INTRODUCTION

Let us begin with the word compute. It means to calculate. We all are familiar
with calculations in our day to day life. We apply mathematical operations like
addition, subtraction, multiplication, etc. and many other formulae for calculations.
Simpler calculations take less time. But comple calculations take much longer
time. !nother factor is accuracy in calculations. So man eplored with the idea to
de"elop a machine which can perform this type of arithmetic calculation faster and
with full accuracy. #his ga"e birth to a de"ice or machine called computer.
#he computer we see today is $uite di%erent from the one made in the beginning.
#he number of applications of a computer has increased, the speed and accuracy of
calculation has increased. &ou must appreciate the impact of computers in our day
to day life. 'eser"ation of tickets in !ir Lines and 'ailways, payment of telephone
and electricity bills, deposits and withdrawals of money from banks, business data
processing, medical diagnosis, weather forecasting, etc. are some of the areas
where computer has become etremely useful.
(owe"er, there is one limitation of the computer. (uman beings do calculations on
their own. But computer is a dumb machine and it has to be gi"en proper
instructions to carry out its calculation. #his is why we should know how a computer
works.
1.2 OBJECTIVES
!fter going through this lesson you will be in a position to
) de*ne a computer
+ identify characteristics of computer
, know the origin and e"olution of computer
- identify capability of computer in terms of speed and accuracy
. distinguish computer from human beings and calculator
/ identify the role of computer
0 appreciate the e"olution of computer through *"e generations
1.3 WHAT IS A COMUTER!
1omputer is an electronic de"ice. it can do arithmetic calculations faster. But as you
will see later it does much more than that. It can be compared to a magic bo,
which ser"es di%erent purpose to di%erent people. 2or a common man computer is
simply a calculator, which works automatic and $uite fast. 2or a person who knows
much about it, computer is a machine capable of sol"ing problems and
manipulating data. It accepts data, processes the data by doing some mathematical
and logical operations and gi"es us the desired output.
#herefore, we may de*ne computer as a device that transforms data. 3ata can be
anything like marks obtained by you in "arious sub4ects. It can also be name, age,
se, weight, height, etc. of all the students in your class or income, sa"ings,
in"estments, etc., of a country. 1omputer can be de*ned in terms of its functions. It
can5 i6 accept data 5ii6 store data, 5iii6 process data as desired, and 5i"6 retrie"e the
stored data as and when re$uired and 5"6 print the result in desired format. &ou will
know more about these functions as you go through the later lessons.
CHARACTERISTICS O" COMUTER
Let us identify the ma4or characteristics of computer. #hese can be discussed under
the headings of speed, accuracy, diligence, "ersatility and memory.
1 Spee#
!s you know computer can work "ery fast. It takes only few seconds for calculations
that we take hours to complete. Suppose you are asked to calculate the a"erage
monthly income of one thousand persons in your neighborhood. 2or this you ha"e to
add income from all sources for all persons on a day to day basis and *nd out the
a"erage for each one of them. (ow long will it take for you to do this7 8ne day, two
days or one week7 3o you know your small computer can *nish this work in few
seconds7 #he weather forecasting that you see e"ery day on #9 is the results of
compilation and analysis of huge amount of data on temperature, humidity,
pressure, etc. of "arious places on computers. It takes few minutes for the computer
to process this huge amount of data and gi"e the result.
2 Accur$c%
Suppose some one calculates faster but commits a lot of errors in computing. Such
result is useless. #here is another aspect. Suppose you want to di"ide ). by 0. &ou
may work out up to + decimal places and say the di"idend is +.)-. I may calculate
up to - decimal places and say that the result is +.)-+:. Some one else may go up
to ; decimal places and say the result is +.)-+:.0)-,. (ence, in addition to speed,
the computer should ha"e accuracy or correctness in computing.
#he degree of accuracy of computer is "ery high and e"ery calculation is performed
with the same accuracy. #he accuracy le"el is determined on the basis of design of
computer. #he errors in computer are due to human and inaccurate data.
3 D&'&(e)ce
! computer is free from tiredness, lack of concentration, fatigue, etc. It can work for
hours without creating any error. If millions of calculations are to be performed, a
computer will perform e"ery calculation with the same accuracy. 3ue to this
capability it o"erpowers human being in routine type of work.
* Ver+$t&'&t% It means the capacity to perform completely di%erent type of work.
&ou may use your computer to prepare payroll slips. <et moment you may use it
for in"entory management or to prepare electric bills.
, o-er o. Remem/er&)(
1omputer has the power of storing any amount of information or data. !ny
information can be stored and recalled as long as you re$uire it, for any numbers of
years. It depends entirely upon you how much data you want to store in a computer
and when to
No I0
1omputer is a dumb machine and it cannot do any work without instruction from
the user. It performs the instructions at tremendous speed and with accuracy. It is
you to decide what you want to do and in what se$uence. So a computer cannot
take its own decision as you can.
1 No "ee'&)(
It does not ha"e feelings or emotion, taste, knowledge and eperience. #hus it does
not get tired e"en after long hours of work. It does not distinguish between users.
2 Stor$(e
#he 1omputer has an in=built memory where it can store a large amount of data.
&ou can also store data in secondary storage de"ices such as >oppies, which can be
kept outside your computer and can be carried to other computers.
HISTOR3 O" COMUTER
(istory of computer could be traced back to the e%ort of man to count large
numbers. #his process of counting of large numbers generated "arious systems of
numeration like Babylonian system of numeration, ?reek system of numeration,
'oman system of numeration and Indian system of numeration. 8ut of these the
Indian system of numeration has been accepted uni"ersally. It is the basis of
modern decimal system of numeration 5@, ), +, ,, -, ., /, 0, :, ;6. Later you will
know how the computer sol"es all calculations based on decimal system. But you
will be surprised to know that the computer does not understand the decimal
system and uses binary system of numeration for processing.
We will brie>y discuss ome of the path=breaking in"entions in the *eld of computing
de"ices. 1 C$'cu'$t&)( M$c4&)e
It took o"er generations for early man to build mechanical de"ices for counting
large numbers. #he *rst calculating de"ice called !B!1AS was de"eloped by the
Bgyptian and 1hinese people.
#he word !B!1AS means calculating board. It consisted of sticks in horiContal
positions on which were inserted sets of pebbles. ! modern form of !B!1AS is gi"en
in 2ig. ).+. It has a number of horiContal bars each ha"ing ten beads. (oriContal bars
represent units, tens, hundreds, etc.
2 N$p&er+ /o)e+
Bnglish mathematician Dohn <apier built a mechanical de"ice for the purpose of
multiplication in )/)0 ! 3. #he de"ice was known as <apiers bones.
3 S'&#e Ru'e
Bnglish mathematician Bdmund ?unter de"eloped the slide rule. #his machine could
perform operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and di"ision. It was
widely used in Burope in )/th century.
* $+c$'5+ A##&)( $)# Su/#&rector% M$c4&)e
&ou might ha"e heard the name of Blaise Eascal. (e de"eloped a machine at the
age of ); that could add and subtract. #he machine consisted of wheels, gears and
cylinders.
, 6e&/)&7+ Mu't&p'&c$t&o) $)# D&8&#&)( M$c4&)e
#he ?erman philosopher and mathematician ?ottfried LeibniC built around )/0, a
mechanical de"ice that could both multiply and di"ide.
9 B$//$(e+ A)$'%t&c$' E)(&)e It was in the year ):+, that a famous Bnglish
man 1harles Babbage built a mechanical machine to do comple mathematical
calculations. It was called diference engine. Later he de"eloped a general=purpose
calculating machine called analytical engine. &ou should know that 1harles Babbage
is called the father of computer.
