Constitutional Law II - Lupu - Spring 2004

Constitutional Law Outline (Spring 2004, Lupu)
FOURTEENTH AMENDMENT
I. THE BILL OF RIGHTS AND THE POST-CIVIL WAR AMENDMENTS
1. Pre-Civil War Situation
Barron v. Baltiore (1!"")# $ol%ing t$at t$e &t$ 'en%ent(s )*ust +opensation) +lause is not
appli+a,le to t$e states.
o -ars$all sa.s t$at t$e 'en%ents were not liitations on t$e states ,e+ause t$e Bill
o/ 0ig$ts was put in pla+e to liit t$e federal government so t$ere is a presuption t$at an.
rig$ts are assue% to liit onl. t$e nat(l governent unless t$e Constitution e1pli+itl. sa.s so.
o Loo2s at 'rt. 3, 44 5 an% 10 6 w$en t$e Constitution eant to ,in% t$e states, it %i%
so.
o 's an institutional atter, it +oes to w$o gets to %e+i%e /or w$o, an issue o/
aut$orit.. 's a su,stantive atter, a set o/ national rig$ts woul% serve a uni/.ing purpose.
o Basi+all., in t$e pre-war perio%, t$e onl. /e%eral liitation on states was 'rt. 3.
7re% S+ott v. San/or% (1!&8)# $ol%ing t$at ,la+2s are not +iti9ens an% t$us,
no %iversit. *uris%i+tion in /e%eral +ourts, an% t$e -issouri Coproise was un+onstitutional, sin+e it
%eprives persons o/ propert. wit$out *ust +opensation.
2. :$e Purpose an% 3pa+t o/ t$e Post-Civil War 'en%ents
Constitutionali9e% t$e en% o/ slaver. 6 1"t$ '%., ,ut t$is wasn(t enoug$, so in response to Sout$ern
Bla+2 Co%es, Congress passe% t$e Civil 0ig$ts '+t, ,ut /a+e% wit$ un+ertain +onstitutional /ooting, it
passe% t$e 14t$ an% 1&t$ 'en%ents to +oplete t$e pro*e+t o/ ;an+ipation.
:$e <ourteent$ 'en%ent rea%s t$at )=o State s$all a2e or en/or+e an. law w$i+$ s$all a,ri%ge
t$e privileges an% iunities o/ +iti9ens o/ t$e >nite% States? nor s$all an. State %eprive an. person
o/ li/e, li,ert., or propert., wit$out %ue pro+ess o/ law? nor %en. to an. person wit$in its *uris%i+tion
t$e e@ual prote+tion o/ t$e law.)
o Citi9ens$ip is a atter o/ /e%eral +onstitutional law
o Privilege A 3unities Clause (sees to ,e su,stantive rig$ts)
o 7ue Pro+ess Clause (sees to %eal wit$ stri+tl. pro+e%ural, ,ut later will $ave su,stantive)
o ;@ual Prote+tion Clause (sees to /o+us e1+lusivel. on e@ualit. un%er t$e law)
Slaug$ter-Bouse Cases (1!8")# t$e 1"t$ an% 14t$ %o not a2e t$e pro+e%ural guarantees o/ t$e Bill o/
0ig$ts appli+a,le to t$e states (onl. applies to /orer slaves an% '/ri+an-'eri+ans).
o Reasoning# t$e 14t$ 'en%ent %istinguis$es ,etween >.S. an% state +iti9ens? onl. t$ose P
A 3 o/ t$e national gov(t are prote+te%, su+$ as rig$t to petition, see2 prote+tion an% a++ess to
/e%eral instruentalities. :$us, t$e Constitution %oes not +ontrol t$e power o/ state gov(ts over
t$e rig$t o/ t$eir own +iti9ens e1+ept to re@uire t$at a state grant e@ual rig$t to its own +iti9ens
an% out-o/-state +iti9ens in its *uris%i+tion. :$e Court %istinguis$e% P A 3 /oun% in 'rt. 3C, 4 2
(w$i+$ prote+te% +iti9ens o/ States /ro inter/eren+e /ro ot$er states D wan%erer(s rig$ts).
o Held t$at t$e purpose o/ t$e 'en%ents was to prote+t )t$e newl.-a%e /reeen an%
+iti9en /ro t$e oppressions o/ t$ose w$o $a% /orerl. e1er+ise% unliite% %oinion over
t$e.)
o ;//e+tivel. ar2s t$e en% o/ P A 3 as a su,stantive rig$ts provision.
Saen9 v. 0oe (1555) (o%ern P A 3 rig$ts un%er 14t$ '%.)# stru+2 %own a Cali/ornia law
t$at state% t$at i/ .ou ove% to Cali/ornia, .ou will not ,e a,le to re+eive state wel/are ,ene/its /or a
.ear, un%er t$e P A 3 o/ t$e 14t$ 'en%ent.
o :$e P A 3 Clause prote+ts t$e rig$t to igrate to anot$er state ,. re@uiring states to
provi%e t$e )sae privileges an% iunities) to new resi%ents as t$e. provi%e to t$eir own
+iti9ens.
o State-+reate% ,ene/its are not +onsi%ere% /un%aental (wan%erer(s) rig$ts prote+te%
,. 'rt. 3C.
1
o :$e Court state% t$at a state +annot pro$i,it people /ro +oing in to ta2e a%vantage
o/ w$at t$e state $as to o//er, wit$ a /ew e1+eptions li2e %ivor+e or in-state s+$ool tuition
o P A 3 prote+ts a rig$t to ove an% sta. t$ere.
II. DUE PROCESS AND THE "INCORPORATION" CONTROVERSY
Car%o9oE<ran2/urterEBarlan Bla+2 W$ite
Sele+tive in+orporation#
/un%aental vs. not-so-
/un%aental rig$ts? Pal2o
:otal in+orporation# original purpose
was to in+orporate all t$e Bill o/ 0ig$ts
(1-!) to appl. to t$e States.
-o%ern Ciew# /o+us on w$at is
essential an% /un%aental to
'nglo-'eri+an *usti+e.
>npre%i+ta,le# w$i+$ rig$ts were
in t$e +ore or t$e perip$er. woul%
+$ange wit$ new *u%ges.
:$is view is insensitive to t$e /a+t t$at
soe +lauses $ave /e%eralis +on+erns
(e.g. 2n% 'en%ent)
Pal2o v. Conne+ti+ut (15"8)# %ou,le *eopar%. +lause o/ t$e &t$ 'en%ent is not a /un%aental rig$t, an%
t$ere/ore is not in+orporate% against t$e states? onl. /un%aental rig$ts are in+orporate% into t$e 14t$ '%.
Bla+2 woul% argue t$at t$e &t$ '%. governs %ou,le *eopar%. in /e%eral +ourts, an% t$e 14t$
'%. e1ten%s t$e %ou,le *eopar%. +lause to t$e states.
:$e Court re*e+te% total in+orporation in /avor o/ in+orporating onl. t$ose rig$ts w$i+$ are
)o/ t$e ver. essen+e o/ a s+$ee o/ or%ere% li,ert.) an% ne+essar. /or %ue pro+ess.
'%ason v. Cali/ornia (1548)# t$e a*orit. a%$eres to t$e Car%o9o view, in $ol%ing t$at t$e prose+ution a.
+oent on t$e F(s /ailure to ta2e t$e stan%, w$i+$ is not allowe% un%er t$e &t$ '%. in /e%eral +ourts.
<ran2/urter argues t$at t$ere are soe &t$ '%.-t.pe violations w$i+$ woul% violate t$e 14t$
'%.(s 7PC, an% t$e +ourts s$oul% loo2 on a +ase-,.-+ase ,asis.
Bla+2 argue% t$at t$e /ull in+orporation o/ t$e Bill o/ 0ig$ts was t$e original purpose o/ t$e
14t$ '%.
Duncan v. Lou!ana "#$%&'# a%opting W$ite(s approa+$, w$i+$ as2s w$et$er t$e /e%eral rig$t prote+te% in
t$e Bill o/ 0ig$ts is o/ su+$ iportan+e t$at it is /un%aental G/airnessH to t$e 'eri+an s+$ee o/ *usti+e?
$ere, t$e rig$t to a *ur. trial in serious +riinal +ases prote+te% ,. t$e It$ '%. ust ,e e1ten%e% to t$e states
via t$e 14t$ '%.
But see Willias v. <lori%a (1580) (allowing states to $ave /ewer t$an 12 *urors? at least I) an% 'po%a+a
v. Oregon (1582) (up$ol%ing a non-unanious state *ur. ver%i+t, even t$oug$ un%er t$e Si1t$ '%.,
woul% ,e a violation). Bot$ $ave ,een $el% as not ne+essar. ingre%ients to t$e Si1t$ '%. )trial ,. *ur..)
'll o/ t$e +riinal pro+ess guarantees o/ t$e Bill o/ 0ig$ts are now appli+a,le to t$e states G4t$ '%. )sear+$
an% sei9ure?) &t$ '%. prote+tion against %ou,le *eopar%. an% sel/-in+riination? It$ '%. rig$t to +ounsel in
+riinal +ases, a *ur. trial, an% spee%. an% pu,li+ trial? !t$ '%. )+ruel an% unusual punis$ent) +lauseH,
wit$ t$e e1+eption o/ t$e gran% *ur. in%i+tent provision o/ t$e &t$ '%. an% t$e )e1+essive ,ail) provision
o/ t$e !t$ '%.
'lso in+orporate% t$e 1st '%. an% &t$ '%. )*ust ta2ings) +lause.
-app v. O$io (15I1)# in+orporation a/ter -app eant not onl. in+orporating t$e )+ore) o/ t$e Bill o/ 0ig$ts
guarantees, ,ut appl.ing to t$e states ever. %etail o/ t$e +ontours o/ t$e guarantees.
2
III. SUBSTANTIVE DUE PROCESS AND ECONOMIC CLASSIFICATIONS
1. Pre-Lo+$ner ;ra
Cal%er v. Bull (185!)# re*e+ting an '+t w$i+$ overturne% a pro,ate +ourt an% re%istri,ute% propert., on
a natural law t$eor., t$at t$ere are laws t$at a. inter/ere wit$ natural rig$ts o/ people even t$oug$
t$ose rig$ts are not spe+i/ie% in t$e Constitution. 3/ an a+t %oes soet$ing /un%aentall. un*ust an%
wrong, even t$oug$ t$ere is not$ing in Constitution, weJre still going to sa. itJs wrong.
-ugler v. Kansas (1!!8)# sustaine% a state law pro$i,iting into1i+ating ,everages, ,ut t$e Court
announ+e% t$at it was willing to e1aine t$e su,stantive reasona,leness o/ state legislation. =ot
)ever. statute ena+te% ostensi,l. /or t$e prootion) o/ )t$e pu,li+ orals, t$e pu,li+ $ealt$, or t$e
pu,li+ sa/et.) woul% ,e a++epte% )as a legitiate e1ertion o/ t$e poli+e powers o/ t$e State.)
2. Lo+$ner ;ra# no %e/eren+e to legislative *u%gent %uring t$e reign o/ Lo+$ner-
st.le su,stantive %ue pro+ess ,ut rat$er an intrusion o/ t$e *u%i+ial e+onoi+ value +$oi+es in
pre/eren+e to t$ose sele+te% ,. t$e legislature.
Lo+$ner v. =ew Lor2 (150&)# $ol%ing t$at a law pro$i,iting /ree%o o/ +ontra+t (liits
overtie $ours) in t$e ar2etpla+e is un+onstitutional i/ it %oes not ,ear a reasona,le relation
to a legitiate governental purpose Gloo2s at eans an% en%sH.
o La,or laws are suspe+t, an% t$e pu,li+ $ealt$ +onsi%erations were re*e+te%, as ,a2ers
are in no ore %anger t$an ot$er o++upations.
o <oun% a su,stantive %ue pro+ess li,ert. o/ +ontra+t
-uller v. Oregon (150!)# up$el% an eig$t-$our wor2%a. liit /or woen.
'%2ins v. C$il%ren(s Bospital (152")# stru+2 %own iniu wage law /or
woen, as wage regulations are %i//erent /ro $our regulation Gstate $as no interest in private
wage ,argainsH.
;//e+t o/ t$e Lo+$ner ;ra#
1. :$ere is now su,stantive 7P (t$e i%ea o/ li,ert. /or purposes o/ 7PC is ver. ,roa% an%
$as survive%)? t$e P A 3 +lause re/le+ts soet$ing su,stantive, not *ust pro+e%ural, ,ut t$e
Slaug$ter-Bouse Cases pus$ P A 3 +lause /ro our +onstitutional vo+a,ular..
2. stan%ar% o/ review# en%s an% eans +losel. onitore% Gultiatel. re/ute% an% u+$
greater %e/eren+e grante%.
". -o%ern, Post-Lo+$ner 0ationalit. 0eview
N() Yo*+ v. N(,,a "#$-.'# :$e Court a%opts a minimum rationality standard# as long as
t$e +ourt /in%s t$e law to $ave a reasona,le relations$ip to a proper legislative purpose, to ,e
not ar,itrar., +apri+ious, or %is+riinator., an% to $ave eans +$osen t$at are reasona,l.
relate% to t$e en%s soug$t, %ue pro+ess is not o//en%e%. :$e Court perits pri+e regulation o/
il2 ,E+ pu,li+ interest in pri+e o/ il2 (+on+erne% t$at soe il2 /arers are going to go
un%er? a2e sure il2 is /ree o/ %isease? il2 is ne+essit. o/ li/e an% +an easil. ,e spoile%).
o -ove% ,ur%en o/ persuasion /ro t$e State to t$e person raising t$e +oplaint.
"
West Coast Botel Co. v. Parris$ (15"8)# up$ol%ing iniu wages /or woen, as it is
perissi,le to $ave la,or laws %esigne% to re%ress ine@ualities in ,argaining power ,Ew legal
e@uals (i%ea in Lo+$ner t$at la,or laws are illegal is t$rown out t$e win%ow).
o 0egulation assuring pa.ent o/ a living wage is +learl. reasona,le, espe+iall.
+onsi%ering t$e +ost to t$e governent an% +ounit. o/ t$e alternative.
o ' vali% pu,li+ interest in preventing t$e e1ploitation o/ wor2ers w$o are in a wea2
,argaining position.
Late 15"0s 7evelopents# %raati+ e1pansion o/ legislative power ,ut restri+tion o/ e+onoi+ %ue
pro+ess e1aination? re%u+es /e%eral *u%i+ial powerEs+rutin. o/ e+onoi+ poli+.E%ue pro+ess. See
West Coast Botel, =L0B v. Mones A Laug$lin (15"8) (power o/ nat(l gov(t to regulate nat(l e+ono.?
$ere iniu wages an% a1iu $ours), ;rie 00 v. :op2ins (/e%eral +ourts sitting in %iversit.
+ases s$oul% appl. t$e sae law as t$e $ig$est +ourt so t$e state 6 no /e%eral +oon law).
U.S. v. Ca*o/(n( P*o0uc1! Co. "#$-&'#
o :$e Court %e+line% to +$allenge t$e rationalit. o/ +ongressional /in%ings, presuing t$at
t$e legislative ,asis /or t$e pro$i,ition was soun%.
Foo1no1( .2 3 ## N:$ere a. ,e narrower s+ope /or operation o/ t$e presuption o/ +onstitutionalit.
w$en legislation appears on its /a+e to ,e wit$in a spe+i/i+ pro$i,ition o/ t$e Constitution, su+$ as
t$ose o/ t$e /irst ten 'en%ents, w$i+$ are %eee% e@uall. spe+i/i+ w$en $el% to ,e e,ra+e%
wit$in t$e 14t$.O T4( 5*(!u651on o7 con!11u1ona/18 494 n 0u( 5*oc(!! ca!(!2 ,u1 )4(n 1(:1
!1*c1/8 5*o4,1! !o6(14n92 )(;// o,vou!/8 a04(*( 1o 14a1<1(:1ua/!6.
3 =# N3t is unne+essar. to +onsi%er now w$et$er legislation w$i+$ restri+ts t$ose politi+al pro+esses
w$i+$ +an or%inaril. ,e e1pe+te% to ,ring a,out repeal o/ un%esira,le legislation, is to ,e su,*e+te% to
ore e1a+ting *u%i+ial s+rutin. un%er t$e general pro$i,itions /or t$e 14t$ 'en%ent t$an are ost
ot$er t.pes o/ legislation. On restri+tions upon t$e rig$t to votePon restraints upon t$e %isseination
o/ in/orationPon inter/eren+es wit$ politi+al organi9ationsPto pro$i,ition o/ pea+ea,le
asse,l.PO T4( Cou*1 )// no /on9(* 9on9 1o !1*c1/8 *(v() output o7 /(9!/a1on "ou15u1 o7
5o/1ca/ 5*oc(!!' ,u1 )( 6a8 14n+ 077(*(n1/8 a,ou1 /a)! 14a1 *(9u/a1( 14( input 1o 5o/1ca/
5*oc(!!2 !uc4 a! !5((c42 vo1n92 (1c.
