A FUND AMEN TAL IN TROD U CTIO N

TO THE COMP ACT DISC P LAYER

G rant M. Er ickson
Dep artm e nt of Electr ical En gi n ee ring
Un ive r sity of Mi nn esota


Nove mbe r 29, 1994
EE 3011
Pr ofess or: D r. Kevi n M. B uckley
TABLE OF CONTENTS
T HE NEE D F OR DIGIT AL AU DIO ................................................................ 1
S tr ength s of th e Digi ta l Doma in ................................................................... 1
Devel op m e nt s Fa cili tat ing th e Com p act Dis c Playe r ........................................ 2
P RI NCI P L E S O F DIGIT AL AUDIO.................................................................... 3
S am p li n g. ........................................................................................... 3
Ali a s i n g ......................................................................................................................... 4
Q uant iz at ion .................................................................................................... 5
Di th e r.............................................................................................................................. 6
J itt er .............................................................................................................. 7
IM P L E M EN TATIO N ............................................................................................................. 8
Sys tem Ove rview .............................................................................................. 8
Digi ta l-to-ana log Conve rt e r s .................................................................................... 10
M u l t i-bi t Co n ve rt e r s ................................................................................... 10
Low-bi t Co n ve rt e r s ...................................................................................... 11
Digi ta l Fil t e ring, Ove r s am pli ng, an d Noise S ha ping ................................ 14
R EFE R EN C E S ....................................................................................................................... 19































i
LIST OF FIGURES
Table 1. Red Book spe cificat ion s for th e com p act disc sys t e m ........................... 9
Fig ur e 1. Block diagram of a com p act disc playe r ...................................................... 9
Fig ur e 2. Block diagram of a PWM/MAS H digi ta l-to-ana log conve rt e r ................ 12
F ig ur e 3. Block di a g ram of a P DM digi ta l-to-ana log con ve rt e r ........................... 13
Fig ur e 4. Us e of a tran sve r s al fil t e r to achieve ove r s am pli ng ......................... 15
Fig ur e 5. Effect of ze ros int e rle avi ng an d ove r s am pli ng on a sig na l. ................. 15
Fig ur e 6 a. Var iou s noise-de n sity dis tr ib ut ion s a s a fun ction of
fr eq u e ncy. .............................................................................................. 16
Fig ur e 6b. The PDM an d PWM dis tr ib ut ion s in th e au dio b an d ............................... 16
Fig ur e 7. T hir d-or de r noise s ha pe r u sed in th e PWM conve rt e r ............................ 17








































ii
A Fundamenta l In trod uc tio n to t he Compact Disc P laye r


T h e com p act disc pl a ye r ha s becom e on e of th e mos t u biq u i tou s pieces of
con s um e r electr on ics eq u ip m e nt i n u se tod a y. Te n s of m illi on s of pl a ye r s ha ve
bee n sold to d at e. Howeve r, a s pe rva sive a s th e com p act disc playe rs p r ese nce is,
th e be aut y an d com plexi t y of i t s des ig n an d ope rat ion ar e un de ra pp r eci at ed by
m os t u se r s . T h i s b r ie f t ex t att e m p t s t o i n fo rm th e r e a de r of th e b a s ic
fun d am e nta ls of th e com p act disc pl a ye r. I t is a a ss um ed that th e r e a de r ha s a
b a sic kn owledge of th e fun d am e nta ls of sig na l p rocessi ng, alth ough it is ce rta inly
not a p r e r eq uisit e for le arn ing a gr e at de al from th e r e a ding.


THE NEED FOR DIGITAL AUD IO


Str ength s of th e Digit a l Doma in
Since T homa s E dison ma de th e fir s t au dio r ecor ding on a foil cove r ed cyli n de r in
1877 , th e fiel d of au dio r ecor ding ha s grow n an d matur ed . E disons p rocess an d
man y oth e r s that followed we r e all b a sed on a comm on p rocess ; th e r ep rod uction
of an au dio sig na l from a m echan ica l or electr ica l conta ct wi th th e r ecor di n g
m edi ath is is th e r e a l m of ana log au dio. Aft e r n e ar ly 100 ye ar s, ana log au dio
ha s r e ach ed a matur e s tat e an d n e ar ly a ll of i t s s hort com i n gs ha ve bee n
a dd r essed to th e point that furth e r im p rove m e nt s becom e finan cially p rohibi tive
for th e ave ra ge con s um e r.

T h e ve r y natur e of th e ana log sig na l le a ds to i t s ow n s hort com i n gs. I n th e
ana log doma i n, a n y w a veform is a llow a ble; th e r efor e th e pl a yb ack m echan is m
ha s no m e an s to diffe r e nt i at e noise an d dis tort ion from th e or igi na l sig na l.
Furth e r, i n an ana log sys t e m eve r y copy ma de i ntr od uces mor e noise than i t s
p ar e nt . T h is fact is d u e to both th e pl a yb ack an d r ecor di n g m echan is m w h ich
mu s t p h ysica lly conta ct th e m edi a, furth e r d ama gi n g i t aft e r eve r y p a ss . E ve r y
ana log sys t e m a lso carr ie s th e side effect that th e tota l sys t e m noise is th e
s ummat ion of a ll dis tort ion an d noise from e ach com pon e nt i n th e sig na l p ath .
F i na lly, ana log eq u ip m e nt is of li m i t ed pe rforman ce, ex h ibi t i n g: an un eve n
fr eq u e ncy r esp on se (w h ich r eq u i r es ex t e n sive eq ua liz at ion), a li m i t ed 60 dB
dy nam ic ran ge, an d a 30 dB chann el sep arat ionw h ich affect s s t e r eo i ma gi n g
an d s ta gi n g.






1
2



T h e n eed for a n ew au dio format is a pp ar e nt , an d digi ta l au dio fill s th e
pe rforman ce s hort comings of ana log au dio. T h e be aut y of th e digi ta l au dio sig na l
is that noise an d dis tort ion can be sep arat ed from th e au dio sig na l. A digi ta l au dio
sig na ls q ua li t y is not a fun ct ion of th e r e a di n g m echan is m nor th e m edi a i n a
p r ope r ly e n gi n ee r ed s y s t e m . P e r fo rman ce p aram e t e r s s u c h a s f r eq u e n cy
r esp on se, li n e ar ity, an d noise ar e only fun ction s of th e digi ta l-to-ana log conve rt e r
(DAC). P e rforman ce p aram e t e r s in dicat ive of a digi ta l au dio sys t e m inclu de full
au dio b an d fr eq u e ncy r esp on se of 5 ~ 22,000 Hz, 90+ dB dynam ic ran ge, an d a flat
r esp on se across th e e nt ir e au dio b an d.

T h e fina l s tr e ngth of digi ta l au dio is th e circuitr y u pon w hich it is b uil t. Fir s t,
d u e to a l ar ge de g r ee of ci rcu i t i nt eg rat ion digi ta l ci rcu i t s do not de g ra de wi th
tim e a s ana log circuit s do. Furth e r, for all p ra ctical p ur poses , a digi ta l sig na l will
s uffe r no de g ra d at ion unt il dis tort ion an d noise ha s becom e so g r e at that th e
sig na l is out of i t s vol ta ge thr es hold. Howeve r , th is thr es hold ha s bee n ma de
int e nt iona lly lar ge exp r essly for th is r e a son. T h e hig h level of circuit int eg rat ion
a lso m e an s that for th e s am e give n ta sk , th e digi ta l ci rcu i tr y will cos t far le ss
than it s ana log count e r p art .