1 Mec4$)&c$' $)# E'ectr&c$' C$'cu'$tor
In the beginning of );th century the mechanical calculator was de"eloped to
perform all sorts of mathematical calculations. Ap to the );/@s it was widely used.
Later the rotating part of mechanical calculator was replaced by electric motor. So it
was called the electrical calculator.
2 Mo#er) E'ectro)&c C$'cu'$tor
#he electronic calculator used in );/@ s was run with electron tubes, which was
$uite bulky. Later it was replaced with transistors and as a result the siCe of
calculators became too small.
#he modern electronic calculator can compute all kinds of mathematical
computations and mathematical functions. It can also be used to store some data
permanently. Some calculators ha"e in=built programs to perform some complicated
calculations.
COMUTER :ENERATIONS
&ou know that the e"olution of computer started from )/th century and resulted in
the form that we see today. #he present day computer, howe"er, has also
undergone rapid change during the last *fty years. #his period, during which the
e"olution of computer took place, can be di"ided into *"e distinct phases known as
Generations of Computers. Bach phase is distinguished from others on the basis of
the type of switching circuits used.
1 "&r+t :e)er$t&o) Computer+
2irst generation computers used Thermion valves. #hese computers were large in
siCe and writing programs on them was diFcult. Some of the computers of this
generation wereG
ENIAC; It was the *rst electronic computer built in );-/ at Ani"ersity of
Eennsyl"ania, AS! by Dohn Bckert and Dohn Hauchy. It was named Blectronic
<umerical Integrator and 1alculator 5B<I!16. #he B<I!1 was ,@I .@ feet long,
weighed ,@ tons, contained ):,@@@ "acuum tubes, 0@,@@@ registers, )@,@@@
capacitors and re$uired ).@,@@@ watts of electricity. #oday your fa"orite computer is
many times as powerful as B<I!1, still siCe is "ery small.
EDVAC; It stands for Blectronic 3iscrete 9ariable !utomatic 1omputer and was
de"eloped in );.@. #he concept of storing data and instructions inside the computer
was introduced here. #his allowed much faster operation since the computer had
rapid access to both data and instructions. #he other ad"antages of storing
instruction was that computer could do logical decision internally.
Ot4er Import$)t Computer+ o. "&r+t :e)er$t&o)
EDSAC; It stands for Blectronic 3elay Storage !utomatic 1omputer and was
de"eloped by H.9. Wilkes at 1ambridge Ani"ersity in );-;.
UNIVAC<1G Bcker and Hauchly produced it in );.) by Ani"ersal !ccounting
1omputer setup.
6&m&t$t&o)+ o. "&r+t :e)er$t&o) Computer
2ollowings are the ma4or drawbacks of 2irst generation computers.
). #he operating speed was $uite slow.
+. Eower consumption was "ery high.
,. It re$uired large space for installation.
-. #he programming capability was $uite low.
2 Seco)# :e)er$t&o) Computer+
!round );.. a de"ice called Transistor replaced the bulky electric tubes in the *rst
generation computer. #ransistors are smaller than electric tubes and ha"e higher
operating speed. #hey ha"e no *lament and re$uire no heating. Hanufacturing cost
was also "ery low. #hus the siCe of the computer got reduced considerably.
It is in the second generation that the concept of 1entral Erocessing Anit 51EA6,
memory, programming language and input and output units were de"eloped. #he
programming languages such as 18B8L, 28'#'!< were de"eloped during this
period. Some of the computers of the Second ?eneration were
). IBH )/+@G Its siCe was smaller as compared to 2irst ?eneration computers and
mostly used for scienti*c purpose.
+. IBH )-@)G Its siCe was small to medium and used for business applications.
,. 131 ,/@@G Its siCe was large and is used for scienti*c purposes.
3 T4&r# :e)er$t&o) Computer+
#he third generation computers were introduced in );/-. #hey used Integrated
Circuits 5I1s6. #hese I1s are popularly known as Chips. ! single I1 has many
transistors, registers and capacitors built on a single thin slice of silicon. So it is
$uite ob"ious that the siCe of the computer got further reduced. Some of the
computers de"eloped during this period were IBH=,/@, I1L=);@@, IBH=,0@, and 9!J=
0.@. (igher le"el language such as B!SI1 5Beginners !ll purpose Symbolic
Instruction 1ode6 was de"eloped during this period.
1omputers of this generations were small in siCe, low cost, large memory and
processing speed is "ery high.
* "ourt4 :e)er$t&o) Computer+
#he present day computers that you see today are the fourth generation computers
that started around );0.. It uses large scale Integrated Circuits 5LSI16 built on a
single silicon chip called microprocessors. 3ue to the de"elopment of
microprocessor it is possible to place computers central processing unit 51EA6 on
single chip. #hese computers are called microcomputers. Later very large scale
Integrated Circuits 59LSI16 replaced LSI1s.
#hus the computer which was occupying a "ery large room in earlier days can now
be placed on a table. #he personal computer 5E16 that you see in your school is a
2ourth ?eneration 1omputer.
, "&.t4 :e)er$t&o) Computer
#he computers of );;@s are said to be 2ifth ?eneration computers. #he speed is
etremely high in *fth generation computer. !part from this it can perform parallel
processing. #he concept of Artifcial intelligence has been introduced to allow the
computer to take its own decision. It is still in a de"elopmental stage.
T3ES O" COMUTERS
<ow let us discuss the "arieties of computers that we see today. !lthough they
belong to the *fth generation they can be di"ided into di%erent categories
depending upon the siCe, eFciency, memory and number of users. Broadly they can
be di"ided it to the following categories.
). M&crocomputer; Hicrocomputer is at the lowest end of the computer range in
terms of speed and storage capacity. Its 1EA is a microprocessor. #he *rst
microcomputers were built of :=bit microprocessor chips. #he most common
application of personal computers 5E16 is in this category. #he E1 supports a
number of input and output de"ices. !n impro"ement of :=bit chip is )/=bit and
,+=bit chips. Bamples of microcomputer are IBH E1, E1=!# .
+. M&)& ComputerG #his is designed to support more than one user at a time. It
possesses large storage capacity and operates at a higher speed. #he mini
computer is used in multi=user system in which "arious users can work at the
same time. #his type of computer is generally used for processing large "olume
of data in an organisation. #hey are also used as ser"ers in Local !rea <etworks
5L!<6.
,. M$&).r$me+; #hese types of computers are generally ,+=bit microprocessors.
#hey operate at "ery high speed, ha"e "ery large storage capacity and can
handle the work load of many users. #hey are generally used in centralised
databases. #hey are also used as controlling nodes in Wide !rea <etworks
5W!<6. Bample of mainframes are 3B1, I1L and IBH ,@@@ series.
-. Supercomputer; #hey are the fastest and most epensi"e machines. #hey
ha"e high processing speed compared to other computers. #hey ha"e also
multiprocessing techni$ue. 8ne of the ways in which supercomputers are built is
by interconnecting hundreds of microprocessors. Supercomputers are mainly
being used for whether forecasting, biomedical research, remote sensing,
aircraft design and other areas of science and technology. Bamples of
supercomputers are 1'!& &HE, 1'!&+, <B1 SJ=,, 1'!& JHE and E!'!H from
India.
COMUTER OR:ANISATION
1 INTRODUCTION
In the pre"ious lesson we discussed about the e"olution of computer. In this lesson
we will pro"ide you with an o"er"iew of the basic design of a computer. &ou will
know how di%erent parts of a computer are organised and how "arious operations
are performed between di%erent parts to do a speci*c task. !s you know from the
pre"ious lesson the internal architecture of computer may di%er from system to
system, but the basic organisation remains the same for all computer systems.