3 -# N=or nee% we en@uire w$et$er siilar +onsi%eration enter into t$e review o/ statutes %ire+te% at
parti+ular religious, or national, or ra+ial inorities? w$et$er pre*u%i+e against %is+rete an% insular
inorities a. ,e a spe+ial +on%ition, w$i+$ ten%s seriousl. to +urtail t$e operation o/ t$ose politi+al
pro+esses or%inaril. to ,e relie% upon to prote+t inorities, an% w$i+$ a. +all /or a +orrespon%ingl.
ore sear+$ing *u%i+ial in@uir..O Ma8,( 14(*( a*( !o6( 5(o5/( )4o a*( 5(*6an(n1 ou1!0(*! 14a1
9(1 )4ac+(0 ov(* an0 ov(* a9an>cou*1! 4av( 1o ,( ca*(7u/ 1o 5*o1(c1 a9an!1 14! +n0 o7
ou15u1. T4! 7oo1no1( ,(co6(! 0v0n9 /n( ,?) 5*o5on(n1 an0 o55on(n1! o7 a77*6a1v( ac1on.
4. A71(* #$-&@ Econo6c Du( P*oc(!! 6ov(! 1o 6n6u6 *a1ona/18 !1an0a*0.
W//a6!on v. L(( O51ca/ Co. "#$AA'# minimum rationality standard, an% will wor2 wit$out
an. evi%en+e or %is+losure o/ w$at legislature(s purpose was, t$e Court will presue
+onstitutionalit.. Part o/ t$e presuption o/ +onstitutionalit. is t$at i/ we +an /in% an.
possi,le legitiate purpose, we will use t$at, w$et$er or not it is t$e one e1presse%. :$en
loo2 to see i/ iniall. rational +onne+tion ,Ew eans an% en%s. :$is +reates an argua,l.
insurounta,le ,ur%en on +$allenger to prove t$at no one +oul% reasona,l. ,elieve t$at t$ese
eans a%van+e t$ese en%s.
o 'ppeare% to +opletel. a,%i+ate *u%i+ial s+rutin. o/ e+onoi+ legislation.
o ;ventuall., t$e Court +on+lu%e% t$at it woul% not overturn e+onoi+ regulations unless
t$ere was no +on+eiva,le *usti/i+ation /or t$e regulation, a ver. $ar% ,ur%en /or soeone
+$allenging to eet. So long as soe vali%, rational purpose +oul% ,e iagine%, it
woul% wit$stan% *u%i+ial s+rutin..
o S1(5 #@ 'ttri,ute a legitiate purpose to t$e law? ig$t(ve ,een %one /or pu,li+ goo%.
o S1(5 =@ -eans are a rational wa. to a%van+e t$e en%s Ginial rational +onne+tion
,etween eans an% en%s 6 t$is +reates a $ig$ ,ur%en /or a +$allenger? ust prove t$at
4
=O rational legislature +oul% $ave %one t$isH. 3agine possi,le goo%s t$at t$is ig$t
serve an% attri,ute it to t$e en%s.
&. But See Punitive 7aages, 0etroa+tive Legislation an% t$e 0evival o/ Su,stantive 7ue Pro+ess.
;astern ;nterprises v. 'p/el (155!)# retroa+tive legislation e1+ee%e% %ue pro+ess? t$e law
+reate% lia,ilit. /or events w$i+$ o++urre% "& .ears ago an% was too ,roa% in s+ope.
B-W v. Qore (155I)# stri2ing %own a punitive %aage awar% (R2 illion /or R400 a+tual
%aages) as ,eing e1+essive, on pro+e%ural %ue pro+ess groun%s Gi.e. /air noti+e to t$e
%e/en%ant o/ potential lia,ilit.H an% in +on+urren+e, su,stantive %ue pro+ess Guni/orit. in
t$e law an% /ree%o /or e1+essiveH
<or ot$er +onstitutional sa/eguar%s o/ ;+onoi+ 0ig$ts, see <i/t$ 'en%ent(s :a2ings Clause
(private propert. s$all not ),e ta2en /or pu,li+ use, wit$out *ust +opensation)? an% t$e Contra+ts
Clause in 'rt. 3, 4 10 (pro$i,its states /ro ena+ting leas t$at ipair t$e o,ligation o/ private
+ontra+ts)?
IV. EBUAL PROTECTION AND ECONOMIC CLASSIFICATIONS
Different ways of thinking of EP
=orative prin+iple# %istri,utional out+oes ust e su,stantivel. /air
Pro+ess Prin+iple
o Certain 2in%s o/ %e+ision-a2ing e+$aniss are %e/e+tive an% ,E+ o/ %e/e+ts pro%u+e
%istri,utions t$at are +onstitutionall. una++epta,le? loo2 not *ust at out+oe ,ut at w$o a%e %e+ision
an% un%er w$at +ir. an% wEw$at otivation. ;1aple woul% ,e Carolene Pro%u+ts <= 4, S "#
pre*u%i+e ig$t interrupt pro+esses t$at prote+t inorities.
o 3/ t$e Court invali%ate% law, Congress woul% $ave to go ,a+2 an% %o it again, Congress now
uses pristine pro+ess an% ena+ts e1a+tl. t$e sae legislationTeven t$oug$ %istri,utional out+oe
woul% ,e t$e sae. >n%er t$is t$eor., +ourts priaril. poli+ing t$e legislative pro+ess.
Scrutiny of Means in Economic Regulation: The Rationality Reuirement !"nderinclusive # $verinclusive%
Ra/)a8 E:5*(!! A9(nc8 v. N.Y. "#$.$'# sustaine% t$e state law w$i+$ allowe% +opanies to onl. a%vertise
t$eir own ,usiness on t$eir tru+2s, an% %e/erre% to t$e =ew Lor2 aut$orities w$o ig$t $ave ,elieve% t$at a%s
sol% to tru+2s were ore %istra+ting t$an t$ose use% ,. owners o/ t$e tru+2s. Presum&tion of
constitutionality' (urden of &ersuasion on challenger' court willing to attri(ute &ur&oses' as long as we can
think of some reason to make this classification rational)
Lo+al aut$orities 2now ,est? a. t$in2 t$at a%s /or $ire were ore %istra+ting t$an a%s /or sel/
(a(out average* not a(solute* differences)? soe o/ t$e a%s /or $ire woul% ,e %is+reet an% vi+e versa, ,ut
itJs a goo% an% reasona,le pro1. /or %istra+tion. We %onJt $ave to ,e +onvin+e% t$at t$e legislators are
rig$t or t$at t$e. $ave to $ave soe reasona,le purpose /or %oing so (t$atJs t$e +ourtJs view)
The +arren ,ourt: -./0s120s: Deferential* Minimum Rationality Standard
Williason v. Lee Opti+al Co. (15&&)# pro,le o/ legislative +lassi/i+ation is a perennial one? evils in t$e
sae /iel% a. ,e o/ %i//erent %iensions an% proportions, re@uiring %i//erent ree%iesPor t$e re/or a.
ta2e one step at a tie, a%%ressing itsel/ to t$e p$ase o/ t$e pro,le w$i+$ sees ost a+ute to t$e legislative
in%. The legislature may select one &hase of one field and a&&ly a remedy there* neglecting the others. :$e
pro$i,ition o/ ;P goes no /urt$er t$an invi%ious %is+riination.
-+Qowan v. -ar.lan% (15I1)# sustaining t$e State(s Sun%a. +losing laws w$i+$ ,anne% t$e sale o/ all
er+$an%ise e1+ept gro+eries an% $a% e1eptions /or +ertain ,usiness.
&
Post1+arren Era 3rationality review with (ite4
>.S. 7ept. o/ 'gri+ulture v. -oreno (158") (outlier)# Bel% t$at t$e governent +oul% not %en. /oo% staps
assistan+e to $ouse$ol%s o/ unrelate% persons w$ile granting assistan+e to $ouse$ol%s o/ relate% persons.
Sin+e t$e state% purpose o/ /oo% staps was to raise nutrition levels in t$e low-in+oe $ousing an%
strengt$en t$e agri+ultural e+ono. ,. prooting t$e +onsuption o/ /oo%, t$e +lassi/i+ation was /oun% to ,e
w$oll. unrelate% to t$e purpose o/ t$e law.
Classi/i+ations t$at $ave to %o wit$ liveli$oo% a. $ave to ,e ta2en ore seriousl.. 0ationalit. review
woul% ,e+oe ore or less stri+t %epen%ing on w$ose interests were at sta2e.
<>0:B;0, a +ongressional %esire to $ar an unpopular group wasn(t a legitiate governental interest.
-assa+$usetts B%. o/ 0etireent v. -urgia (158I)# up$el% law w$i+$ set a an%ator. retireent age /or state
+ops as a non-invi%ious %is+riination? rationalit. stan%ar% is retaine%? onl. nee% to /in% soe rational reason
/or +lassi/i+ation.
U.S. Ra/*oa0 R(1*(6(n1 Boa*0 v. F*1C "#$&D'# up$el% a retireent s+$ee w$i+$ allowe% soe wor2ers
to +olle+t %ual ,ene/its 6 So+. Se+. an% retireent /un%s 6 w$ile ot$ers were e1+lu%e% ,ase% on t$eir tie
wit$ t$e railroa%. :$e Court will not invali%ate a statute erel. ,e+ause it +onsi%ers it unwise or unart/ull.
%rawn? a +lassi/i+ation a. ,e suspe+t ,ut i/ a reason is given, t$at is enoug$.
:$e Court will not evaluate reasona,leness 6 as long as t$ere are plausi,le reasons /or Congressional
a+tion, t$e Court(s in@uir. en%s 6 even i/ t$e Congressional re+or% +ontra%i+ts w$at t$e Court /in%s is t$e
legitiate reason.
'n. +orrelation ,etween t$e +lassi/i+ation an% t$e a+tualEpresue% purpose.
:$e Qov(t %oesn(t generall. lost ;PC +ases 6 w$at ig$t lea% t$e governent to lose ;PC +ases w$ere
t$ere are no suspi+ious +lassi/i+ationsU 'nius, +lose% set o/ purposes, +lassi/i+ation-purpose ne1us.
'lleg$en. Pitts,urg$ Coal v. We,ster Count. (15!5) (propert. ta1? gov(t loses)# $el% t$at West Cirginia(s
propert. ta1 s.ste, w$i+$ t$e state +oul% not *usti/. an% unli2e =or%linger, was not tr.ing to a+$ieve t$e
,ene/its o/ an a+@uisition value s.ste, was un+onstitutional.
=or%linger v. Ba$n (1552)# up$el% t$e State(s a+@uisition-value ta1ation s.ste 6 w$i+$ was +ra/te% to ,ene/it
longer-ter propert. owners 6 was +onstitutional, even t$oug$ t$ere were great %isparities as in 'lleg$en.,
,ut $ere t$e State was a,le to *usti/. it ,. arguing t$at it wante% to prote+t people /ro run-ups in propert.
value an% ta1ation.
5n an e6tremely deferential o&inion* the ,ourt held that 7in areas of social or economic &olicy* a statutory
classification that neither &roceeds along sus&ect lines nor infringes fundamental constitutional rights must
(e u&held if there is any reasona(ly conceiva(le set of facts that could &rovide a rational (asis for the
classification)7 <CC v. Bea+$ Couni+ations (155").
V//a9( o7 W//o),*oo+ v. O/(c4 "=DDD'# $el% t$at t$e Cit. $a% no *usti/i+ation /or as2ing a parti+ular
$oeowner /or larger easeent t$an stan%ar%, an% it is =O: ne+essar. to prove anius to re+over on ;PC
groun%s? la+2 o/ *usti/i+ation is enoug$.
I
S1an0a*0 o7 *(v() M(an!-(n0! conn(c1on Gov(*n6(n1a/
En0!?O,E(c1v(
W4a1 C/a!!7ca1on!
Ra1ona//8 *(/a1(0 0ationall. relate% Legitiate :$e 7e/ault, 7isa,ilit., 'ge
In1(*6(0a1( !c*u1n8
"!1a1(F! ,u*0(n o7
5*oo7'
Su,stantiall. relate%
Gper$aps no neutral
alternative an% +ostsH
3portant Qen%er, 'ge, 7isparate 3pa+t,
3llegitiate C$il%ren,
'//irative '+tion
S1*c1 Sc*u1n8 "!1a1(F!
,u*0(n'
=e+essar. Gno ra+e-neutral
alternativesH
Copelling 0a+e, ;t$ni+it., 0eligion,
'lienage
V. EBUAL PROTECTION AND EGPLICIT MINORITY-DISADVANTAGING RACIAL
CLASSIFICATIONS
Strau%er v. West Cirginia (1!!0)# stri2ing %own a state law t$at e1+lu%e% ,la+2s /ro *ur. servi+es, as t$ese
laws ten% to ,e a pro%u+t o/ pre*u%i+e, an% a ar2 o/ superiorit.Ein/eriorit., an% t$ere/ore, stiulate pre*u%i+e
elsew$ere.
Koreatsu v. >.S. (1544)# $ol%ing t$at ra+ial +lassi/i+ations t$at single out inorit. groups (et$ni+ an% ra+ial)
are in$erentl. suspi+ious an% su,*e+t to stri+t s+rutin. G)suspe+t ra+ial +lassi/i+ations are un+onstitutional
unless pressing pu,li+ ne+essit. e1ists /or t$e)H
T)o-!1(5 ana/8!!@ "#' (n0! 4av( 1o ,( /(916a1( an0 co65(//n9 H!9n7can1 (nou94 1o
u54o/0 a *aca/ c/a!!7ca1onI an0 14( "=' 6(an! 6u!1 ,( na**o)/8-1a/o*(0 1o 14( (n0! H14(*( 6u!1
,( no *ac(-n(u1*a/ a/1(*na1v(! ava/a,/(I.
3n t$is +ase, t$e Court %e/erre% to t$e ilitar. in WW33, an% up$el% t$e +on+entration +aps.
Loving v. Cirginia (15I8)# stri2ing %own a ,an on interra+ial arriages, an% stating t$at laws that classify on
the (asis of race are reviewed under eual &rotection with strict scrutiny and will not (e u&held unless they
are necessary to accom&lish some &ermissi(le and com&elling state o(8ectives)
:$e state(s interest in prote+ting t$e ra+ial purit. o/ w$ites 3S =O: a legitiate, +opelling nee%.
Copleting t$e pro+ess o/ ;an+ipation.
Palore v. Si%oti (15!4)# $ol%ing t$at a state *u%ge a. not ta2e +usto%. /ro a ot$er sipl. ,e+ause s$e
arrie% a an o/ a %i//erent ra+e. :$e *u%ge(s ra+ial +lassi/i+ation was not ne+essar. to a++oplis$ t$e
legitiate state purpose o/ guar%ing t$e +$il%(s wel/are, an% t$e state +annot give e//e+t to private ra+ial
,iases.
8
Brown v. Boar% o/ ;%u+ation (15&4)# overturning Pless. v. <erguson (1!5I), an% $ol%ing t$at /or+e%
segregation in pu,li+ e%u+ation /osters in$erent ine@ualit. an% t$ere/ore violates t$e ;PC o/ t$e 14t$ '%.
:$is +ase represents a turning point, as t$e Court applies as 20t$ Centur. un%erstan%ing o/ ;@ual
Prote+tion, even i/ its original purpose was to 2eep t$e ra+es separate ,ut e@ual.
:$e iportan+e o/ e%u+ation /or +iti9ens$ip an% opportunities.
:$ere was no stri+t s+rutin. in Brown, sin+e it was a,out ra+ial separation an% in/eriorit., w$i+$
is &er se un+onstitutional Gw$ite superiorit. is not allowe% un%er t$e ;PC or 7PC o/ t$e 14t$ '%.H
See also Bolling v. S$arpe (15&4)# appl.ing Brown to 7.C. via t$e &t$ '%.
Brown 33 (15&&)# +ourts will re@uire Fs to a2e a propt an% reasona,le start towar% /ull
+oplian+e wit$ Brown 3, an% onitor t$e progress t$roug$out.
