ELSEVIER Cold Regions Science and Technology, 22 ( 1994 ) 149-169

cold regions
science
and technology
Anisotropic elasticity of polycrystalline ice Ih
S. Nant hi kesan, S. Shyam Sunder
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Civil Engineering, Room 1-346, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
(Received 15 February 1993; accepted after revision 29 May 1993
Abs t r ac t
A theory to determine the complete tensor of elastic moduli of generally anisotropic polycrystalline ice and its
temperature dependence from the elastic properties of single ice crystals is presented in this paper. The model,
expressed in closed-form, predicts the upper and lower bound limits of the elastic moduli for such polycrystals by
generalizing the methods of Voigt ( 1910 ) and Reuss ( 1929 ), respectively, that were developed for isotropic aggre-
gates. This involves obtaining the spatial average of the elastic moduli and compliances of individual crystals of
ice by weighting them with the relative frequency of their orientations in the anisotropic fabric. Single ice crystals
possess an open hexagonal structure and are transversely isotropic in their elastic properties. The theory is then
applied to predict the elastic constants of transversely isotropic S1 and $2 ice, and orthotropic $3 ice. The pre-
dicted upper and lower bound limits are in excellent agreement with available experimental data.
I . Introduction
The ductile-to-brittle transition in ice is an im-
portant phenomenon in engineering applica-
tions involving ice loads on structures and the
bearing capacity of ice. In general, this transition
is characterized by multiple modes of deforma-
tion that include elastic and creep deformations,
damage in the form of distributed cracking (viz.,
crushing) and extension of localized macro-
cracks. The development of constitutive theories
to characterize many of these complex deforma-
tion processes requires the knowledge of the elas-
tic and fracture properties of ice. This paper is
concerned with estimating the elastic properties
of polycrystalline ice.
Naturally formed ice in rivers, lakes or the sea
is composed predominantly of long, columnar-
shaped crystals of this type. Michel and Ram-
seier (1971 ) classified the fabric of these poly-
crystalline aggregates as a function of crystal or
more specifically, c-axis alignment. The typical
fabric can range from transversely-isotropic to
more generally orthotropic. The mechanical
properties of such ice are intrinsically aniso-
tropic as well as temperature-sensitive. This is
because in commonly encountered terrestrial ice
(where, in general, homologous temperatures
exceed 0.9 and pressures are less than 200 GPa),
the constituent ice crystals possess a hexagonal
polar structure [classified as ice Ih, (Hobbs,
1974)].
The influence of elastic anisotropy in charac-
terizing crack nucleation and micro-damage pro-
cesses associated with the ductile-to-brittle tran-
sition in polycrystalline ice has been studied by
Cole (1988), Shyam Sunder and Nanthikesan
(1990) and by Shyam Sunder and Wu (1990).
0165-232X/94/$07.00 1994 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved
SSDIO165-232X(93)EOO18-E
150 S. Nanthikesan, S. Shyam Sunder / Cold Regions Science and Technology 22 (1994) 149-169
These and other recent studies in ice mechanics
have established the importance of elastic prop-
erties in the development of physically based
constitutive theories applicable to the high end
of the quasi-static regime of strain-rates (i.e.,
10- 4 t o 10 - 1 S- l ) .
The elastic properties of isotropic polycrystals
of ice are available (for a review of the literature,
see Gold, 1958 ) but corresponding information
on polycrystals with fabric anisotropy is incom-
plete. Theoretical estimates of the elastic con-
stants for polycrystals may be derived from the
elastic properties of the constituent monocrys-
tals (see, e.g. Voigt, 1910; Reuss, 1929; Budi-
ansky and Wu, 1962; Hill, 1965; Hashin and
Shtrikman, 1962). In all these methods, how-
ever, the complete elastic tensor can be esti-
mated only for a polycrystal with isotropic fabric.
Theoretical predictions for some of the elastic
moduli for ice with an anisotropic fabric have
been obtained in the past. As the global preferred
orientation of c-axis (Fig. 1 a) strongly influ-
ences the mechanical properties of ice (Pounder,
1965), the type of ice determines its elasticity.
Michel ( 1978 ) obtained the Young' s modulus in
the plane of isotropy of $2 ice; Sinha (1989) es-
timated the two principal Young' s moduli and
the in-plane rigidity (shear) modulus for S1, $2
and a special case of $3 ice in which c-axes are
distributed with a uniform probability density
function in the preferred angular zone. The tem-
perature dependence of these moduli were also
determined. Both investigators used the averag-
ing assumption of Reuss ( 1929 ) which theoreti-
cally yields only a lower bound estimate for the
elastic moduli (Hill, 1952).
This paper presents a theoretical model to de-
termine the complete elasticity tensor of gener-
ally anisotropic polycrystalline ice based on the
elastic properties of the constituent ice single
crystals. The model predicts the upper and lower
limits of elastic moduli for such polycrystals by
generalizing the methods of Voigt ( 1910) and
Reuss ( 1929 ), respectively, that were developed
for isotropic aggregates. This involves obtaining
the spatial average of the elastic moduli and
compliances of individual crystals weighted with
the relative frequency of their orientations in the
C- AXIS X 3
X2
LANE
F
X 1
(a)
X 3
x3 I
x 2
x
1
(b)
Fig. 1. (a) Single ice crystal. (b) Cartesian coordinate
framework.
anisotropic fabric. The theory, expressed in
closed-form, is then applied to predict the com-
plete elasticity tensor for transversely isotropic
S1 and $2 ice and orthotropic $3 ice with arbi-
trary distribution of c-axis orientations, includ-
ing their temperature dependence.
S. Nanthikesan, S. Shyam Sunder / Cold Regions Science and Technology 22 (1994) 149-169 151
2. Background
This section briefly reviews: ( 1 ) the nature of
the anisotropic fabric of polycrystalline S1, $2
and $3 ice; (ii) the i ndependent elastic con-
stants for S1, $2 and $3 ice; and (iii) the avail-
able experimental measurements of the elastic
moduli for both monocrystalline and polycrys-
talline ice.
2.1. Fabric of polycrystalline ice
The fabric (grain size, shape and orientation)
strongly influences the elasticity of ice (Poun-
der, 1965 ). Michel and Ramseier ( 1971 ) classi-
fied widely occurring river and lake ice into sev-
eral categories based on their fabric. This paper
considers the three most commonl y encountered
ice types, viz., S1, $2 and $3 columnar-grained
ice.