2 OBJECTIVES
!t the end of the lesson you will be able toG
) understand basic organiCation of computer system
+ understand the meaning of !rithmetic Logical Anit, 1ontrol Anit and 1entral
Erocessing Anit
, di%erentiate between bit , byte and a word
- de*ne computer memory
. di%erentiate between primary memory and secondary memory
/ di%erentiate between primary storage and secondary storage units
0 di%erentiate between input de"ices and output de"ices
BASIC COMUTER OERATIONS
! computer as shown in 2ig. +.) performs basically *"e ma4or operations or
functions irrespecti"e of their siCe and make. #hese are )6 it accepts data or
instructions by way of input, +6 it stores data, ,6 it can process data as re$uired by
the user, -6 it gi"es results in the form of output, and .6 it controls all operations
inside a computer. We discuss below each of these operations.
1. I)put; #his is the process of entering data and programs in to the computer
system. &ou should know that computer is an electronic machine like any other
machine which takes as inputs raw data and performs some processing gi"ing out
processed data. #herefore, the input unit takes data from us to the computer in an
organiCed manner for processing.
"&(. 2.1
2. Stor$(e; #he process of sa"ing data and instructions permanently is known as
storage. 3ata has to be fed into the system before the actual processing starts. It is
because the processing speed of 1entral Erocessing Anit 51EA6 is so fast that the
data has to be pro"ided to 1EA with the same speed. #herefore the data is *rst
stored in the storage unit for faster access and processing. #his storage unit or the
primary storage of the computer system is designed to do the abo"e functionality. It
pro"ides space for storing data and instructions.
#he storage unit performs the following ma4or functionsG
) !ll data and instructions are stored here before and after processing.
+ Intermediate results of processing are also stored here
3. roce++&)(; #he task of performing operations like arithmetic and logical
operations is called processing. #he 1entral Erocessing Anit 51EA6 takes data and
instructions from the storage unit and makes all sorts of calculations based on the
instructions gi"en and the type of data pro"ided. It is then sent back to the storage
unit.
*. Output; #his is the process of producing results from the data for getting useful
information. Similarly the output produced by the computer after processing must
also be kept somewhere inside the computer before being gi"en to you in human
readable form. !gain the output is also stored inside the computer for further
processing.
,. Co)tro'; #he manner how instructions are eecuted and the abo"e operations
are performed. 1ontrolling of all operations like input, processing and output are
performed by control unit. It takes care of step by step processing of all operations
in side the computer.
"UNCTIONA6 UNITS
In order to carry out the operations mentioned in the pre"ious section the computer
allocates the task between its "arious functional units. #he computer system is
di"ided into three separate units for its operation. #hey are )6 arithmetic logical
unit, +6 control unit, and ,6 central processing unit.
1 Ar&t4met&c 6o(&c$' U)&t =A6U>
!fter you enter data through the input de"ice it is stored in the primary storage unit.
#he actual processing of the data and instruction are performed by !rithmetic
Logical Anit. #he ma4or operations performed by the !LA are addition, subtraction,
multiplication, di"ision, logic and comparison. 3ata is transferred to !LA from
storage unit when re$uired. !fter processing the output is returned back to storage
unit for further processing or getting stored.
2 Co)tro' U)&t =CU>
#he net component of computer is the 1ontrol Anit, which acts like the super"isor
seeing that things are done in proper fashion. #he control unit determines the
se$uence in which computer programs and instructions are eecuted. #hings like
processing of programs stored in the main memory, interpretation of the
instructions and issuing of signals for other units of the computer to eecute them.
It also acts as a switch board operator when se"eral users access the computer
simultaneously. #hereby it coordinates the acti"ities of computers peripheral
e$uipment as they perform the input and output. #herefore it is the manager of all
operations mentioned in the pre"ious section.
3 Ce)tr$' roce++&)( U)&t =CU>
#he !LA and the 1A of a computer system are 4ointly known as the central
processing unit. &ou may call 1EA as the brain of any computer system. It is 4ust like
brain that takes all ma4or decisions, makes all sorts of calculations and directs
di%erent parts of the computer functions by acti"ating and controlling the
operations.
MEMOR3 S3STEM IN A COMUTER
#here are two kinds of computer memoryG primary and secondary. Erimary memory
is accessible directly by the processing unit. '!H is an eample of primary memory.
!s soon as the computer is switched o% the contents of the primary memory is lost.
&ou can store and retrie"e data much faster with primary memory compared to
secondary memory. Secondary memory such as >oppy disks, magnetic disk, etc., is
located outside the computer. Erimary memory is more epensi"e than secondary
memory. Because of this the siCe of primary memory is less than that of secondary
memory. We will discuss about secondary memory later on.
1omputer memory is used to store two thingsG i6 instructions to eecute a program
and ii6 data. When the computer is doing any 4ob, the data that ha"e to be
processed are stored in the primary memory. #his data may come from an input
de"ice like keyboard or from a secondary storage de"ice like a >oppy disk.
!s program or the set of instructions is kept in primary memory, the computer is
able to follow instantly the set of instructions. 2or eample, when you book ticket
from railway reser"ation counter, the computer has to follow the same stepsG take
the re$uest, check the a"ailability of seats, calculate fare, wait for money to be
paid, store the reser"ation and get the ticket printed out. #he programme
containing these steps is kept in memory of the computer and is followed for each
re$uest.
But inside the computer, the steps followed are $uite di%erent from what we see on
the monitor or screen. In computers memory both programs and data are stored in
the binary form. &ou ha"e already been introduced with decimal number system,
that is the numbers ) to ; and @. #he binary system has only two "alues @ and ).
#hese are called bits. !s human beings we all understand decimal system but the
computer can only understand binary system. It is because a large number of
integrated circuits inside the computer can be considered as switches, which can be
made 8<, or 822. If a switch is 8< it is considered ) and if it is 822 it is @. ! number
of switches in di%erent states will gi"e you a message like thisG ))@)@)....)@. So the
computer takes input in the form of @ and ) and gi"es output in the form @ and )
only. Is it not absurd if the computer gi"es outputs as @s K )s only7 But you do not
ha"e to worry about. B"ery number in binary system can be con"erted to decimal
system and "ice "ersaL for eample, )@)@ meaning decimal )@. #herefore it is the
computer that takes information or data in decimal form from you, con"ert it in to
binary form, process it producing output in binary form and again con"ert the
output to decimal form.
#he primary memory as you know in the computer is in the form of I1s 5Integrated
1ircuits6. #hese circuits are called 'andom !ccess Hemory 5'!H6. Bach of '!Hs
locations stores one byte of information. 58ne byte is e$ual to 8 bits6. ! bit is an
acronym for binary digit, which stands for one binary piece of information. #his can
be either @ or ). &ou will know more about '!H later. #he Erimary or internal storage
section is made up of se"eral small storage locations 5I1s6 called cells. Bach of these
cells can store a *ed number of bits called word length.
Bach cell has a uni$ue number assigned to it called the address of the cell and it is
used to identify the cells. #he address starts at @ and goes up to 5<=)6. &ou should
know that the memory is like a large cabinet containing as many drawers as there
are addresses on memory. Bach drawer contains a word and the address is written
on outside of the drawer.
C$p$c&t% o. r&m$r% Memor%
&ou know that each cell of memory contains one character or ) byte of data. So the
capacity is de*ned in terms of byte or words. #hus /- kilobyte 5MB6 memory is
capable of storing /- I )@+- N ,+,0/: bytes. 5) kilobyte is )@+- bytes6. ! memory
siCe ranges from few kilobytes in small systems to se"eral thousand kilobytes in
large mainframe and super computer. In your personal computer you will *nd
memory capacity in the range of /- MB, - HB, : HB and e"en )/ HB 5HB N Hillion
bytes6.
