Lesson 1: Microprocessor Technologies

Name: Dr. Wallace Turner

Areas: Music/Electrical Engineering
Specialization: Fuel Cell Technology, Power Systems, and Signal Processing
Office: S2
Phone: 302-4560
Email: wturner@cob.edu.bs


Introduction
The microprocessor (P) is a device (chip) which contains thousands, if not millions of tiny logic
and analog circuits integrated into one package.

Digital Circuitry: Defined as having a logic state of 0, or 1. Therefore, a voltage range which
supports either of these numbers must be assigned. CMOS logic and TTL logic are most typical.
These are ranges of voltage which defines a 1 and a voltage range for 0. In TTL logic,
logic 0 ranges from 0V to 0.8V, and logic 1 ranges from 2V to 5V. The voltage range
between 0.8V to 2V represents the undefined state.







(Example: graph)

Figure 1. TTL Logic Representation.

CMOS Logic: 0 to Vdd/2 indicates logic "0", and Vdd/2 to Vcc represents logic "1". There are
other logic technologies as well, such as the ECL family which provides changes in state in the
negative voltage range.

Why study microprocessors? Microprocessors are important because they exist in almost every
electronic control environment. Examples of application include automobiles,
telecommunications, computer peripheral devices, robotics, home control systems, etc
Microcontrollers use microprocessors of a smaller form factor than computers to accomplish
programmed tasks. In order to understand computer logic, we must consider binary numbers and
how they work.

Computer Arithmetic

The Binary Number System:
Binary numbers consist of the numbers 1, and 0. That is, binary numbers have a base 2,
just as the decimal numbers have base 10.
All computer processes are in 1s and 0s. That is, to accomplish any activity, or
command on a computer, all commands and memory access are executed using 1s and 0s.
Therefore, all computers and microprocessors are built from a large number of 1s and 0s. These
1s and 0s are called bits such that a logic 1 or 0 is defined as a bit.. Hence the binary number
system is extremely important in microprocessor technology.

Theorem: The minimum number of bits required for n different things is k such that 2
k
>n,
where k is the smallest number.

(Example: if there are 4 possible hair colors representing types of people, how many bits
would be needed to code each type of person? Ans: 2 bits since 2
2
=4.)
Q: How many bits would be needed to code each decimal number type?

Groupings:
Bits can be grouped into convenient names such as nibble, byte, word, long word, and mouthful
(double word)
4 bits =1 nibble
8 bits =2 nibbles =1 byte
16 bits =2 bytes =1 word
32 bits =4 bytes =1 long word
64 bits =2 words =1 mouthful (double word).

Binary to Decimal Conversion:
A decimal number is equal to the sum:

B
0
x 2
0
+B
1
x 2
1
+B
2
x 2
2
+., where B
0
is the Least Significant Bit (LSB). B
1
is the next
significant bit, and so on. Simply, we add the powers of 2 that correspond to the 1s and exclude
the zeros.

Example: Convert 1101 to decimal.
1 x 2
0
+0 x 2
1
+1 x 2
2
+1 x 2
3
=14

Decimal to Binary Conversion:
To convert from decimal to binary, here is one possible algorithm:

1. Obtain the decimal number, N
2. Determine if N is odd or even
3. If N is Odd, write 1 and subtract 1 from N, then go to step 4.
Else If N is even, write 0
4. Obtain a new value of N by dividing the N of step 3 by 2
5. If N >1, go back to step 1 and repeat
6. If N =1, write 1.

Example: convert the decimal number 217 to binary.
Ans: 217 Odd subtract 1 1
216 Divide by 2
108 Even divide by 2 0
54 Even divide by 2 0
27 Odd subtract 1 1
26 Divide by 2
13 Odd subtract 1 1
12 Divide by 2
6 Even divide by 2 0
3 Odd subtract 1 1
2 Divide by 2
1 Finish 1
Now, string the remainders on the right of the equation (from left to right) starting from the
bottom to the top.

*Show the quick and dirty method of converting decimal to binary.

Addition and Subtraction of Binary Numbers:
Addition of binary numbers are similar to decimal such that 1+0 =1, 0+0 =0; however,
1+1 =0 with carry to the next significant place:
1 1 1 1(carry)
1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0

Subtraction of binary numbers are as follows:
1. 1 1 =0
2. 0 0 =0
3. 1 0 =1
4. 0 1 =1 with a borrow out.

Binary Subtraction with borrow.
0 - 1 =1 with a borrow out, such that the next 1 in the minuend becomes a 0, and change all
intervening 0s to 1s.
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 (Borrow supply)
1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1
1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0

2s Complement Arithmetic:

2s complement number systems allow expression of both positive and negative numbers.
In this system, the Most Significant Bit (MSB) denotes the sign where 0 indicates a positive sign
and 1 indicates negative. Note the MSB is also a part of the number.

To represent a negative number, use the following algorithm:
1. Represent the number as a positive binary number.
2. Complement it (0s becomes 1 and 1s becomes 0s).
3. Add 1
4. Ignore any carries out of the MSB.
Example: - 25
+25 =0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1
+25=1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0
+1
- 25 = 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1


Range of 2s Complement Numbers.
The maximum positive number that can be represented in 2s complement form is a single
0 followed by all 1s, or 2
n-1
1 for an n-bit number.