In S 1 ice, which is found in lakes, reservoirs,
and rivers with low flow velocities, the preferred
crystallographic orientation of the c-axis is ver-
tical (Fig. 2a ), i.e., perpendicular to the ice cover.
Grain sizes are large (in the order of centime-
ters). In $2 ice, the preferred c-axis orientation
is horizontal (i.e., in the plane of the ice cover)
and randoml y distributed with a uni form prob-
ability density function (Fig. 2b). The basal
planes are parallel to the length direction of the
columnar crystals. Both these categories of ice are
transversely isotropic. In the presence of strong
currents, while the c-axes may still be located in
the horizontal plane, a strong preferred orienta-
tion can develop in the plane of the ice cover
(Weeks and Gow, 1978). This type of ice is
classified as $3 ice (Fig. 2c). It is usually found
at the bot t om of thick ice sheets of perennially
frozen lakes, in river ice at great depth and arctic
sea ice.
2.2. The independent elastic constants of ice
Hooke' s law of linear elasticity is expressed as
follows:
cro = C,~lE~z ( l a)
or
eij = S~sklakt ( 1 b )
where eo and a o are the strain and stress tensors
respectively, Sbkt is the fourth order elastic com-
pliance tensor and C~kt is the elastic moduli ten-
sor with respect to an arbitrary coordinate sys-
tem (Xl, x2, x3), and ij , k, l= 1,2,3. Repeated
indices imply summation. In its most general
form, Sbkl (or C'Ok l ) has 81 constants. For a gen-
erally anisotropic Green elastic material, Sbkz (or
C,~kl) has 21 independent constants which re-
duces to nine in the case of orthotropic mate-
rials, to five for transversely isotropic materials,
and to two for isotropic materials (Nye, 1957).
The Voigt notation for Hookean elasticity of a
Green elastic material is:
~=St r ( 2)
tlr= CE
where the compliance matrix, S, and elastic
moduli matrix, C, are 6 6 matrices; the strain
vector e = [ E1 ~, e22, e33, e32, e3~, e~2 ] x and the stress
vector tr= [trl~, a22, a33, a32, a3~, a12] x. The sym-
bol T denotes the transpose operation.
For an orthotropic material, the elasticity ma-
trix a, with aij denoting either compliance or
moduli (stiffness), can be expressed as:
a- - - - -
B
all a~2 a13 0
a22 a23 0
a33 0
a44
Sym.
m
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
a~5 0
a 66
The coefficients a44 , a55, a66 are the shear con-
stants corresponding to the (x2,x3), (x, ,x3 ) and
(x~,x2) planes, respectively.
For transversely isotropic (S1 or $2) ice, when
the plane of isotropy is (xl , x2), [all=a22;
a13=a23; aaa=a55; a 66= 2( a l l - a12) for compli-
ance, and a66 = ( a l l - - a~2)/2 for moduli] the
elasticity matrix is:
152 S. Nanthikesan, S. Shyam Sunder / Cold Regions Science and Technology 22 (1994) 149-169
a - -
w
a~l a~2 a13 0
a~j al3 0
a33 0
a44
Sym.
m
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
a44 0
a 66
It should be noted that the form of the elasticity
matrix for a crystal with hexagonal symmetry
such as ice, is identical to that for the case of
transversely isotropic polycrystal.
2. 3. Measurements of the elastic constants of ice
The elastic properties of single ice crystals are
well established. Among the most systematic
studies are those of Dantl (1969) and Gammon
et al. (1983). The former used a pulse-echo
met hod in conj unction with a double-pulse in-
terference technique. The experiments were con-
ducted at temperatures ranging from the melting
point to - 140 C on cylindrical test samples of
26 mm height and 30 mm diameter. The latter
work used the method of Brillouin spectroscopy
on local homogeneous regions of ice samples of
arbitrary shape (contained in a 1 cm l cm 3.2
cm cell) to determine the elastic moduli at a
temperature of - 16 C. The results of these two
studies are summarized in Appendix A. These
experimental data imply a variation in the
Young' s modulus of up to 41% with crystallo-
graphic orientation (Fig. 3 ).
The experimental techniques for determining
the moduli ofisotropic polycrystals of ice fall un-
der three categories: (a) static methods, includ-
(a) (b)
" l
MEAN DIRECTION
/
SCA'HER ANGLE_ _ _ ' ~
2 4 o
J
r x I (c)
Fig. 2. Fabric of columnar ice. (a) S1 ice; (b) $2 ice; (c) $3 ice.
c- AXIS
S. Nanthikesan, S. Shyam Sunder / Cold Regions Science and Technology 22 (1994) 149-169 153
15.0
T = -16C
e ~
o.o
. . . . D
-15.0 - - GAMMON et al, (1913) ,
-15 0 15
E l (GPa)
Fig. 3. Compar i s on of Er E3 surfaces at - 16C cor r espond-
i ng to t he dat a of Ga mmon et al. ( 1983) and Dant l ( 1969) .
ing tensile, bending and torsion tests (e.g. Hess,
1940); (b) dynami c (resonance) methods in
which the natural frequency of the characteristic
mode of vibration of a small sample is observed
(e.g. Ewing et al., 1934); and (c) sonic and ul-
trasonic methods, where the velocity of the wave
is det ermi ned experimentally to obtain the re-
lated elastic constants (e.g. Northwood, 1947).
Sinha (1989) pointed out the difficulties in
separating the pure elastic response from other
concomi t ant viscoelastic responses in polycrys-
talline ice. Gold (1958) suggests that grain
boundary sliding renders the static results unre-
liable for ice. Beltzer (1989) showed that the
presence of grain boundaries makes it difficult to
isolate the pure elastic response to wave propa-
gation in polycrystalline materials. In the case of
ice, where grain sizes are large (of the order of
millimeters), the problem is aggravated. Conse-
quently, the reliability of the measured polycrys-
talline elastic moduli is difficult to assess. The
reported " reliable" values for the Young' s mod-
ulus ranges from 8.69 to 9.94 GPa, while the rig-
idity modulus ranges from 3.36 to 3.8 GPa.