Jo4n!on v. V*9na "#$%-'# )G3tH is no longer open to @uestion t$at a State a. not +onstitutionall. re@uire
segregation o/ pu,li+ /a+ilities.) But see San 'ntonio 3n%epen%ent S+$. 7ist. v. 0o%rigue9 (158") ($ol%ing
t$at a propert. ta1 an% wealt$ s+$ee /or /un%ing s+$ools, w$i+$ resulte% in wi%e %isparities in per-pupil
e1pen%itures a+ross %istri+ts, was +onstitutional, as it was not a ra+ial +lassi/i+ation ,ut perissi,le /un%ing
s+$ee)? an% -illi2en v. Bra%le. (1584) ($ol%ing t$at in e//e+tuating Brown 3, t$e +it. a. not in+lu%e ot$er
*uris%i+tions in a re%istri+ting plan unless t$ose %istri+ts $ave t$eselves violate% t$e law G%esegregation
ree%. $a% to ,e liite% to 7etroit an% +oul% not in+lu%e t$e su,ur,sH 6 narrowl. tailore%).
VI. DISCRIMINATORY PURPOSE AND EFFECT "0!5a*a1( 65ac1 on *ac( an0 9(n0(*'
:$e C$allenger -ust Prove# (1) wante% to 2eep t$e out O0 (2) spite an% ill will towar% t$eir +lass
(%eparture /ro esta,lis$e% pro+essesEpro+e%uresEpoli+ies). <or ),enign) use o/ ra+e (ree%ial or a//irative
a+tion, see ,elow.
Yc+ Wo v. Ho5+n! "#&&%'# $ol%ing t$at a /a+iall.-neutral %is+riinatoril. applie% is
un+onstitutional, an% esta,lis$es t$e rule t$at +overt ra+ial %is+riination is as e@uall. un+onstitutional as
overt ra+ial %is+riination.
o 3n t$is +ase, t$e Boar% re/use% to grant perits to an. C$inese appli+ants w$o wante% to
operate a laun%r. in a woo%en ,uil%ing, ,ut grante% all ot$ers.
o :$e ,ur%en o/ proo/ is ver. %i//i+ult in t$ese +ases, sin+e t$e V ust s$ow a star2 pattern o/
%is+riination to a2e a pria /a+ie +ase. Presua,l., it is easier to prove i/ suppose%l. ran%o
events (*ur. sele+tion, /or e1aple) 2eep e1+lu%ing +ertain parties.
Paler v. :$opson (1581)# $ol%ing t$at t$e +it. a. +lose pu,li+ swiing pools a/ter ,eing or%ere%
to segregate, sin+e it was an even-$an%e% appli+ation an% ipa+t an% t$e Court wonJt loo2 at reasoning o/
%e+ision a2ers i/ even-$an%e% appli+ation? as long as reason seee% legit, wonJt loo2 in to reasoning o/
%e+ision a2er.
o 3n+entiveE%isin+entive to pursue %esegregation suits# i/ .ou sue, .ouJre going to lose t$e /a+ilit. an%
,e ,lae% /or ever.one losing t$e /a+ilit..
o Bowever, in Was$ington v. 7avis, t$e Court is +on+erne% wit$ t$e reasoning
an% purpose.
Qriggs v. 7u2e Power Co. (1581)# /a+iall. neutral laws +an $ave %isparate ipa+t? ,ut t$e eplo.er ust
s$ow ne+essar. ,usiness purpose.
o 3ntere%iate s+rutin.# s$ow ore t$an iniall. rational s$owing o/ soe +onne+tion# ust s$ow
t$at legislation is ne+essar. to a++oplis$ an iportant state interest.
o =o proo/ o/ ,a% otive re@uire%.
Wa!4n91on v. Dav! "#$K%'# dis&arate racial im&act 9:$;E is not enough
to esta(lish a violation of eual &rotection G$ere, a greater per+entage o/ ,la+2 poli+e appli+ants /aile% a
!
+ivil servi+e e1aH* as the ,onstitution is concerned with laws that are motivated (y a discriminatory
&ur&ose.
o :$e Court %i% not want to iport ):itle C33) language into t$e
Constitution (un%er :itle C33, V nee% onl. s$ow %isparate ipa+t, not %is+riinator. otive? ,ur%en
is on V to s$ow ipa+t ,ut t$en t$e state $as t$e ,ur%en o/ s$owing t$e ne+essit. o/ t$e poli+. an%
%esire% goal).
o Bowever, an invi%ious %is+riinator. purpose a. ,e s$own ,. a
totalit. o/ t$e +ir+ustan+es, in+lu%ing %isproportionate ra+ial ipa+t.
o :$e Court was +on+erne% ,e+ause alost an. law $as a %isparate
out+oe.
A*/n91on H(941! v. M(1*o5o/1an Hou!n9 Co*5. "#$KK'#
t$e Court rea//ire% 7avis, an% $el% t$at o//i+ial a+tion will not ,e $el% un+onstitutional solel. ,e+ause it
results in a ra+iall. %isparate ipa+t.
o Bere, t$e Court up$el% t$e +it.(s re/usal to grant a
re@uest to re9one +ertain propert. to ,uil% /e%erall.-su,si%i9e% $ousing units /or low-in+oe people,
in+lu%ing inorities.
o :$e Court ela,orate% on wa.s o/ proving ra+ial
%is+riination in su+$ +ases#
3pa+t o/ t$e %e+ision (,ut or%inaril. ipa+t
alone not enoug$)
Bistori+al +ir+ustan+es (ra+ial aniosit. or
even-$an%e% approa+$? 0ogers)
3s t$is a su,stantive %eparture /ro prior
poli+iesU
Pro+e%ural irregularities in t$e ,e$avior o/ t$e
%e+ision-a2er
Conteporaneous stateents ,. %e+ision-
a2ers
;1aination o/ t$e su,*e+tive otives o/ t$e
%e+ision-a2ers (,ut t$is will onl. ,e utili9e% in e1+eptional +ases.)
o 5f you are a(le to make a &rima
facie case that the decision was tainted (y racial discrimination* then the (urden of &roof shifts to <
to re(ut the &resum&tion of unconstitutionality* and show that the racial taint was a sort of harmless
error and that they would have made the same decision anyway.
0ogers v. Lo%ge (15!2)# $ol%ing t$at )at-large voting s+$ees) in ulti-e,er %istri+ts ten% to
inii9e t$e voting strengt$ o/ inorit. groups, an% w$ile not un+onstitutional per se, t$is will violate
t$e ;PC o/ t$e 14t$ '%. i/ it was ipleente% or aintaine% wit$ t$e intent o/ %iluting t$e vote o/ ra+ial
inorities.
o Bere, t$e Court /oun% it was aintaine% /or t$at purpose (preserving w$ite +ontrol in
a*orit. ,la+2 %istri+t).
o 7eep $istor. o/ ra+ial %is+riination in t$e Sout$, an% t$is is Carolene Pro%u+ts <= 2 an% "
(su,stantive rig$ts a,out su,stantive politi+al input).
P(*!onn(/ A06n!1*a1o* o7 Ma!!. v. F((n(8 "#$K$' "9(n0(*'# t$e Court re*e+te% a se1 %is+riination
+lai +$allenge to a -ass. law granting )a,solute li/etie) pre/eren+e to veterans /or state +ivil servi+e
positions, even t$oug$ t$e pre/eren+e operates overw$elingl. in /avor o/ ales.
o W$en a statute is gen%er-neutral on its /a+e an% is +$allenge% on t$e groun%s t$at it $as a
%isproportionate ipa+t on woen, a two-/ol% in@uir. is appropriate#
1. W$et$er t$e statutor. +lassi/i+ation is in%ee% neutral in t$e sense t$at it is not
gen%er-,ase%
2. 3/ t$e +lassi/i+ation itsel/, overt or +overt, is not ,ase% on gen%er, t$en nee% to as2
w$et$er t$e a%verse e//e+t re/le+ts invi%ious gen%er-,ase% %is+riination.
5
o :$is +ase s$ows t$at t$e %is+riinator. purpose $as to ,e t$e %esire to %o
soet$ing ,e+ause o/ its $ar/ul e//e+ts 6 t$at it was %one /or t$e reason o/ $aring t$at group.
VII. EBUAL PROTECTION AND GENDER CLASSIFICATIONS
>ntil t$e 1580s, t$e Court s$owe% no sensitivit. to gen%er %is+riination an% e1+lu%e% it /ro t$e 14t$ '%.
Pre1-.=0s
Bra%well v. 3llinois (1!8")# up$ol%ing a state ,an on woen pra+ti+ing law in 3llinois.
Qoesart v. Clear. (154!)# rel.ing on a rational ,asis test, t$e +ourt $el% t$at -i+$igan +oul%
/or,i% woen /ro wor2ing in a ,ar, an% %e/erre% to t$e legislatures( reasoning (prote+tionis)
-.=0s (intere%iate s+rutin.)
0ee% v. 0ee% (1581)# stru+2 %own a presuption ,ase% on gen%er, w$i+$ /avore% en over
woen in t$e a%inistration o/ estates.
o >n%er a iniu rationalit. review, a reasona,le legislature +oul% $ave t$oug$t t$at en
woul% $ave ore e1perien+e ta2ing +are o/ one., ,ut t$is is ore t$an ere iniu rationalit.
review.
o 3%a$o(s interest in strealining estate $an%ling was insu//i+ient, sin+e it onl. save% a $earing
w$en en /a+e% woen, ,ut not i/ ,ot$ parti+ipants were t$e sae se1.
10
<rontiero v. 0i+$ar%son (158")# stri2ing %own a /e%eral law w$i+$ autoati+all.
grante% %epen%en+. /un%s to wives o/ servi+een, ,ut re@uiring servi+ewoen to prove t$eir $us,an%s
were %epen%ent.
o 7rawing a line ,etween t$e se1es sipl. /or a%inistrative +onvenien+e violates ;PC
(0ee%), even i/ $us,an%s are rarel. %epen%ent upon t$eir servi+ewives.
o Courts will not allow gen%er to serve as a pro1. /or nee%. See also Orr v. Orr (1585) (stri2ing
%own a state law w$i+$ ipose% alion. o,ligations on $us,an%s ,ut not on wives).
o Brennan a%e an arguent /or gen%er as a suspe+t +lassi/i+ations (a %is+rete an% insular
inorit. un%er Carolene Pro%u+ts <= 4), ,ut +oul% get a a*orit..
C*a9 v. Bo*(n "#$K%'# t$e Court a%opts intere%iate s+rutin., w$i+$ $ol%s t$at a statute
w$i+$ %is+riinates ,ase% upon one(s se1 violates e@ual prote+tion i/ t$e. +reate a gender1(ased
classification that is not su(stantially related to an im&ortant governmental o(8ective.
o 5ntermediate Scrutiny# t$e +lassi/i+ation ust ,e su,stantiall. relate% to an iportant
governent o,*e+tive (less t$an stri+t s+rutin.).
o :$e Court $ol%s t$at statisti+ %ata s$owing a 101 greater +$an+e t$at en will %rin2 an% %rive
is not su//i+ient to a2e t$e law +onstitutional (statistical averages are not necessarily enough)
o 'n 3=:;0;S:3=Q @uestion to as2 is w$et$er t$ere are an. gen%er neutral alternatives
availa,le, an% i/ so, w$at are t$e +osts.
o 'LSO# loo2 /or overin+lusive an% un%erin+lusive.
-i+$ael -. v. Superior Court (15!1)# up$ol%ing a state %is+riinator. statutor. rape
law t$at punis$e% ales ,ut not /eales i/ ,ot$ were un%er 1!, an% set t$e /eale age o/ +onsent (1!) ,ut
no age /or ales.
o :$e Court state% t$at t$ere is a %i//erential @ualit. to t$e a+t o/ t$e se1es
,e+ause o/ real p$.si+al %i//eren+es 6 ales an% /eales are not siilarl.-situate% in t$e allo+ation o/
ris2 o/ pregnan+..
o Because they are not similar1situated (ased on real physical differences*
then not ar(itrary to treat the genders differently.
o 'LSO, Cali/ornia +an(t a2e t$e statute gen%er-neutral (punis$ ,ot$)
,e+ause it will +reate a %isin+entive /or /eale vi+tis to report 6 t$e +ost o/ gen%er-neutral
alternative is ver. $ig$.
0ost2er v. Qol%,erg (15!1)# t$e Court $el% t$at t$e e1+lusion o/
woen /ro t$e registration un%er t$e -ilitar. Sele+tive Servi+e '+t was +onstitutional, sin+e onl. en
are eligi,le /or +o,at an% onl. en s$oul% ,e %ra/te%. >nli2e earlier +ases, t$is is a pro+ess anal.sis
rat$er t$an p$.si+al %i//eren+es.
o See also S+$lesinger v. Ballar% (158&)# up$ol%ing a =av. prootion s.ste t$at a++or%e%
woen a 1"-.ear tenure ,e/ore an%ator. %is+$arge /or want o/ prootion, w$i+$ en were
%is+$arge% i/ t$e. $a% ,een passe% over twi+e /or a prootion, even i/ un%er 1"-.ears o/ servi+e.
M.;.B. v. 'la,aa (1554)# $ol%ing t$at gen%er-,ase% pereptor.
+$allenges to *urors are un+onstitutional, as un%er intere%iate s+rutin., t$e Court woul% not a++ept
average stereot.pes (t$at en will ,e ore s.pat$eti+ t$an woen to arguents o/ a an w$o allege%l.
/at$ere% a +$il% out o/ we%lo+2) as a %e/ense to gen%er-,ase% pereptor. +$allenges.
Un1(0 S1a1(! v. V*9na "#$$%' (C-3 +ase)# holding that a state
may not discriminate (ased on gender unless it has an 7e6ceedingly &ersuasive 8ustification7 for doing
so* and then the state must show that the classification is su(stantially related to the achievement of
im&ortant governmental o(8ectives.
11
o Cirginia /aile% to eet its ,ur%en in e1+lu%ing @uali/ie% woen /ro an all-ale institution,
wit$ no via,le all-/eale alternative (t$e ale s+$ool was vastl. superior in e%u+ation an% prestige)
o :$e Court %i% not give u+$ weig$t to t$e arguent t$at t$e s+$ool(s a%versative approa+$ to
tea+$ing ig$t ,e su,stantiall. o%i/ie% ,. a%itting /eales.
9ttem&ts at 9ffirmative 9ction for >ender !intermediate scrutiny still a&&lies to (eneficial &rograms%
-ississippi >. /or Woen v. Bogan (15!2)# $ol%ing t$at t$e state
+oul% not e1+lu%e a an /ro atten%ing t$e woen(s s+$ool o/ nursing, as intere%iate s+rutin. applies to
+lassi/i+ations a//e+ting en as well.
o :$e Court re*e+te% t$e state(s e//ort to *usti/. its s.ste as
,enign or +opensator. sa.ing t$at t$e state /aile% to esta,lis$ t$at t$e allege% o,*e+tive is t$e a+tual
purpose un%erl.ing t$e gen%er +lassi/i+ation an% also /aile% to s$ow t$at t$e gen%er +lassi/i+ation is
su,stantiall. an% %ire+tl. relate% to its propose% +opensator. o,*e+tive.
o -ig$t $ave ,een a %i//erent anal.sis i/ training in a ale-
%oinate% /iel%. Bere, t$ere was no evi%en+e t$at woen $a% ever ,een %is+riinate% against in
nursing e%u+ation.
Cali/ano v. We,ster (1588)# up$ol%ing a So+ial
Se+urit. earning /orula w$i+$ was ore /avora,le to woen in ol% age ,ene/its, on t$e t$eor. t$at in
t$e la,or ar2et t$ere $a% ,een past %is+riination against woen an% it was perissi,le /or Congress to
set up %i//erent ,ene/its /orula.
o But see Wein,urger v. Wiesen/el% (158&)
(%en.ing a S.S. provision t$at pai% ,ene/its to a wi%ow ,ut not a wi%ower ,e+ause it %is+riinate%
against /eale wage earners)? Cali/ano v. Qol%/ar, (1588) (stri2ing %own S.S. s+$ees w$i+$
re@uire% wi%owers ,ut wi%ows to esta,lis$ %epen%en+. ,e/ore re+eiving survivors( ,ene/its.
3n anal.9ing w$et$er gen%er-,ase% +lassi/i+ation survive an e@ual prote+tion +$allenge, t$e Court will
+onsi%er w$et$er %isparate treatent o/ en an% woen is *usti/ie% ,. )real) %i//eren+e ,etween t$e se1es, as
oppose% to ar+$ai+ generali9ations.