T h e on ly r e a l th eor e t ica l li m i tat ion to th e accura cy of a digi ta l sig na l is th e
q uant i t y of num be r s i n th e sig na l r ep r ese ntat ion an d th e accura cy of th ose
num be r s. T h ese ar e both kn ow n an d contr oll a ble des ig n p aram e t e r s.


Developm ent s Fa cili t a ting th e Co mpa ct Disc Pl aye r
As s ta gge r i n g a s th e r ele a se of th e com p act disc pl a ye r w a s i n 1982 , th e
t echn ology an d th eorie s w hich allowed it to be born we r e long in develop m e nt . I n
1841 , th e g r e at math e mat ici an A u g u s t i n -Lo u i s C au c h y fi r s t p r oposes th e
s am pli n g th eor e m. N e ar ly 80 ye ar s l at e r J .R. C ar son p u blis h es a math e mat ica l
ana lysis of tim e s am pli ng in commun icat ion s. I n a 1928 lectur e at th e Am e rican
I n s t i tut e of E lectr ica l En gi n ee r s Harr y Nyq u is t p rovi des p roof of th e s am pli n g
th eor e m i n Ce rta i n Topics i n Teleg ra p h T ran s m iss ion T h eor y. I n 1937 , A.
Reeves p roposes p u lse code w a ve mod u l at ion (P CM). I n 1948 , J ohn Bor dee n ,
Willi am S hockley, an d Walt e r B ratta in inve nt th e bip olar jun ction tran sis tor at
Bell L a bscom p act digi ta l circuitr y is a r e ali ty. Two ye ar s lat e r, in 1950 Richar d
W. Hamm ing p u blis h es sig nificant work on e rr or corr ection an d de t ection codes .
I n 1958 C. H . Tow n es an d A.L. S ha wlow i n ve nt th e l a se r . I n 1960 R.C. Bose
3

p u blis h es bi nar y g rou p e rr or corr ect ion codes . T hat s am e ye ar I.S. Reed an d G.
Solomon p u blis h e rr or corr ection codes to be u sed in th e CD playe r 22 ye ar s lat e r.
Also e ar ly com p ut e r mu sic expe r i m e nt s tak e pl ace at Bell L a bs . F ift ee n ye ar s
befor e con s um e r s see th e fir s t playe r, NH K Techn ical Rese ar ch I n s titut e p u blicly
de mon s trat es a P CM digi ta l au dio r ecor de r wi th a 30 kH z s am pli ng rat e an d 12-
bi t r es ol ut ion . Two ye ar s l at e r , Son y Cor porat ion de mon s trat es a P CM digi ta l
au d io r eco r de r wi th a 47 .25 kH z s am p li n g rat e an d 13 -bi t r es ol ut io n . A
h e misp h e r e a w ay, D ut ch p hysicis t Kl aa s Com p aan u ses a gl a ss disc to s tor e bl ack
an d w h i t e h olog ra p h ic i ma ge s u s i n g f r eq u e n cy m o d u l at io n at Ph ili ps
L a borat orie s. Four ye ar s lat e r, in 1973 Ph ili ps e ngi n ee r s begi n to cont e m plat e an
au dio a pp licat ion for th ei r vi deo disc sys t e m. A p rotot ype disc wi th a 44 kH z
s am pli n g rat e is run thr ou g h a 14-bi t digi ta l-to-ana log con ve rt e r an d ex h ibi t s a
sig na l-to-noise (S/N) rat io of 80 dB i n monaura l. Now a r ese ar ch front ie r ,
Mi t s u bis h i, Son y, an d H i ta ch i a ll de mon s trat e digi ta l au dio discs at th e Tokyo
Au dio Fa i r i n 1977 . O n e ye ar l at e r, Ph ili ps joi n s wi th i t s r ecor di n g s u bsidi ar y
Polyg ram Recor ds to develop a worldwide digi ta l au dio s tan d ar d. I n M ar ch 1979 ,
Ph ili ps de mon s trat es a p rotot ype com p act disc pl a ye r i n Eur ope. Son y joi n s th e
Ph ili ps /Polyg ram coa li t ion aft e r M at s u s h i ta decli n es . I n J un e of 1980 , th e
coa li t ion forma lly p roposes th ei r CD s tan d ar d. A ye ar l at e r i n 1981 , S har p
s uccess fu lly ma ss p rod uces th e se m icon d uctor l a se r . T h is s t ep w a s cru ci a l to
delive ring a con s um e r p rod uct. I n Fa ll of 1982 n e ar ly 150 ye ar s of work com es to
fru i t ion an d Son y an d Ph ili ps i ntr od uce th ei r r espe ct ive pl a ye r s to con s um e r i n
Eur ope . T h e followi n g sp r i n g, th e pl a ye r is i ntr od uced i n th e Un i t ed S tat es .
Twelve ye ar s lat e r, th e im p rove m e nt of digi ta l au dio cont inu es at a ra pid p ace an d
th e ana log format that wa s so p rev ale nt in 1982 ha s all but dis a ppe ar ed .


P RINCI PLES OF DIGITAL AUD IO


S amp ling
Give n an ana log au dio sig na l, a p rocess is n eeded to b r i n g i t i nt o th e digi ta l
doma i n . T h is p rocess is sa m pli n g , an d i t is dictat ed by th e Nyq u is t s am pli n g
th eor e m w hich s tat es how q uickly s am ple s mu s t be tak e n to e n s ur e an accurat e
r ep r ese ntat ion of th e ana log sig na l.

T h e s am pli n g th eor e m is q u i t e si m ple. I t s tat es that th e s am pli n g fr eq u e ncy
mu s t be g r e at e r than or eq ua l to th e h ig h es t fr eq u e ncy i n th e or igi na l ana log
4

sig na l. T h e r el at ion s hip is give n by E q uat ion 1; not e that th e th eor e m can also be
exp r essed in t e rm s of th e s am pli ng pe riod.
f
s
> 2 f or T
s
s
T
(1)
2

T h e s am pli ng th eor e m is sim ple e nough, b ut to u se it in a digi ta l au dio sys t e m,
t wo con s tra i nt s mu s t be obse r ve d. T h e fi r s t is that th e or igi na l sig na l mu s t be
b an dli mit ed to ha lf th e s am pli ng fr eq u e ncy by bei ng p a ssed thr ough an ide al low-
p a ss fil t e r; th e secon d is that th e out p ut sig na l mu s t again be p a ssed thr ough an
ide al low-p a ss fil t e r to r ep rod uce th e ana log sig na l. T h ese con s tra int s ar e cru cial
to s am pli n g, an d if not obse r ve d will le a d to an un w ant ed effect kn ow n a s
aliasi n g.


Ali a si ng
Ali a si n g is a sys t e ms e rr on eou s r esp on se that man ifes t s i t se lf w h e n th e
con s tra int s of th e s am pli ng th eor e m ar e not obse rve d. Ali a sing will s ur face in th e
au dio sig na l a s au dible dis tort ion. For th e li miting ca se of a fr eq u e ncy at ex actly
ha lf th e s am pli ng fr eq u e ncy, th e r e will be only t wo s am ple s ge n e rat edth is is th e
minimum r eq uir ed to r ep r ese nt an y w aveform . For sig na ls gr e at e r than
f
s
2
, th e
p rocess of s am pli n g can be th ou g ht of a s mod u l at i n g th e i n p ut sig na l. T h e
mod u l at ion cr e at es i ma ge fr eq u e ncie s ce nt e r ed ar oun d i nt ege r mu l t iple s of f
s
.
T h ese n ewly ge n e rat ed fr eq u e ncie s ar e th e n i ma ge d or a li a sed b ack i nt o th e
au dible b an d. T h e fr eq u e ncy to w hich th ese will be ali a sed to can be com p ut ed by
E q. 2, w h e r e f
a
is th e ali a s fr eq u e ncy, f is th e actua l fr eq u e ncy, f
s
is th e s am pli ng
freq uency, an d k is an odd int ege r that s at isfie s th e ineq ua li ty.
f
a
= f
( k + 1) f
s

2
kf
s
s f s
2
( k + 2) f
s
(2)

2

We can th en ea sily com p ut e for a s am pli ng rat e of 44.1 kH z, a sig na l of 23 kH z will
be ali a sed to 21.1 kH z. More p recisely, th e freq uency will be folded back across ha lf
th e s am pli ng fr eq u e ncy by th e am ount it exceed ha lf th e s am pli ng fr eq u e ncyin
th is ca se by 950 Hz.