Elastic properties in the horizontal plane of $2
ice, viz. Young' s modulus and Poisson' s ratio,
have been obtained by Sinha (1978, 1988).
However, experimental measurements on the re-
maining elastic moduli of such anisotropic poly-
crystals is lacking.
3. Review of prior theori es for polycrystal
el ast i ci t y
The theoretical methods proposed to deter-
mine the elasticity tensor of polycrystals fall into
two mai n categories: (a) bound solutions that
estimate the upper and lower bounds for the
elastic moduli; and (b) self-consistent schemes
that give direct estimates of the elasticity tensor.
Voigt ( 1910) postulated that polycrystals
comprised of anisotropic single crystals could be
replaced by an equivalent homogeneous uni-
form body. The effective modul i of the isotropic
aggregate are t aker to be a spatial average of the
moduli of all the constituent crystals. This ap-
proach makes the assumption that a uni form
strain applied to the polycrystal induces the same
uniform strain in all the constituent crystals. The
result is, therefore, approximate since local equi-
librium, e.g. across grain boundaries, is generally
not satisfied.
Reuss (1929) applied a similar approach but
assumed that the compl i ance tensor of the iso-
tropic aggregate is the spatial average of the com-
pliance tensor of the single crystals. This ap-
proach implies that when a uniform stress is
applied to the aggregate, all the crystals experi-
ence the same uniform stress level. Reuss' s
met hod is also an approximation, since compat-
ibility conditions, e.g. across grain boundaries,
are generally violated.
Hill ( 1952 ), using Maxwell' s reciprocity rela-
tions, showed that these approximate estimates
(referred to as the V- R bounds in this paper)
are, in fact, the upper and lower bounds, respec-
tively, of the aggregate elastic moduli. In general
terms, Hill' s result can be stated as follows:
S0V~ ~ S,jkt ~< S~j~I
C o~t ~<- v (3)
..~ Cok t 4.% C ok ~
where Siskt, Cokt are, respectively, the compliance
and elastic moduli tensors of the aggregate; Sffkt,
C0Vk~ are solutions due to Reuss and Voigt, re-
spectively; R v
Coke, S~jkl and are their respective in-
verse tensors.
Based on Eq. (3), Markham (1962) obtained
the bounds for crystals of hexagonal symmetry
154 S. Nanthikesan, S. Shyam Sunder / Cold Regions Science and Technology 22 (1994) 149-169
that form an isotropic aggregate. These are given
below:
( 8S, ' + 3S3 ~ 2 4 - ' --
-~ ~S44 -Jr- ~Sl 3) <~E<~I/[C-']I,
14 S 4 6 10 8 ~ - '
15 11"1"-~$33+~$44--~S12--~ SI3 ) ~G~C* (4a)
with,
7 12 _~_~C12_4C,3)
C =(~C11--1-2C33-~-~C44
where So, C,j are the compliance and elastic
moduli, respectively, of the hexagonal single
crystals; [ C- 1 ] 1 1 is the first diagonal element of
the inverse of the elastic moduli matrix C of the
aggregate obtained by Voigt' s method. The di-
agonal and off-diagonal terms in the (3 3 ) iso-
tropic elastic moduli matrix C are given by:
Ca=8C. +3C33+8C4,+4C13 i= 1,2,3
4 8 5
Cc=~5Cll +11~C33--i~C44 +~C13 +~C12 i#j (4b)
Hashin and Shtrikman ( 1962 ) obtained closer
bounds for the elastic moduli using a variational
approach. They defined a " polarization stress"
tensor, Pij, to account for the difference in the
elastic moduli of the aggregate and the constitu-
ent monocrystals. A variational function was
postulated in terms of Po and conditions for its
extrema provided the bounds for the elastic
moduli. The met hod shares the same advantage
as the V- R methods in that it is not necessary to
make any assumptions concerning crystal shape.
Alternately, the self-consistent schemes (e.g.
Hershey, 1954; Kroner, 1958; Eshelby, 1961;
Budiansky and Wu, 1962; Hill, 1965; Qiu and
Weng, 1991) provide direct estimates of the
moduli. The met hod draws on the solution for
the actual stress and strain distribution around
an inhomogenity (crystal) embedded in a uni-
formly loaded polycrystalline matrix. For self-
consistency, the orientation average of the inclu-
sion stress or strain is set equal to the overall
stress or strain. This results in an implicit tensor
formula for the aggregate moduli. The solution
is possible only for a simple grain shape, such as
a sphere (Hershey, 1954), though recently Qiu
and Weng ( 1991 ) investigated the effects of a
somewhat elongated or deflated grain geometry.
All the available methods provide solutions
only for the case of an aggregate that is isotropic
but one whose constituent crystals may be ani-
sotropic. It can be easily shown that the V- R
bounds provide reliable estimate of the elastic
constants of isotropic ice. From Eqs. (4a,b) and
the data for single crystal elasticity ( Gammon et
al., 1983) at - 16 C, these bounds are deter-
mi ned to be:
9.09 ~< E~9.30
3.42~< G~< 3.51
and the corresponding limits on the Poisson' s ra-
tio are:
0.325 ~< u~< 0.329
These bounds are within 2.5 % of each other. This
difference is comparable to the resolution of the
experimental measurements of elastic constants
for single crystals which is about 1% ( Gammon
et al., 1983). Moreover, these values show very
good agreement with the measured Young' s
modulus (8.69-9.94 GPa) and rigidity modulus
(3.36-3.8 GPa) of isotropic polycrystalline ice
obtained over a range of temperatures. The
closeness of the V- R bounds justifies the results
of Sinha ( 1989 ) who considered only the Reuss
solution and those of Gammon et al. ( 1983 ) who
used the Voigt solution for their predictions of
the elastic moduli of isotropic ice.
Attempts have been made to approximately
estimate some of the elastic moduli of aniso-
tropic polycrystalline ice based on the Reuss av-
eraging procedure. Michel ( 1978 ) estimated the
Young' s modulus in the plane of isotropy of $2
ice. Sinha (1989) estimated the two principal
Young' s moduli and the in-plane rigidity modu-
lus for $2 and for ice similar in fabric to $3 ice
but in which the c-axes are uniformly distributed
within a scatter angle around a mean direction.