,om&are -i+$ael -. (%i//erentl.
situate% in respe+t to pregnan+.)? 0ost2er (%i//erentl. situate% in sele+tive servi+e)? =gu.en v. 3=S (2001)
(up$el% /e%eral law t$at +$il%ren wit$ +iti9en-ot$ers were autoati+all. +onsi%ere% +iti9ens, w$ile
+$il%ren wit$ +iti9en-/at$ers ust eet +ertain +on%itions? ,e+ause it +oul% ,e sure o/ ,iologi+al
relations$ip ,etween ot$er an% +$il%) with Ca,an v. -o$ae% (1585) (stri2ing %own a law t$at
grante% a ot$er ,ut not t$e /at$er t$e rig$t to wit$$ol% +onsent to a +$il%(s a%option? ,ase% on
assuptions a,out parental relations$ips)? Wein,urger v. Wiesen/el% (158&) (%en.ing a S.S. provision t$at
pai% ,ene/its to a wi%ow ,ut not a wi%ower ,e+ause it %is+riinate% against /eale wage earners) and Orr
v. Orr (1585) ($ol%ing t$at t$e state a. not aut$ori9e alion. o,ligations on $us,an%s ,ut not on wives?
a. not use se1 as a pro1. /or nee%).
<or non-gen%er +lassi/i+ations, see
Qe%ul%ig v. 'iello (1584) (e1+lu%ing pregnan+. /ro t$e state(s %isa,ilit. insuran+e was not ;PC
violation, sin+e it %istinguis$ ,etween pregnant an% non-pregnant, not en an% woen)? Par$a v.
Bug$es (1585) (up$ol%ing a state law %en.ing a /at$er, ,ut not t$e ot$er, t$e rig$t to sue /or $is non-
arital +$il%(s wrong/ul %eat$, sin+e it %i% not %is+riinate against all /at$ers, *ust t$ose w$o +$ose not to
a2e t$eir +$il%ren legitiate).
VIII. ALIENS2 NON-MARITAL CHILDREN2 DISABILITY2 SEGUAL ORIENTATION AND OTHER
CLASSIFICATION PROBLEMS
12
-) 9lienage?9liens
Qra$a v. 0i+$ar%son (1581)# appl.ing stri+t s+rutin., $ol%ing t$at
states +oul% not %en. wel/are ,ene/its to aliens. )'liens as a +lass are prie e1aple o/ a (%is+rete
an% insular( inorit. Gsee Carolene Pro%u+ts <= 4, S "H /or w$o su+$ $eig$tene% *u%i+ial soli+itu%e
is appropriate.)
3n re Qri//it$s (158")# t$e states a. not e1+lu%e aliens /ro law
pra+ti+e.
Sugaran v. 7ougall (158")# stri2ing %own a state law w$i+$
provi%e% t$at onl. 'eri+an +iti9ens a. $ol% peranent positions in t$e +opetitive +lassi/ie% +ivil
servi+e, sin+e it %i% not +over all $ig$ poli+.a2ing position ,ut ost enial positions, so t$ere/ore,
t$e restri+tion $a% little, i/ an., relations$ip to t$e state(s su,stantial interest in $aving eplo.ees o/
un%ivi%e% lo.alt..
o Bowever, t$e Court(s s+rutin. will not invali%ate
re+ognition o/ t$e state(s $istori+al power to e1+lu%e aliens /ro parti+ipation in %eo+rati+
politi+al institutions or gov(t /un+tions.
o See <ole. v. Connelie (158!)# $ol%ing t$at states a. ,ar
eplo.ent o/ aliens as state troopers? ',a+$ v. =orwi+2 (1585)# a. liit aliens as pu,li+
s+$ool tea+$ers.
Bapton v. -aw Sun Wong (158I)# invali%ating a
Civil Servi+e Coission regulation ,arring resi%ent aliens /ro eplo.ent in t$e /e%eral
+opetitive +ivil servi+e 6 even w$ile re+ogni9ing t$at )overri%ing national interests a. provi%e a
*usti/i+ation /or a +iti9ens$ip re@uireent in t$e /e%eral servi+e Gt$oug$H an i%enti+al re@uireent a.
not ,e en/or+e% ,. a state.
-at$ews v. 7ia9 (158I)# $el% t$at Congress a.
+on%ition an alien(s eligi,ilit. /or parti+ipation in t$e /e%eral -e%i+are progra on (1) a%ission /or
peranent resi%en+e, an% (2) +ontinuous resi%en+e in t$e >.S. /or /ive .ears G,roa% powers o/
nationali9ation an% iigrationH.
@) ;on1Marital ,hildren
Clar2 v. Meter (15!!)# a%opting intere%iate s+rutin. /or illegitiate +$il%ren.
A) 9ge
-ass. B%. o/ 0etireent v. -urgia (158I)# appl.ing rationalit. review in sustaining a an%ator.
retireent age /or uni/ore% state poli+e o//i+ers.
B) Disa(ility Gental retar%ationH
Cle,urne v. Cle,urne Living Center (15!&)# $ol%ing t$at a +it. %enial o/ a perit /or t$e operation o/
a group $oe /or t$e entall. retar%e% was un+onstitutional, un%er a G$eig$tene%H rationalit. review.
o :$e Court Gipli+itl.H re*e+ts %isa,ilit. as a suspe+t or @uasi-suspe+t +lassi/i+ation? ,e+ause
t$ere are real %i//eren+es t$at ig$t +reate pro,les w$i+$ governent agen+ies generall. %eal
wit$ in a trustwort$. an% s.pat$eti+ anner.
o Bere, t$e Court sai% t$ere was no legitiate purpose to re@uire perits /or entall. retar%e%.
0ationalit. review usuall. eans %e/eren+e to legislatures, ,ut not so $ere.
o ;ven i/ t$e +ase /alls into rational-,asis review, V $as t$e ,ur%en o/ persuasion to s$ow t$at
t$e poli+. was ,ase% on a %esire to $ar t$e entall. retar%e%.
o )a ,are ... %esire to $ar a politi+all. unpopular group,) GisH not GaH legitiate state interests.)
See also 0oer an% Lawren+e.
1"
/) Se6ual $rientation
:$e Court $as not %e+i%e% w$et$er se1ual orientation is a suspe+t or @uasi-suspe+t
+lassi/i+ation.
0oer v. ;vans (155I)# $ol%ing t$at a Colora%o +onstitutional aen%ent 6 w$i+$
pro$i,ite% an. gov(t a+tion t$at woul% ena+t, a%opt, or en/or+e an. or%inan+e or poli+. w$ere,.
$oose1ual or ,ise1ual orientation or +on%u+t +oul% ,e t$e ,asis o/ an. +lai o/ inorit. status or
+lai o/ %is+riination 6 was un+onstitutional, since there was no rational (asis for classification*
and instead* it was (ased on animus against homose6uals.
o :$e Court re*e+ts $eig$tene% s+rutin. an% a%opts a *a1ona/ ,a!! 1(!1.
o :$e 'en%ent %enie% $oose1uals to sae prote+tions e1ten%e% to ot$er
inorit. groups.
o :$e State s$oul% not ,e a,le to vote ,ase% on own ,iases an% pre*u%i+e.
<ailure o/ t$e politi+al pro+ess in Carolene Pro%u+ts <= 4, SS 2 (pro+ess) an% " (%is+rete an%
insular inorities)
o S$oul% se1ual orientation ,e a suspi+ion +lassi/i+ationU
<irst @uestion# $as t$is group ,een e1pose% to pre*u%i+e an% apat$.U
Se+on% @uestion# is se1ual orientation visi,le an% iuta,leU
3s se1ual orientation relevant to a,ilit. to per/or +ertain *o,sU
Con!(n!ua/ S(: B(4avo*@ T(:a! v. La)*(nc( "=DD-'
o :e1as v. Lawren+e (200")# $el% t$at a :e1as statute
a2ing it a +rie /or two persons o/ t$e sae se1 to engage in +ertain intiate se1ual +on%u+t
was un+onstitutional un%er S7P, as applie% to a%ult ales w$o $a% engage% in +onsensual a+t o/
so%o. in priva+. o/ $oe.
'eri+an laws targeting sae-se1 +ouples %i% not %evelop until t$e late 20t$ +entur. (no
long $istori+al or oral pro$i,ition on t$e +on%u+t o/ private in%ivi%uals).
:$e Court avoi%s an ;PC arguent ,e+ause it /ears t$at state woul% t$en liit $oose1ual-
t.pe se1 /or ,ot$ $oo- an% $eterose1uals, w$i+$ woul% alleviate t$e ;PC +lai
0elies on 0oer an% Case..
o Eual Protection arguments#
Se1ual orientation-,ase% +lassi/i+ationU =o, ,e+ause arriage laws are written in ters o/
aleE/eales? %isparate ipa+t pro,le
Se1-,ase% +lassi/i+ationU
3/ rest on ar+$ai+, stereot.pi+al erits, et+. o/ ,ot$ se1es, t$en s$oul% ,e su,*e+t to
intere%iate review.
3/ rests on real p$.si+al %i//eren+e ,Ew se1es an% t$at t$e p$.si+al %i//eren+e is t$e ,asis
o/ t$e law, t$en state is peritte% to treat en an% woen %i//erentl..
-arriage laws alrea%. su,*e+t to intere%iate review.
State ust prove t$at se1 %is+. is su,stantiall. relate% to iportant state interests t$at
gen%er neutral alternatives +oul% not serve as well. W$at is stateJs interest $ereU
3 +oul% arr. $i i/ 3 were a woan gen%er %is+riination an% intere%iate review.
'voi%s w$ole line o/ t$oug$t o/ tra%itionalEnontra%itional restri+tions on arriage.
-ilitar.# rationalit. review (integrate% units? no $a9ing rule? no p$.si+al +onta+t rule)
o Su(stantive Due Process arguments#
BarlanES+alia S+$ool# S7P +lais to /or /ail. relations t$at are pro$i,ite% ,. t$e state are
onl. +ogni9a,le w$en w$at t$e state is %oing is +ontrar. to our tra%ition o/ so+iall.
re+ogni9a,le rig$ts (tra%itional restri+tions on arriage an% ilitar.).
14
Still ust eet inial rationalit. stan%ar%s an% legitiate state interests
Brennan s+$ool# rig$ts o/ autono. an% person$oo% (0oe), is not liite% ,. tra%itional
li,erties. 0ig$t to arr. is a /un%aental rig$t an% state restri+tions ust ,e narrowl.
tailore% to iportant state interests. -ust %eterine w$at state interests are an% w$et$er laws
are narrowl. tailore%# e1a+tl. t$e sae ,ur%en, et+. as i/ t$is were a gen%er %is+riination
pro,le un%er ;P.
IG. EBUAL PROTECTION AND AFFIRMATIVE ACTION
9ntecedents# t$e pat$ to Ba22e
1. <ree%an(s Bureau 6 gov(t gave lan% to /ree%en a/ter slaver.? lan% %istri,ution
2. S+$ool 7esegregation Cases 6 in %istri+ts w$ere t$ere $a% ,een %e *ure segregation,
it is not enoug$ to *ust %esegregate, t$ere ust ,e a//irative steps ta2en to integrate G$ave to ,e ra+e-
+ons+ious a,out w$o atten%s s+$oolsH
Ba++( an0 A77*6a1v( Ac1on "(0uca1on'
0egents o/ >niv. o/ Cali/ornia v. Ba22e (158!)# $ol%ing t$at t$e a%ission progras o/ state s+$ools a.
a+$ieve %iversit. in t$e stu%ent ,o%. ,. +onsi%ering t$e ra+e o/ its appli+ants, ,ut it ust ,e onl. one
/a+tor aong ot$er /a+tors.
o :$e s+$ool a. not set asi%e or reserve seats /or inorit. stu%ents.
o :$e Court %i% not a%%ress w$at stan%ar% o/ review applies# Powell sa.s $e woul% re@uire
stri+t s+rutin. 6 are t$e o,*e+tives +opelling enoug$ to *usti/. t$e ra+e-+ons+ious poli+., an% are t$e
eans narrowl. tailore% to t$ose en%sU
o Powell states t$at ra+ial %iversit. is a +opelling state interest
o 3n >. o/ -. +ases, ra+ial %iversit. an% ree%ial ree%ies Gust ,e a /in%ing o/ past
%is+riinationH is %ownpla.e% an% a )ro,ust e1+$ange o/ i%eas an% e%u+ational %iversit.) is
ep$asi9e%.
UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN CASES
G*u11(* v. Bo//n9(* "=DD-'# $el% t$at (1) law s+$ool $a% a +opelling interest in attaining a %iverse
stu%ent ,o%.? an% (2) law s+$ool a%issions progra Gno point s.steH was narrowl. tailore% to serve its
+opelling interest in o,taining t$e e%u+ational ,ene/its t$at /low /ro a %iverse stu%ent ,o%., an% t$us
%i% not violate t$e ;@ual Prote+tion Clause.
o 'll ra+ial +lassi/i+ations ipose% ,. governent ust ,e anal.9e% ,. a reviewing +ourt
un%er )stri+t s+rutin.)? t$is eans t$at su+$ +lassi/i+ations are +onstitutional un%er e@ual prote+tion
+lause onl. i/ t$e. are narrowl. tailore% to /urt$er +opelling governental interests.
o 7iverse stu%ent ,o%. serves +opelling governent interest# in+lu%ing to proote +rossra+ial
un%erstan%ing, to $elp ,rea2 %own ra+ial stereot.pes an% to ena,le stu%ents to ,etter un%erstan% persons o/
%i//erent ra+es, to proote learning out+oes, to ,etter prepare stu%ents /or an in+reasingl. %iverse wor2/or+e
an% so+iet., an% to ,etter prepare stu%ents as pro/essionals.
o :o ,e narrowl. tailore% un%er e@ual prote+tion +lause, a ra+e-+ons+ious a%issions progra +annot use
a @uota s.ste, an% it +annot insulate ea+$ +ategor. o/ appli+ants wit$ +ertain %esire% @uali/i+ations /ro
+opetition wit$ all ot$er appli+ants? instea%, a universit. a. +onsi%er ra+e or et$ni+it. onl. as a plus in a
parti+ular appli+ant(s /ile, wit$out insulating t$e in%ivi%ual /ro +oparison wit$ all ot$er +an%i%ates /or t$e
availa,le seats 6 it ust still use a $ig$l.-in%ivi%uali9e%, $olisti+ review o/ an appli+ant(s /ile. See Ba22e an%
Qrat9.
o ;o other via(le alternatives# a lotter. s.ste or %e+reasing t$e ep$asis on gra%e point
average (QP') an% Law S+$ool '%ission :est (LS':) s+ores were +onsi%ere% an% woul% re@uire a
%raati+ sa+ri/i+e o/ %iversit., t$e a+a%ei+ @ualit. o/ all a%itte% stu%ents, or ,ot$
1&
Qrat9 v. Bollinger (200")# $el% t$at w$ile un%ergra%uate a%issions $a% a +opelling interest
in attaining a %iverse Ge%u+ationalH stu%ent ,o%., t$e /orer point-s.ste was not narrowl.-tailore%, an%
t$us violate% t$e ;PC o/ t$e 14t$ '%. an% :itle C33.
o ;@ual prote+tion rig$ts o/ Cau+asian appli+ants t$e >. o/ -.(s un%ergra%uate +ollege
were violate% ,. >niversit.(s poli+. o/ autoati+all. %istri,uting 20 points, or one-/i/t$ o/ t$ose
nee%e% to guarantee a%ission, to ever. single )un%errepresente% inorit.) appli+ant solel. ,e+ause
o/ ra+e? t$at poli+. was not narrowl. tailore% to asserte% +opelling state interest in a+$ieving
e%u+ational %iversit..
o 7is+riination t$at violates ;PC +oitte% ,. institution t$at a++epts /e%eral /un%s
also +onstitutes a violation o/ :itle C3 Gapplies to an. pu,li+ or private a+tor w$o re+eives /e%eral
assistan+eH.
H*n9 an0 F*n9 "!(1-a!0(!'
<ullilove v. Kltu9ni+2 (15!0)# up$ol%ing a 10W +ontra+t set-asi%e /or inorit. +ontra+tors as a proper
e1er+ise o/ Congress( ree%ial powers un%er 4 & o/ t$e 14t$ 'en%ent. 5T is enough to show a general
&attern of discrimination and some reasona(le connection (etween the &attern and the remedy)
o Contra+ting +ases a,out inorit. /irs, an% not in%ivi%uals.
0i+$on% v. M.'. Croson Co. (15!5)# $ol%ing t$at a +it. violates t$e ;PC o/ t$e 14t$ '%.
w$en it guarantees inorit.-owne% ,usinesses "0W o/ +ertain +it. +ontra+ts. :$e rule is t$at state an%
lo+al gov(ts +annot %is+riinate on t$e ,asis o/ ra+e unless t$e. +an %eonstrate t$at t$eir +lassi/i+ations
are narrowl. tailore% an% ne+essar. to a+$ieve soe +opelling interest Gstri+t s+rutin.H.
o States %o not $ave t$e sae 4 & powers t$at Congress $as.
o 3n a%%ition, t$e State provi%e% little to no evi%en+e o/ past %is+riination (even less t$an
<ullilove)
-etro Broa%+asting v. <CC (1550)# sa.s t$at intere%iate s+rutin. is t$e +orre+t
stan%ar% o/ review. Overrule% ,. '%aran% Constru+tors v. Pena (155&).