H e nce th e u se of a b rickw all fil t e ron e wi th a s har p cut off chara ct e ris ticon
th e in p ut sig na l is n ecess ar y. T h e n eed for placing a fil t e r aft e r th e DAC in th e
playe r ma y not be intu itively obviou s. I ma gi n e th e li miting ca se of a sin e w ave at
ha lf th e s am pli ng fr eq u e ncy. T h e r e will be t wo s am ple s ge n e rat ed for th is w ave,
5

howeve r th e DAC will r ep r ese nt th is a s a sq uar e w a ve of th e s am e fr eq u e ncy.
Fr om th e Four ie r se r ie s exp an sion , we kn ow that a sq uar e w a ve con sis t s of
infinit e harm onics. T h e DAC ha s now cr e at ed fr eq u e ncie s that did not p r eviou sly
exis t s. Becau se th e in p ut sig na l w a s b an dli mit ed , we kn ow that it is r e a sona ble to
p a ss th e o ut p ut s ig na l thr o u g h an o th e r low-p a ss fil t e r wi th th e s am e
chara ct e ris tic a s that u sed in th e s am pli ng p rocess . T his low-p a ss fil t e r s tr ips th e
hig h e r-or de r harm onics from th e sq uar e w ave an d we ar e left wi th th e sin e w ave
we s tart ed wi th . D u e to it s action s, th is low-p a ss fil t e r is oft e n r efe rr ed to a s an
ant i-ali a sing fil t e r in th e fr eq u e ncy doma in an d a s a r econ s tru ction fil t e r in th e
t i m e do ma i n . A li n e ar p ha se low-p a ss fil t e r i s c hara c t e r ize d by ha vi n g a
symm e tr ical im p ulse r esp on se. I n p art icular , th e im p ulse r esp on se of a low-p a ss
fil t e r is th e si n (x) / x fun ct ion . W h e n th e r econ s tru ct ion fil t e r is exci t ed by an
am p li tu de v ar yi n g i m p u l se tra i n f r o m th e DAC, th e o ut p ut i s a li n e ar
com bi nat ion of th e in divi d ua l am pli tu de mod ulat ed im p ulse r esp on ses .


Qu a ntiz a ti on
O nce s am pli n g ha s tak e n pl ace, we ar e far from don e con ve rt i n g th e ana log
sig na l to a digi ta l on e. I n or de r to r ep r ese nt e ach s am ple a s a bi nar y se rie s of bi t s,
th e infinit ely var yi ng volta ge am pli tu de of th e ana log sig na l mu s t be a ss ig n ed a
discr e t e v a l u e. T h is p rocess of a ss ig nm e nt is kn ow n a s q u a n t i zat i o n . I t is
im portant to not e that q uant iz at ion an d s am pli ng ar e com ple m e ntar y p rocesses .
If we s am ple th e tim e axis, th e n we mu s t q uant ize th e am pli tu de axis an d vice
ve r s a. I t is un fortunat ely comm on p ra ctice to r efe r to s am pli ng an d q uant iz at ion
a s ju s t q uant iz at ion; th is is, howeve r, incorr ect. T h e com bi n ed p rocess is r efe rr ed
to a s digi tiz at ion.

I n a 16-bi t au dio format , we can r ep r ese nt a sinu soid ally var yi ng volta ge au dio
sig na l by 2
16
or 65,536 discr e t e level s. I t is a pp ar e nt th e n that q uant iz at ion is a
li miting pe rforman ce factor in th e ove ra ll digi ta l au dio sys t e m, by th e num be r of
bi t s a llowed to th e q uant izi n g sys t e m . T h e sys t e m des ig n e r is f a ced wi t h
de t e rm ining how man y bi t s cr e at e a s ufficie nt model of th e origi na l sig na l.

Becau se of th is li m i t i n g des ig n factor , q uant izi n g is ide a lly i m pe rfect i n i t s
sig na l r ep r ese ntat ion, w h e r e a s s am pli ng is th eor e tically pe rfect. T h e r e is th e n an
e rr or inh e r e nt in th e q uant iz at ion p rocess r eg ar dle ss of th e ide ali ty of th e r es t of
th e sys t e m.
6

To vi s ua lize w hat th is e rr or is, i ma gi n e a digi ta l th e rm om e t e r on your ove n.
Wh e n th e t e m pe ratur e r e a ds 425 F, that valu e ma y or ma y not be accurat e. T h e
tem pe ratur e in th e ove n ma y in deed be 425, but it mig ht also be a s mu ch a s 425 .4
or a s li tt le a s 424 .5. A si m il ar occurr e nce occur s wi th th e q uant ize r i n digi ta l
au dio eq uip m e nt . While q uant izi ng, it de t e rm in es th e level in w hich th e volta ge
for a give n s am ple belongs. T his q uant ize d level ma y diffe r by a s mu ch a s
Q
,
2
where Q is th e wid th of th e quant ize d level.

I t is th e diffe r e nce be t wee n th e actua l vol ta ge to be r ep r ese nt ed an d th e
q uant ize d vol ta ge level that i n d uces q uant iz at ion e rr or. T h e ma g n i tu de of th e
err or ma y neve r exceed th e volta ge rep rese nt ed by ha lf of th e le a s t-sig nificant bi t
(LSB ) in th e d ata wor d. A m e a s ur e m e nt of th e e rr or in a digi tiz at ion sys t e m can
be ma de, an d it is exp r essed a s th e sig na l-to-e rr or (S/E) rat io. T his rat io is give n
by Eq. 3, where n is th e num be r of bi t s in th e d ata wor d.
S E ( dB ) = 6. 02 n + 1. 76 (3)

Hence, th e th eoretical S/E rat io for a 16-bi t sys tem is 98 dB. Keep in min d that th is
v a l u e is s tr ict ly th eor e t ica l an d will be lowe r ed an d ra ised by man y oth e r
pe rforman ce p aram e t e r s. For th e mos t p art , q uant iz at ion e rr or man ifes t s i t se lf
a s noise at h ig h sig na l level s. Howeve r , q uant iz at ion e rr or be com es q u i t e
sig n ificant w h e n a low-level sig na l a pp roach es th e level of th e LSB , th e n th e
q uant izi n g e rr o r a c tua lly b eco m e s th e sig na l, an d th e r efor e is an au dible
com pon e nt of th e out p ut . I n man y t ypes of mu sic, th ese t ypes of sig na ls ar e
comm on an d dis tort ion cau sed by q uant iz at ion e rr or is both una ccep ta ble an d
irr e mova ble. Fortunat ely, in p ra ctical sys t e m s th is a dve r se effect can be effectively
eli minat ed thr ough th e u se of d it her.


