skills
Handbook. 988-1002
(1791). \ll,cl91
skyscrapers, development
of Rights
settlement houses, 416-11, p476. 516
472
1
234
Slater, Samuel,
Seven Days' Campaign (1862), 377

Seven Pines, Battle of 862). 377
Seventeenth Amendment (1913), 535;
slave codes. 79. 273
of.
slash-and-burn agriculture,
Sevareid, Eric, 754
slave culture, 255, 274-77. p274, p275,
lis
slavery: debate over. 338-42; extension of,
180
Amendment
(1791), 177-78,
c-79/
m237. 238, m345; and Fugitive Slave

Act, 344-45; and Kansas-Nebraska
Sewall, Samuel, 79
Act. 345, 347; and the Missouri

Compromise. 237-38, m237: in South.
Seward, William
pI48: southern
H.: as secretary of state,
onslavery. 337, 341,351
Mexican War.
Sicily, in W\)rid
silent generation,
384, 449; and "Seward's Folly." 449;
"Scottsboro Boys," 687
Deborah Sampson
Seljuk Turks, 19
Seven Years' War, 91
Scott, Dred. 295. 350-51.
Shurtleff, Robert.
self-determination, 606
Seventh
p65H
p460
m428
Side of Paradise, This (Fitzgerald), 662
(1940), 753
text of.
Scotch-Irish, 81,239, 515
Sherman, William Tecumseh. 386-87.
schools. 290, 822-25. 846. 919-20;
657-58.
Silver Purchase Act (1890),
499. 500
384-85. 595.
and Jim Crow laws.
Seneca Falls Declaration of Sentiments,
Sauks. 196
1084
segregation, 413; and Black Power. 84850; in churches, 268; in housing. 527-
99, 301
Saturday Night Massacre (October

1973). 908
Seattle,
Sherman
Seminoles, 229-30. p229, 242. 243-44

Seneca Falls Convention (1848), 298-
Saroyan, William. 719

satellite nations, 789
satellites. 968
Scots,
Sherman, Roger. 147
Sedition .Act (1918). 605
Selling of Joseph,
Sarajevo. Bosnia and Herzegovina, 587
Antitrust Act (1890), 464.
Sedition Act (1798). 202
Seguin. Juan Nepomuceno. 310. pi/0
948
San Francisc) de los Tejas mission, 5

San Jacinto. Battle of 1836). 308-09
San Juan Hill. Cuba. 562
Santa Anna. .Antonio Lopez de. 308-09.
Sherman
540. 549
sedition. 202
/>y.</
sexual harassment, 940-41, 942
Seymour. Truman, 385

Shahn, Ben, 712; painting by. p627:
photograph by, p7l3
Shakers,284
Shame of the Cities, The (Steffens). 515.
534
attitudes toward. 264-
66; in southern colonies. 77-79. c79:
and Three-Fifths Compromise, 147-48

slave(s), 269-70,
of.
p269: living conditions
270. p270. p271. p336-37: popula-
tion.
c267: rebellion and resistance
tion.
80-8
treatment of. 270-72
slave trade, 30-31, pi/. 41-43. 77-79.
p78. c955
shantytowns, 677. p677

sharecropping. 4 0/>4/ /. 678
1
1 ,
Share-Our-Wealth (1933). 701

Shaw. Bernard. 939
Shawnees, 105. 196
Shaw, Robert Gould. 385
Shays. Daniel, \44,p]44
Slidell, John.
312
Sloat. John. 313
Slovenes, 960
smallpox, p42
Sheeler. Charles. 664
Smeal.
Smith.
Smith.
Smith.
Smith.
Smith,
Smith,
Sheridan, Philip H., 401
Smith, Margaret Chase, 807. p807
Shays's Rebellion (1786-87), 143-44.

149
Sheehan.
Neil.
875
of.
79. 206. 208. 272-74; and rice produc-
Eleanor. 942
Adam. 192
Alfred E. "Al." 631-32, 700
Bessie.
660
John. 60
Joseph. 284-85
Mamie, 660
Smoot-Hinvley Tariff (1930). 674

Social Darwinism, 462. 477
Social (lospel movement, 477
and Gorbachev. 935. p935. 957, 958-
Stamp Act Congress
60; invasion of Afghanistan, in905,
social history, definition of.
836-37; and Nixon, 903-04; and
standard gauge, 459

Standard Oil, 463, 464; Tarbell
gation of, 514-15
915, 930; under Khrushchev, 812-13,
8.'^5
socialism, >2()
nonaggression pact with Germany,
Socialist party: and Great Depression,
736; and nuclear arms race, 808-10;
686; and opposition to World
605:
War
I.
c546: and Share-Our-
rise of,
Wealth program. 701
Stalin, 768,
Social Security Act (1935), 702. p702,

c7()JI.
705
Society of
Conservation Service (1935), c703

/jW/
Islands, in
World War
II.
746.
m746. 141
Somalia, 25. 960. p960. 962. 977
"Some Keep the Sabbath Going to

Church" (Dickinson), 330-31
Somme, Battle of the (1916), 589, 590
Somoza Debayle, Anastasio, 93
Songhay, m26. 27
"Song of Borinquen, The" (Rodriguez
deTio), 614-15
"Song of the Moon" (McKay), 772

"Song of the Sky Loom" (Tewa song).
331
of the Middle Border, A (Garland),

443
Sons of Liberty, 107, 110, 111
Soto, Hernando de, 46, m57
Sound and the Fury, The
(Faulkner),
p682
South: compared with North, 366-68,
c367: cotton in, 263, m264, 643, m643;
682,
during Reconstruction, 394-95, p395;
education
in,
290, 361, m361; ethnic
diversity in, c36}; illiteracy in. 361;
growth
in,
264, 411; popula-
tion of, c267. c361; slavery in, 77-79,
264-66, 269-72, 273-75, 277; society

in,
266-68; tenant farming and share-
cropping
in
World War
II,
747, 749, p749.
War; Russia
space program: in 1960s, 810, 900,
p90():m 1980s, 951, /795/
space shuttle, 950
Spain: aid to American colonies, 130;
early claims of, m57; explorations of,
37-43, 45-49; U.S. relations with, 22930; and Maastricht Treaty, 965; negotiation with Portugal, 45;
and Pinckney's
Treaty, 197-98; and Reconquista,

22; rise of Franco
in,
in,
410-U, p411, 643, m643;
treatment of African Americans
in,
412-14, p47i,- transportation
m36]
in,
South Africa, 960

South America, foreign investment
582. c582.
ml 9,
733-34; and
in.
South Carolina, 80-8 1 and

;
,pl48; industrialization
and nullification
crisis,
indigo.
in,
252, m252;
245-46; seces-
sion of, 356, 364; textile industry
in,
252. See also Carolinas, settlement of
South China Sea, 864, m865

South Dakota, m428, 429, 859
Southern Christian Leadership
Conference (SCLC), 844, 846
Southern Patriot, 27
southern strategy, 901
Southern Tenant Farmers' Union
(STFU), 698, 706
South Korea, 799-801, m799. 964
Southwest Voter Registration
Education Project, 9
Soviet Union: breakup of, 958, m959;
1
and Brezhnev, 904; and China, 904;
Stanton, Elizabeth Cady, 298, p298, 300,
"Star Spangled Banner, The," 214

State Department, creation of 191
"Steal Away" (spiritual), 418

steamboat construction, improvements
in,
232-33
steel industry:
growth of 458-59, c459,
462-63, p463; 1919 strike
Steffens, Lincoln, 514, 515, 533, 534,
536
Stein, Gertrude, 662
Steinbeck, John, 7
7,
72
033
Steinem, Gloria, 856, p856, 92

Stephens, Alexander, 356
Stephenson, David, 637

Stereotypes, Recognizing, 616
Spanish America, 50-55, m52; colonial

life in, 53-55; encomienda system in,
in,
54; missions in, xxvi, pxxvi,
52-53, m52; ranchos

in,
in,
53;
women
54-55
Stevens, John
E.,
806, 812
Stevens, Thaddeus, 399, p399
Stewart, Maria W., 296
663-64
Stimson, Henry, 730, 738

stock,
462
Stockdale, William, 942
560; in Puerto Rico, 562. See also
stockholders, 462
stock market: 1929 crash, 670-71, c677 ;
erature
Spanish Armada, 58
Spanish Civil War, 733-34, p734
special purpose map, 992
specie, 226
Specie Circular (1836), 247
Spencer, Herbert, 462
spheres of influence, 566
Spice Islands, 28, m29, 31
Spirit
of St. Louis, The
1987 crash. 934, /79i4

Stockton, Robert
F.,
313
Stone, Lucy, 296
Stono rebellion (1739), 79

Stowe, Harriet Beecher, 344
Strategic
Arms
Limitation Talks
(SALT), 904
Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), 930
Strategies for Success. See individual
(airplane),
p654
strategies
Stravinsky, Igor, 660
Americans
strict construction, 193
Spitz, Mark, 777
strikebreakers, 495
Spock, Benjamin, 810, 876

spoils system, 241, 486-89
strikes: early, 258, p25S;
police, 624;
(Masters), 615
1920s, 653-54, p653. See also baseball

J.,
post-World War
472
623-
p624
Strobel, Louisa Catherine, painting by,
p240
SpM^m'A: (satellite), 810
Strong, Josiah. 559
Squanto, 68
Stryker, RoyE., 712, 713
Square Deal, 539

stagflation, 902
Stuart, James E. B. (Jeb). 377
Stalin, Joseph, 768. p768. 789-90,
812
Stalingrad (USSR). 747; Battle of

(1942-43). 749
Student Nonviolent Coordinating

Committee (SNCC), 844-45, 877
Students for a Democratic Society
(SDS), 876
Stalwarts, 488
Studs Lonigan
Stamp Act
Stuyvesant, Peter, 82
(1765), 106; protests of,
pi 04, 106-07; repeal
I,
25, p623. p624: Pullman, 496; in steel

industry, 624-25,
sports: in late 1800s, 479, p479; in
Sprague, Frank
1870-1900,
494-96, c495: Homestead, 495-96:
Spokanes, 322
Spoon River Anthology
pl08
p92J
571
F..
Stevenson, Adlai
561-62; in Philippines, 551,p556-57,

lit-
Steuben, Baron Friedrich von, 130, 132
Stieglitz, Alfred,
Spanish-American War, 558-62; causes

of, 558-60. m561: in Cuba, 559-60,
624-25,
in,
p624
search for gold, 40; unification of, 22.
spirituals. See music: of African
m582
Standing Rock Reservation, m428, 429

Stanford, Leland, 438, 459
Stanton, Edwin M., 385. 403
See also Spanish America
zos
investi-
404, 552, 603
crisis,
40-41, 42, 43, 48, 53, 54, 62; mesti-
5o/i
industrial
p768: and Suez
750, 766, p766, 768. See also Cold
Solidarity, 931.
Solomon
to fas-
81 1-12; withdrawal from Afghanistan,
935;
American Indians, 528
Society of Friends (Quakers). 735

Soil
and Peace Corps, 978; response
cism, 734-35; and Sputnik, 810; and
(1765). 107-08
of.
107-08,
(Farrell).
submarines, 334,
subsidies, 698
682
/7ii4, 591,
INDEX
747
:: 1085
fanning. See agriculture
siibsistfnci'
suburbs: JcM.I<.pmeni
473;
of.
in
1950s,
I.
590.
Mexican migration
p590
Payne- Aldrich. 544; and
tariffs, 148:
2W
Billy. 525.
rise
656
settle-
ment of, 307; and Mexican War, 311\2,m3l3. 314, 315-16; Native
Americans in, 307; and
Reconstruction. m402: Republic of.
of big business. 464; Smoot-Hawiey.
7>()9-\().p309: revolution in. 308-09.
674
m308; secession
slavery
task system, 8
in,
of,
Tejanos
1024
taxation: colonial protests over. 106-12;
356, 364, m366:
338-39, 340, m340. m345;
Spanish settlement
Ta-sunko-witko (Crazy Horse), 429,
and Shays's Rebellion. \43-44, p]44

taxes: graduated income. 500; and
Sunbelt, 922
ni638, 639,
to.
p639. 756-57, 815; Mexican
TarifTActt 1816). 227-28

TarifT Act (1828), 245
Sugar Act (1764), 106. c///

Sulli>an, Lduis. 664
Sumner, Charles. 348, 399
Sumner, \V illiam Graham. 457
Sun Also Kises. The (Hemingway). 662
Sunday,
World War
1
Sudan, 977
Suez Canal, 791
Sue/ crisis. S 1
in
Tarbell, Ida. 5 4-15. />5y4
SI6-I7./>,S7 7
sufTrat'e,
tanks,
Tanzania, 25
in.
5\,p53:
of,
307. 310, 316
Texas Revolution (1835). 308-09, m308

Texas v. Johnson, 1033-34
textiles, 235. 252-53. m252-53. 257
Thailand: and drug trade. 975; in World
Sundiata (African epic poem). 33
Reaganomics. 929-30; repeal of
Sung, Betty Lee. 329

superpowers, 768
supply-side economics, 929
whiskey, 205; and Sixteenth
Amendment, 543-44
Tax Reform Law (1986), 933
supremacy
Taylor, Frederick W., 647-48, p648
Tharpe, Sister Rosetta, 718

Thayendanegea, \25. pi 25
Taylor, Zachary, 339, p339;
theater: African American, 660-61; and
clause, 155, 175
Supreme Court,
U.S.: and affirmative
of
933: Clinton appointment
312-13
to,
943;
and education. 822-23. 842; and

FDR. 704-05. p704: under Marshall,
204; under Harlan, 413-14; and judicial
review. 157; and Nixon appoint-
in election
848. p338, 339; and Mexican War,
action. 919. 920: under Berger. 901.
War
Tea Act (1773), 111

Teapot Dome scandal (1926), 630,
p630
Themes
technological innovations: and impact
Roe
51; and people with disabilities. 951
V.
901
under Reagan, 933;
Wade{\917>), 921; under
Taney, 295, 350-5 1 p35I; Thomas

,
hearings
for.
941 p94l ; under

.
Warren. 823. 842. 901; and

Watergate tapes. 908. See also
specific court cases
Susquehannock.s, 77
Sussex (passenger
593
ship).
Sussex pledge, 593

Sutter, John Augustus, 323
Swedes,
87.
m954
Synthesizing, xxiv
797
(1898).
560
tenant farmers: and industrialization,

497;
in
Great Depression. 678;
South. 410-1
1.
in
New
Tennessee:
996
Taft-Hartley Act (1947), 785. 788

Taft, William Howard: as American governor of Philippines. 565; and progressives. 544-45.
p544: and dollar
diplomacy. 573-74; domestic policy

of.
543-45;
of 1908. 543.
in election
p543
Tainos, 39-40
Taiwan (Formosa): and

964: after World
economy.
768
global
War
11.
Tajikistan, m959. 960
in
New
Deal. m698, 699.
c703. 708; secession of. 366

Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA),
m698. 699. p699. c703, 708
12, 47
Tenth Amendment (1791). \7S.cl9I
Tenure of Office Act (1867), 402-03
termination policy, 816
term limits, 943
terrorism, 962
Tenochtitlan (Mexico City)
Taney. Roger B.. 350-5

Amistad case. 295
086
p351: and
(Brodie). 207
Thomas, Seih. 235

Thompson, Dorothy. 704
Thompson, Joseph S., p290
Thoreau, Henry David. 285. 312. 354
Thorpe. Jim. 528. 654. p654
Compromise (1787). 147^8
Three Mile Island, PA, disaster

p9l4
Thunberg, Penelope, 840
at,
309;
Germans
Republic
of.
Americans
in,
309-
in.
m3l5;
309-310;
1
0.
in Civil
life in
piW.- Mexican
307. 310. 316;
914,
Thurmond. J. Strom, 787