These results are incomplete as no reliable pre-
dictions on rigidity moduli and Poisson' s ratios
are made. For instance, Sinha ( 1989 ) notes that
his rigidity modulus predictions for S1 ice re-
S. Nanthikesan, S. Shyam Sunder / Cold Regions Science and Technology 22 (1994) 149-169 155
dictions on rigidity moduli and Poisson's ratios
are made. For instance, Sinha ( 1989 ) notes that
his rigidity modulus predictions for S1 ice re-
sults in an unrealistic value for Poisson's ratio
that is greater than 0.5.
The closeness of the upper and lower bound
estimates for isotropic ice suggest that for a
mildly anisotropic ice aggregate, the V-R type
bounds may be as accurate as the more involved
self-consistent schemes or the variational ap-
proach. In the following section, the V-R theory
is generalized to estimate the complete elastic
tensor for an anisotropic aggregate. The general-
ized theory is then applied to predict the elastic
constants of S 1, $2 and $3 ice.
4. Generalized theory for anisotropic polycrystals
Consider a polycrystalline aggregate that is re-
placed by an equivalent homogeneous body. The
assumption contained in Voigt's method is ap-
plied first, i.e., under a given applied uniform
stress tr all the grains undergo the same uniform
strain ~ as the equivalent homogeneous (and an-
isotropic) body. The stresses in the aggregate are
given by:
~r=Cc (5)
where C is the polycrystalline elastic moduli. The
local stresses within each of the grains are given
by:
tr' = C' ( (6)
where C' is the compliance matrix of the single
crystal with respect to the global coordinate sys-
tem. The average stresses in all the grain_s must
be in equilibrium with the applied stress or. Tak-
ing the spatial average of Eq. (6) and noting the
strain in every grain ~' is equal to (Voigt as-
sumption ), we have:
~= < C'~> = ( C' >~ (7)
The symbol ( ) denotes a spatial average. Com-
parison ofEqs. ( 5 ) and (7) yields the well known
results of Voigt ( 1910):
C= ( C' ) (8a)
At the level of individual grains, the Voigt as-
sumption allows adjacent grains to exist at dif-
ferent (uniform) stress states thus violating lo-
cal equilibrium.
A similar analysis, with the Reuss (1929) as-
sumption that all grains undergo the same uni-
form stress as the equivalent homogeneous body,
yields the compliance matrix of the polycrystal
which is expressed as:
S= ( S' ) (8b)
The Reuss assumption permits adjacent grains
to have different deformations leading to local
violation of compatibility.
The spatial average of the elastic properties of
an anisotropic aggregate must be obtained by
weighting the elastic constants at each crystal
orientation by the relative frequency of that ori-
entation. Recognizing that the elastic constants
may be temperature dependent and using Voigt's
assumption, this formulation yields:
~'( T) = ( C' ( O,O,T)F( O,O )dV (9a)
V
and a similar expression results for the Reuss
assumption:
~S( T) = f S' ( O,,T)F( O,O )dV (9b)
V
where V is the representative volume consid-
ered; C' ( O,~,T), S' ( O,~,T) are the compliance
and elastic moduli matrix, respectively, of a
crystal with c-axis oriented at (0,q~) in the spher-
ical coordinate system shown in Fig. lb; Tis the
temperature; F(O,O) is the probability density
function for the crystal (c-axis) orientation. This
function is continuous and smooth and satisfies
the following condition:
~F(O,O)dV =I (lO)
V
The crystal elastic compliances and moduli at
a given orientation (0,0) can be determined by
the following coordinate transformation of the
respective matrices Sg and Cg in the principal di-
rections of the crystal:
C' ( T) =R TCg( T)R ( l l a)
156 X Nanthikesan, S. Shyam Sunder/ColdRegions Science and Technology 22 (1994) 149-169
S' ( T) =RTSg( T)R (1 l b)
where R is the rotation matrix based on the di-
rection cosines of the c-axis and R T is the trans-
pose of the rotation matrix (see Shyam Sunder
and Nanthikesan, 1990 and Shyam Sunder and
Wu, 1990 for derivation). Each component of S'
(or C' ) can be obtained by performing the nec-
essary matrix multiplications on the right hand
side of Eqs. ( 1 la, b) (see Appendix B). For in-
stance, the Young' s moduli of the monocrystal,
E~, E~, for an arbitrary orientation making an
angle ~ with the vertical c-axis can be obtained
(see Appendix B for details) as:
E'I = S'IT i
= [ sin 4 ~Sl 1 + cos 4 ~$33 + cos 2 ~sin 2 ~ ($44 + 2S1 s ) ] - l
(llc)
E~ = S~5 I
= [ cos 4 ~$11+ si n 4 OSs s + cos 2 Osin 2 0( $44+ 2S~ s ) ] - l
( l i d)
Equation (1 l c) is identical to the expression
given in Fletcher (1970) for the variation of E' t.
The same transformation in Eqs. ( 11 a,b) gives
the temperature dependence of the elastic con-
stants in the current coordinate framework given
the corresponding temperature dependence of
single crystal elasticity in the principal directions.
4.1. Elastic constants of columnar S1, $2, $3 ice
The theory presented in Eqs. (9a,b) shows that
the distribution of crystallographic orientation is
the single factor which distinguishes the elastic-
ity of S1, $2 and $3 ice, all of which contain
identical single crystals. The most general form
of this distribution occurs for $3 ice, where the
c-axes may be non-uniformly distributed within
a restricted region in the horizontal plane.
Therefore, the theory is applied to this case first
and the elastic constants under simpler situa-
tions (e.g.: $2 ice) are then derived by special-
izing this result.
$3 Ice: Case L The distribution of c-axis ori-
entations for $3 ice can vary from site to site.
There is evidence to show that it depends on the
velocity and direction of the current (Weeks and
Gow, 1978 ). In general, this distribution is con-
fined to a range of angles I 0o- ~UoI ~< 0~< I 0o + ~uol,
where 0o is the orientation of the mean c-axis and
~Uois the scatter angle (Fig. 2c). The actual dis-
tribution function awaits experimental determi-
nation. Idealizations for this function should,
however, recognize: (a) that all the c-axes are
distributed in a single (horizontal) plane so that
the distribution is a function of 0 only; and (b)
the absence of c-axes oriented outside the pre-
ferred angular zone.