Dith er
Di th e r is th e p rocess of a dd ing low-level ana log noise to a sig na l, to ran domize
or confu se th e q uant ize rs s ma ll-sig na l be ha vior . Di th e r spe cifica lly a i m s to
a dd r ess t wo p roble m s in q uant iz at ion. T h e fir s t of w hich is that a r eve r be rat ing,
decayi ng sig na l can fall below th e lowe r li mit of th e sys t e m r esolut ion. T hat is to
s ay that an att e m p t to e ncode a sig na l below th e LSB r es ult s in noth ing ge tt ing
e ncoded . Cle ar ly, i nformat ion is los t. T h e secon d, a s discu ssed i n th e p r eviou s
sect ion, is that sys t e m dis tort ion i ncr e a ses a s a pe rce nt of a decr e a si n g i n p ut
7

sig na l. I t is im portant to not e that not only does dith e r r e move som e q uant iz at ion
e rr or from th e sig na l, it effectively re m oves it.

T h e concep t mig ht see m initially count e rintu itive, b ut it is r e ally q uit e sim ple.
Di th e r r elies on som e spe ci a l be ha vior of th e human e ar . T h e e ar can de t ect a
sig na l ma sked by p art icular ly b roa db an d noise. I n som e ca ses , th e e ar can e a sily
de t ect a m id ran ge sig na l b ur ie d a s mu ch a s 10 to 12 dB b e l o w th e level of
b roa db an d noise
1
. T hose w ho s t ill fi n d th e effect s of di th e r q u es t iona ble , m ig ht
want to tr y th e followi ng int eres ting tes t
2
.

Le t th e t ex t on th is p age r ep r ese nt th e am pli tu de of th e sig na l to be q uant ize d.
Al so, le t th e sp a ce be t wee n yo ur s lig ht ly sp r e a d fi n ge r s r ep r ese nt v a li d
q uant iz at io n i nt e r v a l s . Now p l a ce yo ur han d a c r oss th e t ex t . A m p li tu de
informat ion ha s bee n irr ecove ra bly los t d u e to q uant iz at ion. Now p rovide dith e r to
th e sig na l by q uickly movi ng your han d u p an d dow n along th e plan e of th e p age.
T h e am pli tu de i nformat ion that w a s los t ha s bee n r e tr ieve d at th e expe n se of
a dd ing a slig ht am ount of noise to th e sys t e myour bl urr ed finge r s.

So eve n th ough som e noise ha s bee n a dded , we ha ve eli minat ed th e dis tort ion
d u e to q uant iz at ion e rr or wi th th e r es ult bei ng a cle an e r, mor e accurat e sig na l.


J itt er
Al th ou g h rar ely obse r ve d i n a well des ig n ed pl a ye r, ji tt er is a worth y topic of
discu ss ion becau se of both it s misconcep tion s an d th e lar ge am ount of p r ess it ha s
r eceived . J itt e r is b a sically defin ed a s tim e in s ta bili ty. I t occur s in both ana log-to-
digi ta l an d digi ta l-to-ana log con ve r sion. T h e l att e r i n s tan ce is th e on ly conce rn
h e r e. J itt e r occur s in th e com p act disc playe r w h e n s am ple s ar e bei ng r e a d off th e
disc. T h ese r e a ds ar e contr olle d by th e p ulses of a crys ta l oscill at or. If th e sys t e m
clock p u lse i na ccurat ely (an un li k ely eve nt ), if th e r e is a gli tch i n th e digi ta l
har dw ar e, or if th e r e is noise on a sig na l contr ol li n e, th e actua l r e a ding tim e will
v ar y from s am ple to s am ple thu s i n d uci n g noise an d dis tort ion i n th e ex tr e m e
c a se .

A gr e at de al of mon ey ha s bee n ma de by s hr ewd mark e t ee r s p r eyi ng on th e fe ar s
of th e con s um e r worr ie d a bout ji tt e r . S uch p rod uct s mark e t ed i ncl u de disc
s ta bilize r rings to r ed uce rotat iona l var iat ion s, hig hly d am ped ru bbe r fee t for th e
playe r s, an d oth e r s nak e oil r e m edies . Howeve r, th e car eful e ngi n ee r ha s be at e n
8

th e mark e t ee r to th e p un ch by ha vi ng th e s am ple s r e a d off th e disc int o a RAM
b uffe r. As th e b uffe r becom es fu ll, a loca l cr ys ta l oscill at or can th e n clock-out
th e s am ple s i n a r eli a ble mann e r , i n depe n de nt of th e tran sp ort an d r e a di n g
m echan is m s. T h is p rocess is r efe rr ed to a s t i m eb a se corr ect ion an d a s s tat ed
before, an y qua li ty piece of eq uip ment will im ple ment it.


IM PLEMEN TATIO N


Sys tem Ov ervi ew
T h e com p act disc playe r a s a soun d r ep rod uction device fulfill s th e loop beg un in
th e r ecor ding s tu dio, r e turn ing th e au dio sig na l b ack to it s origi na l ana log form .
If all th e th eor e tical guideli n es ha ve bee n followed in th e eq uip m e nt an d p rocesses
be t wee n th e mu sician an d your au dio sys t e m, th e soun d you h e ar is ex actly th e
soun d that w a s h e ar d in th e r ecor ding s tu dio.

T h e spe cificat ion s for th e com p act disc an d com p act disc pl a ye r s we r e joi nt ly
de vel oped by So n y, Ph ili ps , an d P olyg ram a s m e nt io n ed p r evio u s ly. T h i s
spe cificat ion is conta i n ed i n th ei r s tan d ar ds docum e nt r efe rr ed to a s th e R e d
Book. A s ummar y of th is s tan d ar d is see n in T a ble 1.


DI SC
Playing time: 74 minutes, 33 seconds maximum
Rotation: Counter-clockwise when viewed from readout surface
Rotational speed: 1.21.4 m/sec. (constant linear velocity)
Track pitch: 1.6 m
Diameter: 120 mm
Thickness: 1.2 mm
Center hole diameter: 15 mm
Recording area: 46 mm 117 mm
Signal area: 50 mm 116 mm
Material: Any acceptable medium with a refraction index of 1.55
Minimum pit length: 0.833 m (1.2 m/sec) to 0.972 m (1.4 m/sec)
Maximum pit length: 3.05 m (1.2 m/sec) to 3.56 m (1.4 m/sec)
Pit depth: ~0.11 m
Pit width: ~0.5 m
9


OPTICAL SYSTEM
Standard wavelength: = 780 nm (7,800 )
Focal depth: 2 m


SIGNAL FORMAT
Number of channels: 2 channels (4 channel recording possible)
Quantization: 16-bit linear
Quantizing timing: Concurrent for all channels
Sampling frequency: 44.1 kHz
Channel bit rate: 4.3218 Mb/sec
Data bit rate: 2.0338 Mb/sec
Data-to-channel bit ratio: 8:17
Error correction code: Cross Interleave Reed-Solomon Code (with 25% redundancy)
Modulation system: Eight-to-fourteen Modulation (EFM)
Table 1. Re d Boo k sp e cific a tions for th e c om pa c t disc system
3
.


T h e co m p a c t d i sc p l a ye r co nta i n s t wo ma i n s u bsys t e m s: th e au d io d ata
p rocessi n g sys t e m an d th e se r vo/contr ol sys t e m. T h e se r vo, contr ol, an d disp l a y
sys t e m orch es trat e th e m echan ical ope rat ion of th e playe r an d inclu de s uch it e m s
a s th e sp in dle motor, aut o-tra cking, le n s focu s, an d th e u se r int e rface. T h e au dio
d ata p rocessi ng section cove r s all oth e r playe r p rocesses . A block diagram of th e
com p act disc playe r is s how n in Fig ur e 1.