Tiananmen Square, p958. 960
Tikal, Guatemala.
Tilden, Samuel
J..
p229
408. 488
Emmett. 847
Tillman, Ben. 408
Till.
tilted perspective,
995
Timbuktu, Mali. m26. 27
Time
Line, Reading
a.
991
"Times They Are A-Changin'. The"
tobacco,
a. 1002
Tet offensive (1968). 879-80
Texas: U.S. settlement of. 307; annexa-
War. 369. 382; cotton in, 263. m264:

Dust Bowl in. 71 1, m71 1; French in,
632
(1865). 398;
79
Test, Taking
Talleyrand. Charles-Maurice de. 200-01

Hall, 486. 489.
Tesia, Nikola. 461
tion of. 305. 31 1-12,
Tammany
xviii-xix
(Dylan). 852. 892

Timucuas. 50
"Tippecanoe and Tyler too," 249
Tippecanoe, Battle of ( 8 ), 2 1
Titusville, PA. 460
Taking a Stand, xxiv

Tallmadge, James. 237
text of,
Tiger, Jerome, painting by.
/?4/y
tenements, 473, 475. p475, p821; and

housing reforms, 522
table,
Amendment
Thirteenth
Three-Fifths
Amendment
m303, 525
relations with Israel,
American History,
Thomas, Clarence. 940. p940. 942

Thomas Jefferson: An Intimate History
Telecommunications Act of 1996, 95

telecommunications device for the deaf
(TDD), 951
telegraph, 459
telephone, development of. p458, 460,"
impact on women. 460
temperance movement, 288-89. p288,
Syria: and Middle East conflict, 904;
in
Third Amendment (1791), 177, cl9]

Third UN Conference on the Law of
the Sea (1982). 974
38th parallel, 799
Teller
"Sympathy" (Dunbar). 418
God
Tejanos, 307
^\H-\9.pHI8
8
Deal. 718-19
Tecumseh, 212, /j2/2. 217. 1033-34
television, influence of, 968; in 1950s.
Swahili, 25
214
(Hurston). 717
on business. 458-60; and impact on

city. 472-73; in 1980s and 1990s. 950-
to.
New
745
Battle of the (I8I3),
Their Eyes Were Watching
and reverse discrimination. 920; and
ments
II.
Thames,
in
English colonies, 60-61,
75-76. c76
Tobias, Channing. 786

Tocqueville, Alexis de, 281, 287
Todd, Mary 352, 366

,
Toleration Act
Toltecs, 11-12
Tompkins,
1649), 74
Sally Louisa, 370,
Tom Thumb
p370
(locomotive). 233
INDEX
I
Tonkin Gulf Resolution (1964). 870-7
repeal ot. 882
Toomer.
p772
Jean. 772,
See also Loyalists

total war, 387-88
"To the Hon. J. Winthrop, Esq."
Tories,
19.
1944. 753: in election of 1948. 786-
Deal. 695-96. p696:
Sl.p7S6. m787: and Fair Deal. 787-
901-02. 913:
88: foreign policy of. 791-94: and
1990s. 942. 947: post-World
Korean War. 799-801 and labor
622-23. p622. 632:
tions. 785:
764: and
rela-
succession to presidency.
international, 964-65: in
19-20.
Tunis. 211.
m2/2
67: and tariff of 1816. 227-28:
Tunisia,
Worid War
and
Turgot, .Anne-Roben-Jacques, 146
"To
the Person Sitting

(Twain 615
Darkness"
in
I.
Townsend, Francis
700
E..
Townshend .\cts (1767), 109-1 1. c///

Townshend, Charles. \09. pl09
trade: balance of. 83. c966: colonial. 76.
83. 106-12: foreign investment and.
582. C582-83. m582-83: gap
941:
in.
Middle Ages.
m29: and NAFTA. 965. 966-
territorial
expansion. c574:
U.S.-Japan. 966-67
m26
m244
trading kingdoms. African. 25-27.

Trail of Tears
1838). 244-45.
Trans-Appalachian West,
205
186.
in
Tuskegee Institute, 414. p414

Twain, Mark. 479. 485. 486. 504-05.
797
transportation: and growth of railroads.

459: in Los .Angeles.
CA.
861,
m86]
Travels of Sir
Tweed Ring,
486. p487
Tweed. William Marcy "Boss." 486. 514
Amendment
(1804), 178-79.
Treasury Department, creation of. 191

Treasury of American Folklore, 716
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk 1918), 598
Treaty of Fontainebleau 1762). 93
Treaty of Fort Laramie 1851), 32 1
426
Treaty of Fort Laramie 1868). 428
Treaty of Ghent 1814). 214-15. 227
Treaty of Greenville 1795), 197
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848).
313.314.315.326
Treaty of Medicine Lodge 1867), 428
Treaty of Paris (1763). 93. 103. 104
(
Treaty of Paris (1783). 132. 143: effects
ml39
unilateralism, 724
Union: army
of.
368-69: soliders
Union League, 405

Union Pacific Railroad, 438, 487
unions. See individal union names: see
movment.
U.S. Department of Agriculture, -140-41
U.S. Sanitary Commission, 369
Amendment
(1933). 182.
656
Twenty-fourth Amendment 1964). 183
Twenty-second Amendment 195 1 ).
(
182-83
Twenty-seventh
Amendment
(1992),
184
Tw enty-sixth .Amendment
97 1
).
84.
884
Twenty-third .Amendment (1961). 183

Twilight. Alexander. 290
Tyler. John. 249.
p249
Universal Negro Improvement

University of California v.
920
urban life: 235. c235:
467-79:
in
ml 29
Gilded Age.
Great Depression. 616-11
p676.p677:m 1950s. 815

urban renewal, in 1950s, 821
Utah: Mormons in. 285: and slaveryissue. 341: and transcontinental railroad. 438
Utopias, 284-85
U-2 incident, 813
V
Valdez
U-boat warfare. 59
Ukraine. 959. 960. 970. m971
ultraviolet solar radiation
(ship).
973
fire,
51 8-
19.529
Valentino. Rudolph, p652. 653
Valley Forge. PA, 124
(UV
972
Uncle Remus and Brer Rabbit
Trevelyan. G. M.. 855
rays).
(Harris),
p277
Uncle Tom's Cabin (Stowe). 344
Triple Entente. 587
Underground Railroad, 273-74, m273

Underwood Tariff Act 1913). 549
Unemployed Leagues. 686
unemployment: in 1893. 500: in Great
m272
Troy Female Seminary, 291
Doctrine. 791
788,p7SS, 803: and
atomic bomb, 765. 769: in election of
Depression. 669. m673. 675-76. p675,
m676. p683. 686-87. 691: and
xxiii
Martin. 247. p247. 248. 339:
and labor movement. 257

Vance. C\ rus. 960
Vanderbilt. Cornelius. p473
unconditional surrender. 750
Tripoli. Libya. 211.
Values. Identifying,
Van Buren.
Triple .\lliance. 587
S..
).
Valens. Ritchie, 826, p827
Tredegar Iron Works, 264
Harry
p460
If
trench warfare. 589-90. p590

Trenton. Battle of (1776). \2%.pl28.
Truman,
in
Bakke 1978
Uzbekistan, m959. 960
typewriter, development of, 460.
Treblinka. Poland. 767
Truman
Human
Rights. 783
Company
782-83:
Operation Restore Hop)e. 960

United Society of Believers in Christ's
Second .\ppearing. See Shakers
Typical American (Jen). 982
Triangle Shirtwaist
of.
962-63. 974, 975: and
Maastricht Treaty
strikes
c782: formation
of.
Treaty of Tordesillas 1494). 45
Treaty of Versailles 1919). 608-10

Treaty on European Union. See
in,
p369. p373
Association (L^LA). 636-37
84
Twenty-first
Americans: Native Americans:
women
Universal Declaration of
Twentieth
treason. 164
Hispanic Americans: Mexican
in 1990s.
Amendment (1933). 181-82

Twenty-fifth Amendment (1967). 183-
John Mandeville, 30
716-17. p716. See also African

Americans: Chinese Americans:
bodies
203. 239
tn233
of.
25
p504. 615
Twelfth
transportation revolution, 232-33,
I.
United Mine Workers, 539. 705

United Nations (UN): decision-making
Tuscaroras. 91.
relation with Israel.
the
705. 785.p966
United Farm Workers (UFW ), 851
United Fruit Company, 728-29. 81
transcontinental railroad, 436. 437.

438. p438. 459
War
post-Worid War
United Automobile Workers (UAW),
759
Turkmenistan, m959. 960

Turner. Benjamin J.. p406
Turner. Henry 394
Turner. Nat. '272-13. p272. 275
1
in the I97()s.
1980s. 929:
785: and social reform, 525: and
also labor
II.
transcendentalists. 285. 312. 354
Transjordan.
II.
in the
WPA.
UN. 782-83
Trumbull. John, painting by. pi 32

Trumbull. Lyman, 403
trunk lines, 459
trust, 462
trustbusting, 464. 540
Truth. Sojourner. 294. p294. 299, 300
Tubman, Harriet. 274, p274. 369
Tula. .Mexico. 1 1. pi 1
Tulagi Island, in Worid War U. 745
Tulsa, OK. race riot in. 636
(Warren). 218-19
New
Van de Water, Frederic. 43

Van Thieu. Nguyen. 885
Vanzetti. Bartolomeo. 626-21.
p627
vaqueros, 53, p53. \Al.p447
Vassa, Gustavus. See Equiano,
Olaudah
Veblen, Thorstein. 473
INDEX
1087
N'filliT.
aw
rcnce,
\enice,
28-29.
Ital>. 20.
193. pJ93: cabinet of 191; as commander of Continental Army. 14.
Voting Rights Act (1965), H48

Nutini; Kiuhts Act (19751.923
522
369
\ I'la/qut*/, l-orcta Jancla.
pn4,
m2V
Comte
\ ergcnnes, Charles Gravier
Convention. 146, 151; domestic poli-
Verdict of the People (painling). p224-25

de.
10.^
cies
\es>, Denmark. 272
M7
),
UW
\ -K (\ ictory in
Vicksburg, MS.
Wale-sa, Lech. 931
Water
Walker, Da\ id. 293

Walker, James, painting
Walker, William. 346
Watt. James. 929
War. 381-82.
Victoria (ship). 45
"victory gardens," 602

\ ietcong, S6S
Wallace, George:
Vietminh, 866
of.
m746
p447
by. p323.
in election
of 1968,
Ngo Dinh
Diem. 868-69. /><S6; U.S. involvement in. 866-69. c87I
Vietnam draft evaders: partial amnesty
p864. 865-68. /7.S66-6 7; and
W alia Walla, WA. 322

Wampanoags, 90
war bonds, sale of. 752
war crimes trials, 78 -82. p782
i
WarHawks,
909; unconditional pardon
War Department,
creation
of
Exchange building, /j/57
riot (1965).
850
Temperance Union
Wealth ofSations (Smith). 192
Wealth Tax Act (1935), 702
Weary Blues (Hughes). 661
Weaver, James B.. 500
Wallace, Henry. 787
865: Ford's policy
toward. 910; French iKCupation of.
Watts
Street
Wayne, "Mad Anthony." 132. 196-97.

pl97
WCTU. See Women's Christian
881;inelectionof 1972, 884
m865; Chinese
\ ietnam, 864. pfi64.
iKcupation
745,
II,
VVald. Lillian. 477
in Civil
W ake Island, m World War
\ichy, France. 737
196, 197-98; in
Waldseemiiller, Martin. 43
Wahunsonacock, 60
Kurupe) Day, 762
of
French and Indian War, 92. p93: and

frontier problems. 196-97;
inauguration of 189; pi 88-89; at
Second Continental Congress. 14
Washington, Martha. pUd
Watergate, 906-09. 1029-31 and resignation of Nixon, 908
Water Quality Improvement Act
(1970), 903
Relations Act
viceroy. 39
to.
(1887).
Vespucci, Amerigo. 43
\cto. 155.
v. Illinois
of
of 191-
farewell address
94; foreign policy
498
V\ ade-I)avis Bill 1864), 396
Wagner-Connery Act (1935), c703. 705,
785. See also National Labor
Wabash
of 198-99;
198. 585: financial policies
\i'rra/.ano, Giovanni da. 56-57. 88

\iTticul inti'cratiun, 46.^
Ni'terans Administration
116. 124. 132; at Constitutional
Weaver, Robert C. 709. 842. p842

Webster- Ashburton Treaty (1842),
191
212 13
m315
Vietnamization, 881-82
Warhol, Andy. 854; painting by. p854

W ar Industries Board (WIB), 602
N'ietnam Veterans Memorial, 889. p889
"War
\ietnam War, p862-63. 863. m873: air

war in. 872-73. m873: and American
in Passaic, The" (Vorse). 641

Warner, Charles Dudley, 485. 486. 505
Webster, Daniel. 245. M\.p34l

Webster, Noah, f227
Welch, James. 893
war
welfare system, 900-01
for.
morale. 874; cease-fire

costs of. 888;
of Saigon
fall
885; ground war
in.
in.
p884,
873-74; under
Johnson. 843. 880; legacy
of.
to.
of 212-13;
ration
876-78;
postwar. 886-87; reasons for North's
battles
to.
effects
Warren,
c87L p872,
868-69. 871-72,
Vincennes, Battle of (1779).

Virginia: busing
\A\.
ml4l
in.
ml 29.
131
925; land claims
land speculators
colonial. 59-61. 74-77. 87;
and
of.
91;
in.
ratifi-
p687:
of 366
Civil
\
Al.pl 47

(1786). 139
Visual Record. Interpreting
98
487-88; homeless
846-47; as
192: slavery
(VISTA), 840. /?S40

Vorse, Mary Heaton. 641
1088"
INDEX
site
to,
in,
in.
889; in
War
early interest
ethnic diversity
farmers
in.
in.
104-05.
in.
c360. m483:
439-43. p439. p440. p441.
p442: and Gadsden Purchase. 3
5.
m315: under Jackson. 242-45. c243:

and Louisiana Purchase. 205-06. 20810.
m209: and manifest destiny. 306Mexican Cession, 315, m315:
07; and
aries in. 318-20:
and mountain men.
318: myths of 453: and nationalism,

226: Native American resistance
p930:
738; March on,
340-41. 352: Vietnam
Veterans Memorial
ml 05:
444-48: under Confederation.
ml41:
53. p449. m450. p45I. p452: mission-
demon-
of national capital.
in.
in.
141-42.
Middle. 262: and mining. 323-27. 449-
534;
during Grant administra-
Japanese mission
Vocabulary. Building. 991
\ olunteers in Service to .\merica
boom
in.
national antiw ar
first
"Voice of the Hispano, The" (anonymous). 615

Volgograd. Russia. 747
Volstead Act (1919). 656
West, 186-87. mI86-87: and California.