#he following terms related to memory of a computer are discussed belowG
). R$)#om Acce++ Memor% =RAM>; #he primary storage is referred to as random
access memory 5'!H6 because it is possible to randomly select and use any
location of the memory directly store and retrie"e data. It takes same time to
any address of the memory as the *rst address. It is also called readOwrite
memory. #he storage of data and instructions inside the primary storage is
temporary. It disappears from '!H as soon as the power to the computer is
switched o%. #he memories, which loose their content on failure of power supply,
are known as 8o'$t&'e memories .So now we can say that '!H is "olatile
memory.
+. Re$# O)'% Memor% =ROM>; #here is another memory in computer, which is
called 'ead 8nly Hemory 5'8H6. !gain it is the I1s inside the E1 that form the
'8H. #he storage of program and data in the '8H is permanent. #he '8H
stores some standard processing programs supplied by the manufacturers to
operate the personal computer. #he '8H can only be read by the 1EA but it
cannot be changed. #he basic inputOoutput program is stored in the '8H that
eamines and initialiCes "arious e$uipment attached to the E1 when the switch
is made 8<. #he memories, which do not loose their content on failure of power
supply, are known as )o)<8o'$t&'e memories. '8H is non="olatile memory.
,. ROM G#here is another type of primary memory in computer, which is called
Erogrammable 'ead 8nly Hemory 5E'8H6. &ou know that it is not possible to
modify or erase programs stored in '8H, but it is possible for you to store your
program in E'8H chip. 8nce the programmes are written it cannot be changed
and remain intact e"en if power is switched o%. #herefore programs or
instructions written in E'8H or '8H cannot be erased or changed.
-. EROM; #his stands for Brasable Erogrammable 'ead 8nly Hemory, which o"er
come the problem of E'8H K '8H. BE'8H chip can be programmed time and
again by erasing the information stored earlier in it. Information stored in BE'8H
eposing the chip for some time ultra"iolet light and it erases chip is
reprogrammed using a special programming facility. When the BE'8H is in use
information can only be read.
.. C$c4e Memor%; #he speed of 1EA is etremely high compared to the access
time of main memory. #herefore the performance of 1EA decreases due to the
slow speed of main memory. #o decrease the mismatch in operating speed, a
small memory chip is attached between 1EA and Hain memory whose access
time is "ery close to the processing speed of 1EA. It is called 1!1(B memory.
1!1(B memories are accessed much faster than con"entional '!H. It is used to
store programs or data currently being eecuted or temporary data fre$uently
used by the 1EA. So each memory makes main memory to be faster and larger
than it really is. It is also "ery epensi"e to ha"e bigger siCe of cache memory
and its siCe is normally kept small.
/. Re(&+ter+; #he 1EA processes data and instructions with high speed, there is
also mo"ement of data between "arious units of computer. It is necessary to
transfer the processed data with high speed. So the computer uses a number of
special memory units called registers. #hey are not part of the main memory but
they store data or information temporarily and pass it on as directed by the
control unit.
SECONDAR3 STORA:E
&ou are now clear that the operating speed of primary memory or main memory
should be as fast as possible to cope up with the 1EA speed. #hese high=speed
storage de"ices are "ery epensi"e and hence the cost per bit of storage is also
"ery high. !gain the storage capacity of the main memory is also "ery limited. 8ften
it is necessary to store hundreds of millions of bytes of data for the 1EA to process.
#herefore additional memory is re$uired in all the computer systems. #his memory
is called auiliary memory or secondary storage.
In this type of memory the cost per bit of storage is low. (owe"er, the operating
speed is slower than that of the primary storage. (uge "olume of data are stored
here on permanent basis and transferred to the primary storage as and when
re$uired. Host widely used secondary storage de"ices are magnetic tapes and
magnetic dis!.
). M$()et&c T$pe; Hagnetic tapes are used for large computers like mainframe
computers where large "olume of data is stored for a longer time. In E1 also you
can use tapes in the form of cassettes. #he cost of storing data in tapes is
inepensi"e. #apes consist of magnetic materials that store data permanently. It
can be )+.. mm to +. mm wide plastic *lm=type and .@@ meter to )+@@ meter
long which is coated with magnetic material. #he deck is connected to the
central processor and information is fed into or read from the tape through the
processor. It similar to cassette tape recorder.
) Comp$ct; ! )@=inch diameter reel of tape is +-@@ feet long and is able to
hold :@@, )/@@ or /+.@ characters in each inch of its length. #he maimum
capacity of such tape is ):@ million characters. #hus data are stored much
more compactly on tape.
+ Eco)om&c$' G #he cost of storing characters is "ery less as compared to other
storage de"ices.
, "$+tG 1opying of data is easier and fast.
- 6o)( term Stor$(e $)# Re<u+$/&'&t% G Hagnetic tapes can be used for long
term storage and a tape can be used repeatedly with out loss of data.
. M$()et&c D&+?; &ou might ha"e seen the gramophone record, which is
circular like a disk and coated with magnetic material. Hagnetic disks used in
computer are made on the same principle. It rotates with "ery high speed
inside the computer dri"e. 3ata is stored on both the surface of the disk.
Hagnetic disks are most popular for direct access storage de"ice. Bach disk
consists of a number of in"isible concentric circles called trac!s. Information
is recorded on tracks of a disk surface in the form of tiny magnetic spots. #he
presence of a magnetic spot represents one bit and its absence represents
Cero bit. #he information stored in a disk can be read many times without
a%ecting the stored data. So the reading operation is non=destructi"e. But if
you want to write a new data, then the eisting data is erased from the disk
and new data is recorded.
"'opp% D&+?; It is similar to magnetic disk discussed abo"e. #hey are ..+. inch or
,.. inch in diameter. #hey come in single or double density and recorded on one or
both surface of the diskette. #he capacity of a ..+.=inch >oppy is ).+ mega bytes
whereas for ,.. inch >oppy it is ).-- mega bytes. It is cheaper than any other
storage de"ices and is portable. #he >oppy is a low cost de"ice particularly suitable
for personal computer system.
Opt&c$' D&+?;With e"ery new application and software there is greater demand for
memory capacity. It is the necessity to store large "olume of data that has led to the
de"elopment of optical disk storage medium. 8ptical disks can be di"ided into the
following categoriesG
). Compact "is!# $ead %nly &emory 'C"($%&)G 13='8H disks are made of
re>ecti"e metals. 13='8H is written during the process of manufacturing by high
power laser beam. (ere the storage density is "ery high, storage cost is "ery low
and access time is relati"ely fast. Bach disk is approimately - )O+ inches in
diameter and can hold o"er /@@ HB of data. !s the 13='8H can be read only we
cannot write or make changes into the data contained in it.
+. *rite %nce+ $ead &any '*%$&)G #he incon"enience that we can not write any
thing in to a 13='8H is a"oided in W8'H. ! W8'H allows the user to write data
permanently on to the disk. 8nce the data is written it can ne"er be erased
without physically damaging the disk. (ere data can be recorded from keyboard,
"ideo scanner, 81' e$uipment and other de"ices. #he ad"antage of W8'H is
that it can store "ast amount of data amounting to gigabytes 5)@; bytes6. !ny
document in a W8'H can be accessed "ery fast, say less than ,@ seconds.
). ,rasable %ptical "is!G #hese are optical disks where data can be written, erased
and re=written. #his also applies a laser beam to write and re=write the data.
#hese disks may be used as alternati"es to traditional disks. Brasable optical
disks are based on a technology known as magnetic optical 5H86. #o write a data
bit on to the erasable optical disk the H8 dri"ePs laser beam heats a tiny,
precisely de*ned point on the diskPs surface and magnetises it.