An appropriate probability density function
which satisfies these requirements is the sym-
metric Beta distribution. This function yields a
bell-shape distribution within two finite limits of
0, identically zero at and outside the limits, and
is given as:
1
F r ~ ( o) = ~ mT~ 2m+ l [ 0- - ( 00- ~ J O) ] m[ O 0
+ ~ 0- 0] m for 0o- ~,0 ~< 0~< 0o +~/o
F~' (0) =0 elsewhere (12)
where m is any integer which can be determined
from the actual distribution if data are available
and tim= [ m!m!/(2m+ 1 )!]. A graphical repre-
sentation of this distribution is shown in Fig. 4.
Closed-form solutions for the elastic constants in
Eqs. (9a,b) are not possible in this case. The
compliances and moduli are obtained by numer-
ically integrating the equations after substituting
for F(O). A simple three-point Simpson' s rule is
2.0 . . . . .
00 = 0 ~ 3 0
1.6 ~0 = 90
1.2
E
rr~
0.8
0. 0 ' ' '
-90 -72 -54 36 -18 0 18 36 54 72 90
0
Fig. 4. The pr obabi l i t y densi t y f unct i on for s ymmet r i c fl-
di st r i but i on.
S. Nanthikesan, S. Shyam Sunder / Cold Regions Science and Technology 22 (1994) 149-169 157
sufficient to integrate these equations accurately.
$ 3 Ice: Case IL A simpler case in which the c-
axes are randomly oriented (with a uniform
probability density function) in the horizontal
plane between 0=01 and 0= 02 (02 > 01 ) yields
closed-form solutions for the elastic constants.
This distribution was considered by Sinha
(1989) and, as can be readily seen, is a special
case of the distribution described by Eq. (12).
F(0) now corresponds to a uniform distribution
contained within the planar area and zero every-
where else. This function F is normalized with
respect to area and it follows from Eq. ( 10 ) that:
2
F ( O) = 02_ O 1 for 01 ~ 0~ 02
=0 for 02~< 0~< 7~; --~z~0~01 (13)
Noting 01 = 0o- No and 02 = 0o + No and substi-
tuting in Eqs. (9a,b) yields:
0o+~o
1
rJ
J S' ( 0) d0 (14a)
S= 2No
0o - ~o
0o +~uo
1
t~
I
t C ' ( 0 ) d 0 ( 1 4 b )
C- 2No
~o - ~'0
The S' and C' matrices are obtained from single
crystal elasticity as given in Eqs. ( 1 1 a,b). After
lengthy but straightforward calculations and re-
cognizing the hexagonal symmetry of the ice
crystals, closed-form expressions for the ortho-
tropic polycrystalline compliance matrix S are
obtained as:
1
366 ~--' ~0 [(No --4fl) (Sll +$33 -2513)
+ (No +4fl) 544 ]
NO--~ (511 " t -533-S44)
q- ( 3 No k- 2fl)Sl3]
1
313- 2No
1
$23- 2No
- - - [(No +oe)Sl2 + ( No- a) S13]
__ __ [ (No_OL)Sl2-.]- (No-.I-o~)Sl3 ]
(15a)
and the elastic moduli matrix C is given by:
1
C~ -2No [bl Cll q- b2 C33 +2b3(C13 -]- 2C44) ]
1
C22 - 2N 0 [b2 Cl i " J rbl C33 +263(C13 + 2C44) ]
C33 ~--- Cl l
1
c44 - 2No [ (No + a) C44 + ( No- c~) C66 ]
1
C55 -2No [ (No - ot~) C44 " ~ (No "~- a) C66 ]
, [ (1 )
C66--2~/0 4~0--] ~ ( Cl l - 1- C33- 2C13)
- k ( N o -I'- 4 f l) C 44 ]
1 [ blS1, +b2S33+b3(2S13+S44)]
al l = 2-70-o
1
322 = ~ [b2S1, +b1533 +b3(2513 " ~S44) ]
333 = 511
844_~. 1 [ ( ~/0 _~ o~ ) 844 .jl_ ( ~ffo _ o/) 566 ]
2No
355= l [ ( ~ff0 __ OL ) 544 ..~ ( ~//0 .jl_ OL ) S66 ]
2No
C12 ~- - ~0 [ ( l No - ~ ) ( Cl 1 ' ~ C33- 4C44)
+(~No +2fl)C~3]
1
C13 = 2---~o [ (No + a)C12 + (No - 0~)C13 ]
1
C23 ~---~7- [ (No - 0~)C12 " ~ (No ~- OL) C13 ]
Z~,o
(15b)
158 S. Nanthikesan, S. Shyam Sunder / Cold Regions Science and Technology 22 (1994) 149-169
where
3 3
b, =~,o +c~+/~, b~ =~, o-a+/ ~,
1
b3 = ~ o- fl
- 1
S13 =823 = 2 (S12 " ~ 813)
Sl2 1
= ~ (SI1 -11-833 - $44 + 6S13)
$66 =2( S11 - S12)
(17a)
and
1 1 4
a=~si n2~o cos20o, p=~si n4~, o cos 0o
$ 3 Ice: Case III. The classification of ice types
by Michel and Ramseier (1971) suggests an-
other distribution for $3 ice in which all the c-
axes are more or less aligned along the direction
of the current. This extreme situation corre-
sponds to ~'o = 0 and, as to be expected, the Eqs.
(15a,b) yield the elastic constants of the ice sin-
gle crystal.
$ 2 Ice. The c-axes in $2 ice are uniformly dis-
tributed for all 0 ( - n~ O~ r t ) , and this defines
the plane of isotropy. Using symmetry and con-
sidering a quarter of a unit circle as defined by
0~0~< n/ 2 as the representative area, from Eq.