323-27. p324. m325. p325. p326: cattle
city planning in. 523, 525: in
stration. 876;
tion.
the.
901
p2}8
War. 366; corruption
Wells, Josiah T.. p406
159
Pact (1955), 794. 812
during
Freedom
Otis. 218.
414-15. p4 75
Ida.
Wells, H. G.. 487
West .African kingdoms, 26-27

West Berlin, 836; terrorism in. 962
Western Samoa, 559. c568
Washington: Indian reservations in.

m428: mining in, m450: railroads in.
m445: as a territory. m3l5. m319
Washington, Booker T.. 4\A-\5.p414
Washington Conference, 725-26. p725.
734
Washington, D.C.: antiwar demonstration in. 876; and Bonus Army. 687-88.
cation of Constitution. 151; secession
Virginia Plan. 146.
Earl. 787. 823. 839, 842.
Warren, Mercy
Warsaw
881-82./?.VW
Vietnam Women's Memorial, /7S6i

Viliings, 56. p56
Villa, Francisco "Pancho." 576. p576
Villasenor, Victor, 639
843
W ar Production Board (WPB), 752

Warren Commission, 839
Wells-Barnett,
Wells, Rachel (petition to Congress).
War on Poverty, UO-41. p840.

War Powers Act (1973), 888
Tonkin Gulf Resolution. 870-71; U.S.

in.
of 226-27;
211-12
victory. 886; Tet offensive in. 879-80;
forces
of 213-14;
confrontation in the West. 212; decla-
events leading
885.
888. 889; media coverage of. 875,
p875. 879-80; opposition
of attrition, 386
War of 1812, m2l4:
884-85;
in.
of
to.
196-97, 212, 327, 426-33, m428: in
Ohio Valley, 91-92; and Oregon

ment. 318-22. m3l9: population
growth
in.
settle-
1860-1910. c483: railroads
1812. 214-15. m2/-;.- and Washington
in.
Conference. 725-26. p725. 734; and

Watergate scandal. 906-08: women's
m3l9: and Texas, 307-12: and transportation ad\ ances, 232-33, m233;
urban population in ( 860), c360; and
Warof 1812. 212
suffrage
in.
551
Washington, George. \?>l.pI49.
437. 438. p438. 459: routes
190.
to,
318,
Woman's Christian Temperance Union

(WCTU), 525
Woman's City Club, 522
Western I'nion, 459

Westinghouse, George. 459. 461
West, Mae. 680
Westmoreland, William. 879
women:
pi 26.
West, Nathanael. 682
West Virginia:
oil
American Revolution, 125-26,

218: in antislavery movement.
in
industry
in.
460;
in
Union. 366
294. 296;
p446\
in cattle industry,
War. 369-70;
in Civil
c514; and election of 1992, 943;
impact of technology on, 460; and

labor movement, 258, p258, 493, 520-
Whig
party: in election of 1852, 343;
248-49; and Texas annexation,
64
New
grams, lQ\,p701, 702;
311
Whiskey Rebellion
White Collar
(1794), 193-94
(Mills),
opposition to World
825
Whitefield, Edwin, painting by, pl04

Whitefield, George, 85,
95; in Persian Gulf
War
Deal pro-
1920s, 655,
m599; causes
lization,
1,
p593, 594-
War, 940; and
plantations, 267;
p584-85; end
610-1
of,
in,
599-600;
m588, 598-99,
586-87; and demobi-
of,
622-23, p622: destruction
Middle East
1
in,
598-600; Europe and
of,
after,
home
m608; global impact

front in, 585, p594,
601-05; and labor
and progressive
c703, 101,
Allied victory
I:
battles of, 588-90,
256; and
Plains farming, 442-43, p442\ on
p85
White, John, 59
Whiteman,
in
in northern society,
p655,
party, 470
l{m.l\2.1\6-\l,p716
World Court, 724
World's Columbian Exposition, 461
World Trade Center, bombing of, 962
World War
Mexican
/?64/, 705-06; in
Revolution, p575; and
p5]8
457, 517-19,
(WPA), 701-02,/? 707,
291, p5yi, 514,
Whately. Thomas. 105

Wheeler, Bunon K.. 741
rise of.
of,
Works Progress Administration
465; education
p478
reforms
colonial.
Weyler, Valeriano, 559

Edith. 478-79.
c530: for immigrants, 470, 520, 521
Workingmen's
p6l, 72; as department store clerks,
Wharton,
reforms, 519; hours and wages, c5l8,
446-47.
Wetmore, Claude. 514
of,
working class, development of, 491-92

working conditions: court response to
strife after,
623-24,
724-25; med-
movement, 513-16,^576,- in reform

movements, 281, 286-87, 288, 517-18,
p623, p624; legacies
525, 528; religious activities of, 283,
losses in, c61 1; prewar empires,
Whitman, Narcissa, 322, p322

Whitman, Walt, p4]8, 419, 430
284; and republicanism, 140; in
83; resources
Spanish America, 54-55; and sports,
U.S. entrance into, 585, 593-98; U.S.
Whitney, Eli, 234, 263

Whyte, William, 825
Wiesel, Elie, 768
Wilberforce University, 290
Wilder, Thornton, 718
Wilhelm II (Germany). 588
653-54; status
Paul,
660
Whitewater, 943
White, William Allen, 513, 539, 630
977;
War, 872;
William and Mary, 84

Williams, Roger, 73
big business, 549, 551; in election of
m547; and foreign
(text);
of,
inauguration
pol-
606-07,
of,
548,
p548; and labor relations, 551; at

Paris Peace Conference, 607-08,
Women's
progressive reforms
in,
537
Wisconsin Idea, 537

witchcraft
trials.
trials
Wobblies,521
Wolfe, James, 93
See Salem witchcraft
of
1960s, 854. 856; in 1970s, 921-22,
p921, p922: origins
of,
p299; participants
298-300,
in,
African Americans
55\-52,
p552,m552
ance of power
in,
p300
Leonard, 569
Natalie,
in,
765.
744-45; bal-
768; costs
of,
German aggression
in,
p767; and
American internment in, 754-55,

m755; Mexican Americans in, 756-57,
p757; mobilizing for, 751-53, c752;
Native Americans in, 763, p763;
Pacific front in, 745-47, m746, 76265,-
Peari Harbor
743, p742-43,
in,
744: problems of demobilization
784-85; propaganda
in,
declaration of
war
in,
in,
women
in,
737; U.S.
743-44; victory
Europe, 760-62; victory
764-65;
in,
753-54; sur-
in Pacific,
151-5%, p758
WorldWatch
876
Grant, 719
Victoria,
after,
in,
766-67, c767; defense expenditures,
in
514,
518.520,633
Wood,
m780; atomic bomb
769; Axis advantages
vey about, c735; U.S. aid
301
suffrage, struggle for, 299,
Wood,
Wood,
ml 42;
II:
756, p756; Allied attacks in
Japan, 738-39, m739, 743; Japanese
International League for
Winthrop, John, 69, p69, 73

Wirth, Joseph, 727
Northwest Territory, 142,
World War
the Holocaust, 767-68,
Peace and Freedom, 476, 791, 794

women's rights movement: and abolition, 297-98; and Kennedy, 834; in
Woodhull,
in
in,
735-38, m736; in Europe. 747, m748,
National Defense, 603
Winter,;. M., 611
m428;
women
p603
749; Europe after, 791-94, m793; and
Women Strike for Peace,
in,
and war debts
and reparations, 726-27;
c752; early
Airforce Service Pilots
Winnemucca, Sarah, 433, p433

Winning of the West (T. Roosevelt), 538
Wisconsin: Indian reservations
m582-
587;
ation in, 749-50; Allied occupation
of the Depression (Blackwelder),
Women's Trade Union League,
I,
start of,
zones,
women's
and World
585, 593-95, 601-02, 604
c589;
in,
World War I, 597-98, p598, 603,

p603; in World War II, 753, 757-58,
p758; after Worid War II, 785
women's
suffrage, 552;
597-98, p598; military
Mediterranean, 759-60; Allied cooper-
p607; reforms under, 548-49; stroke

of, 609; and U.S. neutrality, 590-92;
and Versailles Treaty, 608-10; and
War
in
in,
neutrality in, 591-92;
603,
(WASPs), 753
(1846), 339, 340
574; Fourteen Points
West p2 17, 321, 322;
Women's Auxiliary Army Corps

(WAACs), 753. /;75i
Women's Committee of the Council
Wilson, Woodrow. 549, p549, p610\ and
1008-10
Vietnam
855
Wilson, Henr)' Lane, 576
icy,
in
in
force, p228, 257, 258, 335, 460,
Women's
David, 339
1912, 546-47,
c514: in Utopian
care
A1A-I5,p474, 491-92, p512, c518,

603, p603. 622, 632-33, c633; in
Women
Williams,T. Harry, 391

Williams, Willie L.. 953, p953
Wiilkie, Wendell, 737
Wills, Helen, 653-54
Wilmot Proviso
at universities,
work
Willard, Frances, 525
WUmot,
developing countries,
communities, 284-85;
Emma. 291
Willard,
in
ical
of,
826
Institute, 974
"Wound-Dresser, The," (Whitman), 419
Wounded Knee Massacre (1890), 429,
432
Wounded Knee, SD. 920
Wovoka, 429
Woods, Granville T., 459, p459

Woodson, Lewis, 290
Woodstock Music Festival, 857, p857
Woodward, Bob. 907, p907
Woolman, John, 79
Wright, Fanny, 225. p225, 303

Wright, Frank Lloyd, 664
Wright, Richard, 717-18
writ of habeas corpus, 1 64
Woolsey, Lynn, 943

Woolworth, Frank W., 465
Worcester v. Georgia (1832), 244
Wyandots, 105
writs of assistance, 109
Wyoming:
cattle industry in, 445,
Indian reservations
in,
m445;
m428
INDEX
1089
Yellowstone National Park, p54

Yeltsin, BdHs. 959. 960
Yena, Donald M., painting by. p33S
yeoman farmers, 267

\'erba Buena (San Francisco),
X, Mulcolm. See Mulcolm x
Ximenes. Vicente
\\ Z
T..
840
affair (1797). 2lX)-0
p2UI
settlement
Zabaleens, 973
ol. 323
Yokuts, 327
zambos, 54
Yom
akima Reservation. 433

âkimas. 322
^ alta Conference 1945), 16S. p768
>elloM-doj; contracts, 495
^
yellow journalism. 478. 559-60
090
INDEX
Kippur War, 904

Yorktown, Battle of (1781).
32. pJ32
^'oung, Andrew. 915, p9l5
Young, Brigham. 285
Ysleta Mission, 5 p5J
1
//29. 131-
962; after World

II.
Zapata, Emiliano. 576, p576, 577

Zavala, Lorenzo de. 307. 309
zero population growth (ZPG), 922
Zhou Enlai, 800-01

Zimmermann, Arthur. 594
Zimmermann Note
Yugoslavia: regional conflicts
World War
Yumas, 327
zaibatsu, 781
War
747
I,
in,
960,
608, m608; in
(1917). 594
Zionism, 796
zoot-suit riots (1943), 757
Zurara, Gomes Eanes
de, 3
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Fa pemisaoo lo repnn oofn-ngtaied nuuiul. graieftiJ acknottledgroem is made lo ihc folkming vcxucn
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Lid
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TV Mythology of Progress in Latin America b) Victof Alba.

1965 b> Skior Alh*.
Ttrry Aiênmi: From "M) Paper Pnson" h> Terr^ AoderKKi from TV \oi )orit Tunes. April 4. 1995
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Long .Madgett Published bv Harlo Press m 1965. Eve'mll in 1970. and Lotus in 1972.
The Magnes Press: From I Egypt" Aspects of President .Amtar Al-Sadai's Political Thought b\ Raphael
Israeb Cop>nght & 1981 b> the Magnes Press. The Hebrew Univerît).
\Mlma MankiUer: From "Stale of the Nabon Address" lo the Cherokee Nabon by Wilma Mankiller.
Copvnghi e 1990 b> Wilraa Mankiller.
Mcintosh and Otis, Inc.: From .America s Immigrants: Adventures in Eyewitness History by Rhoda HofT.
Copvnghi 196" b> Rhoda Hoff Published bv Henry Z W alck. Inc.
TV Archives of Claude McKtty, Carl Cowl, Administralor: "A Song of the Moon" bom Selected Poems of
Claude Mi Kay Pubhshed bv Harcourt Brace ii. Company 979.
Darid McKtty Company, Inc., a Subsidiary of Random House, Inc.: Frran TV Long Shadow of Little Rock
bv Daisv Bates. Copvnghi 1 962 bv Daisv Bales.
The .Middle East Institute: From "The Lesson of Palestine" by .Musa Alami from TV .Middle East Journal.
ioL 3. October 1949. Cc^vnght 1949 bv The .Middle East histinite.
Le .Monde: From "Sacrilege" bv .Andre Fontaine from Le .Monde. August 1 0. 1 974. Copyright 1 974 bj Le
1
.Monde.
HiOuun .Morrow <t Company, Inc.: FromArit of Entire: The American Frontier. I784-I803by Dale Van
E\ ery Copvright 6 1 936 bv Dale Van Everv'.
MulL Quotabon bv Patricia .Mull from "What S 1 52 a Week Buys" by NaiKV Gibbs from Time.
September 10. 1990. Copvrighl 1990 by Pamela Mull.
Multimedia Product Development, Chicago, IL: From "Enna" s Story " bota Making Do: How Women
Sunhed the '}0s bv Jeane Westin. Copvnghi 1 976 by Jeane Westin. All rights reserv ed.
SAACP: From adverbsemenl "Let Em Walk" bv the N.A.ACP.
Sation maga:jne: From "The War in Passaic" bv Mary Heaton Vorse from TV Sautm. March 1 7. 1926.
Patricia
TV
Copynghl 1 926 bv The Nation Companv L.P.