LASER PICKUP,
FOCUS, TRACKING,
AND DISC TRANSPORT




SERVO
CONTROL



CONTROL AND
DISPLAY SUBCODE
DECODING




CONTROL
FUNCTIONS




DISPLAY
FUNCTIONS



MEMORY






HF SIGNAL INPUT
FROM DISC





BIT DETECTION




EFM
DEMODULATION




SAMPLE
RAM BUFFER




CIRC ERROR
CORRECTION



ERROR
CONCEALMENT
AND
DEMULTIPLEXING





DIGITAL
FILTERS


DIGITAL-TO-
ANALOG
CONVERTER


DIGITAL-TO-
ANALOG
CONVERTER


LOW-PASS
OUTPUT
FILTER


LOW-PASS
OUTPUT
FILTER


LEFT-
CHANNE
L
OUTPUT


RIGHT-
CHANNE
L
OUTPUT



CLOCK
REGENERATION


SYNCHRONIZATION
DETECTION AND
TIMING



CRYSTAL
OSCILLATOR


Figure 1. Blo ck diag ra m of a c om pa c t disc player.
10



Since th e intr od uction of th e com p act disc playe r in 1982 , th e mark e t ha s see n
thr ee ge n e rat ion s of pl a ye r s. F i r s t ge n e rat ion pl a ye r s we r e chara ct e r ize d by
mu l t i-bi t DACs u sed wi th b r ick w a ll r econ s tru ct ion fil t e r s. Secon d ge n e rat ion
playe r s u sed th e s am e mu lti-bi t DACs b ut took a dvanta ge of digi ta l ove r s am pli ng
fil t e r s pl aced u ps tr e am of th e DAC a lon g wi th a ge n tl e ana log r econ s tru ct ion
fil t e r . F i na lly, c urr e nt p l a ye r s mak e u se of low-bi t DACs a lo n g wi th
ove r s am pli ng fil t e r s an d th e ge nt le ana log out p ut fil t e r. I n th e followi ng section s,
e ach of th ese DAC types an d fil tering meth ods will be inve s tig at ed .


Digit a l-to-a n a log Co nv ert ers
T h e ve ry fir s t de mon s trat ion playe r s ma de by Sony, Ph ili ps , an d oth e r s u sed 14-
bi t conve rt e r s, w hich at th e tim e we r e a va s t im p rove m e nt ove r ana log eq uip m e nt ,
b ut non e th eless we r e poor q ua li t y by tod a ys s tan d ar ds . By th e t i m e th e fi r s t
con s um e r playe r s we r e r ele a sed in 1982 , 16-bi t conve rt e r s we r e th e s tan d ar d. By
1989 , man y manu factur er s tout ed th e u se of 18 an d 20-bi t conve rt er s.


MU LTI -BIT CO NVER TERS At th e digi ta l har dw ar e level, mu lti-bi t conve rt er s ma y
be des ig n ed i n se ve ra l w a ys. T h e mos t comm on of th ese i ncl u de th e l a dde r
n e t wo rk co n ve rt e r , i nt eg rat i n g co n ve rt e r , an d d y nam ic ele m e nt mat c h i n g
con ve rt e r. T h e discu ss ion of th ese i m ple m e ntat ion s is beyon d th e scope of th is
t ex t, so th e am bi tiou s r e a de r is r efe rr ed to th e r efe r e nce mat e rial.

T h e num be r of bi t s in a DAC is a poor m e th od of de t e rm ining it s pe rforman ce
an d accura cy. A be tt e r m e a s ur e of pe rforman ce is th e accura cy of th e actua l bi t s
th e m selve s. Und e r ide al circum s tan ces , a 16-bi t conve rt e r would ex actly conve rt
all 16-bi t s of th e s am ple d ata wor d in a li n e ar fa s hion. Howeve r, th is is seldom
poss ible. I n p ra ctice a 16-bi t DAC is le ss than s ufficie nt for accurat e conve r sion.

T h e e rr or i n a 16-bi t (or an y mu l t i-bi t) con ve rt e r r elies on th e accura cy of th e
mos t sig nificant bi t (MSB ) of th e d ata wor d. I na ccura cy in th is bi t can r es ult in an
e rr or of ha lf th e sig na ls am pli tu dea sig nificant e rr or by an y m e a s ur e. T his in
m i n d , manu f a c tur e r s r e a so n ed that co n ve rt e r s wi th h ig h bi t rat es co u l d
ove r co m e th i s s h o rt co m i n g a lo n g wi th o th e r s thr o u g h s h ee r num be r s. I n
a dd ition to e n s ur ing th e accura cy of th e MSB by ha vi ng mor e than 16-bi t s, th ey
can a lso i m p rove q uant iz at ion pe rforman ce by a dd i n g 2
x-16
mor e q uant iz at ion
11

level s than a 16-bi t con ve rt e r. Now, an y non li n e ar i t y i n th e con ve r sion p rocess
wou ld be a far s ma lle r fra ct ion of th e ove ra ll sig na l an d th e mor e q uant iz at ion
level s r es ult in a gr e at e r S/E rat io by vi rtu e of E q. 1. T h e ex tra bi t s u sed by th ese
conve rt er s ma y be ei th er thr own away, be left unu sed , or be p ut to oth er int ellige nt
u ses that will be discu ssed lat e r. Un fortunat ely, it is a misconcep tion that th e u se
of an 18- or 20-bi t DAC give s tru e 18 or 20-bi t au dio pe rforman ce.

Despi t e th e fanta s t ic pe rforman ce be n efi t s of th ese n
th
ge n e rat ion mu l t i-bi t
co n ve rt e r s, th ey ar e s t ill p l a g u ed by man y e rr o r s. Li n e ar i t y w a s a l r e a d y
m e nt ion ed , b ut th ey ar e also plagu ed by gain e rr or, slew -rat e dis tort ion, an d ze ro-
cross i n g dis tort ion . All of th ese e rr or an d dis tort ion t ypes i ntr od uce se ve r e
harm o n ic d i s t o rt io n an d g r o u p de l a y; th e r eby pe rtur bi n g s ig na l s ta bili t y,
i ma gi n g, an d s ta gi n g.

Two m e th ods of out p ut r econ s tru ction ha ve bee n u sed wi th th e mu lti-bi t DACs.
The fir s t of th ese em ploye d th e u se of th e brickwall fil ter. These fil ter s ha d a ve ry
s har p cut off chara ct e ris tic an d h eld th e sig na l gain close to un ity almos t to cut off.
T his w a s n ecessi tat ed becau se th e d ata w a s at a fr eq u e ncy s uch that ali a sing an d
noise art ifact s exis t ed imm edi at ely a bove th e au dible b an d. T h e inh e r e nt p roble m
wi th s uch a fil t e r des ig n w a s that th ey ha d tr e m e n dou s p ha se non li n e ar i t ie s at
h ig h fr eq u e ncie s, an d h ig h-fr eq u e ncy g rou p de l a ychan ge i n p ha se s h ift wi th
r espe ct to fr eq u e ncy. T h e secon d m e th od of out p ut r econ s tru ct ion de a ls wi th an
ove r s am pli ng digi ta l fil t e r p rior to th e DAC an d a ge nt le ana log fil t e r. By ge nt le, it
is m e ant that a cut off slope of 12 dB/octa ve an d a -3 dB point of 30-40 kH z can be
u sed . I t s des ig n th e n is noncr i t ica l an d low-or de rw h ich g uarant ees excelle nt
p ha se li n e ar ity. I n fact, for mos t p ra ctical r econ s tru ction fil t e r s, p ha se dis tort ion
can be h eld at 0.5 ove r th e e nt ir e au dio b an d. T h e discu ss ion of th is is pe rt in e nt
to both mu lti- an d low-bi t DACs, so th e topic will be cove red after th e nex t section.