(12), F ( O) = 2/ n. Substituting in Eqs. (9a,b)
yields:
n/2
~ = 2 ~ S' (0)d0 (16a)
7~
0
n/2
~=_2 f ~'' (0)d0 (16b)
7~
0
Again, the S' and C' matrices are obtained from
single crystal elasticity and Eqs. (1 l a,b). Fol-
lowing the steps used in obtaining Eqs. (15a,b),
closed-form expressions for the elasticity of $2
ice are obtained as follows (see Appendix B for
details ):
1
al l =S22 = 8 (3S,~ +3S33 JFS44 -t-2St3)
S33 ~ S11
- 1
$44 =$55 .~.-~ ( $44 ~ S66 )
Similar expressions derived for the elastic
stiffness constants for $2 ice are:
-- -- 1
Clt =C22 ---~ (3C11 +3C33 +4C44 +2C13)
C33 = Cll
-- -- 1
C44 = C55 = 2 ( C44 + C66 )
- - 1
C13 = C23 =-~ ( C12 -~- C13 )
- - 1
C12 =~ (CI 1 " q-C33 -4C44 + 6C13)
-- 1 -- --
C66 - 2 (C11-C~2) (17b)
The elastic constants for $2 ice can also be di-
rectly obtained from Eqs. (15a,b) recognizing $2
ice is a special case of $3 ice with scatter angle,
~u0 = 90 . Substituting this value in Eqs. (15a,b)
yields Eqs. (17a,b).
In the case of $2 ice, it is useful to consider the
commonly used elastic properties such as the
Young' s moduli or the rigidity moduli rather than
the compliance (or moduli) matrix. When the
loading is vertical, the Young' s moduli and the
rigidity moduli in the horizontal plane and along
the axis of symmetry are related to the compli-
ances through the following relationships:
L'v =L'3 (0 =0 ) = 1/S33
EH=E~(0 =90) =l / S~t
Gv =E3(0 =0 ) = 1/S44
GH = a l (0 =90 ) = 1/S66
(18)
where the suffixes H and V denote the horizontal
and vertical planes, respectively; suffixes 1 and 3
denote the plane of isotropy and along the axis
of symmetry, respectively; the over bar denotes
the properties of the polycrystal; and 0 is the an-
S. Nanthikesan, S. Shyam Sunder / Cold Regions Science and Technology 22 (1994) 149-169 159
gle between the vertical and the axis of symmet ry
(Fig. l b).
S1 ice. All the c-axes are aligned vertically in the
case of S1 ice. Here, the transversely isotropic
polycrystal and the constituent hexagonal single
crystals have the same axes of symmetry. As a
result, S 1 ice behaves like a pseudo-monocrystal,
displaying the same elastic properties as those of
the single crystal.
Temperature dependence of elastic constants. The
temperature dependence of the polycrystal elas-
ticity is det ermi ned from the corresponding re-
lationship for single ice crystals according to Eqs.
(15a,b) and Eqs. (17a,b). Dantl (1969) mea-
sured the moduli of single crystals at a range of
temperatures from - 0. 7 C to - 140C. The re-
ported relations (Appendix A) were simplified
by Gammon et al. (1983) who neglected the
quadratic t erm without significant loss of accu-
racy. The resulting form is given by :
a(T) = a (Tm) ( 1 - q T) / ( 1 - q Z m) (19)
where a denotes an arbitrary elastic constant with
units of stress, T denotes the temperature in C,
and Tm is the reference temperature at which the
constant a is determined. The value of q was ob-
tained from the Brillouin measurements to be
1.418 10- 3 deg- ~ ( Gammon et al., 1983 ). The
temperature dependence for all the elastic con-
stants are taken to be identical and is given by
Eq. (19).
5. Re s ul t s and di s c us s i o n
5.1. Choice of single crystal elasticity
The prediction of the polycrystal elastic con-
stants depends on the accuracy of the measure-
ments of the single crystal elastic constants. Their
selection from the available monocrystalline
elasticity data is, therefore, critical. The results
of Dantl ( 1969 ) and Gammon et al. ( 1983 ), two
of the more comprehensive experimental studies
on the elastic moduli of the single ice crystals,
are considered in this paper (see Appendix A).
In both these studies, the monocrystalline
moduli are experimentally det ermi ned and the
corresponding compliances are computed from
the known relationship between elastic compli-
ances and moduli. The elastic constants pre-
sented by Gammon et al. (1983) satisfy the in-
verse relationship between the moduli matrix and
the compliance matrix. However, the results of
Dantl (1969) are found to violate this inverse
relationship. For instance, at - 16 C, the com-
pliances and the corresponding values obtained
by inverting the measured moduli matrix differ
by up to 41.7 % (Table 1 ). This discrepancy is
explained by Gagnon (1993), who points out
that Dantl ( 1969 ) recognized the large errors that
result from inversion of his moduli matrix and
used the compliance data of Bass et al. (1957)
to determine the temperature dependence of
compliances.
The compliances and moduli in Dantl ( 1969 ),
therefore, cannot be used simultaneously to de-
termine the upper and lower bound estimates of
the elastic constants. The following single crystal
elastic properties are considered: (i) the re-
ported compliance data and moduli obtained
from the inverse of this compliance matrix, and
(ii) the reported moduli and compliances com-
puted from the inverse of this moduli matrix. It
is worth noting that Michel (1978) and Sinha
( 1989 ) used the compliances reported by Dantl
( 1969 ) in conj unction with the Reuss met hod to
determine the polycrystalline elastic properties.
The compliances of single ice crystals at
- 16 C for these three data sets are compared in
Table 1 which shows that with the exception of
S~3, the compliances reported by Dantl (1969)
are within 2.5 % of those presented in Gammon
et al. (1983). However, the compliance S13 in
Dantl (1969) is smaller by as much as 24.8 %.
The compliances computed by inverting the
moduli matrix ofDant l (1969) are 2.7 to 11.9 %
higher than the compliances of Gammon et al.
(1983). The uncertainty of reported measure-
ments of elastic constants in Gammon et al.
(1983) are within 1.05 %, whereas in Dantl
(1969) the maxi mum uncertainty for compli-
ances is as high as 20 %. Independent experi-
ments using Brillouin spectroscopy were con-
ducted by Gagnon et al. ( 1988 ) to determine the
pressure and temperature dependence of the
160 S. Nanthikesan, S. Shyam Sunder ~.Cold Regions Science and Technology 22 (1994) 149-169
Table 1
Comparison of the compliance of single ice crystal at - 16C (compliances in GPa t)
Gammon et al. Dantl ( 1969 )
(1983)
Reported Inverse of reported
compliance moduli
Difference
(%)
Sll 0.10318 0.10227 0.10959
$33 0.08441 0.08299 0.09040
$44 0.33179 0.32650 0.34619
$12 -0. 04287 -0. 04385 -0. 04404
$13 -0. 02316 -0. 01856 -0. 02630
7.2
8.9
6.0
0.3
41.7
elastic constants of single ice crystals. The mea-
sured values of elastic constants at atmospheric
pressure are within 0.7 % of those reported by
Gammon et al. ( 1983 ). In light of these facts, for
subsequent analysis in this paper the single crys-
tal elastic properties of Gammon et al. (1983)
are used.