INUT OUTUT DEVICES
! computer is only useful when it is able to communicate with the eternal
en"ironment. When you work with the computer you feed your data and instructions
through some de"ices to the computer. #hese de"ices are called Input de"ices.
Similarly computer after processing, gi"es output through other de"ices called
output de"ices.
2or a particular application one form of de"ice is more desirable compared to
others. We will discuss "arious types of IO8 de"ices that are used for di%erent types
of applications. #hey are also known as peripheral de"ices because they surround
the 1EA and make a communication between computer and the outer world.
1 I)put De8&ce+
Input de"ices are necessary to con"ert our information or data in to a form which
can be understood by the computer. ! good input de"ice should pro"ide timely,
accurate and useful data to the main memory of the computer for processing
followings are the most useful input de"ices.
). @e%/o$r#; < #his is the standard input de"ice attached to all computers. #he
layout of keyboard is 4ust like the traditional typewriter of the type QWB'#&. It
also contains some etra command keys and function keys. It contains a total of
)@) to )@- keys. ! typical keyboard used in a computer is shown in 2ig. +./. &ou
ha"e to press correct combination of keys to input data. #he computer can
recognise the electrical signals corresponding to the correct key combination and
processing is done accordingly.
Mou+e; = House is an input de"ice shown in 2ig. +.0 that is used with your personal
computer. It rolls on a small ball and has two or three buttons on the top. When
you roll the mouse across a >at surface the screen censors the mouse in the
direction of mouse mo"ement. #he cursor mo"es "ery fast with mouse gi"ing
you more freedom to work in any direction. It is easier and faster to mo"e
through a mouse.
Sc$))er; #he keyboard can input only tet through keys pro"ided in it. If we want
to input a picture the keyboard cannot do that. Scanner is an optical de"ice that
can input any graphical matter and display it back. #he common optical scanner
de"ices are Hagnetic Ink 1haracter 'ecognition 5HI1'6, 8ptical Hark 'eader
58H'6 and 8ptical 1haracter 'eader 581'6.
M$()et&c I)? C4$r$cter Reco()&t&o) =MICR>; = #his is widely used by banks to
process large "olumes of che$ues and drafts. 1he$ues are put inside the HI1'. !s
they enter the reading unit the che$ues pass through the magnetic *eld which
causes the read head to recognise the character of the che$ues.
o Opt&c$' M$r? Re$#er =OMR>; #his techni$ue is used when students ha"e
appeared in ob4ecti"e type tests and they had to mark their answer by darkening a
s$uare or circular space by pencil. #hese answer sheets are directly fed to a
computer for grading where 8H' is used.
o Opt&c$' C4$r$cter Reco()&t&o) =OCR>; = #his techni$ue unites the direct
reading of any printed character. Suppose you ha"e a set of hand written characters
on a piece of paper. &ou put it inside the scanner of the computer. #his pattern is
compared with a site of patterns stored inside the computer. Whiche"er pattern is
matched is called a character read. Eatterns that cannot be identi*ed are re4ected.
81's are epensi"e though better the HI1'.
2.1.2 Output De8&ce+
). V&+u$' D&+p'$% U)&t; #he most popular inputOoutput de"ice is the 9isual 3isplay
Anit 593A6. It is also called the monitor. ! Meyboard is used to input data and
Honitor is used to display the input data and to recei"e massages from the
computer. ! monitor has its own bo which is separated from the main computer
system and is connected to the computer by cable. In some systems it is
compact with the system unit. It can be color or monochrome.
+. Term&)$'+; It is a "ery popular interacti"e input=output unit. It can be di"ided
into two typesG hard copy terminals and soft copy terminals. ! hard copy
terminal pro"ides a printout on paper whereas soft copy terminals pro"ide "isual
copy on monitor. ! terminal when connected to a 1EA sends instructions directly
to the computer. #erminals are also classi*ed as dumb terminals or intelligent
terminals depending upon the work situation.
,. r&)ter; It is an important output de"ice which can be used to get a printed
copy of the processed tet or result on paper. #here are di%erent types of
printers that are designed for di%erent types of applications. 3epending on their
speed and approach of printing, printers are classi*ed as impact and non(impact
printers. Impact printers use the familiar typewriter approach of hammering a
typeface against the paper and inked ribbon. "ot(matri printers are of this type.
<on=impact printers do not hit or impact a ribbon to print. #hey use electro=static
chemicals and ink=4et technologies. -aser printers and In!(.et printers are of this
type. #his type of printers can produce color printing and elaborate graphics
INTRODUCTION
In the pre"ious lesson we discussed about the di%erent parts and con*gurations of
computer. It has been mentioned that programs or instructions ha"e to be fed to the
computer to do speci*c task. So it is necessary to pro"ide se$uence of instructions
so that your work can be done. We can di"ide the computer components into two
ma4or areas, namely, hardware and software. (ardware is the machine itself and its
"arious indi"idual e$uipment. It includes all mechanical, electronic and magnetic
de"ices such as monitor, printer, electronic circuit, >oppy and hard disk. In this
lesson we will discuss about the other part, namely, software.
3.3 WHAT IS SO"TWARE!
!s you know computer cannot do anything without instructions from the user. In
order to do any speci*c 4ob you ha"e to gi"e a se$uence of instructions to the
computer. #his set of instructions is called a computer program. Software refers to
the set of computer programs, procedures that describe the programs, how they are
to be used. We can say that it is the collection of programs, which increase the
capabilities of the hardware. Software guides the computer at e"ery step where to
start and stop during a particular 4ob. #he process of software de"elopment is called
programming.
&ou should keep in mind that software and hardware are complementary to each
other. Both ha"e to work together to produce meaningful result. !nother important
point you should know that producing software is diFcult and epensi"e.
3.* SO"TWARE T3ES
1omputer software is normally classi*ed into two broad categories.
) !pplication Software
+ System software
App'&c$t&o) So.t-$re; !pplication Software is a set of programs to carry out
operations for a speci*c application. 2or eample, payroll is an application software
for an organiCation to produce pay slips as an output. !pplication software is useful
for word processing, billing system, accounting, producing statistical report, analysis
of numerous data in research, weather forecasting, etc. In later modules you will
learn about HS W8'3, Lotus )=+=, and dB!SB III Elus. !ll these are application
softwares.
!nother eample of application software is programming language. !mong the
programming languages 18B8L 51ommon Business 8riented Language6 is more
suitable for business application whereas 28'#'!< 52ormula #ranslation6 is useful
for scienti*c application. We will discuss about languages in net section.
S%+tem So.t-$re; &ou know that an instruction is a set of programs that has to be
fed to the computer for operation of computer system as a whole. When you switch
on the computer the programs written in '8H is eecuted which acti"ates di%erent
units of your computer and makes it ready for you to work on it. #his set of program
can be called system software. #herefore system software may be de*ned as a set
of one or more programs designed to control the operation of computer system.
System software are general programs designed for performing tasks such as
controlling all operations re$uired to mo"e data into and out of the computer. It
communicates with printers, card reader, disk, tapes etc. monitor the use of "arious
hardware like memory, 1EA etc. !lso system software are essential for the
de"elopment of applications software. System Software allows application packages
to be run on the computer with less time and e%ort. $emember that it is not
possible to run application software without system software.
3e"elopment of system software is a comple task and it re$uires etensi"e
knowledge of computer technology. 3ue to its compleity it is not de"eloped in
house. 1omputer manufactures build and supply this system software with the
computer system. 38S, A<IJ and WI<38WS are some of the widely used system
software. 8ut of these A<IJ is a multi=user operating system whereas 38S and
WI<38WS are E1=based. We will discuss in detail about 38S and WI<38WS in the
net module.