'%aran% Constru+tors v. Pena (155&)# $ol%ing t$at /e%eral ra+ial +lassi/i+ations
(a//irative a+tion) ust ,e reviewe% un%er a stri+t s+rutin. stan%ar% o/ review.
o S2epti+is 6 t$ere ust ,e a )ost sear+$ing e1aination)
o Consisten+. 6 it s$oul%n(t atter w$et$er inorities are /avore% or
%is/avore%. But w$at a,out Carolene Pro%. <= 4, S "U
o Congruen+e 6 no ore %e/eren+e to Congress (re+on+iles <ullilove an%
Croson). :$e states an% /e%eral governent ust i%enti/. %is+riinator. tren%s a+ross t$e +ountr. in
nat(l la,or ar2ets.
W.gant v. Ma+2son B%. o/ ;%u+ation (15!I)# stri2ing %own a tea+$er la.o// poli+. t$at prote+te% inorit.
tea+$ers wit$ less seniorit., as not goo% enoug$ to satis/. a stri+ter stan%ar% o/ review.
o Soe Musti+es re*e+t t$e i%ea o/ role o%eling /or stu%ents as a +opelling interest.
o :$ere is an ep$asis $ere on t$e %istin+tion ,etween %isissalE/iring, an% a%issionsE$iring
+ases. :$e ,ur%en is $eavier $ere w$en an inno+ent W$ite will lose %ire+t in+oe.
G. THE RIGHT OF PRIVACY
Bow Courts anal.9e )rig$t o/ priva+.) pro,les#
1. 3s a tra%itional or /un%aental li,ert. interest ,eing inter/ere% wit$U
3/ .es, +ontinue to 2. 3/ no, +ourts will usuall. not inter/ere, ,ut see 0oe v. Wa%e
1I
2. 3/ tra%itional, t$en as2 w$et$er it is a legitiate state interest, w$et$er t$e progra is narrowl.
tailore% to t$at interest, an% w$at *usti/i+ation /or over,rea%t$U
'reas o/ '+tive Mu%i+ial 0eview /or Priva+. 0ig$ts
)Li,ert.) in+lu%es )not erel. /ree%o /ro ,o%il. restraint ,ut also t$e rig$t o/ t$e in%ivi%ual to +ontra+t, to
engage in an. o/ t$e +oon o++upations o/ li/e, to a+@uire use/ul 2nowle%ge, to arr., esta,lis$ a $oe an%
,ring up +$il%ren P) -e.er (-+0e.nol%s, M.) (152").
'. Control an% >p,ringing o/ C$il%ren
>suall. roote% in t$e 1st 'en%ent (a+@uisition o/ 2nowle%ge an% religious /ree%o)
-e.er v. =e,ras2a (152")# reversing a tea+$er(s +onvi+tion un%er a state law t$at pro$i,ite%
t$e tea+$ing o/ /oreign languages to .oung +$il%ren, as it in/ringe% on t$e parent(s /un%aental rig$t
to raise an% +ontrol t$eir +$il%ren as t$e. see /it.
Pier+e v. So+iet. o/ Sisters (152&)# stri2ing %own a state law t$at re@uire% all +$il%ren to
atten% pu,li+ s+$ools, an% /or,i%%ing paro+$ial an% private s+$ools.
B. Pro+reative C$oi+e# )-arriage an% pro+reation are /un%aental to t$e ver. e1isten+e an% survival o/
t$e ra+e.) S2inner. <irl. entren+$e% in rig$t o/ priva+.
Base% on ;@ual Prote+tion (S2inner, Bair%) an% Su,stantive 7ue Pro+ess (Qriswol%, 0oe)
S2inner v. O2la$oa (1542)# invali%ate% a sterili9ation statute, w$i+$ provi%e% +opulsor.
sterili9ation /or ost inates +onvi+te% o/ a /elon. un%er a stri+t s+rutin. anal.sis.
Qriswol% v. Conn. (15I&)# $ol%ing t$at 14t$ 'en%ent prote+ts t$e rig$t o/ arital priva+.
against state restri+tions on a +ouple(s a,ilit. to ,e +ounsele% a,out an% use +ontra+eptives. :$oug$
t$e Constitution %oes not e1pli+itl. prote+t a general rig$t to priva+., t$e various guarantees in t$e
Bill o/ 0ig$ts +reate penu,ras t$at esta,lis$ a 9one o/ priva+.. :oget$er, t$e 1st, "r%, 4t$, an% 5t$
'%s +reate a new +onstitutional rig$t, t$e rig$t to priva+. in arital relations.
;isensta%t v. Bair% (1582)# e1ten%ing Qriswol% to allow unarrie% +ouples a++ess to
+ontra+eptives an% relate% in/oration.
0oe v. Wa%e (158")# re+ogni9ing a woan(s rig$t to an a,ortion.
Care. v. Populations Servi+es 3nternational (1588)# stri2ing %own a state law t$at onl.
allowe% p$ara+ists to sell non-e%i+al %evi+es to t$ose persons over t$e age o/ 1I as violation o/
7PC
C. <ail. <oration an% 7e/oration
Base% on ;P (Loving, Xa,lo+2i) an% S7P (-oore, -i+$ael B., :ro1el).
1. -arriage
Loving v. Cirginia (15I8)# stri2ing %own t$e state(s ,an on interra+ial arriages.
Xa,lo+2i v. 0e%$ail (158!)# invali%ating a state law w$i+$ provi%e% t$at non-+usto%ial parents
w$o owe% +$il% support +oul% not arr. wit$out o,taining +ourt approval an% proving t$at t$e
non-+usto%ial parent was not in arrears.
:urner v. Sa/le. (15!8)# stri2ing %own a prison regulation t$at restri+te% prisoner(s rig$t to
arr. ,. +on%itioning it on t$e prison superinten%ents( approval /or )+opelling reasons,) su+$
as pregnan+. or avoi%ing illegitiate +$il%ren.
Palore v. Si%oti (15!4)# $ol%ing t$at a state *u%ge a. not ta2e +usto%. /ro a ot$er
sipl. ,e+ause s$e arrie% a an o/ a %i//erent ra+e. :$e *u%ge(s ra+ial +lassi/i+ation was not
ne+essar. to a++oplis$ t$e legitiate state purpose o/ guar%ing t$e +$il%(s wel/are, an% t$e state
+annot give e//e+t to private ra+ial ,iases.
Goo0*09( v. Ma!!. D(51. o7 Pu,/c H(a/14 "Ma!!. =DD-'# $ol%ing t$at (1) arriage
li+ensing statutes were not sus+epti,le o/ interpretation peritting @uali/ie% sae se1 +ouples to
o,tain arriage li+enses, ,ut (2) as atter o/ /irst ipression, liitation o/ prote+tions, ,ene/its
an% o,ligations o/ +ivil arriage to in%ivi%uals o/ opposite se1es la+2e% rational ,asis an%
violate% state +onstitutional e@ual prote+tion prin+iples (rational ,asis at t$e state level?)
18
o 0e*e+ts t$e /ollowing arguents /or state *usti/i+ation# (1) provi%ing a )/avora,le setting /or
pro+reation) Gnot all arriages pro%u+e +$il%ren? not re@(% ,. state? an% non-arital +$il%rearing is
a++epte%H? (2) ensuring t$e optial setting /or +$il% rearing, w$i+$ t$e %epartent %e/ines as )a two-
parent /ail. wit$ one parent o/ ea+$ se1)? an% (") preserving s+ar+e State, private /inan+ial resour+es.
2. ;1ten%e% <ailies an% Living 'rrangeents (stri+t s+rutin., -oore).
:ra%ition o/ten pla.s a 2e. role in prote+ting t$e /ail. stru+ture. See -oore an% -i+$ael B.
-oore v. ;ast Clevelan% (1588)# invali%ating a 9oning or%inan+e t$at liite% o++upan+. o/ a
%welling to e,ers o/ a single )/ail.) narrowl. %e/ine% as onl. a /ew +ategories o/ relatives
()t$e nu+lear /ail.)), an% e1+lu%ing a gran%ot$er /ro living wit$ $er gran%sons.
,om&are 7epartent o/ 'gri+ulture v. -oreno (158") ($el% t$at a law preventing t$ose
$ouse$ol%s +ontaining an in%ivi%ual unrelate% to an. ot$er e,er o/ t$e $ouse$ol% /ro
re+eiving /oo% staps violate% e@ual prote+tion ,e+ause t$e purpose o/ t$e law was to )
(%is+riinate against $ippies()) with Belle :erre v. Boraas (1584) (no priva+. rig$ts involve% in a
/ail.-oriente% 9oning restri+tion e1+lu%ing ore unrelate% groups /ro a village ,E+ not aie%
at transients an% up$ol%s a vali% lan%-use regulation /or /ail. nee%s).
-i+$ael B. v. Qeral% 7. (15!5)# up$ol%ing a state law w$i+$ esta,lis$e% a presuption t$at a
+$il% ,orn to t$e wi/e is a +$il% o/ t$at arriage, an% +oul% ,e re,utte% onl. ,. eit$er spouse?
t$us, t$e a%ulterer +oul% not petition /or +usto%. or visitation rig$ts.
:ro1el v. Qranville (2000)? stri2ing %own a state statute w$i+$ granting gran%parents(
visitation rig$ts over t$e o,*e+tion o/ t$e sole surviving, /it, an% +usto%ial parents.
7. ',ortions
0oe v. Wa%e (158")# $el% t$at a woan(s rig$t to an a,ortion /ell wit$in t$e rig$t to priva+.
(re+ogni9e% in Qriswol%) prote+te% ,. t$e 14t$ 'en%ent. :riester approa+$ gave a woan total
autono. %uring t$e /irst triester an% %e/ine% %i//erent levels o/ state interest /or t$e se+on%
(via,ilit.) an% t$ir% triesters (total ,an allowe%).
Pro+reation is a /un%aental +onstitutional rig$t.
1. <un%ing an% State 3nvolveent
-a$er v. 0oe (1588)# up$ol%ing a state regulation granting -e%i+ai% ,ene/its /or +$il%,irt$
,ut %en.ing t$e /or non-t$erapeuti+, e%i+all. unne+essar. a,ortions.
Barris v. -+0ae (15!0)# $el% t$at states parti+ipating in -e%i+ai% were not o,ligate% to /un%
even ost e%i+all. ne+essar. a,ortions (no +onstitutional entitleent to /un%s).
We,ster v. 0epro%u+tive Bealt$ Servi+es (15!5)# up$el% state law w$i+$ pro$i,ite% state
$ospitals /ro per/oring e%i+all. unne+essar. a,ortions, unless per$aps i/ t$e state +lose%
all pu,li+ $ospitals an% t$ere was now$ere else to go.
0ust v. Sullivan (1551)# allowing restri+tion or pro$i,ition on a,ortion +ounseling ,. an.
pro*e+t re+eiving /e%eral /ail. planning /un%ing.
2. Consent, Counseling, an% Ot$er 0estri+tions# )>=7>; B>07;= '='LLS3S)
Planne% Parent$oo% o/ Cent. -issouri v. 7an/ort$ (158I)# $ol%ing t$at a state a. not
re@uire a woan to o,tain $er $us,an%(s +onsent ,e/ore $aving an a,ortion
'2ron v. '2ron Center /or 0epro%u+tive Bealt$ (15!") ('2ron 3)# invali%ate% a re@uireent
t$at a,ortions per/ore% a/ter t$e /irst triester $a% to ,e per/ore% in a $ospital rat$er t$an
outpatient /a+ilities, w$i+$ were t.pi+all. less e1pensive.
O$io v. '2ron Center /or 0epro%u+tive Bealt$ (1550) ('2ron 33)# up$el% a one-parent
noti/i+ation re@uireent a++opanie% ,. a *u%i+ial ,.pass pro+e%ure.
P/ann(0 Pa*(n14oo0 o7 Sou14(a!1(*n Pa. v. Ca!(8 "#$$='# re*e+ts t$e )triester approa+$)
/ro 0oe an% instea% as2ing w$et$er a state a,ortion regulation $as t$e purpose or e//e+t o/
iposing an )un0u( ,u*0(n,) w$i+$ is %e/ine% as a )su,stantial o,sta+le in t$e pat$ o/ a
woan see2ing an a,ortion ,e/ore t$e /etus attains via,ilit..)
1!
o 0ea//irs t$e essential $ol%ing o/ 0oe t$at t$e via,ilit. o/ t$e /etus is t$e
%ivi%ing line ,etween w$en a state a. or a. not pro$i,it a,ortions.
o :$e Court up$ol%s in/ore% +onsent (%o+s tell patients o/ %angers an%
alternatives), 24-$our waiting perio%, parental +onsent /or inors,
o But re*e+ts spousal +onsent provision, sin+e it +oul% result in preventing a large
nu,er o/ woen /ro o,taining a,ortions out o/ /ear o/ potential a,use or ot$er
reprisals.
-a9ure2 v. 'rstrong (1558)# up$el% a state pra+ti+e w$at previousl. peritte% li+ense%
p$.si+ians( assistants to per/or a,ortions ,ut t$en s$i/te% to onl. li+ense% p$.si+ians was
not an )un%ue ,ur%en) on a woan(s rig$t to o,tain an a,ortion.
Sten,erg v. Car$art (2000)# stru+2 %own a state law t$at ,anne% )partial ,irt$ a,ortions)
,e+ause it was wit$out an e1+eption to preserve t$e ot$er(s li/e or $ealt$ '=7 it ipose% an
un%ue ,ur%en on a woan(s a,ilit. to +$ose a )%ilation an% evaluation a,ortion.)
;. Se1ual Priva+.
Base% on Qriswol% an% :e1as v. Lawren+e (overruling Bowers v. Bar%wi+2)
Qriswol% (15I&) an% ;isensta%t (1582) (invali%ate% a law pro$i,iting %istri,ution o/
+ontra+eptives to unarrie% persons)# re+ogni9ing a general rig$t o/ priva+. /or atters +on%u+te% in
t$e ,e%roo, in+lu%ing +ontra+eptives.
Con!(n!ua/ S(: B(4avo*@ T(:a! v. La)*(nc( "=DD-'
o :e1as v. Lawren+e (200")# $el% t$at a :e1as statute
a2ing it a +rie /or two persons o/ t$e sae se1 to engage in +ertain intiate se1ual +on%u+t
was un+onstitutional, as applie% to a%ult ales w$o $a% engage% in +onsensual a+t o/ so%o. in
priva+. o/ $oe.
'eri+an laws targeting sae-se1 +ouples %i% not %evelop until t$e late 20t$ +entur. (no
long $istori+al or oral pro$i,ition on t$e +on%u+t o/ private in%ivi%uals).
:$e Court avoi%s an ;PC arguent ,e+ause it /ears t$at state woul% t$en liit $oose1ual-
t.pe se1 /or ,ot$ $oo- an% $eterose1uals, w$i+$ woul% alleviate t$e ;PC +lai
0elies on 0oer an% Case..
o Eual Protection arguments#
Se1ual orientation-,ase% +lassi/i+ationU =o, ,e+ause arriage laws are written in ters o/
aleE/eales? %isparate ipa+t pro,le
Se1-,ase% +lassi/i+ationU
3/ rest on ar+$ai+, stereot.pi+al erits, et+. o/ ,ot$ se1es, t$en s$oul% ,e su,*e+t to
intere%iate review.
3/ rests on real p$.si+al %i//eren+e ,Ew se1es an% t$at t$e p$.si+al %i//eren+e is t$e ,asis
o/ t$e law, t$en state is peritte% to treat en an% woen %i//erentl..
-arriage laws alrea%. su,*e+t to intere%iate review.
State ust prove t$at se1 %is+. is su,stantiall. relate% to iportant state interests t$at
gen%er neutral alternatives +oul% not serve as well. W$at is stateJs interest $ereU
3 +oul% arr. $i i/ 3 were a woan gen%er %is+riination an% intere%iate review.
'voi%s w$ole line o/ t$oug$t o/ tra%itionalEnontra%itional restri+tions on arriage.
-ilitar.# rationalit. review (integrate% units? no $a9ing rule? no p$.si+al +onta+t rule)
o Su(stantive Due Process arguments#
BarlanES+alia S+$ool# S7P +lais to /or /ail. relations t$at are pro$i,ite% ,. t$e state are
onl. +ogni9a,le w$en w$at t$e state is %oing is +ontrar. to our tra%ition o/ so+iall.
re+ogni9a,le rig$ts (tra%itional restri+tions on arriage an% ilitar.).