Satioiud Rainbow Coalition: From "The Rainbow CoaUbon" speech by Jesse Jackson
Convenbon. Julv 17. 1984.
.
Copyri^ 1932
R. Da\it.
Dmt Frtedman and Jacqueliiu Rhoads: From
1%3 by Martin Luther King. Jr copvnghi renewed

a Dream" by Marun Luther King. Jr. Copyright
1991 b) Coretta Scon King From sermon opposmg the Viemam War bv Marun Luther King. Jr. Copynghl
l%7 bv Marun Luther King. Jr copyright renewed C 1995 bv Coretta Scoa Kmg.
A^rtd A. Knopf, Inc.: From "I. Too" from Selected Poems bv Langston Hughes. Cop>Tiglil 1926 by Alfred
Writers House. Inc. as agent for the proprietor: "I
\ew Directions
Democrabc
Publishing Corporation: From ""Martin F^"" from .Martin Jc .Meditations on the South Valley
Waiting" from A Coney
1987 by Jimmy Santiago Baca. From ""I
Am
bv Jimni) Sanbago Baca. Copvnghi
Island of the .Mind by Lawrence Ferlinghetb. Copvnghi

1958 b\ Lawrence Ferlingheni. From ""Dulce et
Collected Poems of Wilfred Onen. Copyright 1 963 bv Chatto &. Windus. Ltd.
Decorum Est" from
TV
The .\ew Republic: From "The De Luxe Picture Palace" bv Llov d Lewis from The .\'ew Republic, vol. 58.
March 27. 929. Copvrighl 929 by The .New Republic. From "More Lost Indians" bv James Ridgew ay from
The .\ew Republic. December 11. 1965. Copyright 1965 by Harrison-Blaine of .New Jersev. Inc.
TV .\ew York Times Company: From Televised Debate Between Ronald Reagan and Walter F. .Mondale"
by John Corry from TV Vev, York runes. October 9. 1984. Copyright 1984 by The .New York Times
Company. From "Volunteers from U.S. in Business m Russia" bv Steven Erlanger from TV \evi York Times.
April 6. 1993. Copvrighl 1993 by The New Yori Tunes Company
.S'ewsweek, Inc.: Quotab(Hi bv Hugh .Austin from "Business and Finance" from.VeMTHeeJL November 19.
1973. Copvnghi 1973 b> Ne sweek. Inc. .All rights reserv ed.
W. W. .\orton & Company, Inc.: From "The Teflon Years; Dectronic Culture" from Sleeptalking Through
History: .America in the Reagan Years by Havnes Johnson. Cc^vright 1991 by Havues JcînsoiL
Oakland .Museum: From Westward to Promontory Building the Cnion Pacific Across the Plains and
Slouniains bv Bany B. Combs. Copyright 1969 bv Oakland Museum.
Palladium Limited Partnership: Excerpt from "The Lone Ranger" radio script
Pantheon Books, a division of Random House, Inc.: From "Luna Moth" from Dogeaiers by Jessica
Hagedom. Cop>nghl S 990 b> Jessica Hagedom.
Ptakfinder Press: From "OAAU Founding Rally" and from "Short Staiements: Fight or Forget It" from By
.4m .Means Necessary: Speeches. Irueniews. and a Letter by .Wa/co/m X Copyright 1970. 1992 bv Betty
1
Shabazz and Pathfinder Press.
Penguin Books, Ltd.: From ".Assorted Monsters" from The Traiels of Sir John Mande\ille. translated by
C.W.R.D. Moselev (Penguin Classics. 1983j. Cc^vnghl 1983 by C.W.R.D. Moselev.
Penguin Books L'S.A Iiu.: From Mcnin on Up by .Mahalia Jackson, with Evan .McLeod WvUe. Copyright
1966 by Mahaha Jackson and Evan .McLeod Wyhe. PubUshed by Hawthorne Books. New York. 1966.
Peters Eraser & Dunlop Group LUL: From "The First Tanks m .Acbon. 15 September 1916" by Bert Chaney
from People at War. 1914-191S by .Michael .Moynihan. Published by Dand and Charles. 1973.
Princeton L'niversity Press: Quotabon regarding Charles E. Hughes from Toward a Sew Order of Sea
Power: .American Sa\al Policy and the World Scene, / 9/ 4^/922 by Harold and .Margaret SpcouL Published
'
bv Princeton University Press. 1943. 1946.
Publishers Weekly:
Copvrighl
From
interview with Gloria Sleinem
from /"uWijVrs Weekly. August
12. 1983.
983 bv R. R. Bow ker Company.
TV Putnam Publishing Group: From "Their Finest Hour." a speech delivered to the House of Commons.
June
8.
and Tears bv The Right Honorable Winston S.

From Duane: .My Story bv Jose .Napoleon Duane. with
1 986 by Jose Napoleon Duarte. From "The Yom Kippur War" from My Life by
940. bv Winston Churchill from Blood. Sw eat.
Churchill. Copyright
1941 b> Winston S. Churchill.
Diana Page Copvright

Golda .Meu- Copvnghi 1 975 by Golda -Meir.
Rainy Day Press: Quotabon bv Lucv .Ann Henderson Deady from The Lockley Files: Cortversations with
Pioneer Women bv Fred Locklev compiled and edited by Mike Helm.
The Reader's Digest .Association, Inc.: From "The Spread of Grass-Rools C^lalism" bv Ed\A ard Maher
from Reader s Digest. June 1955 Copyright 1955 bv The Readers Digest Associabon. liK.
Estate of Erich .Maria Remarque: From All Quiet on the Western From by Erich .Maria Remarque. ""Im
Westen Nichis Neues" copvnghi 1 928 by LTlstein .AG.: copvright renew ed 1 956 b\ Erich Maria
Remarque "All Quiel on the ^^ esiem Front" copvright 1929. 1930 by Litbe. Brown and Conqiany; copvright
renewed 195". 958 b\ Ench Maria Remarque. .All rights reserved.
Republican .\atioiud Committee: From "Morning in America" advertisement for RcHiald Reagan 1984
.
presidenbal campaign.
Roosevelt L'niversity, Labor Education Division:
From "Automaboo" by Joe Glazer from Songs of Work and

Freedom, edited by Edith Fowke and Joe Glazer. Published bv Roosevelt University Labor Educabon
Dnision- 1960.
Scribner. a Division of Simon & Schuster, Inc.: From A Farewell to Amu bv Ernest Hemingway. Copyright
1929 b> Charles Scriboer's Sons; copvright renewed 1957 by Ernest Hemingway.
SIGI Productions, Iiu.: Quotations bv .Arthur Komon and bv Francis Tsuzuki from "/ Can Sever Forget":
.Men of the I00th/442nd by Thehna Chang. Ccy.\nght 1991 by SlGl Producbons. Inc.
Siglo XXI Editores S.A. lie C. V.: From "".Alahualpa" from El primer nue\a coronica y buen gobiemo b\
Rolena .Adomo and John Murra. Copyright 1 980 by Siglo XXI Edilores.
Simon & Schuster: From ""The Buckle and the Horseshoe Nail" from Adventures in the Unknown Interior
of America by Cabeza de \'aca. ediied b\ Cyclone Covev. Copyright 1%1 by The Crowell-CoIUer
PubUshing Company From "Special Problems of the Depression" from Interpretations. 1931-1932 by
Walter Lippmann. Copyright 1932 by Walter Lippmann.
'^ *
Eleanor SmeaL Excerpt bv Eleanor Smeal on the Senate" s role in the Tboinas-41ill hearings.
.
Have
to the
:.n. >.>l
I9M
DD 246H. May
12.
Vidl"/l.eo de Wys. Inc 3(b). National Manlime Museum London: 4. John & Ann
ICachler; (b.i. 1: R Degginger/Animals Animals/Earth Scenes. 6(t). Ken Graham Agency.
Murray/Uarth Scenes, (cl. Kli/abeth H Walker, (cr). John Lemker/Earth Scenes; (b). Doug
Wechslet/harth Scenes. 7(1. r. Finley-Holiday F"ilms/Page Museum, (b). Marty Cordano/Futurc Image: H(t). The
Botanical Museum of Harvard University (b). An/ona Stale Museum. University of An/xina. 10. Dallxs & John
Healon/rhe Siovk Shop. l(t). Courtesy Department of library Services, AriKncan Museum ol Natural History
Chaptrr I: 2 t. Steve
Mahan. 5(I|. Wolfgang
III). I'alti
*'"'!*
WamcT
h>
l'"M'\ S(vvijl Ki.ki
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iMcsirM-u inicnulHinaJ
l(bl).
Piilure Library,
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*;>'. h\ Harrui
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of ihr Chinr.tr
Sii-r
^!xTch"sUtemnii
Pocl/ic CiMtftlcl. IKi.l lo
I..
Slrmwm
Amrrica
in
1949 annual meeting of ihc
ii
.., asa Womm s hate: A History of Ihr U.S

HvmanAliinw G>r\righlC '993 by Syracuse
PCv
Anzona;
I4(ii.
(r).
:iun
Wodd
lun Ahead Hon Ihc

- iix: h\ Timo Irx
Will
Look
in
Nelan from
50 Yean" hy Bruce
Road" b> Peggy Noonan from Time.
Fmm " Dole* Long

1
Bntish Library.
IS.
Chanlilly: 21(1).
T. Archive. University Library. Istanbul, (b). Ancient Art
Irun
t
TV
World An lllusmard Hbiory. edited by Geoffrey
H/ fork Ivr., So.. ,V>'f. \Y 10016: From Memoirs by Harry

H,iv Ci'psnghi C l>>56hy Time Ini. Puhlivhi-d by Doubk-day and Company
runum and
,! Ir,.il .iful
s(
I,.
Inc
niird t'rulurr SvnJualt. Inc.:

I
'
Hrom "En
R.
ui,
i.
'.ic.
'
Fms: From 'Tore Up and a-Movin " from TTiwe Are Our Lives by the
O W.W by The University of North Carolina Press.
\-n<m hUinJ. Poem and History of Chinese Immigrants on Angel Island.
Tlu Imirmin ofSonh Carotiita
FedcTjl Wnicrs' Pn>)cvi Copyright
Vmrtruly of Hashiitglon Prtu:

Ivia IvJiih^ Mini Mjii Ijhi jI
.\n%AorU Report:
cpirnihlO 1991 by University of Washington Press.

"The Untold Story of the LA. Riot" from U.S.
(JuiKjiior h\ S> Ivia Castillo from
Se*\\ H,.rUR,-;v.n. Mas .^1. IW.) Copynghl O 199.^ by US News & World
Honwr Brm. Publuaaoiu I'.S. Inc.. .Minim, FL 33014: From lyncs from Gel
Raymond
LesMs.
Honon CopynghiO I9.';7 and renewed

Co d/Na Umgiiudc Music Co All rights reserved.
Kdvards and William
Pacific Hnicfiainment
Report
a Job" by Earl Seal. Richard
1985 by Windswept
IMerary Agency. Inc.: From "Plea lo Those Who Matter" from Riding the
Earthhin )b> James Welch CopvnghiO 1975. 1990 by James Welch. Published by Confluence Press.
Ixskislnn. Idaho. 1990 All nghls reserved
WUtu I- HiOaiiu.' Qu.yatii>n by Los Angeles police chief Willie L. Williams from "We Have lo Start Talking
Jamn HWf* c/o EUant Markson
from Time. May 1. 1992. Copyright O 1992 by Willie L. Williams.

Beinecke Rare Book and Manmcripl Library, Yale University:
From "Blue Meridian" from Cane by Jean Toomer Copyright 192.1 by Boni & Liverighl. copyright renewed
O 1951 by Jean To*imer
Yale Lmrenity Pms: From "Learning to Be a Miner" and from The Voyage to California" from Cold
Seeker .AJteniures of a Belgian .Argonaut during the Gold Rush Years by Jean-Nicolas Perlot. Uanslated by
Helen Harding Bretnor, edited by Howard R. Lamar. Copynght 1985 by Yale University Press.
lo
Each Other hv Oaniel S
Uvy
YaU CothctioH of .American
Lilerature.
REFERENCE:
From 924
1
slaicrrK-nt
by Ihe
Redeeminit ihe Time. Vol

Ftt>m
The
8.
Amencan
Federation of Labor regarding the
ca.sc
of Sacco and Vanzetti from
by Page Smith Published by McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1987.

Elliott V. Bell from TTic New York Times. October 24, 1929.
Sl.vk Market Crash" by
QmHaiion hy Ruth Smith on Congress from "Victories Were Captured by GO. P.. Not the Party's Platform"
by Richard L Berkc from The .Vrn York Times. November 10. 1994.
From Fear. War. and the Bomb: .Military and Political Consequences of Atomic Energy by P. M.S. Blackett.
Published by Whittle,scy House.
New
York. 1949.
Excerpt by attoriKy Brent Bozell about Earl
Wanen
from The National Re\'iew.
Wyss from "Ace in the Hole" by John Ca.ssidy from 77ie New Yorker. June 0, 996.
Excerpt from The Blessing of Time Sales" by Waller Engard horn Motor, vol.49, no. 112. April 1928.
From a letter by a fnend of David Lloyd George from The Truth About Reparations and War-Debts by The
Quotation by Das
id
Heinemann Ltd.. 1932

From The Net Is a Waste of Time: And Thai's Exactly What's Right About It" by William Gibson from The
Nr* York Times Magazine. July 14. 19%.
Quotation aNiul Lyndon B. Johnson from With No Apologies: The Personal and Political Memoirs of United
Right Honorable David Lloyd George. Published by William
Stales Senator Barry
Goldnaler by Barry Goldwater. Published by Greenwillow Books, a division of William
Morrow & Company.

From The Rattling Chains: Slave Unrest and Revolt in the Ante-bellum South by Nicholas Halasz.
From "Before the Colors Fade: Last of the Rough Riders" by V. C. Jones from /Imfrican Heritage Magazine.
August 1969
Quotation by Jim Kelley about Hghting for his neighborhood from From Brown lo Bakke: The Supreme Court
and Schmyl Integration by J Harvey Wilkin.son.
From "Still 'A Little Left of Center'" by AnneO'Hare McCormick from TTie iVeu' York Times. June 21. 1936.
Quotation by a Panhandle county sheriff from "Race. Labor, and the Frontier from Anglos and Mexicans in
the Making of Texas. IHJ6-I9H6 by David Monlejano Copyright
1987 by University of Texas Press.
From letter by Manuel Mier y Terin to ihe Mexican Minister of War. Pueblo Viejo. November 1 4. 1 829. from
Terdn and Texas A Chapter in Texas-Me.xican Relations by Ohiand Monon (Austin. 1948).
Excerpt about the Bay of Pigs from TTie New York Times.
From "Bare-Bones Imbroglio: Repatriating Indian Remains and Sacred Artifacts" by Dean Peerman from The
Christian Century. October 17. 1990.
From Vice-President Quayles remarks about Murphy Brown and family values from "Digging a Divide" by
Anna Quindlen from 77ie New York Times. June 14. 1992.
Quotation by an Afncan American woman from The American Slave: Georgia Narratives, Part I, vol. 12.
edited by George P Rawick Published by Greenwood Publishing Group.
From Texas by Ferdinand Roemer. 1935. translated by Oswald Mueller. PubUshed by the German-Texan
"
Heritage Society. 1983.
From 'The Twelve

Uplon
Sinclair
Architecture Collection; 22.
Finlcy-Holida) Films/Page Museum: (r). Marty Cordano/Fulure Image; 35. 01979 by The Metropolitan
.Museum of Art. Gift of J Pierpoini .Morgan. 1900
Chapter 2: 36-37. Rare Books and Manuscnpis Division. The New York Public Librjiy Astor. Lenox and
Tilden Foundations, 37, Mary Evans Picture Library: 38(t), The Granger Collection, New York: (b), 1979 by
The .Metropolitan Museum of Art. Gift of J Pierpoint Morgan. 1900: .39. Reproduced by permission of The
Huntington Library. San Manno. California: 40. Antonio Mcrcado/Art Resource. NY: 42. Photo by C Chesek/J
Beckcl. Courtesy Department of Library Services. American Museum of Natural History 45. Bodleian Library
Oxford. Ms Art:h. Selden A.l. 67R (detail); 46(1). E.T Archive: (r). E T. Archive. Piti Palace. Rorence. 47. MaryEvans Picture Library; 48(ll. Ic), Boltin Picture Library: (c), Amencan Social History Project, (cr, tr). Boltin
34(1).
Collection: 49. Michael Holford/Library of Esconal. Spain: 50(t). Mark Nohl.