So without system software it is impossible to operate your computer. #he following
picture is shown in 2ig. ,.) relation between hardware, software and you as a user
of computer system.
"&(.
WHAT IS 6AN:UA:E!
&ou are aware with the term language. It is a system of communication between you
and me. Some of the basic natural languages that we are familiar with are Bnglish,
(indi, 8riya etc. #hese are the languages used to communicate among "arious
categories of persons. But how you will communicate with your computer. &our
computer will not understand any of these natural languages for transfer of data
and instruction. So there are programming languages specially de"eloped so that
you could pass your data and instructions to the computer to do speci*c 4ob. &ou
must ha"e heard names like 28'#'!<, B!SI1, 18B8L etc. #hese are programming
languages. So instructions or programs are written in a particular language based
on the type of 4ob. !s an eample, for scienti*c application 28'#'!< and 1
languages are used. 8n the other hand 18B8L is used for business applications.
3.,.1 ro(r$mm&)( 6$)(u$(e+
#here are two ma4or types of programming languages. #hese are Low Le"el
Languages and (igh Le"el Languages. Low Le"el languages are further di"ided in to
&achine language and Assembly language.
3.,.2 6o- 6e8e' 6$)(u$(e+
#he term low le"el means closeness to the way in which the machine has been
built. Low le"el languages are machine oriented and re$uire etensi"e knowledge of
computer hardware and its con*guration.
=$> M$c4&)e 6$)(u$(e
Hachine Language is the only language that is directly understood by the computer.
It does not needs any translator program. We also call it machine code and it is
written as strings of )Ps 5one6 and @s 5Cero6. When this se$uence of codes is fed to
the computer, it recogniCes the codes and con"erts it in to electrical signals needed
to run it. 2or eample, a program instruction may look like thisG
)@))@@@))))@)
It is not an easy language for you to learn because of its diFcult to understand. It is
eFcient for the computer but "ery ineFcient for programmers. It is considered to
the *rst generation language. It is also diFcult to debug the program written in this
language.
A#8$)t$(e
#he only ad"antage is that program of machine language run "ery fast because no
translation program is re$uired for the 1EA.
D&+$#8$)t$(e+
). It is "ery diFcult to program in machine language. #he programmer has to know
details of hardware to write program.
+. #he programmer has to remember a lot of codes to write a program which
results in program errors.
,. It is diFcult to debug the program.
=/> A++em/'% 6$)(u$(e
It is the *rst step to impro"e the programming structure. &ou should know that
computer can handle numbers and letter. #herefore some combination of letters can
be used to substitute for number of machine codes.
#he set of symbols and letters forms the !ssembly Language and a translator
program is re$uired to translate the !ssembly Language to machine language. #his
translator program is called RAssemblerP. It is considered to be a second=generation
language.
A#8$)t$(e+;
). #he symbolic programming of !ssembly Language is easier to understand and
sa"es a lot of time and e%ort of the programmer.
+. It is easier to correct errors and modify program instructions.
,. !ssembly Language has the same eFciency of eecution as the machine le"el
language. Because this is one=to=one translator between assembly language
program and its corresponding machine language program.
D&+$#8$)t$(e+;
). 8ne of the ma4or disad"antages is that assembly language is machine
dependent. ! program written for one computer might not run in other
computers with di%erent hardware con*guration
9 HI:H 6EVE6 6AN:UA:ES
&ou know that assembly language and machine le"el language re$uire deep
knowledge of computer hardware where as in higher language you ha"e to know
only the instructions in Bnglish words and logic of the problem irrespecti"e of the
type of computer you are using.
(igher le"el languages are simple languages that use Bnglish and mathematical
symbols like S, =, T, O etc. for its program construction.
&ou should know that any higher le"el language has to be con"erted to machine
language for the computer to understand.
(igher le"el languages are problem=oriented languages because the instructions
are suitable for sol"ing a particular problem. 2or eample 18B8L 51ommon
Business 8riented Language6 is mostly suitable for business oriented language
where there is "ery little processing and huge output. #here are mathematical
oriented languages like 28'#'!< 52ormula #ranslation6 and B!SI1 5Beginners !ll=
purpose Symbolic Instruction 1ode6 where "ery large processing is re$uired.
#hus a problem oriented language designed in such a way that its instruction may
be written more like the language of the problem. 2or eample, businessmen use
business term and scientists use scienti*c terms in their respecti"e languages.
A#8$)t$(e+ o. H&(4 6e8e' 6$)(u$(e+
(igher le"el languages ha"e a ma4or ad"antage o"er machine and assembly
languages that higher le"el languages are easy to learn and use. It is because
that they are similar to the languages used by us in our day to day life.
Comp&'er
It is a program translator that translates the instruction of a higher le"el language to
machine language. It is called compiler because it compiles machine language
instructions for e"ery program instructions of higher le"el language. #hus compiler
is a program translator like assembler but more sophisticated. It scans the entire
program *rst and then translates it into machine code.
#he programs written by the programmer in higher le"el language is called source
program. !fter this program is con"erted to machine languages by the compiler it is
called ob.ect program.
(igher Le"el Language ==U 51ompile6 ===U Erogram ==U Hachine Language Erogram
! compiler can translate only those source programs, which ha"e been written, in
that language for which the compiler is meant for. 2or eample 28'#'!< compiler
will not compile source code written in 18B8L language.
8b4ect program generated by compiler is machine dependent. It means programs
compiled for one type of machine will not run in another type. #herefore e"ery type
of machine must ha"e its personal compiler for a particular language. Hachine
independence is achie"ed by using one higher le"el language in di%erent machines.
2 I)terpreter
!n interpreter is another type of program translator used for translating higher le"el
language into machine language. It takes one statement of higher le"el languages,
translate it into machine language and immediately eecute it. #ranslation and
eecution are carried out for each statement. It di%ers from compiler, which
translate the entire source program into machine code and does in"ol"e in its
eecution.
#he ad"antage of interpreter compared to compiler is its fast response to
changes in source program. It eliminates the need for a separate compilation
after changes to each program. Interpreters are easy to write and do not
re$uire large memory in computer. #he disad"antage of interpreter is that it
is time consuming method because each time a statement in a program is
eecuted then it is *rst translated. #hus compiled machine language program
runs much faster than an interpreted program.
COMMUNICATION AND COMUTER NETWOR@
1 INTRODUCTION
#oday computer is a"ailable in many oFces and homes and therefore there is a
need to share data and programs among "arious computers with the ad"ancement
of data communication facilities. #he communication between computers has
increased and it thus it has etended the power of computer beyond the computer
room. <ow a user sitting at one place can communicate computers of any remote
sites through communication channel. #he aim of this chapter is to introduce you
the "arious aspects of computer network.
2 OBJECTIVES
!fter going through this lesson you will be in a position toG
) eplain the concept of data communication
+ understand the use of computer network
, identify di%erent components of computer network
- identify di%erent types of network
. eplain communication protocols
/ understand what is internet and email and its uses in modern communication
0 appreciate the use of satellite communication.
3 DATA COMMUNICATION
We all are ac$uainted with some sorts of communication in our day to day life. 2or
communication of information and messages we use telephone and postal
communication systems. Similarly data and information from one computer system
can be transmitted to other systems across geographical areas. #hus data
transmission is the mo"ement of information using some standard methods. #hese
methods include electrical signals carried along a conductor, optical signals along
an optical *bers and electromagnetic areas.