15
Still ust eet inial rationalit. stan%ar%s an% legitiate state interests
Brennan s+$ool# rig$ts o/ autono. an% person$oo% (0oe), is not liite% ,. tra%itional
li,erties. 0ig$t to arr. is a /un%aental rig$t an% state restri+tions ust ,e narrowl.
tailore% to iportant state interests. -ust %eterine w$at state interests are an% w$et$er laws
are narrowl. tailore%# e1a+tl. t$e sae ,ur%en, et+. as i/ t$is were a gen%er %is+riination
pro,le un%er ;P.
<. 0ig$t to 0e/use -e%i+al :reatentE0ig$t to 7ie
Constitutional ,asis suggeste%, ,ut not e1pli+itl. up$el%
Cru9an v. 7ir., -issouri 7ept. o/ Bealt$ (1550)# t$e Court $el% t$at w$ile in%ivi%uals en*o.e%
t$e right to refuse medical treatment un%er t$e 7ue Pro+ess Clause, in+opetent persons were not
a,le to e1er+ise su+$ rig$ts. ',sent )+lear an% +onvin+ing) evi%en+e t$at Cru9an %esire% treatent to
,e wit$%rawn, t$e Court /oun% t$e State o/ -issouri(s a+tions %esigne% to preserve $uan li/e to ,e
+onstitutional. Be+ause t$ere was no guarantee /ail. e,ers woul% alwa.s a+t in t$e ,est interests
o/ in+opetent patients, an% ,e+ause erroneous %e+isions to wit$%raw treatent were irreversi,le, t$e
Court up$el% t$e state(s $eig$tene% evi%entiar. re@uireents.
Was$ington v. Qlu+2s,urg? Ca++o v. Yuill (1558)# up$ol%ing t$e state(s ,an on p$.si+ian-
assiste% sui+i%e un%er atta+2 /ro t$e ;PC? eplo.ing a rationality test, t$e Court $el% t$at =ew
Lor2(s ,an was rationall. relate% to t$e state(s legitiate interest in prote+ting e%i+al et$i+s,
preventing eut$anasia an% t$e preservation o/ $uan li/e.
SECOND AMENDMENT
I. THE RIGHT TO BEAR ARMS
:$ere is ver. little +aselaw on t$e 2n% 'en%ent. :$e ,est wa. to un%erstan% t$e 2n% 'en%ent(s pla+e
in t$e Constitution is to loo2 at t$e use o/ /or+e in t$e original +onstitution. Bow %i% t$e <oun%ers %ivi%e
power ,etween t$e /e%eral an% state governentsU
1. :$e Stru+ture o/ <or+e in t$e Constitution
a. 'rt. 1, 4 ! 6 Congress $as t$e a,ilit. to raise an% support aries, ,ut no appropriations o/
one. to t$at use s$all ,e longer t$an a ter o/ two .ears (to ensure renewal o/ support)
,. 'rt. 1, 4 ! 6 Provi%e an% aintain t$e =av. (no tie liit, an% t$e =av. was not viewe% as a
t$reat to t$e li,ert. o/ t$e People or t$e States)
+. 'rt. 1, 4 ! 6 Congress +an +all /ort$ t$e State ilitias )to e1e+ute t$e Laws o/ t$e >nion,
suppress 3nsurre+tions an% repel 3nvasions.) 3n t$is pursuit, Congress a. organi9e, ar an%
%is+ipline ilitias w$en +alle% in %e/ense o/ t$e >nite% States.
%. States( 0ole# (1) 'rt. 1, 4 10 6 states +annot 2eep troops or wars$ips wit$out Congress(
+onsent? (2) 'rt. 1, 4 ! 6 states $ave power o/ appointent o/ o//i+ers an% training o/ t$e ilitia.
2. 2n% 'en%ent# N' well regulate% ilitia, ,eing ne+essar. to t$e se+urit. o/ a <ree State, t$e rig$t o/
t$e people to 2eep an% ,ear ars, s$all not ,e in/ringe%.O
One t$eor.# ep$asi9es role o/ t$e Prea,le 6 t$e 2n% '%. is %esigne% to ensure t$at
Congress a. not inter/ere wit$ t$e States( rig$t to %e/en% itsel/ an% +all /ort$ a ilitia 6 +olle+tive
rig$ts t$eor.
Se+on% t$eor.# 2n% '%. +reates an in%ivi%ual rig$t to 2eep an% ,ear ars
". 7i% t$e 14t$ '%. trans/or t$e 2n% '%U
:$ere $as ,een sele+tive in+orporation, ,ut t$e 2n% '%. $as never ,een in+orporate%.
7oes it guarantee a person(s rig$t to 2eep an% ,ear ars against state intervention P or is t$e 2n%
'%. sipl. %esigne% to prote+t t$e States as states.
3n+orporationist Ciew# i/ liite% to prote+ting states, t$en it is alrea%. in+orporate%.
20
Sele+tive 3n+orporationist Ciew# is t$e 2n% '%. ipli+it in t$e +on+ept o/ or%ere% li,ert.
(See Pal2o). :$e 2n% '%. 6 i/ /or sel/-%e/ense an% t$e rig$t to 2eep an% ,ear ars 6 is a su,stantive
rig$t, an% t$e @uestion is w$et$er t$is is a /un%aental rig$t.
4. >nite% States v. -iller (15"5)# $ol%ing t$at ,e+ause t$ere is no reasona,le relation ,etween a sawe%-
o// s$otgun an% possi,le use in a state ilitia, Congress a. pro$i,it, ta1, an% regulate interstate
+oer+e o/ su+$ weapons.
3pli+it is t$is opinion is t$e Court(s assuption t$at t$e 2n% '%. onl. %eals wit$
+alling t$e state ilitia, an% t$e 2n% '%. prote+ts onl. weapons t$at woul% ,e use/ul /or t$e ilitia(s
nee%s.
-iller ig$t ,e rea% to pre+lu%e a /e%eral pro$i,ition on $an%guns, sin+e t$ese an%
siilar weapons are +ertainl. use/ul /or an are% popula+e to /or a ilitia.
&. 3s t$ere an arguent t$at t$e 2n% '%. is an ana+$ronis li2e t$e "r% '%.U
-ilitias no longer e1ist? t$ere is now a /e%eral ar., an% states $ave pro/essional poli+e
an% national guar% units 6 t$e nee% /or private in%ivi%uals to ,e are% /or t$e purpose o/ serving in
t$e state ilitia $as largel. evaporate%, alt$oug$ states ig$t pre/er t$e option i/ t$reatene% ,. t$e
nat(l gov(t.
Bowever, i/ t$e 2n% '%. prote+ts an in%ivi%ual rig$t to 2eep an% ,ear ars, t$en not
voi%.
I. >nite% States v. ;erson (&t$ Cir. 2001)# $ol%ing t$at t$e 2n% '%. prote+ts ,ot$ t$e +olle+tive
ilitia rig$t '=7 t$e in%ivi%ual rig$t to prote+t .oursel/ ()2eep an% ,ear ars)), ,ut t$e 2n% '%. is
su,*e+t to reasona,le an% tra%itional regulations.
:$is %e+ision woul% +ertainl. a2e a pro$i,ition on weapons reasona,l. relate% to prote+tion
un+onstitutional.
Bere, t$e Court /oun% t$at teporar. restraining or%ers (pro$i,iting Z /ro possessing a /irear)
are reasona,le regulations, sin+e t$e. are not grant wit$ *u%i+ial review, liite% in %uration, an%
unlaw/ul violen+e in %oesti+ settings in ver. $ig$.
8. Bow will t$e Courts easure i/ a law violates t$e 2n% '%.U
3s t$e 2n% '%. a /un%aental rig$t (stri+t s+rutin. 6 narrowl. tailore% to t$e governent(s
interest in prevent gun violen+e an% ensuring gun sa/et.) or *u%ge% un%er rational ,asis testU
Per$aps an )un%ue ,ur%en) tests li2e Case.U
!. :$e 2n% '%. onl. prevents outrig$t (/e%eral %e/initel., an% possi,l. state) pro$i,itions on gun
owners$ip, ,ut not regulator. easures.
"ser restrictions# people +onvi+te% o/ a /elon., people %is$onora,l. %is+$arge%, +$il%ren an%
entall. in/ir are pro$i,ite% /ro owning a gun. :$ese are tra%itional restri+tions on t$at li,ert.,
an% will li2el. ,e up$el%.
Safety regulations# no guns sol% wit$out trigger lo+2s, /or e1aple. Courts woul% li2el. loo2 at
t$is %e/erentiall., espe+iall. i/ t$e +ost is inial an% not punitive.
Discretionary &ermitting systems# .ou ig$t nee% o//i+ial perission to own an% operate a gun.
W$ile states a. li+ense guns, it li2el. +annot all law en/or+eent o//i+ials great %is+retion in
%eterining w$o a. %o so.
Registration and (allistic finger&rint laws# gov(t wants to +atalogue all guns out t$ere. 3/ t$e 2n%
'%. prote+ts an ipli+it rig$t o/ are% revolution i/ /a+e% wit$ t.ranni+al governent, t$en it
woul% ,e a violation? ,ut i/ it sipl. allows sel/-%e/ense, t$en it woul% not ,e.
21
5. Ot$er et$o%s o/ 3n+orporation ,esi%es t$e 2n% an% 14t$ '%.
Privileges and 5mmunities ,lause# rig$ts arising out o/ t$e relations$ip ,etween +iti9ens an% t$e
/e%eral governent. 3/ t$e rig$t to 2eep an% ,ear ars is ,orn out o/ +on+ern wit$ a t.ranni+al /e%eral
governent, t$en t$e people nee% to 2eep ars /or t$is purpose, an% an. state law w$i+$ woul%
%isar t$e people will %estro. t$at relations$ip.
Su(stantive Due Process?Privacy# t$e penu,ras o/ priva+.Ese+urit.? tra%itional longstan%ing
+ivil li,ert. to ,e are% in sel/-%e/ense? priva+. an% person$oo%.
FIRST AMENDMENT
I. F*((0o6 o7 E:5*(!!on "Ov(*v()'
:$e <irst 'en%ent was ,ase% on t$e pro$i,iting on li+ensing o/ t$e press t$at o++urre% in ;nglan%. 3n
e//e+t, t$e 1st '%. prevents t$ese prior restraints.
3n Pal2o v. Conne+ti+ut (15"8)# t$e prote+tion o/ spee+$ is %eee% a /un%aental li,ert. an% rig$t.
1st 'en%ent t$eories# (1) ,est /oru /or trut$? (2) sel/-governent? (") autono. an% personal
%evelopent (t$e /a+ulties)? (4) negative, %istrust o/ /e%eral regulation? (&) ar2etpla+e o/ i%eas? (I) /oru /or
%isputes an% +on/li+t resolution.
II. Su,v(*!v( A0vocac8
Bere, t$e +on+ern is t$at t$e spea2er(s essage will in+ite t$e listener(s) to violen+e or potential violen+e in
support o/ t$e spea2er.
Ol% Stan%ar%# )+lear an% present %anger)
S+$en+2 v. >nite% States (1515)# $ol%ing t$at t$e Constitution perits t$e punis$ent /or spee+$ w$en t$e
wor%s are use% in su+$ +ir+ustan+es to +reate a )+lear an% present %anger t$at t$e. will ,ring a,out t$e su,stantive
evils t$at Congress $as a rig$t to prevent.)
o :$is test /o+uses on pro1iit. to $ar (p$.si+al, teporal, eotional) 6 $ere, t$e Court /oun% t$at
S+$en+2 +oul% ,e +onvi+te% /or +ir+ulating lea/lets inten%e% to $in%er t$e 'r.(s +ons+ription, sin+e t$e a+t
+overe% ,ot$ a+tual an% +onspira+ies to o,stru+t.
o See also <ro$wer2 v. >S (1515) (t$e +ir+ulation o/ t$e paper )was in @uarters w$ere a little ,reat$
woul% ,e enoug$ to 2in%le a /lae)) and 7e,s v. >S (1515).
o Really* this test asks whether the words have a 7tendency7 to (ring a(out harm* even if there was no
&ro(a(ility that the listeners would uickly react)
22
o 3n ',ras v. >.S. (1515), Boles in %issent a%%s an iinen+. re@uireent (ie%iate an% severe)
Ol% Stan%ar% (2)# )%ire+t in+iteent)
-asses Pu,lis$ing Co. v. Patten (S7=L 1518)# opinions +riti+i9ing t$e law a. not ,e punis$e% as
en+ouraging t$e violation o/ t$e law G$ere, t$e postaster re/use% to %istri,ute a +ertain aga9ineH unless t$e /ull
eaning o/ t$e e1pression %ire+tl. +ounsels or a%vises ot$ers to violate t$e law (telling t$e t$at it(s t$eir %ut. or in
t$eir interest to violate t$e law).
o S+$en+2 ep$asi9es pro1iit. to %anger, ,ut +overs an. language w$i+$ suggests lawless a+tion.
o -asses( pro,les o/ t$e )$arless in+iter) an% allows in%ire+t in+iteent.
Ol% Stan%ar% (")# )t$e 0e% S+areE'sso+iation +ases)
Qitlow v. =.L. (152&)# $ol%ing t$at t$e Legislature +oul% %e/ine an entire +lass o/ spee+$ (spee+$
w$i+$ tea+$es t$e overt$row o/ t$e Qovernent an% +riinal anar+$. statute) involve su+$ %anger t$at t$e. a. ,e
punis$e%? +lear an% present %anger test %oesn(t appl..
W$itne. v. Cali/ornia (1528)# +riinal s.n%i+alis (use o/ violen+e to pro%u+e politi+al +$ange)?
+riinal to ,e+oe e,er o/ group t$at tea+$es t$e overt$row o/ organi9e% gov(ts. -rs. W$itne. +onvi+te% an%
sustaine%, even t$oug$ s$e %i% not a%vo+ate an% even ver,all. %issents /ro +onvention vote to +all /or ass violent
a+tion to overt$row govJt. 3n +on+urren+e, Bran%ies urges ',ras( iinent approa+$.
7ennis v. >.S. (15&1)# $ol%ing t$at w$en spee+$ or pu,li+ation +reates a )+lear an% present %anger) o/
attepting or a++oplis$ing a pro$i,ite% +rie, t$e gov(t a. +onstitutionall. restri+t t$at spee+$.
Lates v. >.S. (15&8)# will liit pro$i,ition to )urging to a+tion) rat$er t$an erel. ,elie/ in t$e en%?
t$e prose+ution ust prove t$at people are a%vo+ating a+tion an% not *ust a ,elie/.
S+ales v. >.S. (15I1)# $ol%ing t$at un%er t$e Sit$ '+t, t$e gov(t ust prove not onl. 2nowing
e,ers$ip is a group t$at is o/ unlaw/ul purposes, it ust s$ow spe+i/i+ intent to /urt$er its goals.
NEW STANDARD@ "14( 6o0(*n nc1(6(n1 1(!1"
B*an0(n,u*9 v. O4o "#$%$'# overruling W$itne., an% $ol%ing t$at t$e 1st '%. will not allow a
state to /or,i% or pros+ri,e a%vo+a+. o/ t$e use o/ /or+e or o/ a violation o/ t$e law unless su+$ a%vo+a+.
is (1) %ire+te% to in+iting or pro%u+ing Gspe+i/i+ intent? o,*e+tiveH (2) iinent lawless a+tion, an% (") is
li2el. to in+ite or pro%u+e su+$ a+tion. Co,ines Ban%(s )in+iteent) wit$ Boles( )iinen+..)
Bess v. 3n%iana (158")# overturne% +onvi+tion /or .elling )We(ll ta2e t$e /u+2ing street later (or
again)) ,e+ause it %i% not urge iinent lawless a+tion? t$ere was tie /or +onsi%eration ,. t$e +row%.
=''CP v. Clai,orne Bar%ware Co. (15!2)# reversing a large %aage awar% /ro an e+onoi+
,o.+ott ,. ,la+2 +iti9ens (one w$o sai% t$e ,o.+ott violators woul% ,e )%is+ipline%)) ,e+ause )ere
advocacy o/ t$e use o/ /or+e or violen+e %oes not reove spee+$ /ro t$e prote+tion o/ t$e <irst
'en%ent.) Bere, it was an ipassione% plea to unite an% ,o.+ott.
3t is un+lear w$et$er Bran%en,urg applies to +ouni+ation o/ in/oration t$at a. lea% to
+riinal a+ts, su+$ as seinars on ta1 evasion or pipe ,o,s. Qo t$roug$ 1st '%. anal.sis.