Magazine: (b). Culver Pictures; 51(1). North W ind Picture Archives/Harcourt Brace &
Cat #7832. Hawikuh Glaze Polychrome Jar. CA 1860 I>)uglas Kahn/Museum of Indian
Arts and Culture/Laboratory of Anthropology. Santa Fe; 53(1). Bob Daemmnch flioto: Id. Jack Parsons; (b). The
Granger Collection. New York; 54. D Donne Bryant; 55. The Granger Collection. New York. 56(tl. New York
Public Library/Rare Book Room; (b). Mary Evans Picture Library: 58. E.T Archive. National MantinK Museum
London; 59(1). Courtesy of the John Carter Brawn Library at Brown University: (r). Library of Congress; 60(t).
National Portrait Gallery. Smithsonian Institution. Washington. DC/Art Resource. NY. (b). Ashmolean Museum.
Oxford: 61. The Granger Collection. New York: 63. Bnlish Museum/MKhael Holford.
Chapter 3: 64-65. IN Phelps Stokes Collection. Miriam and Ira D Wallach Division of An. Pnnts and
Photographs. New York Public Library. Astor. Lenox and Tilden Foundations. 65(b). Metropolitan Museum of Art
Bequest of Jacob Ruppert, 1939: 66(t). Rare Books and Manuscnpts Division. The New York Public Library. Astor.
Lenox and Tilden Foundations: (b). Courtesy of the Pilgrim Society Plymouth. Massachusetts; 67. Joslyn Art
Museum. Omaha. Nebraska; 68(t bl). Courtesy. Peabody Essex Museum. Salem. Mass.. Courtesy of the Pilgrim
Society. Plymouth. Massachusetts; 69(1). The Granger Collection. New York: (b). Courtesy of Ihe Pilgnm Society.
Plymouth. Massachusetts; 70. Peabody Essex Museum: 72(tl. tr). The Granger Collection. New York; (hi. The
Connecticut Historical Society. Hartford. Connecticut: 73. Culver Pictures: 74<t). Maryland Histoncal Society.
Baltimore. Maryland; (b), Enoch Pratt Free Library. Philadelphia. 75. Bntish Museum. 76(tl. The Metropolitan
Museumof Art. gift of Edgar William and Bemicc Chrysler Gansch. 1963: 76< bckgd The Granger Collection.
New York: 77. Culver Pictures: 78(1). Rare Books and Manuscnpts Division. The New York Public Library. Astor.
Lenox and Tilden Foundations; (b). National Manlime Museum London; 79(bckgdl. Phtitographs and Prints
Division. Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture. The New York Public Library Astor. Lenox and Tilden
Foundations; 80(t). Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco, gift of Mr and Mr> John D Rcvkefeller 3rd: (b). Public
Record Office. Crown Copynght, repRxluced with the pcnnission of the Controller of Her BntLanic Majesty's
Stationers Office PRO# C05/398: 81. Colonial Williamsburg Foundation; 82. Courtesy Wintenhur Museum: 83(t).
Rare Books and Manuscripts Division. "The New York Public Library. .Astor. Lenox and Tilden Foundations; (b).
Arenls Collection. The New York Public Library Astor. Lenox and Tilden Foundations, 84. Courtesv W interthur
Museum: 85. Mary Evans Picture Library: 86(t). Missoun Histoncal Society Museum Collections, (hi. The Dietnch
American Foundation Philadelphia. PA. Photo by Will Brown, f^ladelphia. PA; 87. Courtesy Amencan
Antiquarian Society: 88. Rare Books and Manu.scnpts Division. The New York Public Library. A.stor. Lenox and
Tilden Foundations: 89. Joan .Menschenfreund/The Stock Market. 90(t). Courtesy of the Rhode Island Historical
Society: (b). Rare Books and Manuscnpts Division. The New York Public Library. Astor. Lenox and Tilijen
Foundations; 93. Washington/Custis/Lee Collection. Washington and Lee University. Lexington. VA: 94. Museum
of the Fur Trade. Chadron. Nebraska: 95. Photographs and Pnnts Dis ision. Schomburg Center for Research in Black
Culture. The New York Public Library. .Astor. Lenox and Tilden Foundations. 96. Jeny Jacka Photography.
Courtesy of The Heard Museum. Phoenix. AZ: 98. The New ^'ork Public Library. Stokes Collection
Unit 2: 100-101. Independence National Historical Park Collection: 100(1). (detail). The Histoncal Society of
Pennsylvania: (r). U. S. Capitol. 101. (detail). National Gallery of Art. Washington/EverettATSU Archives
Chapter 4: 102-103. The Historical Society of Pennsylvania 103(bl. Library of Congress; 104(ti. Colonial
Williamsburg Foundation: (b). Courtesy of the Hunt Institute for Botanical Documentation. Carnegie Mellon
University. Pittsburgh. PA: I06(t). Rare Books and Manuscripts Division. The New York Public Library. Astor.
Lenox and Tilden Foundations: (b). The Granger Collection. New York; 106-I07(r). Rare Books and Manu-scripts
Division, The New York Public Library, Astor. Lenox and Tilden Foundations; 107 (t). Robert D. Rubic/Rare
Books and Manuscripts Division. The New York Public Library Astor. Lenox and Tilden Foundations; (bl). The
Granger Collection, New York, (br). The Historical Society of Pennsylvania: 108, The Library Company of
Philadelphia: 109(both), The Granger Collection. New York: 10(1). Peter Newark's American Pictures: (r). Stock
Montage; 13(t), Library of Congress: (b). The Mansell Collection: 114. Ml. Vernon L.adies Association; 115,
The Bellmann Archive: 16, Washinglon/Custis/Lce Collection. Washington and Lee University. Lexington, VA:
1 17(1), The Historical Society of Pennsylvania: (bl). National Portrait Gallery, Smithsonian In.stitulion,
Washington,
An Resource, NY: (br). Library of Congress; 118. Courtesy of the Mas.sachusetts Historical
Society: I20-123(bdr). The Beltmann Archive; 121. The Historical Society of Pennsylvania: 124. 25(t). Library
of Congress: (b). New York State Historical Association. Cooperstown: 126. Library of Congress; I27(t). The
Granger Collection, New York: (b), Anne S K Brown Military Collection. Brown University Library; 128. The
Dietrich American Foundation, photograph hy Will Brown. Philadelphia. PA: 129. New Hampshire Historical
Society: 130(1). Independence National Historical Park Collection; (r). Giraudon/Art Resource. NY: (c). The
Historic New Orleans Collection, 7accession no. 1991.34.15; 13l(both). The Granger Collection. New York: 132,
Yale University Art Gallery. Tnimbull Collection: 134. The Granger Collection. New York: 135(1). Ted
Principles of
The Mansell
New Mexico
Library;
(r).
i.
DO
(r). Anne S. K. Brown Military Collection. Brown University Library.

Chapter 5: 136-137. U.S. Capitol: 137(b). US: Supreme Court; I38(i). Rare Books .And Manuscripts Division.
The New York Public Library. Astor. Lenox and Tilden Foundations: (b). Stock Montage: 140. Courtesy
Wintenhur Museum; 141. Ted Spiegel: 143. Courtesy Wintenhur Museum: 144. I45(t). Stock Montage: (b). I.N
Phelps Stokes Collection. Miriam and Ira D Wallach Division of Art. Prints and Photographs. "The New York
Public Library. Astor. Lenox and Tilden Foundations: 147(tl). Portrait File. Minam and Ira D. Wallach Division
of Art. Prints and Photographs. The New York Public Library Astor. Lenox and Tilden Fotmdations: (tr).
Spiegel/Black Star:
(b). Bettmann: 148. Louis Schwarz: I49(t). Courtesy of the John Carter Brown Library at
Brown University: (b). Library of Congress: 150. 151. The Granger Collection. New York: 152. George F
Mobley/ National Geographic Society; 153(1). Courtesy Winterthur Museum: (b). New York Public Library:
National Archives:
EPIC (End Poverty
In California)"
from
77ie
EPIC Plan for California by
1934 Pamphlet.
From TTie Peoples of Southern Nigeria by Percy Talbot Published by Oxford University Press. London.
From "Folklore in the Amencan West from A Literary History of the American West by Batre Toelkin.
"
Published by Texas Christian University Press. 1987.
(Rotation about Harry Hopkins from "Money Flies" from the Washington Post.
Quotation about .Senator Joe McCarthy by James Wechsler from the New York Post.
154. Stock Montage; I55lall). National Archives: 156. National Archives: 157. Courtesy. Supreme Court of the
United Stales. The Supreme Court Historical Society: 160. 160-185 (bdr) The Bettmann Archive: 162(1).
Postal Senice/Harcourt Brace & Company; (r). U.S. Postal Sen ice/Harcourt Brace & Company: 165(b). Ken
Heinen/AP / Wide World Photos: 86(bl. Everetl/CSU Archives
Chapter 6: 188-189. Everelt/CSU .Archives. National Gallery of Art. Wa.shington. DC: 189. Bequest of Mrs. J
lnsel> Blair in memory of Mr and Mrs. J Inscly Blair. Museum of the City of New York. 52.100 39: I90(t).
Robert Ruhic/St Paul's Chapel. Pansh of Trinity Church. City of New York: lb). The Free Library of
Philadelphia: 191. The Granger Collection. New York. I92(tl. National Portrait Gallery. Smithsonian Institution.
Washington. DC. Gift of Henry Cabot Lodge/ Art Resource. NY. (b). Larry Slevens/Naw rocki Slock Photo:
Postal Scrv ice/Harcourt Brace & Company; (b). United States History. Local History and
193(11.
Genealogy Division. The New York Public Library. Astor. Lenox and Tilden Foundations; 194. The Granger
Collection. New York: I95(t). Mickey Osterreicher/Black Star for Harcourt Brace & Company: (b). The Mansell
US
From German Student's War Letters by A F Wedd. Published by Cambridge University Press. 1979.
From "The Question of Rehurial: How ihe Crow Creek aahaeologists view the question of reburial"" by P Willcy
from Early Man Magazine. Autumn 98 Published by Center of .American .Archeology.
From 77if Experience of World War I by J M Winter Published bv Oxford University Press. New York,
1
US
1989
PHOTO CREDITS
courtesy
Company
.1
tuition:
'^H
Truman:
S.
(I'i46)" immMy Day. Volume II: The

CopNnghi O IWO by Pharos Books.
from "The Value in Wastes by Carl
b> the United Nations Development
.n.l.n Linuary
lean.* Ri>sf\cli. cdii.
riopmemi Profrwnme I
-/. H,i(</i. September i>'-
'. >
L'.S.
&
Robert Frerck/Odyssey Productions; 23. Bollin Picture Library 24. The Granger Collection. New York: 27,
Giraudon/Art Resource, NY. 28(1). Ench Lcssing/Art Resource. NY; (b). Scala/Art Resource. NY: 29(both).
Library of Sini-Baafskalhedraal. Ghent: 30. Scala/Art Resource. NY. 31 The Granger Collection. New York:
Picture Library: (b).
Rich Bu/velli/Tom Stack
Churltt \t Tatum "The Viwce ot Ihe Hi>piim<' (anonymous), inuulalnl h> Clurles M. Taium. Copyrighl
.Uarxarri
(br). Mane Ucda/Lcode Wyi, Inc

12(1). Explorer/Mary Evans
Finnin/Amencan Museum of Natural History: 13. Arizona Slate Museum. University of
& AswKiales. (b). George Gersier/Com-stock. l7(both), E T Archive.
E T Archive. Abbey of Monteolivelo Maggiore. Siena: 20. E T Archive. Musee Conde.
Robert Irctck/Odyssey Productions,
Abbreviations used:
(t)
top. (c) center, (b) bottom,
(I) left,
in
right,
(bckgd) background,
(bdn borderFront Cover: Tony Stone Images. Reza Estakhrian.

Front Matter and TaWe of Conlenls: Page i. iii. v(i), Tony Stone Images. Reza Estakhrian: (b). Dallas &
John Hcalon/Thc SkkW Shop Inc villi. Colonial Williamsburg Foundation: (tr). Peter Newaris Western
Amencana. (hn. Rohcn Rubic/St Pauls Chapel. Pansh of Tnnity Church. City of New York: vii(t). The
Shelburnc Museum. Shclbunie. Vermont, detail of the painting "Conesioga Wagon" by Thomas Bitch.
Photograph by Ken Bums: (b). Courtesy of The Charleston Museum. Charleston. South Carolina: viii(t). in Ihe
Southern Historical Collection. Wilson Library, of the Manuscnpis Department. University of North Carolina.
Chapel Hill: (b). The Granger Collection. New York.ixltl. Peter Newark's Western Amencana: (b). Nebraska
.
Slate Histoncal Society: x(t). National
Museum
of
Amencan
Art.
Smithsonian Institution,
lent
by the
US
Department of the Intenor. OfTice of the Secretary /Art Resource. NY. Id). The Bcttmann Archive; (cr). Theodore
Roosevelt Collection. Harvard College Library: (b). Culver Pictures, xi. The Granger Collection. New York:
xii(l). UPl/Bettmann. ic), UPI'Bettmann Newspholos. ibi I'PI/Beitmann: xiii(l). C.
Owen/Black Star. (r).
NASA; xiv. xv. Authenticated News International. Ent Bcggs/HRW Photo: xxi(I).
War Dcpt General Staff
photo 1650SB-75 in the National Archives, ihli. .Mane I cda/Leo de Wys. Inc.: (br). Peter Newark's Western
Americana: xxii. Library of Congress: xxiiilt). Amencan Museum of Natural History: (b). Collections of the
Virginia Histoncal SiKiely. Richmond. VA: xxivlall). Library of Congress.
Unit 1:0-1. E T Archive, Bnlish Mu.scum, 0(1). Steve Vidler/Leo de Wys. IrK.; (r). Rare Books and Manuscripts
Dis ision. The New York Public Library Astor. Lenox and Tilden Foundations: 1 Print Collection, Miriam and
Ira D Wallach Division of Art. Pnnts and Photographs. New York Public Library Astor. Lenox and Tilden
Founddiions
US
Collection; 196(0. Courtesy. Peabody Essex
Museum. Salem.
Ma.ss
(b).
Culver Pictures: I97(t). Peter
Newark's Western Amencana: (b). Ohio Historical Society: 198. The Histoncal New Orleans Collection, accession no 1971 40: 199(1). Abbey Aldnch Rockefeller Folk Art Center. Williamsburg. VA: (r). The Metropohlan
Museumof Art, Bequest of Susan
1979.3951; 200. Museum of Amencan Political Life.
Tyler. 1979
Univeniity of Hartford, photo by Sally Anderson-Bruce; 201(t). The Benmann Archive: (c). US Postal
Servicc/Harcourt Brace & Company: (b). United Slates History. Local History and Genealogy Division. The
New York Public Library Astor. Lenox and Tilden Foundations: 202. The Library of Virginia: 20.3(t). Peter
Newark's Amencan Pictures: (b). The Hamilton Grange/National Park Service; 204. Nawrocki Stock Photo;
205. Peter Newark's Western Amencana; 206(t). The Granger Collection. New York; (b). The Amistad
Research Center, Tulane University, photographed by Dennis R Whitehead: 207, Jack McGuire/W"a.shington
Slock Photo; 209. Fred J Maroon:'21i)(l), US Postal Senice/Harcoun Brace & Company: 210(b). United
Slates History. Local History and Genealogy Division. "The New York Public Library. Astor. Lenox and Tilden
Foundations: 211. Courtesy of The Manners" Museum. Newport Nevw. VA; 212. National Portrait Gallery.
Smithsonian Institution. W"3.shmgton. DC/Art Resource. NY; 2I3(t). US. Postal Sersice/Harcourt Brace &
Company: (b). United States History. Local History and Genealogy Division. The New York Public Library.
Astor. Lenox and Tilden Foundations: 215. Peter Newarks Military Pictures: 217. Jim Hays/Unicorn Stock
Photos: 218. Bequest of Winslow Warren. Courtesy of Museum of Fine Arts. Boston. MA: 219. The Library
Company
of Philadelphia
Unit 3: 222-223. Art Resource. NY: 222(1). (detail). The Boatmen's National Bank.
.Archive. 223. (detail). Archives Division - Texas Slate Library
The Beltmann
St.
Louis. Missouri:
(r.
).
^
,
(.hiiplcr 7: 224-2^5. Tin- UoaiiiK-iiv NoBiink. Si. Louis. Miy)uri. 225(bl. Nalioiwil Portrail Gallcr>'.
Smilhsonmn
Slates Hislory.
Washinglon, IXcsourcc. NY; 226. The Granger Collecliiin, New York. 227, The
22.
an.arolik Collectmn. Councy Museum of Fine Ans, Bosion; 22^.
Courtesy of the National Museum of the .an Indian. Snmhsonian InMUution. neg. #2./6W2; 2MXi). US
Postal Scr\ icc/Harvoun Brace & Compai. Harcourt Braee & Company I'holo Library; (el. United Stales
History. Lwal History and Genealogy Di The New York Public l.ibruf>. Aslor. Lenox and Tilden
Foundations; (b), HaRoun Brace & Com.'holo Library; 2.<2(ll. Robert Rubic/The New York Public Library.
Stokes Colleclion; 2.12(r). The New York; Library; 2.W(1). The Granger Collection. New York; (bi. Mary
Evans Picture Library 2.'6. North Caroliiision of Archives and History; 2.17. 2.1X(tl. tri. Museum ol
Insliluiion.
Cincinnaii Hislorical Sociel>
American
Political Life. University
of
Ha WesI
Hartford.
CT;
(c).
US
Postal Serv ice/Harcourt Brace
&
National Portrait Gallery, ionian Institution. Washington. DC/Art Resource.
(b).
NY;
The New York Public Library. Aslor. LenJ Tilden Foundations; (br). Courtesy American Anliquarian
Society 247(|). V.S. Posial Senice/Harcoace & Company; (bl. llniled Slates History. Lwal Hislory and
Genealogy Division. The New York Puhli-ary. Aslor, Lenox and Tilden Foundations; 24S(I1. US. Postal
Service/Harcourl Brace & Company; (b). U States Hislory. Local Hislory and Genealogy Division. The New
York Public Library. Asior. Lenox and Tiloundalions; 249(1). US. Posial Service/Harcourt Brace &
;
Company; (bl. United Slates Hislory. Loc.iorv and Genealogy Division. The New York Public Library.
Aslor. Lenox and Tilden Foundations; 251 Granger Collection. New York
Chapter 8: 2.S4-2.'i.'>. The Bellmann ArchS.S, Culver Pictures; 2.S6(t). Museum of Ihc Cily of New York,
gifl
of Mrs. Robert Lilllejohn; (bl. Library of Cess; 257. The Granger Colleclion. New York; 258(1). Library of
Congress; (bl. The Bellmann Archive: 259y Evans Picture Library; 260, Library of Congress; 261. The
New York; 262, Culvaures; 26.V 265(11. The Bellmann Archive; (cl. Library of
(h). The Granger Colleclion. Ne rk; 266. The Granger Collection. New York; 267. Eleanor S.
Brockenbrough Library. The Museum of ifnfederacy. Richmond, Virginia, Photography by Kalherine
Wei/el; 268(1). The Granger Colleclion. Nork; (b). Courtesy of ihe Charleston Museum. Charleslon, Soulh
Carolina; 269(1), The Granger Colleclion. .York; (b). From the Colleclion of the Louisiana Stale Museum;
270. Maryland Hisloncal Sociely. Ballimoilil). Collections of ihe Virginia Historical Society, Richmond.
Granger Colleclion.
Congress;
VA; (r). Slock .Vloniage; (hi. Library of Co,s; 272. The Granger Collection. New York; 274(1). Library of
Congress; (b). Smithsonian Insliluiion neg 2984; 275. The Hislonc New Orleans Colleclion, accession no.
1960.46; 276. UPI/Bellmann Newspholo.s; The Wrens Nesl. Atlanta; 279. Library of Congress.
Chapter 9: 280-281. The Bellmann .ArchiSKb). Museum of An. Rhode Island School of Design. Gift of
Miss Lucy T. Aldrich; 282(1. bl. The BeilnArchive; 28.1(11), Photographs and Prims Division, Schomburg
Center for Research in Black Culture. The York Public Library Aslor, Lenox and Tilden Foundations; (ir.
bl. Courtesy United .VIelhodisl Church, phiv
George Goodwin; 284. Metropolitan Museum of Art. pholo by
Paul Rocheleau; 285, Courtesy of the Ma.sssells Historical Sociely; 286(1). Peler Newark's Hisloncal
.
Piclures; (bl. Slock Montage; 287. Culver Fes;