Suppose a manager has to write se"eral letters to "arious clients. 2irst he has to use
his E1 and Word Erocessing package to prepare his letter. If the E1 is connected to
all the clientPs E1s through networking, he can send the letters to all the clients
within minutes. #hus irrespecti"e of geographical areas, if E1s are connected
through communication channel, the data and information, computer *les and any
other program can be transmitted to other computer systems within seconds. #he
modern form of communication like e(mail and Internet is possible only because of
computer networking.
B$+&c E'eme)t+ o. $ Commu)&c$t&o) S%+tem
#he following are the basic re$uirements for working of a communication system.
). ! sender 5source6 which creates the message to be transmitted.
+. ! medium that carries the message.
,. ! receiver 5sink6 which recei"es the message.
In data communication four basic terms are fre$uently used. #hey are
). D$t$G ! collection of facts in raw forms that become information after
processing.
+. S&()$'+G Blectric or electromagnetic encoding of data.
). S&()$'&)(G Eropagation of signals across a communication medium.
+. Tr$)+m&++&o)G 1ommunication of data achie"ed by the processing of signals.
1 Commu)&c$t&o) rotoco'+
&ou may be wondering how do the computers send and recei"e data across
communication links. #he answer is data communication software. It is this software
that enables us to communicate with other systems. #he data communication
software instructs computer systems and de"ices as to how eactly data is to be
transferred from one place to another. #he procedure of data transformation in the
form of software is commonly called protocol.
#he data transmission software or protocols perform the following functions for the
eFcient and error free transmission of data.
). D$t$ +eAue)c&)(G ! long message to be transmitted is broken into smaller
packets of *ed siCe for error free data transmission.
+. D$t$ Rout&)(G It is the process of *nding the most eFcient route between
source and destination before sending the data.
,. "'o- co)tro'G !ll machines are not e$ually eFcient in terms of speed. (ence
the >ow control regulates the process of sending data between fast sender and
slow recei"er.
-. Error Co)tro'G Brror detecting and reco"ering is the one of the main function of
communication software. It ensures that data are transmitted without any error.
2 D$t$ Tr$)+m&++&o) Mo#e+
#here are three ways for transmitting data from one point to another
). S&mp'eBG In simple mode the communication can take place in one direction.
#he receiver recei"es the signal from the transmitting de"ice. In this mode the
>ow of information is Ani.=directional. (ence it is rarely used for data
communication.
+. H$'.<#up'eBG In half=duple mode the communication channel is used in both
directions, but only in one direction at a time. #hus a half=duple line can
alternately send and recei"e data.
,. "u''<#up'eBG In full duple the communication channel is used in both directions
at the same time. Ase of full=duple line impro"es the eFciency as the line turn=
around time re$uired in half=duple arrangement is eliminated. Bample of this
mode of transmission is the telephone line.
D&(&t$' $)# A)$'o( Tr$)+m&++&o)
3ata is transmitted from one point to another point by means of electrical signals
that may be in digital and analog form. So one should know the fundamental
di%erence between analog and digital signals. In analog signal the transmission
power "aries o"er a continuous range with respect to sound, light and radio wa"es.
8n the other hand a digital signal may assume only discrete set of "alues within a
gi"en range. Bamples are computer and computer related e$uipment. !nalog
signal is measured in /olts and its fre$uency in 0ert1 5(C6. ! digital signal is a
se$uence of "oltage represented in binary form. When digital data are to be sent
o"er an analog form the digital signal must be con"erted to analog form. So the
techni$ue by which a digital signal is con"erted to analog form is known as
modulation. !nd the re"erse process, that is the con"ersion of analog signal to its
digital form, is known as demodulation. #he de"ice, which con"erts digital signal
into analog, and the re"erse, is known as modem.
A+%)c4ro)ou+ $)# S%)c4ro)ou+ Tr$)+m&++&o)
3ata transmission through a medium can be either asynchronous or synchronous. In
asynchronous transmission data is transmitted character by character as you go on
typing on a keyboard. (ence there is irregular gaps between characters. (owe"er, it
is cheaper to implement, as you do not ha"e to sa"e the data before sending. 8n
the other hand, in the synchronous mode, the sa"ed data is transmitted block by
block. Bach block can contain many characters. Synchronous transmission is well
suited for remote communication between a computer and related de"ices like card
reader and printers.
2ollowing are the ma4or communication de"ices used to day.
). W&re $&r+; Wire pairs are commonly used in local telephone communication
and for short distance digital data communication. #hey are usually made up of
copper and the pair of wires is twisted together. 3ata transmission speed is
normally ;/@@ bits per second in a distance of )@@ meter.
+. Co$B&$' C$/'e+; 1oaial cable is groups of specially wrapped and insulted wires
that are able to transfer data at higher rate. #hey consist of a central copper
wire surrounded by an insulation o"er which copper mesh is placed. #hey are
used for long distance telephone lines and local area network for their noise
immunity and faster data transfer.
,. M&cro-$8e; Hicrowa"e system uses "ery high fre$uency radio signals to
transmit data through space. #he transmitter and recei"er of a microwa"e
system should be in line=of=sight because the radio signal cannot bend. With
microwa"e "ery long distance transmission is not possible. In order to o"ercome
the problem of line of sight and power ampli*cation of weak signal, repeaters are
used at inter"als of +. to ,@ kilometers between the transmitting and recei"ing
end.
-. Commu)&c$t&o) S$te''&te; #he problem of line=sight and repeaters are
o"ercome by using satellites which are the most widely used data transmission
media in modern days. ! communication satellite is a microwa"e relay station
placed in outer space. I<S!#=)B is such a satellite that can be accessible from
anywhere in India. In satellite communication, microwa"e signal is transmitted
from a transmitter on earth to the satellite at space. #he satellite ampli*es the
weak signal and transmits it back to the recei"er. #he main ad"antage of
satellite communication is that it is a single microwa"e relay station "isible from
any point of a "ery large area. In microwa"e the data transmission rate is )/
giga bits per second. #hey are mostly used to link big metropolitan cities.
COMUTER NETWOR@
A computer networ! is an interconnection of various computer systems located at
diferent places. In computer network two or more computers are linked together
with a medium and data communication de"ices for the purpose of communicating
data and sharing resources. #he computer that pro"ides resources to other
computers on a network is known as server. In the network the indi"idual
computers, which access shared network resources, are known as wor!stations or
nodes.
1omputer <etworks may be classi*ed on the basis of geographical area in two
broad categories.
). Local !rea <etwork 5L!<6
+. Wide !rea <etwork 5W!<6
*.*.1 6oc$' Are$ Net-or?
<etworks used to interconnect computers in a single room, rooms within a building
or buildings on one site are called Local !rea <etwork 5L!<6. L!< transmits data
with a speed of se"eral megabits per second 5)@/ bits per second6. #he
transmission medium is normally coaial cables.
L!< links computers, i.e., software and hardware, in the same area for the purpose
of sharing information. Asually L!< links computers within a limited geographical
area because they must be connected by a cable, which is $uite epensi"e. Eeople
working in L!< get more capabilities in data processing, work processing and other
information echange compared to stand(alone computers. Because of this
information echange most of the business and go"ernment organisations are using
L!<.
M$Cor C4$r$cter&+t&c+ o. 6AN
) e"ery computer has the potential to communicate with any other computers
of the network
+ high degree of interconnection between computers
, easy physical connection of computers in a network
- inepensi"e medium of data transmission
. high data transmission rate
A#8$)t$(e+
) #he reliability of network is high because the failure of one computer in the
network does not e%ect the functioning for other computers.
+ !ddition of new computer to network is easy.
, (igh rate of data transmission is possible.
- Eeripheral de"ices like magnetic disk and printer can be shared by other
computers.
D&+$#8$)t$(e+
If the communication line fails, the entire network system breaks down.