5 2. V alidity of the bound estimates
S 1 ice is pseudo-monocrystalline. The same is
true for the case of $3 ice when all the c-axes are
parallel. The V- R bounds are, therefore, identi-
cal for these cases as seen from Eqs. (9a, b), ( 10 )
and ( 11 a,b) and hence, the predictions are exact.
The V- R bounds of the complete elasticity
tensor of $2 ice are obtained from Eqs. (17a, b)
for the monocrystalline elastic constants of
Gammon et al. (1983). The limits are deter-
mined for the elastic moduli at - 16 C using Eqs.
(17a, b), ( 18 ) and ( 19 ) and summarized in Ta-
ble 2a. As is to be expected, the Voigt limits are
consistently higher than the Reuss limits for all
the constants but by not more than 4.2 %. The
corresponding V- R bounds for the same elastic
moduli based on the single crystal data of Dantl
(1969) are obtained assuming the reported
moduli to be reliable. The results are presented
in Table 2b. The limits for the elastic moduli of
$2 ice based on the moduli of Dantl (1969) are
consistently lower than the corresponding values
obtained using the data of Gammon et al. ( 1983 )
by not more than 6.3 %. The Voigt bounds are
higher than the Reuss bounds but by not more
than 3.2 % for the data of Dant l (1969).
Table 2
(a) Predicted Voigt and Reuss limits for the elastic constants
of $2 ice at - 16 C (based on the elasticity data for single ice
crystals determined by Gammon et al., 1983 )
Modulus Reuss Limit Voigt Limit Difference
(GPa) (GPa) (%)
_EH 9.431 9.726 3.1
Ev 9.692 9.851 1.6
Gn 3.535 3.683 4.2
Gv 3.206 3.219 0.4
(b) Predicted Voigt and Reuss limits for the elastic constants
of $2 ice at - 16C (based on the moduli data for single ice
crystals determined by Dantl, 1969)
Modulus Reuss Limit Voigt Limit Difference
(GPa) (GPa) (%)
EH 8.953 9.181 2.5
Ev 9.125 9.230 1.2
GH 3.340 3.451 3.3
Gv 3.061 3.072 0.4
The difference between the Voigt and Reuss
bounds is comparable to the resolution of the
limits, since the maxi mum variation observed in
the experimental measurements of the mono-
crystalline elastic constants is about 1% in Gam-
mon et al., (1983) and 7 % in Dantl (1969).
Therefore, the upper or lower limit, or an aver-
age of these two can be taken as the actual elastic
constants to an accuracy of 4.2 % when the single
crystal elastic properties of Gammon et al.
(1983) are used and 3.2 % when the moduli of
Dantl (1969) are used. This validates the as-
S. Nanthikesan, S. Shyam Sunder / Cold Regions Science and Technology 22 (I 994) 149-169 161
sumption of Michel (1978) and Sinha (1989)
who took the elastic constants of $2 ice to be the
Reuss limit. The same assumption is adopted
here as well.
der (1963), using seismic resonance experi-
ments, found Poisson's ratio of sea ice to be
independent of temperature in the range of - 3.6
to - 15C.
5.3. Comparison with experimental
measurements
5.4. Comparison with previous theoretical
predictions
Sinha (1978) measured the (horizontal)
Young's modulus, EH, of $2 ice at - 40 C to be
9.5+0.3 GPa. The Poisson's ratio in the hori-
zontal plane of $2 ice was measured at about 100
Hz and - 20 C (Sinha, 1988) and was found to
lie in the range of 0.31 to 0.32. At - 40C, the
theoretical prediction for the Reuss limit of
Young's modulus (based on the single crystal
elastic constants of Gammon et al., 1983 ) is 9.74
GPa (see next section). The corresponding Voigt
limit is 10.05 GPa. These limits overestimate the
measured value by 2.5 % and 5.8 %, respectively.
The Poisson's ratio in the horizontal plane is ob-
tained from:
- 5 1 2
1 ( 2 0)
Vn= Sll 2GH
The predicted values of Poisson's ratio using the
assumption of Reuss and Voigt are 0.33 and 0.32,
respectively. These values exceed the average ex-
perimental value of 0.315 by 4.5 % and 1.9 %,
respectively (see Table 3 ). Eq. (20), in conjunc-
tion with Eq. (21 ) presented subsequently, pre-
dicts that this ratio is independent of tempera-
ture. While this has not been experimentally
established for freshwater ice, evidence is avail-
able in the case of sea ice. Langleben and Poun-
Table 3
Comparison of the predictions of the elastic constants for $2
ice with experimental measurements (based on the single
crystal data of Gammon et al., 1983 )
Experimental Theoretical Difference
(%)
Er~ (GPa) 9.5+0.3 9.74-10.05 2.5-5.8
( - 40 C) (Sinha, 1978)
V. 0.31-0.32
( - 20 C) (Sinha, 1988)
0.32-0.33 1.9-4.5
The theoretical predictions for the Young's
moduli of S 1 and $2 ice in the horizontal and
vertical directions have been made by Michel
(1978) and Sinha (1989) using the averaging
procedure of Reuss (1929). Both predictions
used the monocrystalline data of Dantl (1969).
The theoretical model of Sinha (1989) differs
from the Reuss's method in the following way: In
the scheme of Reuss, first the polycrystalline
compliance is obtained by averaging the single
crystal compliances. Then, the polycrystal
Young's (and rigidity) moduli is determined
from the result, i.e., Eq. (18). Sinha (1989),
however, computes the spatial averages of the
Young's (and rigidity) moduli (not the compli-
ances) of single crystals directly. One conse-
quence of this approach is that numerical inte-
gration is required to obtain polycrystalline
elastic constants. Secondly, the results are not
strict lower bounds estimates for the elastic con-
stants in the sense of Hill ( 1952 ).