288(1). Slock Montage; (bl. Archive Photos; 289(1. r). The
Collc-ciion. New York; (c). Slock .Xage; 290(all). Archives. Langslon Hughes Memorial Library.
Lincoln University. PA; 291(1). I.N. Phelps ;es Colleclion. Minam and Ira D. Wallach Division of Art. Prints
and Photographs. The New York Public Lib. Aslor. Lenox and Tilden Foundations; (b). Mount Holyoke
College Library/Archives: 292(bolh). Phoiohs and Prims Division. Schomburg Center for Research in Black
Granger
Culture,
The New York Public Library, Asij;nox and Tilden Foundations; 293(1). Photographs and Prints
Schomburg Cenler for Research iuck Culture. The New York Public Librao Aslor. Lenox and
Division.
Tilden Foundations;
(b). Courtesy of the Mchusetis Hisloncal Sociely; 294(1). The Bellmann Archive; (b).
Archive Photos; 295, New Haven Colony Hical Sociely; 296. Sophia Smith Colleclion. Smilh College;
297(1). Culver Piclures: (bl. br). Courtesy ol Massachusetts Historical Sociely: 298(bolh). Archive Photos:
299. Maria Paraskevas/Harcouri Brace & Ciany; 300(11). Archive Photos: (tr). Nawrocki Stock Photo: (b),
.Archive Photos; 302. The Granger Colleclioiew
York.
Chapter 10: 3(M-305. Archives Division - Is Stale Library; 305(b). The Shelbume Museum, Shelbume.
Vermom. detail of the painting 'Conesioga Von" by Thomas Birch. Photograph by Ken Bums: 306. Daughters of
the Republic of Texas Library 307. Prints
amolographs Colleclion #CNOD878. TTie Cenler for American
;
Hisiory/The University of Texas al Austin: ). Eric Beggs/ Archives Di\ ision - Texas Stale Library: (b). From the
3
Colleclion of the Harris County Henlage See. Lilteresl-Dixon Colleclion; 3 1 0. Archives Di\ ision - Texas Stale
Librao'; 31 Id). The Bellmann Archive; (b), (eclion of the James K. Polk Memorial Association. Columbia.
Tennesee; 312(1), U.S. Posial Senice/Neenaichell Stocky An Images: (b). United Slates History. Local History
and Genealogy Division. The New York PulLibrary. Aslor. Unox and Tilden Foundations; 314. National
Archives; 316, Daughters of the Republic of <as Library: 317(1), Harcourt Brace Pholo: (b). Neg, No. 1319.
Special Collections Division. University of \hingIon Libraries: 318(1). Plumas County Museum: (r). Denver
330(ti.
.''..
Brothers: (b). National

Archive.
Museum
of /^can An. Washinalon.
DC/ An
Resource.
NY:
332. TTie Bellmann
Unit 4: 334-335. Brown Brothers: 334(1). :lail) The Historic New Orleans Colleclion. accession no. 1975.93.2:
(r. c). The Granger Collection.
.New York.
Chapter 11: 336-337. The Historic New leans Colleclion. accession no. 1975. 93.2. image detail from one of
fourplales; 337. Chicago Historical SocielX.1354: 338(1), University of Hartford, Political Collection. History
Museum. Pholo by Steven Laschever: (b). chives Division - Texas Stale Library, courtesy Texian Press;
Sen ice/Harcourt Brace Company: (b). United Slates History. Local History and Genealogy
Division. The New York Public Library. Air. Lenox
and Tilden Foundations: 341(1). Library of Congress; (b).
The Granger Collection. New York; 342(1)'. S. Postal Sen ice/Harcourt Brace & Company: (b). United Slates
339(11. U.S. Postal
History
Local History and Genealogy DivDn. The New York Public Libran Astor. Lenox and Tilden
Foundations: 343(l). The Granger Colleclic New York: (b). The Granger Co'lleclion. New
York; 344(11. U.S.
Postal Senice/Harcoun Brace &
Companycl). United States History. Local Hislory and Genealogy Division.
.
The New York Public
Library. Astor. Lencand Tilden Foundations;'(cr). Library of Congress: (bj^North Wind

Picture Archives: 345. by courtesy of the
Tslees of the Boston Public Library 346(1). University of North
;
Carolina
at Chapel Hill: (b). Library of

Coress; 347(1), Kansas Stale Hisloncal Society: (r). Kansas Slate
Hisloncal Society; 348, The Granger Colleion, New York;
349. University of Hartford. Political Colleclion,
History Museum, photo by Steven Laschev350. National Portrait Gallery. Smithsonian Institution.
Washington. DC/Art Resource, NY: 351(l)Jbrary of Congress: (Ir), .Missouri Historical Society. neg.#prs.l26:
(c). National Archives: (br). Culver
Picture 352. Courtesy Illinois Secretary of Slate Jim Edgar: 353. The
Metropolitan Museum of Art. Gifl of Mr. al Mrs. Carl Stoeckel. 1897.
1982 by
Metropolitan
(97.5)
Museum
Museum
The
of Art; 354. The Lincoln MuseunFort Wayne. IN. #594: 355(1). Library of Congress: (tr. cr. br).
of American Political Life, Univeity of Hartford; .356. Library of Congress:
357(1). U.S. Postal
Senice/Harcourt Brace
Company: (b). lited States History, Local Hislory and Genealogy Division. The
&
New
York Public Library, Aslor. Lenox and Tilm Foundations: 358. The Granger Colleclion. New York:
359(1),
(b). Museum f American Political Life, University of Hartford. Political Collection,
Grant Heilman Pholography:

photo by Steven La.schever.
Chapter
12: 362.
I'ublic Library, Aslor, Ij;ik>x
and Tilden
of Congrcvs; 412, 413(11. in
Peiin Cenler. Inc
St.
From the Penn School Collection. Permission granted by

Helena Island. SC (b). The Bellmann Archive, 414(1), The Bellmann Archive; ic. h). Library
The Granger Colleclion, New York. 418(1). The Bellmann Archive; (b). Jubilee Singers.
.
of Cimgress, 415. 417.
Courtesy of Fisk Universily: 42(Kl).
Brown
Bnilhers; (b). Library of Congress.
Unit 5: 422-423. Solomon D. Butcher Collection/Nebraska State Histoncal Sociely; 422(1). (detail). Courtesy of
Room. California Slate Library, Sacramento. California: (r). Brown Brothers. 423, The
Bellmann Archive.
Chapter 14: 424-425. Courtesy of the California Hislory Room, California Slale Library. Sacramenlo.
California: 42.5(b). American Museum of Natural Hislory; 426(1). NawriKki Slock Pholo; (b). Museum of Ihc
Great Plains; 427. Collection of Ihe Heard Museum, Phoenix. An/ona; 428ii). Blair Clark/Museum of New
(b), O S Goff/Zimmerman Brolhers/Nebraska Slale Histoncal Society. 429(1), Field Museum of
(r), James Mooney/Smilhsonian Insliluiion, Neg #55297: 430, The Bettmann Archive: 431. The
Southwest Museum. Los Angeles; 432. Copynghl 1982. The Greenwich Workshop. Inc.. Rcprtxjuced with the
permission of the Greenwich Workshop. Inc. Shellon. CT; 433(1). Robert Dennis. .Miriam and Ira D. Wallach
Division of Art, Prints and Photographs. The New York Public Library. Asitir, Lenox and Tilden Foundations; (r).
Nevada Historical Sociely; 434(bolhl. Smilhsonian Insliluiion National Anthropological Archives. Bureau of
Ethnology Collection: 435. Ben Wittick/Courtesy of American Research Collections in the Museum of New
Mexico: 436(1). Peter Newark's Western Amcncana; (b). Jonathan Wallen/The National Archives of the Unilcd
Slales by Herman J. Viola. Courtesy Harry N. Abrams Inc.. Publishers. New York; 437. The Bellmann Archive;
438. Pete Newark's Western Americana: 439(1). S. D. Butcher/Denver Public Library Western History Collection.
(b), California Slale Library; 440. Nebraska Stale Historical Society, 441, California Slate Library: 442(1),
Minnesota Histoncal Sociely; (b), Peter Newark's Western Americana; 443. The Granger Collection. New York;
444(1), Buffalo Bill Hisloncal Cenler, Cody, Wyoming; (b). Peler Newark's Western Americana: 445, 446.
Colorado Historical Society; 447(1), Peter Newark's Western Americana; (b). Library of Congress. Solomon D.
Butcher Colleclion; 448. Peler Newark's Western Americana; 449. Idaho Slate Hisloncal Society, photo 62-44.7;
4.50. 451(1). Colorado Historical Society: (b). Library of Congress; 452. Nevada Histoncal Sociely: 455(1). The
Bettmann Archive; (r). H, H. Bennett Studio Foundation.
Chapter 15: 456-457. Brown Brothers; 457. The Strong Museum; 458(1). Property of AT&T Archives Pnnled
w ith permission of AT&T; (b). The Metropolitan Museum of Art; 459. The Granger Collection. .New York:
460(both). The Bellmann Archive; 461(1). The Granger Colleclion. New York; (bl). Harcourt Brace & Company
Photo Library; (br). Edison National Hislonc Site. National Park Service/U.S. Department of the Interior; 462.
463(11, Carnegie Library of Pitt.sburgh: (b), Charles Uht/Courtesy of The Rockefeller Archive Cenler: 464(1).
Reprinted with the permission of General Mills. Inc.; (r). The Strong Museum; 465. Scars Roebuck and
Company; 466(1), The Strong Museum: (b). Brown Brothers; 467. The Bellmann Archive: 468. Chris Huie;
469(1), Culver Pictures: (b). Museum of the City of New York; 470(1), Brown Brothers: (r). Culver Pictures; 471
The Strong Museum: 472(11, The Granger Collection, New York: (b). Brown Brothers: 473(1). The Bettmann
Archive; (r). Culver Piclures: 474. The Beltmann Archive; 475. 476(both), Brown Brothers; 477, The Bettmann
Archive; 478(1). The Bettmann Archive; (b). Brown Brothers; 479. Nalional Baseball Hall of Fame Library
Cooperslown. NY: 480(both). Rare Books and Manuscripts Division. The New York Public Library. Astor.
Lenox and Tilden Foundations: 481(1). Brown Brothers: (r).
pholo by Daniel J. Schaefer/courtesy Penguin
USA. Cover painting "Chinese Restaurant" (detail) by John Sloan. Courtesy of Memorial Art Gallery of the
Universily of Rochester. Marion Slratlon Gould Fund.
Chapter 16: 484-485. 485. The Benmann Archive: 486. Stock Montage: 487. Library of Congress: 488(t), U.S.
Postal Senice/Harcourt Brace & Company: (b). Uniled Slates Hislory. Local Hislory and Genealogy Division.
The New York Public Library. Astor. Lenox and Tilden Foundations; 489(tl. tr). U.S. Postal Senice/Harcourt
Brace & Company; (bl. br), C'nited States History, Local History and Genealogy Division, The New York Public
Library. Aslor, Lenox and Tilden Foundations: 490(tl, Ir), U.S. Posial Sen ice/Harcourt Brace & Company: (bl.
br). United States History. Local Hislory and Genealogy Division. The New York Public Library. Aslor. Lenox
and Tilden Foundations; 491(1). Culver Pictures: (b). Cook Collection / Valenline .Museum. Richmond. Virginia:
492. Culver Pictures: 493(1). Library of Congress: (r). The Beltmann Archive; 494(both). The Beltmann Archive;
496. Culver Pictures; 497. The Beltmann Archive; 499. Library of Congress; 500(1). U.S. Postal Senice/Harcoun
Brace & Company: (b). Harcourt Brace & Company: 501. The Bettmann Archive; 503. Nalional Farmers Alliance
and Industrial Union: 504(bolh). Culver Pictures.
Unit 6: 508-509. The Granger Colleclion. New York: 508(1). Giraudon/Art Resource. NY: (r). Library of
Congress; (c). Culver Piclures; 509. Culver Pictures.
Chapter 17: 5 0-5 1 Giraudon/.'\rt Resource. NY; 511, Brown Brothers: 512(1). The George Meany .Memorial
Archives; (b). Brown Brothers: 513(1). The Granger Collection, New York; (b). The Beltmann Archive; 514(1).
Culver Piclures: (b). Library of Congress: 515(11. Library of Congress; (b). The Bettmann Archive; 516, Wallace
Natural History;
HRW
Addams Memorial
Collection. Special Collections.
The University
Library,
The University
of Illinois al Chicago: 5l7(t). The Granger Collection. New York: (b). Brown Brothers: 5 1 8(1 1. 'The Bettmann
Archive: (r). Brown Brothers: 519(1). Wide World Photos: (r|. The Granger Colleclion. New York; (bckgd).
UPI/Beltmann Newsphotos: 520, The George Meany Memorial Archives: 521. 522, The Bellmann Archive:
Brown Brothers; 525(1). The Beltmann Archive; (r).
Edison .National Historic Site. -National Park Sen ice/U.S. Department of the Interior: (b). The Bettmann Archive:
526, Library of Congress; 527. Stock Montage: 528. Rio Grande Press: 529. The Granger Collection. New York.
Chapter 18: 532-533. Culver Pictures: 533(b). The Granger Collection. New York; 534(1). The Beltmann Archive:
(b). Library of Congress; 535(both). The Granger Colleclion. New York; 536(1. c). Library Legacy Foundalion.
Toledo-Lucas County Public Library: (b). Courtesy of the Rosenberg Library. Galveston. Texas; 537. 538(1). Library
of Congress: (bl, Theodore Roosevelt Colleclion. Hanard College Library; 539(1), Theodore Roosevelt Collection.
Hanard College Library: (b). Harcourt Brace & Company: 540. Culver Pictures: 541. National Mu.seum of
American Art. Smilhsonian Insliluiion. lent by U.S. Department of the Interior. Office of the Secretary /Art Resource,
523(both|, Courtesy of Ihe Art Institute of Chicago; 524.
NY: 543. Library of Congress: 544(1). U.S. Postal Senice/Harcourt Brace & Company (cl. Harcourt Brace &
Company; (b), Tacoma Tribune/ Forest Hislory Sociely: 545(1). The Bellmann Archive; (r), Theodore Roosevelt
Collection. Hanard College Library; 546, Theodore Roosevelt Collection, Hanard College Library: 548(1). Library
of Congress; (b). The Beltmann Archive; 549(0, U.S. Posial Senice/Harcoun Brace & Company; (c). Harcourt
Brace & Company: (b). Stock Montage: 550. Philadelphia Museum of Art/Bndgeman Art Library/Art Resource.
NY. 552. Library of Congress; 555(11. UPI/Beltmann Newsphotos; (r). The Bettmann Archive.
Chapter 19: 556-557. Library of Congress. 557. Keystone-Mast Collection #.ACT 24049, UCR/Califomia
Museum of Pholography. University of California. Riverside; 558(1). The Bettmann Archive: (b). Keystone-Mast
Collection #V20533. UCR/Califomia Museum of Pholography. Universily of California. Riverside: 559. Brown
Brothers: 560. Library of Congress: 561, Culver Piclures; 562. Library of Congress: 563(1). Nawrocki Stock
Pholo: (b). Keystone-Mast Collection #V33954. UCR/Califomia Museum of Photography. Universily of
California. Riverside; 565(11. The Bettmann Archive; (b). Library of Congress; 566(1). Culver Pictures: (bl. br).
Courtesy Peabody Essex Museum. Salem. Mass.: 567, Stock Montage; 569(1), Keyslone-Masl Collection
#X9359, UCR/Califomia Museum of Photography. University of Califomia. Riv erside; 569(b), The Bettmann
Archive; 570(1). Keystone-Mast Collection #X9365. UCR/Califomia Museum of Photography. University of
Califomia. Riverside: (b). Keyslone-Masl Colleclion #X6637. UCR/Califomia Museum of Photography.
University of Califomia. Riverside; 572(bolh). The Granger Collection. New York; 575(1), Culver Pictures; (b).
:
(r). Culver Piclures; 581. Library of Congress.