U+e o. 6AN
2ollowings are the ma4or areas where L!< is normally used
) 2ile transfers and !ccess
+ Word and tet processing
,
) Blectronic message handling
+ 'emote database access
, Eersonal computing
- 3igital "oice transmission and storage
*.*.2 W&#e Are$ Net-or?
#he term Wide !rea <etwork 5W!<6 is used to describe a computer network
spanning a regional, national or global area. 2or eample, for a large company the
head $uarters might be at 3elhi and regional branches at Bombay, Hadras,
Bangalore and 1alcutta. (ere regional centers are connected to head $uarters
through W!<. #he distance between computers connected to W!< is larger.
#herefore the transmission medium used are normally telephone lines, microwa"es
and satellite links.
*.*.3 C4$r$cter&+t&c+ o. WAN
2ollowings are the ma4or characteristics of W!<.
). Commu)&c$t&o) "$c&'&t%; 2or a big company spanning o"er di%erent parts of
the country the employees can sa"e long distance phone calls and it o"ercomes
the time lag in o"erseas communications. 1omputer conferencing is another use
of W!< where users communicate with each other through their computer
system.
+. Remote D$t$ E)tr%; 'emote data entry is possible in W!<. It means sitting at
any location you can enter data, update data and $uery other information of any
computer attached to the W!< but located in other cities. 2or eample, suppose
you are sitting at Hadras and want to see some data of a computer located at
3elhi, you can do it through W!<.
,. Ce)tr$'&+e# I).orm$t&o); In modern computerised en"ironment you will *nd
that big organisations go for centralised data storage. #his means if the
organisation is spread o"er many cities, they keep their important business data
in a single place. !s the data are generated at di%erent sites, W!< permits
collection of this data from di%erent sites and sa"e at a single site.
*.*.* EB$mp'e+ o. WAN
). Et4er)et; Bthernet de"eloped by Jero 1orporation is a famous eample of
W!<. #his network uses coaial cables for data transmission. Special integrated
circuit chips called controllers are used to connect e$uipment to the cable.
+. Ap$r)et; #he !parnet is another eample of W!<. It was de"eloped at
!d"anced 'esearch Ero4ects !gency of A. S. 3epartment. #his <etwork connects
more than -@ uni"ersities and institutions throughout AS! and Burope.
D&Dere)ce /et-ee) 6AN $)# WAN
). L!< is restricted to limited geographical area of few kilometers. But W!<
co"ers great distance and operate nationwide or e"en worldwide.
+. In L!<, the computer terminals and peripheral de"ices are connected with
wires and coaial cables. In W!< there is no physical connection.
1ommunication is done through telephone lines and satellite links.
,. 1ost of data transmission in L!< is less because the transmission medium is
owned by a single organisation. In case of W!< the cost of data transmission
is "ery high because the transmission medium used are hired, either
telephone lines or satellite links.
#he speed of data transmission is much higher in L!< than in W!<. #he
transmission speed in L!< "aries from @.) to )@@ megabits per second. In case of
W!< the speed ranges from ):@@ to ;/@@ bits per second 5bps6.
). 2ew data transmission errors occur in L!< compared to W!<. It is because in
L!< the distance co"ered is negligible.
*., NETWOR@ TOO6O:3
#he term topology in the contet of communication network refers to the way the
computers or workstations in the network are linked together. !ccording to the
physical arrangements of workstations and nature of work, there are three ma4or
types of network topology. #hey are star topology, bus topology and ring topology.
*.,.1 St$r topo'o(%
In star topology a number of workstations 5or nodes6 are directly linked to a central
node 5see, 2ig. -.,6. !ny communication between stations on a star L!< must pass
through the central node. #here is bi(directional communication between "arious
nodes. #he central node controls all the acti"ities of the nodes. #he ad"antages of
the star topology areG
). It o%ers >eibility of adding or deleting of workstations from the network.
+. Breakdown of one station does not a%ect any other de"ice on the network.
#he ma4or disad"antage of star topology is that failure of the central node disables
communication throughout the whole network.
"&(. *.3; St$r Topo'o(%
*.,.2 Bu+ Topo'o(%
In bus topology all workstations are connected to a single communication line called
bus. In this type of network topology there is no central node as in star topology.
#ransmission from any station tra"els the length of the bus in both directions and
can be recei"ed by all workstations. #he ad"antage of the bus topology is that
). It is $uite easy to set up.
+. If one station of the topology fails it does not a%ect the entire system.
#he disad"antage of bus topology is that any break in the bus is diFcult to identify.
s"&(. *.*; Bu+ Topo'o(%
*.,.3 R&)( Topo'o(%
In ring topology each station is attached nearby stations on a point to point basis so
that the entire system is in the form of a ring. In this topology data is transmitted in
one direction only. #hus the data packets circulate along the ring in either clockwise
or anti=clockwise direction. #he ad"antage of this topology is that any signal
transmitted on the network passes through all the L!< stations. #he disad"antage
of ring network is that the breakdown of any one station on the ring can disable the
entire system.
5a6 <etworks used to interconnect computers in a single room, rooms within a
building or buildings on one site are called Wide !rea <etwork 5W!<6.
5b6 #he term Wide !rea <etwork 5W!<6 is used to describe a computer network
spanning a regional, national or global area.
5c6 #he speed of data transmission is much higher in W!< than in L!<.
5d6 In star topology a number of workstations 5or nodes6 are directly linked to a
central node.
5e6 #he ad"antage of the bus topology is that, If one station of the topology fails it
does not a%ect the entire system.
*.9 INTERNET
#he Internet is a network of networks. Hillions of computers all o"er the world are
connected through the Internet. 1omputer users on the Internet can contact one
another anywhere in the world. If your computer is connected to the Internet, you
can connect to millions of computers. &ou can gather information and distribute
your data. It is "ery much similar to the telephone connection where you can talk
with any person anywhere in the world.
In Internet a huge resource of information is accessible to people across the world.
Information in e"ery *eld starting from education, science, health, medicine,
history, and geography to business, news, etc. can be retrie"ed through Internet.
&ou can also download programs and software packages from anywhere in the
world. 3ue to the tremendous information resources the Internet can pro"ide, it is
now indispensable to e"ery organisation.
Or&(&) o. I)ter)et
In );/; 3epartment of 3efence 53836 of AS! started a network called !'E!<B#
5!d"anced 'esearch Ero4ects !dministration <etwork6 with one computer at
1alifornia and three at Atah. Later on other uni"ersities and ' K 3 institutions were
allowed to connect to the <etwork. !E!'<B# $uickly grew to encompass the entire
!merican continent and became a huge success. B"ery uni"ersity in the country
wanted to become a part of !'E!<B#. So the network was broken into two smaller
parts HIL<B# for managing military sites and !'E!<B# 5smaller6 for managing non=
military sites. !round );:@, <S2<B# 5<ational Science 2oundation <etwork6 was
created. With the ad"ancement of modern communication facilities, other
computers were also allowed to be linked up with any computer of <S2<B#. By );;@
many computers were looking up to <S2<B# gi"ing birth to Internet.
Ho- I)ter)et .u)ct&o)+
Internet is not a go"ernmental organisation. #he ultimate authority of the Internet is
the Internet Society. #his is a "oluntary membership organisation whose purpose is
to promote global information echange. Internet has more than one million
computers attached to it.
E<m$&'
B=mail stands for electronic mail. #his is one of the most widely used features of
Internet. Hails are regularly used today where with the help of postage stamp we
can transfer mails anywhere in the world. With electronic mail the ser"ice is similar.
But here data are transmitted through Internet and therefore within minutes the
message reaches the destination may it be anywhere in the world. #herefore the
mailing system is ecessi"ely fast and is being used widely for mail transfer.