L O W-B IT C O N V ER T ERS To com b at th e p roble m s of mu l t i-bi t con ve rt e r s, t wo
com pe ting t echn ologie s we r e developed , th e fir s t by M at s u s hita an d th e secon d by
Ph ili ps . R ath e r than con ve rt i n g w hole d ata wor ds i n p ara llel at th e s am pli n g
fr eq u e ncy, both m e th ods involve conve rt ing far s hort e r wor d le ngth s at far hig h e r
rat es . T h is se r i a l d ata con ve r sion is an i nh e r e nt ly digi ta l p rocess an d ha s bee n
ma de poss ible in p art by th e powe rful digi ta l sig na l p rocess or s avail a ble tod ay.
12


ATTENUATOR




INTER -
POLATING
FIR FILTER



SECOND -
ORDER
NOISE
SHAPER




M at s u s h i tas m e th od is b a sed on p u lse-wid th mod u l at ion (P WM). I n th is
des ig n, th e wid th of th e sig na l p ulse r ep r ese nt s th e un iq u e d ata wor d, thu s it is
cr i t ica l that th e P WM s t eps ha ve ex act wid th an d m i n i mum ji tt e r to ma xi m ize
accura cy an d li n e ar ity of th e out p ut . T h e comm e rcial nam e for th e p rocess u sed
is MAS H (M u l t i-s tAge noise S Ha pi n g). A MAS H con ve rt e r is ma de of a 4-t i m es
ove r s am pli n g digi ta l fil t e r, followed by fi r s t- an d secon d-or de r noise s ha pe r s i n
p ara llel. T h e out p ut from th e noise s ha pe r s is th e n fed i nt o a P WM con ve rt e r,
w hose out p ut is th e n low-p a ss fil t e r ed . A block diagram of th e MAS H sys t e m is
s how n in Fig. 2.



16-BIT
4X f
s

INTER -
POLATING
FIR FILTER

18-BIT
4X f
s




FIRST -ORDER
NOISE
SHAPER








d
dt
+
32X f
S
L EFT
POSITIVE
+

L EFT
N EGATIVE

RIGHT
POSITIVE
+

RIGHT
N EGATIVE

L OW-PASS
FILTER




L OW-PASS
FILTER



LEFT





R IGHT

PWM D/A CONVERTER

PERIPHERAL AUDIO CIRCUIT
Figure 2. Blo ck diag ra m of a PWM / MASH digit al-to-analog c onv erter.


A digi ta l fi n i t e i m p u lse r esp on se (F IR) fil t e r p rod uces 18-bi t d ata from a 16-bi t
in p ut s am ple aft e r 4-tim es ove r s am pli ng. T h e noise s ha pe r s th e n conve rt th is 18-
bi t d ata int o an 11-s t ep q uant ize d format for th e PWM aft e r 8-tim es ove r s am pli ng.
T h e PWM sys t e m is ope rat ed at 768 tim es th e origi na l s am pli ng fr eq u e ncy (33.868
M Hz). If it we r e to actua lly do a 1-bi t conve r sion of 16-bi t sig na ls, 65,536 p ulses
wou ld be n eeded to r ep r ese nt e ach am pli tu de. Howeve r, th is wou ld r eq u i r e th e
con ve rt e r to ope rat e at speeds i n excess of 2.98 G H zfa s t e r than th e curr e nt ly
a v a il a ble bip ol ar tran sis tor t echn ology. T h is r es tra i nt i m poses th e r eq u i r e m e nt
that th e 18-bi t d ata be r ed uced to th e 11-s t ep out p ut . I n p ra ct ice th e MAS H
conve rt er can only be con side red a 3.5-bi t conve rt er.

T h e secon d low-bi t con ve r sion t echn iq u e by Ph ili ps is kn ow n a s p u lse-de n si t y
mod ulat ion (P DM) or Bi t s tr e am conve r sion. I n th is t echn iq u e, th e de n sity rat io of
th e sig n of th e p u lses is r el at ed to th e or igi na l 16-bi t d ata wor d. T h e P DM
con ve rt e r is a tru e 1-bi t t echn ology. T h is sig na l r ep r ese ntat ion ma y not see m
i mm edi at ely obviou s. A si m ple mode l h elps ill u s trat e w hat is ha ppe n i n g
4
. If a
13


4X OVERSAM PLIN G
(FIR FILTER)



1-BIT D/A
(SW IT CHED CAPA CIT OR
N ET WOR K)







SEC OND -ORDE R
N OISE SHAPER


lig ht is on, th e n th e room is b rig ht ly li t; if th e lig ht switch is off, th e room is d ark .
B ut if th e sw i tch is cycle d ra pidly on an d off, an i nt e rm edi at e i nt e n si t y can be
cr e at ed . T h e s am ple d ata from th e decode r chip is fir s t p a ssed to a low-p a ss non-
r ecur sive 4-tim es ove r s am pli ng F IR int e r polat ion fil t e r. T his type of fil t e r yiel ds
hig h e r q ua li ty becau se it is p ha se-li n e ar . Fir s t-or de r noise s ha ping is pe rform ed
by th e accumu l at or of th e mu l t iplie r i n th e fil t e r . T h e secon d fil t e r i n g s ta ge
co n s i s t s of a 32 - t i m es ove r s am p li n g li n e ar i nt e r pol at o r an d a 2- t i m es
ove r s am pli n g s am ple an d hold ci rcu i t . At th is s ta ge, a 352 kH z digi ta l di th e r
sig na l at -20 dB is a dded to th e s am ple sig na l. T h is r ed uces non li n e ar i t ie s
in d uced by q uant iz at ion noise. At th is point , th e tota l ove r s am pli ng is 256 -tim es
an d th e d ata wor d ha s incr e a sed to 17-bi t s. T h e d ata is th e n fed at a fr eq u e ncy of
11.2896 M Hz int o th e secon d or de r noise s ha pe r. T h e noise s ha pe r r ed uces th e 17-
bi t d ata to a 1-bi t s tr e am by u sing EA mod u l at ion. I n th is p rocess q uant iz at ion
noise is r edis tr ib ut ed a w ay from th e au dio fr eq u e ncy by a s mu ch a s 2 or de r s of
ma g n i tu de . T h e bi t s tr e am is th e n con ve rt ed to an ana log form by a sw i tch ed
ca p acitor n e t work . A block diagram of th e P DM conve rt e r is s how n in Fig. 3.


16-BIT
44.1 KHZ

THI RD-ORDER
ANALO G
L OW-PAS S FILTER
L
ANALOG OUTP U T
R



32X OVER SAMPL ING
(L INEAR INT ERPO LAT OR )

2X OVERSAM PLIN G
(SAMPL E AND HOLD)




Figure 3. Blo ck diag ra m of a PDM digit al-to-analog c onv erter.


Becau se th e r e ar e only t wo volta ge r efe r e nces in th e P DM conve rt e r, th e r e is no
level mat ching r eq uir e m e nt for im p rove d accura cy. T h e r efor e th e li n e ar ity e rr or s
a ssociat ed wi th it ar e eli minat ed .