Piclures: 585, Culver Pictures: 586, Hirz/ Archive Photos: 587(1), Archive Photos;
Culver Pictures: 589(t). Culver Pictures; (b). The Granger Colleclion, New York: 590(1). R. B.
Reming/Truslees of the Impenal War Museum. London: (b). Tmstees of the Imperial War Museum. London; 59 L
Stock Montage: 592. The Bettmann Archive: 593(1). Nawrocki Slock Photo; (bl. UPI/Beltmann Newsphotos; 594.
The Beltmann Archive: 595(1). UPl/Betlmann Newsphotos: (b). Archive Photos: 596. .\rchive Photos: 597(1).
Culver Piclures; 597(all). Enc Beggs/HRW Photo: 598, Archive Photos; 600. UPl/Beitmann Newsphotos: 601(t).
Nawrocki Stock Photo; (bl. UPl/Benmann Newsphotos; 602. UPI/Betlmann Newsphotos; 603. Culver Piclures;
604(1), UPl/Betlmann Newsphotos; (b). Nawrocki Slock Pholo; 606(1). Culver Pictures: (b). UPI/Beltmann
Newsphotos; 607. 609. UPI/Beltmann .Newsphotos; 610( all), 61 1, Culver Pictures: 612. Library of Congress; 613.
Library of Congress; 576, Culver Pictures; 577(1). Stock Montage:
Chapter 20: 584-585. Culver
The Granger ColleclionVew York; 363. from
THE CIVIL WAR: FORWARD TO RICH-
MOND. Photograph by Al Freni. 1983 T.ne-Life Books. Inc. Courtesy, Troiani Collection: 364(1). Library of
Congress: (b). The Filson Club, Louisville.Cenlucky:
365(t), Library of Congress; (b). The Bellmann Archive:
John Adams Elder, "General Robert. Ue." oil on canvas. 54 1/2 x 40 3/4. In the Collection
of the
Corcoran Gallery of Art. Gift of William WIson
Corcoran: (c). N. S. Meyer. Inc.: (b). Library of Congress;
369(1). North Wind Picture Archives; (r),
Cicago Historical Society, #ICHi-22169: 369(bckgd), Library of
Congress: 370(1), The Daughters of CharilyDf
St. Vincent de Paul. N'ortheasl Province. Inc.; (r). Eleanor S.
Brockenbrough Library. The Museum of ih Confederacv. Richmond. Virginia; (c).
The Beltmann Archive;
371 (I). The .Museum of the Confederacy, R;hmond. Virginia;
(bl. The Granger Collection, New York: 372. From
the Collections of the South Carolina
Hisloical Society: 373(bothl. Library of Congress; 373(both). The Museum
of the Confederacy, Richmond, Virginia.
Piolography'by Kalherine Wetze'l; 374(1). U.S. Postal Senice/Harcoun
Brace & Company, (c). United States
Histoy, Local Hislory and Genealogy Division. The New York Public
Library. Astor. Lenox and Tilden
Foundatins, (b). Library of Congress: 375. The Granger Collection. New
''^' *^^^^P'- General Stall phcto#165-SB-75 in the National Archives, (b). Library of Congress:
V7S The
-V^^^"*'
378
Beltmann Archive: 379(1). The Vrsir.a Mililarv Instilute Archives, Lexington. VA: (b). The Granger
Collection, .New York: 381. Jack Olson;
SSUl.The West Point Museum. U.S. Militan Academy. West Point.
New York; (b), Chicago Historical Societyneg
#ICHi-07774; 384. 385. 386(l)Library of Congress: 386(b).
Culver Piclures; 387, Library of Congress:
388. Tom Lovell/Nalional Geographic Image Collection; 389(bckgd).
Jack Olson; 390. Valenline Museum,
Richnona, Virginia: 391, Eleanor S. Brockenbrough Libran. The Museum
ot the Confederacy. Richmond.
Virginia. Pjotosraphy by Kalherine Wetzel.
Chapter 13: 392-393. The Granger Colleclion. New
York; 393. Library of Congress; 394(1). The Granger
368(1).
New York: (b). Library of Congiess; 395(1). Library of Congress; (b). National Portrait Gallery.
Smithsonian Inslitulion/An Resource. NY;
396. 397(ll), Librao of Congress; (cl), Peler Newark's American
Sen ice/Harcourt Brace
Company: (br). United Slates History. Local Hislory and
Genealogy Division. The New York Public
Library, Aslor. Lenox and Tilden Foundation's: 398. The Western
Kesene Hisloncal Society, Cleveland, Ohio.
399(both), The Bettmann Archive: 401(1). Libran of Congress; (b).
Louisiana Collection. Howard Tilton
Memorial Library. New Orleans. LA 701 8; 402(both). 'The Granger
t-ollection. New York:
403(1). Library of Congress: (c). U.S. Posial Senice/Harcoun Brace & Company: (b). United
Collection,
Pictures; (cr). U.S. Postal
The New York
(b). The Granger Colleclion. New York, 40ft.

York; 41 Id). UnderwiKxl and Underwixxl/I.ibrary ol Congress, (h).
the Soulhem Hisloncal Collection, Wilvin Library, of Ihe Manuscnpls
New
Colleclion.
IX'partmeni, University of North Carolina. Chapel Hill.
Kirkland Papers, Jane
Public Library Western Hislory Collection: (alll. California Slate Library: 321, Joslyn An Museum. Omaha.
Nebraska: 322. Culver Piclures: 323. Peler .Nark's Western Americana: 324(1). Wells Fargo Bank: (r). Courtesy of
The Boslonian Society. Old Stale House; 3ralifomia State Library 326. San Francisco Hislory Cenler. S;ui
Francisco Public Library: 329(bothl. Anne
Brown Military Collection. Brown University Library:
Brown
I.ibrjuy
The Granger
Mexico:
24.1,
Robert D Rubic/New 'ôrk Public Library. The Philhrix.k Museum of Art. Tulsa. Oklahoma; 246(ll). U.S.
Postal Service/Harcourt Brace
Compan Iniied Sl.iies Hisior>. Local History and Genealogy Division.
&
History luid Genealogy Division.
Foundations, 404. Library of Congress, 405(11. Library ol Congress,

407, 408,410.
the California History
Company, (b). United Slates History. Loiiory and Genealogy Division. The New York Public Library.
Astor. Lenox and Tilden Foundations; 23*onal Fortran Gallery Smithsonian Insliluiion. Gift of the Swedish
Colonial Society through Mrs. William HArt Resource. NY; 2MXI). The Hennitagc. Home of Andrew
Jackson; (b). Brad MarkeWiamma Liaisoi(t). Tony Kirvcs/Soulhem Exposure lor Haaouit Brace &
Company;
UkoI
&
(r).
Everell Collection: 614(t|, Coleccion Hipatia: (b). Superstock: 616. The Library of Virginia.
Unit 7: 618-619. UPI/Bettmann .Newsphotos; 618(1). Brown Brolhers; (r). Library of Congress: (c). The
Beltmann Archive; 619(1), (detail), Nalional Museum of American Art. Washington. DC/Art Resource. NY: (r).
UPI / Bettmann Newsphotos; (c). The Beltmann Archive.
Chapter 21: 620-621. Brown Brothers; 621. UPI/Bettmann Newsphotos; 622(t). Culver Pictures: (b). The
Beltmann Archue: 623(1). The Archives of Labor and Urban Affairs. Wayne Stale Universily: (b). Brown
Brolhers; 624a, c). UPI/Bettmann Newsphotos: (bl. The Archives of Labor and L'rban Affairs. Wayne Slale
University: 625(1), The Granger Collection, New York; (b). Brown Brolhers; 626. Brown Brolhers: 627(11,
UPI/Beltmann Newsphotos: (r). The Museum of Modem Art. New York; 628(both). Museum of American
Political Life. University of Hartford. Political Colleclion. History Museum, photo by Steven Laschever: 629(1),
The Bettmann .\rchive; (c). U.S. Postal Senice/Harcourt Brace & Company: (b). Harcourt Brace & Company:
630(1). Library of Congress: (b). The Bettmann Archive: 631(1). U.S. Postal Senice/Harcourt Brace & Company:
(c), Harcourt Brace & Company; (b). Museum of American Political Life. Universily of Hartford. Political
Collection. Hislory Museum, pholo by Steven Laschever: 632. 634(1). The Beltmann Archive: (bl. Keystone-Mast
Colleclion #X41 156. UCR/Califomia Museum of Pholography. University of Califomia Riverside: 635. Brown
Brothers; 636. The .Archives of Labor and Urban Affairs. Wayne State University; 637(t|. The Bellmann Archive;
(b). UPl/Betlmann Newsphotos: 638. Frank Driggs Collection: 639. "Juan Salvador and Lupe's Wedding. 1929".
from Rain of Gold By Victor Villasenor is reprinted with permission from the publisher (Arte Publico Press.
University of Houston. 1991 ); 641, Brown Brolhers.
Chapter 22: 644-645. The Beltmann Archive; 645(b). 646(1). The Granger Collection. New York: (c. b). Culver
n
1
V(unmrni
II
Hrimn
'cw Vintage
(k-.iî.i
M CuNff
\mmcjji
NUi-ÂhuxTlu All iigliu i>.->cl\cU. b<>4<li. NUûin Vûii 1.14X7/ The

Aniu> Right* Soocl> (ARSi, Nc Vofk. i66. Arthuc Pho4u. 667. The
\..^'iii>. Aiwk.viri.
I1u:,.i'.
KcTilr
KxinlUHW
\r^hi\c
CluptrrU: (
Bcltrivjiin
Bn4hrr>
Hfi>n
f."l(li.
1.
'
[cvv. ih..
'
"
(uKcr
Lounc*> Ben
ii I ifbiN-Betiminn. Nil.
Bnmn
Brothcni.
(rl.
Daniel
b). Kaiiî HvMnpvHi. coune^v of Wilham

Mjnuwnpt^ Divisum. I'niêfMt) of Virginu Ljhrai>.
\iiviiLjn M.vk 111. >ll>^ ir. b). Bron BrochetN, 685, Culver
jA-kct f4h4f
llttj..,
[^jrtmeni.
'-
PKiuin.oMali
Benmann. in. I'
itfpirr
"n. .hi.
K<'ccli LjNiUv.
riHti.
Culver Piciurcs. 688(1).
nan. 6m. Brown Brother.