III. F941n9 Wo*0! "!(( a/!o T4*(a1! an0 Ha1( S5((c4'
Bere, t$e +on+ern is t$at a spea2er(s provo+ative essage so outrages t$e au%ien+e t$at soe listeners are
li2el. to resort to violen+e in response. :$e $ar %epen%s on t$e ipa+t to t$e listener P on+e uttere%, t$e
spea2er $as +reate% t$e $ar. 3n ea+$ +ase o/ spee+$, as2# (1) w$at is t$e $ar? (2) w$at siilar rule o/ law?
an% (") w$at(s t$e +onne+tionU
Cantwell v. Conne+ti+ut (1540)# $ol%ing t$at t$e State +annot outlaw anno.ing or o//ensive utteran+es on t$e
street G$ere, anti-religious insultsH in t$e a,sen+e o/ a narrowl.-tailore% statute t$at %e/ines an% punis$es
spe+i/i+ +on%u+t as +onstituting a +lear an% present %anger o/ riot or %isor%er, not ere ,rea+$ o/ t$e pea+e.
2"
C$aplins2. v. =ew Bap. (1542)# up$el% a +onvi+tion un%er t$e statute w$i+$ state% t$at no person )s$all
a%%ress an. o//ensive, %erisive, or anno.ing wor% to an. ot$er person w$o is law/ull. in an. street or pu,li+
pla+e, not +all $i ,. an. o//ensive or %erisive nae.)
:$e wor%s ust )ten% to in+ite an ie%iate ,rea+$ o/ t$e pea+e.)
Several +ru+ial eleents# (1) t$e wor%s ust ,e /a+e to /a+e? (2) average a%%ressee? an% (") ten%
to in+ite ie%iate ,rea+$ o/ t$e pea+e.
See Qoo%ing v. Wilson (1582)# overturning a )/ig$ting wor%s) statute, ,e+ause it was not liite%
to /a+e-to-/a+e en+ounters or t$e average a%%ressee.
Co4(n v. Ca/7o*na "#$K#'# $ol%ing t$at unless t$e spee+$ is li2el. to in+ite lawlessness an% violen+e, t$e
gov(t +annot restri+t spee+$ sipl. ,e+ause it is o//ensive ($ere, a *a+2et in +ourt rea%ing )/u+2 t$e %ra/t)).
:$ere was no o,s+enit. (not eroti+ )/u+2))? no /ig$ting wor%s (no /a+e-to-/a+e insult)
M. Barlan states t$at t$ere is no rig$t to prote+t .our sensi,ilities in pu,li+? +ertain language is
+$osen /or its eotive /or+e an% use% to gra, attention.
Co$en is a,out t$e /ree%o to ,e outrageous 6 )one an(s vulgarit. is anot$er an(s l.ri+) 6 t$e
gov(t +annot regulate taste in language.
<einer v. =ew Lor2 (15&1)# w$en a pu,li+ spea2er passes t$e ,oun%s o/ arguent or persuasion an%
un%erta2es to in+iteent to riot, poli+e +an stop t$e spea2er, even i/ it eans a suppression o/ t$e spea2er(s
i%eas, in t$e interest o/ aintaining t$e sa/et. an% wel/are o/ t$e spea2er an% +ounit..
<ig$ting wor%s,) i.e., t$ose personall. a,usive epit$ets w$i+$, w$en a%%resse% to or%inar. +iti9en, are, as
atter o/ +oon 2nowle%ge, in$erentl. li2el. to provo2e violent rea+tion, are generall. pros+ri,a,le un%er
t$e <irst 'en%ent.
IV. R(5u1a1on "In0v0ua/ L,(/'
1. +hen C is a &u(lic figure and s&eech is of a &u(lic concern* a&&ly ;)D) Times
!-.2B%.
=ew Lor2 :ies v. Sullivan (15I4)# a pu,li+ ele+te% o//i+ials a. onl. re+over %aages /or a
%e/aator. /alse$oo% relate% to $is o//i+ial +on%u+t i/ $e +an prove t$e atter is false '=7
defamatory '=7 that knew it to (e false or acted in reckless disregard of the truth ,. +lear
an% +onvin+ing evi%en+e (re@uiring ali+e an% not ere negligen+e).
o Criti+is o/ pu,li+ o//i+ials at t$e $eart o/ t$e 1st 'en%ent? %o not want t$e
e%ia to sel/-+ensor in /ear o/ large li,el suits?
Curtis Pu,lis$ing Co. v. Butts an% 'sso+iate% Press v. Wal2er (15I8)# e1ten%ing =.L. :ies
to )pu,li+ /igures) w$o are )involve% in issues in w$i+$ t$e pu,li+ $as a *usti/ie% an%
iportant interest.)
o :o ,e+oe a pu,li+ /igure, one ust eit$er $ave )general /ae or notoriet.)
Gsee Qert9 (1584) (alt$oug$ a well-2nown law.er in soe +ir+les, $e $a% not gaine%
general /ae)H or )in*e+te% onesel/ into involveent in t$e a//airs o/ so+iet.) Gsee
<irestone (158I), But+$inson (1585)? an% Wolston (1585) (,rie/ stints in t$e pu,li+(s e.e
%oes not a2e soeone a pu,li+ /igure, an% in ea+$ +ase, t$e part. $a% not t$rust
$iE$ersel/ into pu,li+ +ontrovers.)H.
2. +hen C is a &rivate figure and s&eech is of a &u(lic concern* a&&ly >ertE !-.=B%.
Qert9 v. 0o,ert Wel+$, 3n+. (1584)# t$e Constitution %oes not re@uire a+tual ali+e stan%ar%,
,ut %oes not allow state to ipose lia,ilit. wEo /ault (ust ,e at least negligen+e)? in or%er to
re+over punitive %aages, t$ere ust ,e a s$owing o/ a+tual ali+e.
". +hen C is a &rivate figure and s&eech is not of &u(lic concern* a&&ly Dun # Bradstreet !-.F/%.
24
7un A Bra%street, 3n+. v. Qreenoss Buil%ers (15!&)# t$is is outsi%e t$e 1st 'en%ent, an%
a state a. ipose stri+t lia,ilit. (or an. ot$er lia,ilit.) i/ it +$ooses.
4. +hen C is a &u(lic figure and s&eech is not of &u(lic concern* uncertainty.
:$e ore )pu,li+) soeone is, t$e ore li2el. t$at spee+$ will ,e o/ a pu,li+
+on+ern.
Balan+e t$e +opeting interest, wit$ weig$t given to /ree an% in%epen%ent e%ia.
V. P*vac8 "Non-D(7a6a1on To*1! an0 Inva!on! o7 P*vac8'
1. 3ntentional 3n/li+tion o/ ;otional 7istress (Paro%ies)
Bustler -aga9ine v. <alwell (15!!)# a pu,li+ /igure o//en%e% ,. an outrageous aga9ine
paro%. +annot re+over /or t$e tort o/ 33;7 wit$out a s$owing o/ )a+tual ali+e) un%er :ies.
o 3/ la,ele% a paro%., no li,el +lai ,E+ %oesn(t +lai to ,e true
o 3/ untrue, t$en no invasion o/ priva+..
2. 3ntrusion into t$e V(s Private '//airs
". Pu,li+ 7is+losure o/ =on-=ewswort$. <a+ts GV woul% $ave pre/erre% to 2eep
privateH
Civil lia,ilit. +annot ,e ipose% on a ,roa%+aster /or a++uratel. pu,lis$ing in/oration
release% to t$e pu,li+ or ot$erwise gaine% law/ull..
See Co1 Broa%+asting Corp. v. Co$n (158&) (rape vi+ti(s nae pu,lis$e% a/ter it was
ta2en /ro pu,li+ re+or%s)? <lori%a Star v. BM< (15!5) (prote+ting pu,li+ation o/ a se1ual
assault vi+ti(s nae as it was garnere% /ro a poli+e report a%e availa,le)? Bartni+2i v.
Copper (2001) (t$e e%ia a. pu,lis$ in/oration garnere% /ro an illegal wiretap, grante%
t$at it erel. re+eive% t$e in/oration an% %i%n(t +on%u+t t$e illegal a+tivit.)..
4. Pu,li+it. Pla+ing V in a <alse Lig$t
:ie, 3n+. v. Bill (15I8)# a part. +an onl. re+over /or )/alse lig$t portra.als) 6
w$i+$ are /alse ,ut not ne+essaril. in*urious to reputation 6 on )a+tual ali+e) un%er :ies.
&. 'ppropriation o/ t$e V(s =ae or Li2eness
Xa++$ini v. S+ripps-Bowar% Broa%+asting Co. (1588)# $ol%ing t$at t$e <irst
'en%ent %oes not prote+t t$e e%ia(s use o/ t$e per/orer(s a+t wit$out $is +onsent, an%
will not ,e *u%ge% un%er t$e )a+tual ali+e) test o/ =.L. :ies or :ie, 3n+.
VI. S(:ua//8 E:5/c1 Co66unca1on
1. Pre--iller O,s+enit. Law
C$aplins2. note% t$at o,s+enit. is not prote+te% ,. t$e 1st '%. (i.e. t$e gov(t +an regulate)
Beginning in t$e 15&0s, t$e Court ,egan soe e//ort to /it o,s+enit. into t$e 1st '%.
Bistori+all., t$ere $ave ,een several pro,les wit$ o,s+enit.# (1) /air warning an% vagueness
G$ow to %raw +lear lines as to w$at is a++epta,leH? (2) t$e relations$ip ,etween o,s+enit. law an% art
Gsuppression o/ valua,le artH? (") w$at $ar %oes o,s+enit. +ause? (4) i/ t$ere is an. $ar /ro
se1uall. e1pli+it spee+$ Gis t$ere a ar2et /ailureUH
:wo %istin+t tren%s /ro ;nglis$ +oon law t$at are re*e+te% in 0ot$# (1) o,s+enit. +oul%
,e ,anne% /or isolate% passages? an% (2) t$e notion t$at .ou +oul% easure t$e e//e+ts o/ t$e aterial
,. t$eir e//e+t on sus+epti,le o,servers
2. 0ot$, -iller an% Paris :$eater
0ot$ v. >nite% States (15&8)# $el% t$at t$e o%ern o,s+enit. tests as2s )w$en an average person
appl.ing +onteporar. +ounit. stan%ar% /eels t$at t$e %oinant t$ee o/ soe aterial, ta2en as
a w$ole, appeals to prurient interests, t$e governent +an regulate t$e aterial un%er t$e 1st '%.)
2&
o (1) :$e wor2 $as to ,e viewe% as a w$ole? (2) nee% to loo2 at t$e e//e+t on t$e average
person? (") prurien+e o/ t$e aterial? (4) o//ensiveness o/ t$e presentation trans+en%s +ounit.
stan%ar%s.
o :$e reason t$at o,s+enit. +an ,e suppresse% is t$at t$e wor2 is )utterl. wit$out re%eeing
so+ial iportan+e) 6 t$at is o//ere% as t$e rationale, ,ut not t$e stan%ar%.
Kingsle. 3nt(l Pi+tures Corp. v. 0egents (15&5)# overturning a state statute w$i+$
,anne% )se1uall. ioral /ils) as over,roa%.
Stanle. v. Qeorgia (15I5)# $el% t$at t$e state +annot +riinali9e t$e possession o/
o,s+ene aterial 6 t$is is a priva+. +ase, an% is liite% to t$e $oe 6 %oesn(t appl. to %istri,ution.
>nite% States v. 0ei%el (1581)# a//irs t$at t$ere is no /un%aental rig$t to %istri,ute
or sell pornograp$.? t$ere/ore, t$e state +an a2e it +ontra,an%, ,ut on+e in t$e $oe, priva+.
applies.
M//(* v. Ca/7o*na "#$K-'# $ol%ing t$at o,s+ene aterial is not prote+te% ,. t$e 1st
'en%ent an% +an ,e regulate% ,. t$e states wit$out a s$owing t$at t$e aterial is utterl. wit$out
so+ial value, so long as t$e statutes w$i+$ a%%ress restri+tions are carefully limited* s&ecifically
defined statutes w$i+$ nae w$i+$ a+tions are inappropriate an% +opl. wit$ +onstitutional stan%ar%s
o/ o,s+enit..
o :$ree gui%elines# (1) t$e statute ust spe+i/i+all. %e/ine t$e 2in% o/ +on%u+t
t$at a. not ,e portra.e% (solves /air warning pro,le)? (2) )t$e average person appl.ing
+onteporar. +ounit. stan%ar%s woul% /in% t$at t$e wor2, ta2en as a w$ole, appeals to
prurient interest,) an% (") t$e wor2 ta2en as a w$ole la+2s serious literar., artisti+, s+ienti/i+, or
so+ial value.
o Baling v. >nite% States (1584)# $el% t$at lo+al, not statewi%e, +ounit.
stan%ar%s appl..
o Sit$ v. >.S. (1588)# t$e )serious value) prong is not easure% ,. lo+al
+ounit. stan%ar%s.
Paris '%ult :$eatre 3 v. Slaton (158")# $ol% t$at States $ave a
legitiate interest in regulating +oer+e in o,s+ene aterial an% in regulating e1$i,ition o/ o,s+ene
aterial in pla+es o/ pu,li+ a++oo%ation, in+lu%ing so-+alle% a%ult t$eaters /ro w$i+$ inors an%
passer,.s are e1+lu%e%.
". C$il% pornograp$.
=ew Lor2 v. <er,er (15!2)# $ol%ing t$at States a. pro$i,it +$il%
pornograp$., even i/ not o,s+ene un%er -iller, sin+e it presents a spe+ial %anger o/ e1ploitation o/
+$il%ren, an% t$e Court a%%s t$at t$e %istri,utor ust 2now w$at is on t$e tape.
Os,orne v. O$io (1550)# a2es it a +rie to possess +$il% porn?
Stanle. %oesn(t appl..
's$+ro/t +ase# states a. not pro$i,it virtual +$il% pornograp$., ,E+
no $ar to +$il%ren.
Categories o/ Legal 0estri+tion on Couni+ations#
'. content1neutral laws Gleast +ontroversial? laws t$at regulate tie, pla+e, anner 6 ust
eet a reasona,leness test 6 ust /urt$er an iportant or su,stantial governental interest, an%
involve an in+i%ental restri+tion on allege% 1st 'en%. <ree%os no ore t$an ne+essar.. See
O(Brien.
B. content1(ased laws Glaws w$i+$ regulate spee+$ ,E+ o/ its +ouni+ative ipa+t 6 states
a. =O: suppress unless it /alls into unprote+te% +ategor. an% narrowl.-tailore%H?
2I
,) view&oint1(ased laws
'(n Boo2sellers 'ss(n v. Bu%nut (8t$ Cir. 15!I)# stru+2 %own or%inan+e t$at nae% pornograp$. as
%is+riination against woen ,e+ause it was viewpoint %is+riination an% over,roa% un%er -iller.
' state a. not %e+lare one perspe+tive rig$t an% silen+e opponents o/ t$at perspe+tive ,.
a2ing t$eir a+tions illegal, even w$en t$e a+tions are $ar/ul or potentiall. $ar/ul to a group o/
people (su+$ as woen or +$il%ren).
4. Se1uall.-;1pli+it ,ut =on-O,s+ene ;1pression
:ie, Pla+e an% -anner 0egulation o/ Spee+$
o Lost o/ law on t$is# ust ,e reasona,le an% +ontent-neutral? reasona,le iniall. rational
o ;r9no9ni2 v. Ma+2sonville (158&) ($ol%ing t$at 1st 'en%ent stri+tl. liits t$e gov(t(s power to
sele+tivel. s$iel% t$e pu,li+ /ro soe 2in%s o/ spee+$ on t$e groun% t$at t$e. are ore
o//ensive t$an ot$ers (su+$ as se1uall.-e1pli+it nu%it. at a %rive-in t$eatre))an% S+$a% v. -ount
;p$rai (15!1) (nu%it. alone %oes not pla+e ot$erwise prote+te% aterial outsi%e t$e antle o/
t$e 1st '%.? ust regulate a++or%ing to soe iportant state interest, an% narrowl. tailore%.
Xoning an% =u%e 7an+ing
Loung v. 'eri+an -ini :$eatres (158I)# up$el% %ispersal 9oning? re@uire% %ispersal o/ a%ult
uses? t$eor. t$at a%ult uses near ea+$ ot$er attri,ute% to vi+e.
o 7e+ision, Stevens# t$is is low value spee+$ +it. s$oul% $ave ore power to ove it
aroun% (not a a*. on t$is i%ea? ore +ontroversial). Cit. +an 9one spee+$ ,ase% on +ontent
o Loo2ing at se+on%ar. e//e+ts o/ t$e spee+$T+on+erns o/ t$e +it. w$ere +on+entration o/ uses
a2e propert. values %e+rease an% +rie an% vi+e in neig$,or$oo%s in+rease (priar. e//e+ts
,eing t$e ipa+t o/ t$e aterial itsel/ on listeners, +onsuers, et+.)
o But +anJt 9one in a wa. t$at allows no pla+e /or t$e aterialTt$at aounts to suppression.