Com p ar ison s of T H D an d li n e ar i t y e rr or for v ar iou s 16-, 18-, 20-, an d 1-bi t
con ve rt e r s yiel d i nt e r es t i n g r es u l t s. P WM an d P DM con ve rt e r s s how < 1 dB
li n e ar ity for in p ut sig na ls from -100 to -80 dB an d ar e vi rtua lly li n e ar th e r e aft e r.
Som e of th e mos t expe n sive playe r s on th e mark e t wi th 18- an d 20-bi t conve rt e r s
u sing 4-, 8-, 16-, an d eve n 32-tim es ove r s am pli ng yiel d u p to 4 dB li n e ar ity e rr or
for sig na ls a s hig h a s -75 dB. I n th e THD tes t s pe rform ed wi th a -60 dB 1 kH z sine
w ave t es t sig na l, th e expe n sive mu lti-bi t playe r s s howed harm onics u p to th e 13 th
14

at level s gr e at e r that -110 dB
5
. O nly th e P DM conve rt e r w a s a ble to hold all non-
fun d am e nta l harm onics un de r -110 dB.


Digit a l Filt ering , Ov ers amp ling , a n d Nois e Sh ap ing
Ove r s am pli ng is not man d at ed by an y th eor e m discu ssed p r eviou sly, b ut it s u se
yiel ds tr e m e n dou s pe rforman ce g a i n s r eg ar dle ss of th e t ype of con ve rt e r u sed .
Ove r s am pli ng q uit e sim ply m e an s u sing a s am pli ng fr eq u e ncy gr e at e r than that
dictat ed by th e Nyq uis t th eor e m. By exceedi ng th e Nyq uis t fr eq u e ncy, man y of th e
p r ecision de man ds ma de by th e th eor e m can be r el axe d (li ke th e b rickw all fil t e r).
I n a dd i t ion to th e be n efi t s see n at th e out p ut fil t e r, th e sig na l-to-noise rat io is
boos t ed gr e at ly an d q uant iz at ion noise is r ed uced in th e au dio b an d. T h e latt e r is
decr e a sed by an i ncr edible am ount w h e n ove r s am pli n g is u sed i n conj un ct ion
wi th noise-s ha pe r s, w hich will be discu ssed s hort ly.

T h e ove r s am pli n g p rocess is well s u i t ed to a digi ta l sig na l p rocess or (DS P) ,
w hich esse nt ial tak es in au dio s am ple s, pe rform s an ope rat ion on th e m, an d th e n
out p ut s au dio s am ple s. Becau se th e s am ple s ar e modifie d, th e DS P is in effect a
digi ta l fil t e r. T h e DS P is be n eficial becau se th e ope rat ion s it pe rform s ar e p r ecise
an d r epe ata ble, not oth e r wise poss ible wi th ana log t echn iq u es , an d r es ult in lowe r
noise an d dis tort ion than wi th ana log t echn iq u es . T h e ove r s am pli ng p rocess can
be viewe d si m ply a s i nt e r le a vi n g ze ros be t wee n e ach s am ple wi th a dd i t iona l
s am ple s. I n p ra ct ice, th ese n ew s am ple s ar e p rod uced by u si n g a s h ift r egis t e r
(w h ich act s a s a de l a y li n e), coefficie nt mu l t iplie r s, an d an a dde r . T h e s h ift
r egis t e r ha s ta ps aft e r e ach delay ele m e nt . T h e out p ut of e ach ta p is tak e n an d
th e n mu l t iplie d by a coefficie nt s tor ed i n ROM a ss oci at ed wi th th e i m p u lse
r esp on se of th e low-p a ss fil t e r . T h ese de l a ye d mu l t iple s ar e th e n s umm ed to
ge n e rat e a n ew s am ple. An ex am ple of th is can be see n in Fig. 4.
15
T
1

one-
sample
delay




T
2

one-
sample
delay




T
3

one-
sample
delay




T
4

one-
sample
delay




S
A
M
P
L
E

V
A
L
U
E

S
A
M
P
L
E

V
A
L
U
E

S
A
M
P
L
E

V
A
L
U
E




Input
(16-bit Samples
@ 44.1 kHz)




Filter
Coefficients
C
1 X
C
2 X
C
3 X
C
4 X



+
Output
@ n44.1kHz
Figure 4. Use of a tra nsversal filter to a c hieve oversa m pling .


T h e tota l r es u l t of th is p rocess is that n ew i nt e r pol at ed s am ple s ar e cr e at ed at
e ach int e rle ave d ze ro-valu e. T his is s how n gra p hically in Fig. 5.










TIME TIME TIME
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 5. Eff e c t of zeros int erle a vin g a n d oversa m plin g on a
sig n al. Origin al sig n al a n d sa m ples (a) with: int erle a ve d zeros
(b) and int erp olate d new sa m ples (c).


As a r es ult of th is, th e s am pli ng fr eq u e ncy ha s incr e a sed by w hat eve r am ount of
ove r s am pli n g occurr ed , an d th e d ata wor d le n g th ha s g row n . Becau se th e
s am pli ng fr eq u e ncy ha s rise n, th e noise in th e au dio b an d ha s bee n s hift ed out by
a g r e at e r am ount than i t w a s befor e. Noise s ha pi n g is th e n i m ple m e nt ed to
r ed uce th e d ata wor d size an d furth e r ex agge rat e th e am ount noise is move d out
of th e au dio b an d.

As s tat ed p r eviou sly, th e p rimar y job of th e noise s ha pe r is to alt e r th e fr eq u e ncy
spe ctrum of th e e rr or sig na ls so a s to move mos t of th e q uant iz at ion e rr or out of
th e au dible fr eq u e ncy ran ge. Noise s ha ping r ed uces q uant iz at ion noise by u sing a
n eg at ive feedb ack t echn iq u e. I n effect, th e s ha pe r att e m p t s to r ed uce q uant iz at ion
e rr or by u sing it s kn ow n q ua li tie s to actua lly s u b tra ct from th e sig na l. T h e powe r
be h i n d a low-bi t con ve r sion t echn iq u e r elies on th e powe r of i t s noise-s ha pi n g
16
R
E
L
A
T
I
V
E

N
O
I
S
E

D
E
N
S
I
T
Y

R
E
L
A
T
I
V
E

N
O
I
S
E

D
E
N
S
I
T
Y


a lgor i thm . I n ge n e ra l, th e mor e com plex th e noise-s ha pe r, th e lowe r th e au dio
b an d noise. T hu s th e pe rforman ce of th e noise s ha pe r is de t e rm in ed by th e or de r
of th e s ha pe r an d it s ope rat ing fr eq u e ncy. T h e latt e r p aram e t e r is a fun ction of
how mu ch ove r s am pli ng is pe rform ed p rior to s ha ping. T h e fir s t r el at ion s hip we
can ex tra ct from th ese p aram e t e r s is th e h ig h e r th e or de r of th e s ha pe r , th e
hig h e r th e slope of th e noise r edis tr ib ut ion an d h e nce th e lowe r th e au dible noise.
T h e d ra wb ack is that sideb an d noise is incr e a sed so mu ch that th e ana log fil t e r s
could be ove r b ur de n ed . T h e secon d r el at ion s hip is that th e hig h e r th e ope rat ing
fr eq u e ncy, th e h ig h e r i n th e fr eq u e ncy doma i n th e noise is s h ift ed . T h ese t wo
r el at ion s h ips ar e defi n ed by th e noise-de n si t y dis tr ib ut ion eq uat ion w h ich is
s how n in E q. 4, w h e r e f
s
is th e origi na l s am pli ng fr eq u e ncy an d n is th e s ha pe r
o r de r ..
n

| f |
(

noise
( f ) =

2 sin
| ( (4)

\ f
s
.