DC/Art Resource. \Y. 69.1. Culver
_:, in.
Lihf4J>
I'l
Congrcvj; 697(11.
LS
Postal
compjnv. Id. Harcoun Brace * Compinv. (bi. Slock Monlage; 699. Tennessee
ihrarv of Congress, (b) Bn<n Brothers. 701. 702. Franklin D Roosevelt
t.ion Brothers 7()biii. FSA The Granger Collection. New York. lb). Southern
t-rsitv of North Cjrohnj al Chapel Hill/ Louise Boyle Fhoto: 708. The Granger
.;,
Nil. ti.\ahi\e Photi>s. lb). Natioful Archnes. 710(1). Ewing Galloway. Inc. (r).
Bniwn BtvHhers 7i:ih.Hhi. 7|.lihoth). 714. Ubrarv of Congress. 715(1). HRW Photo, (r). The Granger
Collection. New York. 716<tl. The Granger Collection. New York. ibi. Brown Brothers. 717(t). Shooting
.
'
1.
Michelle Bndwell/Frtmlera Fotos. ir). Michelle Bndwell/Froniera Fotos/counesy Harper Perennial,

a diMMon l Harpeil'ollins. 7l8il). William Fcm> Collection. Archives and Special Collections. University
of MissisMpfii libfars, (Hford. in. Corhis- Benmann. ib). Bettmann. 719. Grandma Moses "Sugaring Off'
1937
C199: Grandma Moses Properties Co New York. 720. Margaret Bourke- While / LIFE Magazine
Star
111.
Time Inc 72 Photofesi

Chapter 2S: 722-72.V The Benmann Archive; 723. The Granger Collection. New York; 724. Stock
Montage; 725(1). The Bettmann Arvhivr; (r). Brown Brolherv; 726(t). LPl/Betlmann Newsphotos; fb).
1
O National Geographic Society. 730(1). Luis

ManJcn/VaiKinal Geographic Sivieiy; (ri. I Pl/Betunann Newsphotos. 731. Evcrcn/CSL' Archives; 732(t).
The Bettmann .Vchi>e. (b). L'PI/Bcttmann Newsphotos. 733. The Granger Collecuon. New York. 734. The
Bettmann Archive. 737(t). Stock .Montage; (b). Bettmann Newsphotos; 738. Bettmann Newsphotos: 740.
National Portrait Gallery. 727. IPI/Betlmann Newsphotos. 728.
Brown Brtithers
Chapter 2: 742-743. UPl/Bettmann Newsphotos; 743. L'PI/Corbis-Betimann; 744(t). The Benmann
Archive, (hi. AP / Wide World Photos. 746. AP/ Wide World Photos. 747(1|. L'Pl/Benmann Newsphotos;
(h). The Benmann .Archive; 749(1). Ria-Novosu/Sovfoto / Easifoto; (rl. Peter Newark's Military Pictures.
750. 1'Pl/Bettniann Newsphotos; 751(1). Heirs of
Eugene Smith/Black Star. (bl. LPl/Benmann
Newsphotos; 752. Library of Congrevs;
AP Wide World
753((l. Franklin
Roosevelt Library;
(b).
L'PI/BetUnann
Jonathan Wallen/Counesy Harry N Abrams. Inc New

The Benmann Archive. 757. National Archives; 758(1). .AP /
Wide World Photos, in. Library of Congrcw; 759iboth). AP / Wide W orld Photos; 760. Photn; 761(1). AP /
Wide World Photos, (c). The Granger Collection. New York; 761(b). AP / Wide World Photos; 762.
Authenticaled News International; 763. 1'niled States Marine Corps; 764(1). The Benmann Archive; (r).
Franklin D Riwseseh Library 76.5(11. AP Wide W orld Photos; (b). Philip Jones-Gnffiths/Magnum Photos;
766(1). "Soviet Life" from Sovfoto; (b). AP / Wide World Photos; 767. Corbis-Benmann; 768. Franklin D.
New^sphotos; 754(1).
Yott; 755.
AP/ Wide World
Photos;
(r).
Photos; 756.
Roosevelt Library. 770. National .Archives; 772. National Portrait Gallery. Smithsonian Institution.
Washington. DC/Art Resource. NY. 774. Culver Pictures
I'nil 8: 776-777. Supcrstock. 776(1). Culver Pictures, (r. c). L'PI/Benmann Newsphotos; 777. Philip Jones
Gnffiths/Magnum Ptiotos.
Chapter 27: 77K-779. Culver Pictures. 779. L'.S. Army Photograph / Courtesy Harry S. Truman Library;
780. LN/DPI PHOTO; 781. L'PI/Benmann Newsphotos; 782. The Benmann Archive; 783. Franklin D.
Roosevelt Library
Newsphotos; (b). Library of Congress;

786(1). Bettmann; in. The Benmann Archive; 788(1). L' S Postal SerMce/Harcoun Brace & Company; (b).
Harcoun Brace & Company; 789. 790. The Benmann Archive; 791. LPl/Benmann Newsphotos; 792(1).
I'Pl/Bcnmann Newsphotos; (b). FTG International; 794(t). The Granger Collection. New York; (b). AP/
W ide W orld
I'niled Nations; 784(both). 785(1). I'PI/Bcttmann
Photos. 795.
AP W ide World
/
Photos; 796(1
).
AP / W idc W orid
Photos; (b).
Benmann; 797.
Culser Pictures. 798. Brown Brothers; 801. L'PI/Benmann Newsphotos. S03. Library of Congress.
Chapter 28: 804-805. 805. L'PI/Benmann Newsphotir.; 806(1). The Benmann Archive; (b). .AP / Wide World
Photos. 807. AP / Wide World Photos; 80S. FPG International; 809. Federal Civil Defen.se AdministraUon.
iTiHincsy of Harry S Truman Library; 810. from Wfr/)/<xt'j 5p'fia/ for fotin (Simon & Schuster. I958);812.
AP/ Wide World Photos; 813(1). L' S Postal Sersice/Harcoun Brace it. Company; (bl. Harcoun Brace &
Company 8l4<bothl. Ewing Galloway. Inc 8l5(both). .AP / Wide World Photos; 816. Ewing Galloway, courtesy Ford; 8l7iti. Drawn by Robert Day; 01954. 1982 The New Yorker Magazine. Inc (b). Sears Roebuck
and Company; 8l8(t). The Benmann Archive; (b). AP / Wide Wortd Photos; 819. FPG International; 820.
;
h;5(hothi
bVG
Intcnuuonal. 829.
Ai.
(
Sewsphotm.
h^l
P.'sial
c.
.'Sn
\r.
Ini
Vk
in
-.,.11
News
AP/ Wide
Xulix-nli^jlcd
Al'
...il
Nc
831lbi.
Chns Cauell
Service/Harcourt Brace
Sill.
Courtesy of
ii>s.
832(bo(ta).
(c).
VIST
lb).
Harcoun Brace
IPt/Beoinarui
Michelle
&
STA.WKIi.
840. Joan l.ars<in/C
Harcoun Brace A
c/Karcoun Brace Sl Coi
iribcuiiunn ^c^phl.ll.s. 844. Reulers/Beiunann !siotus. 845. L'Pl/Beomann
Newsphotos. 846(t). The (iranger Collection. New York: (bli. National AiJ ibr). The Granger
Collection. New York. 847iii. Library of Congress. 847(b). The Granger don. New York. 848(1).
(bli. The Benmann Archive, (bri. AP/ Wide Vllvotos: 849(1).
I Pl/Benmann Nevisph<Ki.s
File Photo, (b). AP/
I Pl/Bcnmann Newsphotos. icl). Library of Congress, (cr). Arkansas DenWia/ctte
Wide World Photos. S5()<il. tri. AP/ Wide W<ld Photos; (b). AP/ Wide Vfhotiw. 852(both).
"
I'PI/Benmann Newsphotos. 853. L'PI/Benmann Newsphotos. 8.54(ii. And)<>l. "Camphell's Soup
1965/ The Bettmann Archive, (bi. Roy Lichtenstein. "Varoom "/The Beunwchive. 855. Daniel J
Bnd
Compan).
S42.
>!4.i.
Schaefer/Reproduced courtesy of Vintage Books, a Division of Random H4ns New York; 856(1). Tim
Boxer/ Archive Photos, (r). Chns Casselli/HRW Photo. Ic). Archive Photon Elliott Landy/Magnum
Photos
Chapter 30: 862-863. Philip Jones Gnffilhs/Magnum Photos: 86.1(b). Vn Women's Memorial
Project. Inc Glenna Goodacre. sculptor Gregory Slaley photo. 864(t). OteueViollet/Gamma
Liaison, (b). Bruno Barbey/Magnum Photos: 866. L'lllusualion/Sygma: Ht. Keystone Press Agency:
867. Collection Viollet/Gamma Liaison. 868. Howard Sochurek/LIFE Mne. O Time. Inc.; 869.
AP/Wide World Photos. 870. Max Scheler/Black Star 871. Arc-hivc Photii. LPWrotbis-Benmann:
874. The Benmann /Vrchise. 875(1). Sara Manhews/Swarthmore College (Collection: lb). CBS News:
876. Roger Lubin/Jeroboam 1972. 877. The Benmann Archive: 878(t). AnPhotos: (b). YoKhi
Okamoto/Lvndon Baines Johnson Library 879. Archive Photos: 880. Jackiilingcr/Lyndon Baines
Johnson Library: 881. Jesse Steve Rose/The Image Works; 882. Corbis-bnn: 883. The Benmann
Archise: 884. Jean Claude Francolon/Gamma Liaison: 886. The Benmannive: 887. Arnold J
Saxe/Jeroboam; 888. Bob Gorrell/Richmond Newspapers; 889. Arthur Gragma: 891 Tommy
Thompson/Black Star. 892(1). Charles Moore/Black Star. (b). Bemie Bosu)3. Peter Arnold. Inc 894.
Dennis Cox
L'nit 9: 896-897. Novosti/SIPA Pitss Photos; 896(1). Wide Worid Photos: .ill Gentile/SIPA Press
Photos; 897. Wide World Photos.
Chapter 31: 898-899. W ide Worid Photos; 899. Sepp Seitz/Woodfin Can Associates: 900(t). C.W.
Owen/Black Star: (b). NASA; 901(1). Richard B. Levine: (b). Harcoun Bre Company. 903. Slarc &
Evelyne Bemheim/Woodfin Camp & /^sociales: 904. C Simonpietn/Syj906. Photn. 906. Archive
Photos; 907. LTI/Bettmann Newsphotos: 909(1). The Bettmann Archive; (t>se Skylta/Jeroboam. 910(tl.
:
Richard B. Levine; Ic). Harcotut Brace & Company;b). L'PI/Benmann Newtos. 91 1. Magnum Photos:
912(1). Jerry Bemdt/Piciure Group; (b). Photn: 913(t). Richard B Levine; Harcoun Brace & Company:
913(b). The Benmann Archive: 914<t). Martin A. Levick; (b). Roben Frerdyssey Productions. 915(1).
B Gotfryd/Woodfin Camp & Associates; (r). Ghassan Nakad/Gamma Lia; 916. The Bettmann .Archive:
918. Martin A Levick: 9l9(t). Bob Clay/Jeroboam: (b). Ehzabeth Hamlin;k. Boston. 920. Dennis
Brack/Black Stan 92l(tl). Kim Newton/Woodfin Camp & A.vsociates: (tr)te & Carol Wemer/Comstock,
Inc.; (b). AP/ Wide World Photos; 922(t). The Benmann Archive, (b). HHhoto. 923. Bohdan
Hnnewvch/Stock. Boston: 924. D.B Owen/Black Star 925. J Bemdl/StcBoston.
Chapter 32: 926-927. Bill Gentile/SIPA Press: 927. Wally McNamce/W.in Camp & As.sociates; 928(1).
B. Bartholomew /Black Star. (b). Wally McNamee/Woodfin Camp & Assres. 929<both). Richard B.
Lcvinc. 930(1). Philip Jon Bailey/Jeroboam: (r). Mike Kullen/The Picture e. 932(1). Cotbis-BeUmann:
& Associates. 934.
932(b). 9.33(t). Ed Carlin/The Picture Cube: (b). Alex Quesada/Woodfin
L'PI/Benmann: 935. Tnppett/SIPA Press: 936(1). Abbas/Magnum Photos: Brent Nica.stro/Gamma
Bob Dacmmnch Photo: 940(tl W McNamec/Woodfin Camp 4

.Associates: (tr). James Colbum/Phoiorcponers: (o. Bob Daemmnch Photo. Richard B Levine: 941(1).
Reuicrs/Bettmann: in. James Colbum/Phoioreponers: 942(t). Bob Daemm Photo: (b). Harcoun BraccA
Company; 943. Brad Markel/Gamma Liaison: 944. Halstead/Liaison; 9.). Charles
Gaiewood/Jeroboam: (b). Reuters/Beltmann; 946. D Swanson/Gamma LJn: 948(t). Mark W. Lisk/FSlock. Inc.: (b). Cherokee Nation: 949. Custom Medical Stock Photo: 950Richard B Levine: (r). Jim
Levitt/Impact Visuals: 953. Bob Riha/Gamma Liaison.
Chapter 33: 956-957. Wide World Photos: 957. Michael J OkoniewskiAima Liaison: 958<t). S.
Liaison: 937(t). Richard
Levine:
(b).
).
Franklin/Magnum Photos: (b). Jeffrey Aaronson/Network Aspen: 960. Pan de

Noirmont/Reuiers/Benmann: %l. Wide World Photos; %3(1). Sandro Tucilack Star. 964(t). Richard
Kalvar/Magnum Photos; (b). Erica Lansner/Black Stan 965(11. Michelle Bi ell/Frontera Fotos: (b). Erich
Hanmann/Magnum PhcKos; 966. Julio Ibarra/.AP / ide orid Photos: 96">aku Kunta/Gamma Liaison:
968. Lisa Quinones/Black Star. 969(1). Michael Bay toff/Black Stan (b). Jar Sugar/Black Star 970(t).
Michael NicholsAlagnum Photos: (b). AP / W ide Worid Photos: 973(t). PeTumley/Black Stan (b). The
Benmann Archive: 975. 978. Reulers/Benmann: 980. Copyright 1975. Paubnrad/Distnbuted by Los
.Angeles Times Syndicate. Reprinted with permission: 982(1). counesy
Jimn Santiago Baca: (b).
'
Silkscreen pnnt by
Tomie
Arai. 1985: 984.
AP / W ide W orid
Photos
Reference Section: 986-987. Tony Stone Images. Reza Esiakhnan: 9S8ietropolitan Museum of An.
Bequest of Jacob Ruppen. 1939; 989(t). Rare Books and .Manuscnpts Disis: The New York Public
Library Astor. Lenox and Tilden Foundations: (b). The Granger Collectionjw York; (r). Rare Books and
Manuscripts Division. The New Y'ork Public Library. Astor. Lenox and Tile Foundations; 990. Ml
Vernon Ladies As.sociation; 998( I ). .Museum of .Amencan Textile History North Carolina Division of
Archives and History: 1002. Canajoharie Library and An Gallery. Canajoha. New York.
.
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BOYER'S THE AMERICAN NATION

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Legal and constitutional history

Stanford Program on International and

Women and labor history

Asian American issues

South: late 19th-

John Milton Cooper. Jr.

Early American social and cultural

University of California. Riverside

University of Wisconsin. Oshkosh

University of North Carolina

University of Maryland, College Park

West African history

Carla Rahn Phillips

African American history

University of California. Davis

Agricidtural history: economic history

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Early modern Europe

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CONTRIBUTORS AND REVIEWERS

School. Fulton County School System

The American Nation

HOLT, RINEHART AND

About the Author

Merle Curti Professor of History

Wisconsin. Madison, and director of the university's Institute for Research

of the executive board of the Organization

of American Historians, of the national advisory board of the

Experience series and

editor-in-chief of the forthcoming Oxford

United States History. Dr. Boyer has held visiting professorships

and Northwestern University and received Guggenheim and Rockefeller

a Ph.D. from Harvard in 1966, Dr.

reviews, and books. Salem Possessed: The Social

Origins of Witchcraft, which he co-authored with Stephen Nissenbaum,

Phyllis Salazar. Administrative Assistant