0enton v. Pla.tie :$eatres (15!I)# 9oning t$eatres awa. /ro resi%en+es, +$ur+$es, par2s an%
s+$ools? ver. little lan% le/t (onl. [&W o/ +it. an% ost e1pensive lan% in +it.).
o :$eatres argue t$at t$ere is no evi%en+e $ere as in Loung o/ prior $ar an% no reasona,le
alternative o/ w$ere to go.
o 7e+ision# +it. +an 9one proa+tivel. an% i/ lan% turns out too e1pensive, too ,a%. Ot$er
*usti+es a. not sign on wit$ Stevens, ,ut t$e. pro,a,l. t$in2 t$is spee+$ %oes $ave a lower
value. Yuestion o/ viewpoint %is+riination.
3/ spee+$ is se1uall. e1pli+it ,ut is not o,s+ene an% %oes not +onstitute +$il% pornograp$., it is
wit$in t$e real o/ <irst 'en%ent prote+tion, ,ut t$e Court $as wrestle% wit$ t$e @uestion o/
w$et$er it s$oul% o++up. a su,or%inate position as )lower value spee+$.)
VII. Con1(n1-N(u1*a/ La)! an0 S86,o/c S5((c4
:$e issue $ere is w$en spea2ers +$oose to e1press t$eir view t$roug$ s.,oli+ ,e$avior rat$er t$an wor%s?
i.e., ,. ,urning a %ra/t +ar% or utilatingE,urning t$e /lag.
28
Spen+e v. Was$ington (1584)# a non-ver,al a+t is spee+$ i/ t$ere was intent to +onve. a parti+ulari9e%
essage an% it was present an% +oul% ,e un%erstoo% to t$ose w$o viewe% it (%ire+t essage an% li2eli$oo% o/
,eing un%erstoo%).
Loo2 also at law un%er w$i+$ t$e person is ,eing prose+ute%# is it a rule aie% at +ouni+ative $arsU
0.'.C. v. St. Paul (1552)# t$e Court ep$asi9e% t$at s.,oli+ +on%u+t as +onstitutionall. prote+te%.
See also Stro,erg v. Cali/ornia (15"1)# stri2ing %own a state statute t$at /or,i% an.one /ro %ispla.ing a re%
/lag )as a s.,ol o/ opposition to organi9e% governent?) Brown v. Louisiana (15II)# re+ogni9ing t$at a
pu,li+ li,rar. sit-in $as <irst 'en%ent +onsi%eration, w$i+$ )e,ra+e appropriate t.pes o/ a+tion?) :in2er
v. 7es -oines S+$ool 7istri+t (15I5)# ,la+2 ar,an%s as a s.,oli+ Cietna protest?
Un1(0 S1a1(! v. OFB*(n "#$%&'# $ol%ing t$e Qovernent a. pla+e restri+tions on s.,oli+ spee+$ i/ it
eets a /our-part test (a gov(t regulation t$at $as t$e in+i%ental e//e+t o/ regulating spee+$ is law/ul i/)#
1. 3t is wit$in t$e +onstitutional power o/ Qovernent G$ere, Congress $a% t$e power to or%erl. enlisting
o/ t$e ilitar. personnelH
2. 3t /urt$ers an iportant or su,stantial interest Gt$is is soew$ere ,etween a +opelling interest an% a
rational ,asis test? in t$is +ase, interest in t$e a%inistration o/ registration s.steHH
". :$e Qovernental interest is unrelate% to t$e suppression o/ /ree e1pression G0;'LLL :B; <30S:
S:;PH
3/ t$e gov(t interest is relate% to t$e suppression o/ /ree spee+$, t$en t$e law is
+ontent-,ase% an% su,*e+t to stri+t s+rutin. unless it /alls wit$in a +ategor. o/ unprote+te% spee+$
(/ig$ting wor%s, et+.) or is narrowl. tailore%. See Co$en (1584) an% Mo$nson (15!5).
3/ t$e gov(t interest is unrelate% to t$e suppression, rational ,asis test (loo2
/or intent).
4. :$e in+i%ental restri+tion on allege% 1st 'en%ent /ree%os is no greater t$at is essential to t$e
/urt$eran+e o/ t$at interest.
<L'Q B>0=3=Q#
T(:a! v. Jo4n!on "#$&$'# w$en a gov(ts interest in restri+ting spee+$ is ,ase% on a %esire to suppress i%eas o/
viewpoints e1presse% ,. s.,oli+ +on%u+t, stri+t s+rutin. applies an% t$e gov(t $as a $ig$ ,ur%en o/ proo/
t$at it ust ,ear in or%er to *usti/. t$e restri+tion.
Bere, t$e /lag-,urning provision +oul% not ,e *usti/ie% as not relate% to suppression o/ /ree
spee+$ (/ails un%er stri+t s+rutin.), ,ut t$e pu,li+ onuent provision +oul% ,e (pu,li+ propert. not
su,*e+t to %e/a+ing, w$ile /lags are private propert. 6 passe% un%er a rational ,asis test un%er tra+2 2 o/
O(Brien).
'lso, t$ere is no )o,s+enit.) or )/ig$ting wor%s) appli+a,le.
O(Brien test# t$e a*orit. sa.s it is aie% at suppression o/ /ree spee+$# onl. +riinali9e%
,urnings li2el. to o//en% an% %isrespe+t patriotis (+oul% %ispose o/ /lag ,. ,urning).
Un1(0 S1a1(! v. Ec46an "#$$D'# stri2ing %own a /e%eral /lag ,urning statute, even t$oug$ t$ere was no
e1pli+it +ontent-,ase% liitation, ,e+ause it was +lear t$at t$e governent(s asserte% interest is relate% to
suppression o/ /ree spee+$, as t$e language o/ t$e statute %eals wit$ %isrespe+t o/ t$e /lag an% see2s to
preserve t$e /lag as representative o/ +ertain national i%eals.
=>7; 7'=C3=Q#
2!
0e+all t$at t$e Court invali%ate% a +it.wi%e ,an on nu%e entertainent in S+$a% v. -t. ;p$rai (15!1) ,ut
up$el% 9oning regulations +on+entrating or %ispersing a%ult entertainent esta,lis$ents in Loung v.
'eri+an -ini :$eaters (158I) an% 0enton v. Pla.tie :$eatres (15!I) (se+on%ar. e//e+ts li2e +rie).
Barnes v. Qlen :$eatre, 3n+. (1551)# up$el% a ,an on pu,li+ nu%it. as applie% to private strip +lu,s, as t$e
pluralit. /oun% t$e law +ontent-neutral an% use% O(Brien tra+2 2? S+alia /oun% it +ontent-neutral ,ut no <irst
'en%ent @uestion (ore %e/erential review).
)Pu,li+ nu%it. GallH is t$e evil t$e State see2s to prevent, w$et$er or not it is +o,ine% wit$ e1pressive
a+tivit. Gi.e., an eroti+ essageH.)
W$en a statute is +ontent-neutral (su+$ as a ,an on pu,li+ nu%it.), an% t$e governent interest in ena+ting
it is unrelate% to suppressing /ree e1pression, it will ,e up$el% even t$oug$ it $as soe liiting e//e+t on
/ree e1pression (su+$ as nu%e %an+ing t$at e1presses an eroti+ essage).
-ig$t Lawren+e un%erine t$e )pu,li+ oralit.) arguent /or private +onsenting a%ults in strip +lu,sU
C18 o7 E*( v. Pa5F! A.M. "=DDD'# $ol%ing t$at governent restri+tions on pu,li+ nu%it. s$oul% ,e evaluate%
un%er t$e O(Brien test as +ontent-neutral restri+tions on s.,oli+ +on%u+t, sin+e t$e. are not aie% at +ontent,
,ut rat$er at )+o,atGingH t$e negative se+on%ar. e//e+ts asso+iate% wit$ nu%e %an+ing esta,lis$ents,) su+$
as t$e prootion o/ )violen+e, pu,li+ into1i+ation, prostitution, an% ot$er serious +riinal a+tivit..)
S+alia(s +on+urren+e# pu,li+ nu%it. ,ans are general laws regulating +on%u+t an% not spe+i/i+all.
a%%resse% to e1pressive spee+$, an% t$us, no <irst 'en%ent @uestion.
Souter(s +on+urren+e# t$e Qov(t s$oul% $ave to %eonstrate t$at pu,li+ nu%it. lea%s to ore a+tivit. t$an
allowing sei-nu%e %an+ing.
VIII. Ha1( S5((c4
Beau$arnais v. 3llinois (15&2)# up$el% a statute w$i+$ +riinali9e% group li,el, w$i+$ pro$i,ite% )e1posGure
o/H t$e +iti9ens o/ an. ra+e, +olor, +ree% or religion to +ontept, %erision, or o,lo@u., reasoning t$at w$et$er
in%ivi%ual or group, li,el lies outsi%e <irst 'en%ent prote+tion.
Bowever, w$ile never overrule%, it a. $ave ,een liite% ,. Sullivan, w$i+$ assue% t$at li,el is
unprote+te% onl. to t$e e1tent it aounts to a prova,l. /alse stateent o/ /a+t, w$i+$ woul% appear to
e1+lu%e li,el +lais against t$e ere e1pression o/ ra+ist views. 'lso liite% possi,l. ,. Bran%en,urg
an% Co$en.
C$aplins2. v. =B (1542)# per$aps ra+ist an% ot$er $ate spee+$ +oul% ,e pros+ri,a,le un%er )/ig$ting wor%s)
%o+trine, ,ut ust ,e liite% to spee+$ w$i+$ +auses a /a+e-to-/a+e provo+ation to a ,rawl.
0elations$ip ,etween +ertain 2in%s o/ spee+$ an% e@ualit. o/ opportunit.#
1. >overnment 6 t$e 14t$ 'en%ent applies onl. to governents? $ate spee+$
applies to private parties
14t$ '%. an% ;PC
;1aple# i/ a Sout$ern state $a% a ra+ist otto or $a% a +on/e%erate /lag, pro,a,le violation o/ 14t$.
2. Private Parties 6 w$en a. private parties ,e regulate%U
;as. +ase# statutor. +ivil rig$ts o,ligations? i.e. :itle C33 o/ t$e C0' (15I4)
;plo.ees# ters an% +on%itions o/ eplo.ent
;plo.er lia,ilit. turns on a persuasive $ostile wor2 environent
Sae +$illing e//e+t, ,ut it turns out to ,e spee+$ 9oning 6 .ou ig$t ,e ra+ist, ,ut un%er a tie,
pla+e, an% anner restri+tion, .ou +annot sa. it on t$e *o,
A) Education 5nstitutions
a. Private >niversities (pu,li+ ones are agents o/ t$e state governent)# regulate% un%er state
statutor. re@uireents o/ non-%is+riination.
,. <a+ult.# spe+ial a+a%ei+ +onsi%erations, ,ut general state a+tors or private s+$ool +ontrol
+. Stu%ents# Private universities +an silen+e t$eir stu%ents, ,ut generall. not pu,li+ universities
25
=ational So+ialist Part. v. S2o2ie (1588)# re/using to allow +ourts to en*oin =a9is /ro ar+$ing w$ile
wearing swasti2a, as t$e Court re*e+ts govJt arguent t$at +ertain t$ings are /ig$ting wor%s per se (li2e
swasti2a, /lag ,urning, et+)? also re*e+ts arguents t$at t$ere were Bolo+aust survivors in S2o2ie t$at woul%
stir up terri,le eories an% /ears.
0.'.C. v. Cit. o/ St. Paul (1552)# unaniousl. overturning a ,ias-otivate% spee+$ or%inan+e.
Sca/a a!!u6(! 14! ! a 7941n9 )o*0! o*0nanc( H)4c4 14( .-5(*!on concu**(nc( 5on1! ou1 1 !
no1 ,(cau!( 1 )a! no1 /61(0 1o 7ac(-1o-7ac( 5*ovoca1onIL 14( 5*o,/(6 ! 14a1 1 ! con1(n1 an0
v()5on1 0!c*6na1o*82 ou1/a)n9 c(*1an )o*0! ,u1 no1 o14(*! "/61(0 1o *ac(2 9(n0(*2 *(/9on2
NOT 5o/1ca/2 !(:ua/ o*(n1a1on'.
' state a. liit a su,set o/ unprote+te% spee+$ i/ t$at su,set is parti+ularl. $ar/ul (e1aple, a.
outlaw onl. t$reats against t$e Presi%ent, ,e+ause o/ t$e spe+ial $ar), ,ut a. not %raw a line ,ase% on
viewpoint %is+riination (a. not outlaw onl. t$reats against 0epu,li+ans).
Can ,e prose+ute% un%er ot$er lawsTterroris, arson, +riinal %aage o/ propert.
Wis+onsin v. -it+$ell (155")# unaniousl. up$ol%ing state en$an+eent s+$ee w$en soeone sele+ts
assault an% ,atter. vi+ti on ,asis o/ ra+e.
Bere, t$e statute %i% not punis$ e1pressive spee+$ as in 0.'.C., ,ut unprote+te% violent
+on%u+t.
Content-neutral regulation o/ +on%u+t li2e :itle C33 o/ C0' (15I4)# t$e wor%s are not t$e +rie itsel/ ,ut
use% as evi%en+e o/ otive o/ illegal un%erl.ing +on%u+t, an% t$e State a. single out ,ias-otivate%
+on%u+t ,E+ t$is +on%u+t is t$oug$t to in/li+t greater in%ivi%ual an% so+ietal $ar Gretaliator. +ries,
%istin+t eotional $ar, an% +ounit. polari9ationH.
Cirginia v. Bla+2 (2001)# state ,an on +ross-,urning wit$ intent to intii%ate %i% not violate 1st 'en%ent?
$owever, it is a +onstitutional violation /or +ross-,urning to ,e a pria /a+ie +ase o/ intent to intii%ate, sin+e
not all +ross-,urnings are eant to intii%ate (too ,roa%).
1st 'en%ent a//or%s prote+tion to s.,oli+ or e1pressive +on%u+t as well as to a+tual spee+$.
1st 'en%ent perits a State to ,an )true t$reats,) w$i+$ en+opass t$ose stateents w$ere spea2er
eans to +ouni+ate serious e1pression o/ intent to +oit a+t o/ unlaw/ul violen+e to parti+ular
in%ivi%ual or group o/ in%ivi%uals, an% spea2er nee% not a+tuall. inten% to +arr. out t$reat? rat$er,
pro$i,ition on true t$reats prote+ts in%ivi%uals /ro /ear o/ violen+e an% /ro %isruption t$at /ear
engen%ers, in a%%ition to prote+ting people /ro possi,ilit. t$at t$reatene% violen+e will o++ur.
:$e statute %oes not single out an. parti+ular politi+al or so+ial essage, *ust 'LL intii%ation, w$i+$ in
pros+ri,a,le sense o/ wor% pursuant to t$e <irst 'en%ent, is a t.pe o/ )true t$reat,) w$ere spea2er
%ire+ts t$reat to person or group o/ persons wit$ intent o/ pla+ing vi+ti in /ear o/ ,o%il. $ar or %eat$.
T4*(a1!# t$e $ar is eotional %istur,an+e 6 per$aps also restri+tion o/ /ree%o o/ a+tion an% +ost o/
preventative a+tion.
3inen+. re@uireent# is soet$ing is a true t$reat, it(s
$ar is %one at t$e tie o/ utteran+e. :$e onl. wa. t$e ar2et +an /i1 it is i/ t$e t$reat is wit$%rawn.
:$us, no iinen+. re@uireent.
Couni+ation w$i+$ spea2er inten%s (su,*e+tive) or G=O:
:B; L'WH s$oul% reasona,l. /oresee (o,*e+tive) will +ause anot$er to ,elieve (reasona,l.) t$at t$e
spea2er presents +re%i,le %anger o/ unlaw/ul $ar to t$e ot$erJs person, /ail. or propert.. ,om&are
Clai,orne Bar%ware Co. (15!2) (ipersonal t$reats) and Watts v. >nite% States (15I5) (prote+ting
politi+al $.per,ole o/ )i/ t$e. a2e e +arr. a ri/le t$e /irst a. 3 want to get in . sig$ts is LBM) with
personal or %ire+te% t$reats.
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