T h e r el at ion s h ip is a lso ill u s trat ed i n F ig. 6 a. T h e on ly li m i tat ion i n ope rat ion
speed is th e avail a ble speed of digi ta l logic. T h e r efor e, th e con scie nt iou s des ig n e r
aim s for th e p rope r b alan ce be t wee n s ha ping or de r an d ove r s am pli ng.


PWM / MASH: THIRD-ORDER NOISE SHAPER
8 AT 32X f
s
(1.4112 MHz)

0.012


0.010
6




PDM BITSREAM:
SECOND-ORDER NOISE SHAPER
4
AT 256X f
s
(11.2896 MHz)
0.008



0.006


0.004
2
PWM / MASH: THIRD-ORDER
NOISE SHAPER AT 32X


WITHOUT NOISE SHAPER




0
0.002



0

PDM BITSREAM: SECOND-
ORDER
NOISE SHAPER AT 256X

0 2 4 6 8 10 12
FREQUENCYMHz
(a)

0 10 20 30 40 50
FREQUENCYkHz
(b)
Figure 6. Various noise-d ensity distributions as a fun c tion of fre quen cy
(a). The PDM and PWM distributions in the audio ba nd (b).
17

d
dt

}



}





T




As a foo tn o t e, th e ope rat i n g f r eq u e n cy ha s th e g r e at es t effec t of th e t wo
p aram e t e r s on noise de n sity dis tr ib ut ion. T his is cle ar ly visible in a mu ch mor e
de ta ile d look at th e noise dis tr ib ut ion s i n F ig. 6b . Cle ar ly, th e P DM ha s
sig n ificant ly lowe r au dio b an d noise an d n ecessi tat es on ly a si m ple ana log
r econ s tru ction fil t e r. A block diagram of th e th ir d-or de r noise s ha pe r u sed in th e
MAS H conve rt e r is s how n in Fig. 7.

FIRST-ORDER NOISE SHAPER
X(Z) +
+


} Q
1

INTEGRATOR
+
Y(Z)


T
DELAY

+
SECOND-ORDER NOISE SHAPER

+
+
+
+
INTEGRATOR
Q
2

INTEGRATOR




DELAY

Figure 7. Third-ord er noise sh ap er use d in th e PWM c onv erter.


I n th e s ha pe r give n in Fig. 6, th e in p ut sig na l is fed int o q uant ize r Q1 aft e r th e
r esid ua l e rr or is s u b tra ct ed from th e de l a y block i n th e fi r s t or de r s ha pe r. T h e
r esid ua l sig na l is also fed int o th e secon d or de r noise s ha pe r, w h e r e th e out p ut of
th e secon d q uant ize r, Q2, is diffe r e nt iat ed an d th e n s umm ed wi th th e out p ut of
th e fir s t noise s ha pe r to cre at e th e fina l out p ut sig na l
6
.

T h e com p act disc ha s only exis t ed for a bout 13 ye ar s, an d mor e than li kely ha s
a s man y ye ar s of u seful life left. T h e r e ar e man y a dvan ces that ar e s till poss ible in
th e fo rmat an d man y of th e m ar e j u s t i n th ei r i n f an cy. H oweve r , man y
cha lle nge r s ha ve alr e a dy e nt e r ed th e playi ng fiel d; som e by th e origi na l cr e at or s
of th e com p act disc. Sony ha s cr e at ed both th e DAT s tan d ar d a s well a s th e Mi ni-
Dis c, an d Ph ili ps ha s cr e at ed th e DCC (digi ta l com p act ca sse tt e). Reg ar dle ss of
18

th e com p act discs life tim e, it is ce rta in that digi ta l au dio will r e ma in, an d ana log
will be r ese rve d to th e role of in p ut at th e microp hon e in th e s tu dio an d out p ut at
th e spe ak e r in th e lis t e ning e nvi ronm e nt .

T his is by no m e an s a com ple t e or ex hau s tive ana lysis of th e b a sic fun d am e nta ls
of th e com p act disc pl a ye r. M an y iss u es s uch a s e rr or-corr ect ion, d ata e ncodi n g
an d decoding, an d pickup des ig n we r e n eglect ed . Howeve r, th e concep t s cove r ed
h e r e s hou ld p rovi de th e r e a de r wi th a s tr on g b ack g roun d, an d i nci t e som e
int e r es t in le arn ing mor e. For th e r e a de r w ho is int e r es t ed in le arn ing mor e, th e
Th e Art of Digital Aud io by Watk in son is an ex t e n sive collection of kn owledge on
digi ta l au dio. I t is at tim es ve ry t echn ical in natur e, b ut th e mat e rial intr od uced
b uilds u pon it self nicely. Pohlmann s book, Th e Co m pact Dis c H a nd book, focu ses
solely on th e com p act disc pl a ye r an d th e com p act disc i t se lf a lon g wi th a ll i t s
dive r se format sof w h ich au dio is on ly on e. H is book is ve r y th orou g h i n i t s
cove ra ge an d s h o u l d le a ve n o q u es t io n s f r o m th e r e a de r unan swe r ed .
Pohlmann s book ha s a fair am ount of ove rla p wi th Watk in sons an d would mak e
a be tt er s tart ing point for th ose s hort on time.

EN DNOT E S


1
John Ear gle. (Bi tt er J itt er an d Swee ter Di th er, Aud io. Vol. 76, No. 1). p. 24


2
Ke n C. Pohlmann . (Th e Co m pact Dis c H a nd bookTh e Co m p u ter m u sic a nd d igital a ud io series.
2 n d E d. M a dison, WI: A-R E dition s, I nc. 1992 ). p. 34-35.


3
Pohlmann , p. 46.


4
Pohlmann , p. 148 .


5
Pra s anna S hah . (M u sic of th e Bi t s tr e am , Aud io. Vol. 75, No. 1). p. 64.


6
Shah , p. 61.
19

REFEREN CES


Ear gle, J ohn . Bi tt e r J itt e r an d Swee t e r Di th e r, Aud io. Vol. 76, No. 1 ( J an . 1992 ).
24+


Oppe nh ei m, Al an V. S ig n als a nd S yst e m s. En glew ood Cliffs, N J : Pr e nt ice-Ha ll,
I nc., 1983 .


Poh l mann , Ke n C. Th e Co m pa ct Dis c H a nd boo k Th e Co m p u ter m u si c a nd
d igital a ud io series. 2 n d E d. M a dison, WI: A-R E dition s, I nc. 1992 .


S hah , Pra s anna . M u sic of th e Bi t s tr e am , Aud io. Vol. 75, No. 1 ( J an . 1991 ). 56 -
60+.


S tra w n , J ohn . Digital Aud io En gi neeri n g Th e Co m p u ter m u sic a nd d igital
a ud io series. Los Altos, CA: Willi am K au fmann , I nc., 1985 .


S tra w n, J ohn . Digital Aud io S ig n al Processi ngTh e Co m p u ter m u sic a nd d igital
a ud io series. Los Altos, CA: Willi am K au fmann , I nc., 1985 .


Watk in son, J ohn R. Th e Art of Digital Aud io. 2 n d E d.. Bos ton, MA: Focal Pr ess ,
1994.


Watk in son, J ohn R. Cod i ng for Digital Recor d i ng. Bos ton, MA: Focal Pr ess , 1990 .
Whyte, Be rt . Eve ry Li tt le Bi t Helps , Aud io. Vol. 76, No. 8 (Aug. 1992 ). 19-21.