The results of Michel (1978) and Sinha
(1989) for S 1 and $2 ice are compared in Fig. 5
and Fig. 6, respectively, with the predictions of
the theory presented in this paper based on
Reuss's assumption and the single crystal elastic
constants of Gammon et al. (1983). The small
difference in the predictions for S 1 ice in Fig. 5
is due, in turn, to the difference in the results of
Dantl (1969) and Gammon et al. (1983) which
is within 1.8 %. The vertical Young's modulus of
$2 ice is simply the single crystal compliance $33
(Eqs. 15a,b) and, hence, reflects the difference
in the monocrystalline data used. The predicted
horizontal Young's modulus is within 0.65 % of
that of Michel (1978) and within 1.8 % of that
of Sinha (1989).
Poisson's ratio in the plane of isotropy for S 1
ice is predicted to be 0.416 which is reasonable
compared to the value of 0.51 obtained by Sinha
162 S. Nanthikesan, S. Shyam Sunder / Cold Regions Science and Technology 22 (1994) 149-169
13.0
12.0
.2
~ 11.0
m
z
10.0
)-
( a) 9.0
S1 IC E
Ev = 11.58 [ 1 - 1.418 x 10 .3 (T-To) ] (GPa) ]
F'H 9.48 [ 1 - 1.418 x 10 -3 (T-T0) ] (GPa)
- - MODEL (wKiammon et al., 1982
. . . . . MICHEL (1978) (wlDantl, 196~
~ " ~ ' ~ m w ~ ' - - SINHA (1989) (w/Dantl, 1969)
T = ~). 2C
o
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0
TEMPERATURE (C)
,.d
4. 0
3.5
3.0
MODEL Sl I CE
Gv
Gv = 2.95 [ 1 - 1.418 x 10 -3 if-To) ] (GPa)
GH = 3.35 [ 1 1.418 x 10 -3 if-To) ] (GPa)
y =_0. 2oC
2.5 , ~ ~ o
( b ) -.so - 4 0 - 3 0 - 20 - 10 0
TEMPERATURE (C)
Fi g. 5. Temperat ure de pe nde nc e o f t he el as t i c c ons t ant s o f S 1
i ce. ( a ) Young' s modul us ; ( b) ri gi di t y modul us .
( 1 9 8 9 ) . Thi s rati o f or $2 i ce i s predi ct ed t o be
0. 334 whi c h i s i n cl os e agreement wi t h t he exper-
i me nt al obs erv at i ons o f 0. 31 - 0. 32 (Si nha,
1 988) ; unl i ke t he val ue o f 0. 393 predi ct ed by
Si nha ( 1 989 ) whi c h i s si gni f i cant l y greater t han
t he e xpe r i me nt al val ue. Thi s pr obl e m was rec-
ogni ze d by Si nha ( 1 989 ) wh o suggest ed t hat t he
appr oxi mat e nature o f t he expres s i on f or VH
( = [ EH/ 2GH ] - - 1 ) may be t he source o f di screp-
ancy. Ho we v e r , t hi s rel at i ons hi p can be s hown t o
be t heoret i cal l y exact ( Appe ndi x C ) . The prob-
l e m i s mai nl y due t o t he vari at i on ascri bed t o t he
ri gi di ty mo dul us GH wi t h ori ent at i on. Thi s vari-
at i on, st at ed i n Eq. ( 6 ) o f Si nha ( 1 989 ), i s t hat
o f t he t ors i onal mo dul us whi c h i s de t e r mi ne d
f rom t he ri gi di ty mo dul i al ong pl anes resi st i ng
( a )
10.5
$2 I CE - - MODEL (w/ Gammon et al., 1983)
. . . . . MICHEL (1978) (w/Dantl, 1969)
10.2 m - - - - , SINHA (1989) (w/Dantl, 1969)
~ ~ ' " " ' " ' " E- V
,.... " ~ . ~
9.9 ~ . . . . . . . " ~, . , . .
9.6 ' ~ " ~. . . . . . . .
- 3 ~ G ~
9.3 ~ = 9.48 [ I - 1.418 x 10 .3 if-To) 1 (
/1 g.. = 9.2a [ 1 - 1.418 x 10 .3 i f - T) 1 (GPa~
[ i . u / T - - 0 2 C '
9.0 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ - "
-50 ~10 -30 -20 -10 0
TEMPERATURE (~C)
4. 0
3.5

3.0
S2 IC E
6v
V = 3.14 [ 1- 1.418 x 10 " 3 if-T0) ] (GPa)/
~ n = 3.46 [ 1 - 1.418 x 10 -3 if-To) I (GPa t
2.5 ~ ~
{D) -50 -40 -30 -20 -10
TEMPERATURE ( ' C)
T =- 0. 2C
o
i
Fi g. 6. Temperat ure de pe nde nc e o f t he el ast i c c ons t ant s of $2
i ce. ( a ) Young' s modul us ; ( b) ri gi di t y modul us .
t he torque. He nc e , i t be c o me s a val i d expres s i on
f or ri gi di ty modul us al ong a pl ane onl y whe n t he
materi al i s i sot ropi c. Thi s can be readi l y seen by
subst i t ut i ng t he di rect i on c os i ne s i nt o Eq. ( 6 ) o f
Si nha ( 1 9 8 9 ) . For i nst ance, wi t h q~=0, Go =
1 / S 4 4 is t he ri gi di ty modul us i n t he verti cal
pl ane. Howe v e r , whe n 0 = 9 0 , G~# 1 / S 6 6 but
(1 /$44+ 1/$66)/2 whi c h i s t he average o f t he
ri gi di ty modul i in t he t wo pl anes. The resul t o f
t hi s error i s a syst emat i c under predi ct i on o f t he
ri gi di ty modul us GH l eadi ng t o an over- predi c-
t i on o f P. .
5.5. Temperature dependence of elastic constants
As me nt i o ne d earlier, t he el asti c propert i es o f
S. Nanthikesan, S. Shyam Sunder / Cold Regions Science and Technology 22 (1994) 149-169 163
t he S I i ce are t h o s e o f t he si ngl e cryst al s and 12.0
he nc e t he el as t i c c o mp l i a n c e s o f Ga mmo n et al.
( 1 9 8 3) wi t h Eqs. ( 1 8 ) a nd ( 1 9 ) di rect l y gi v e s 11.0
t he t e mpe r at ur e de p e n de n c e o f t he el ast i c c o n-
s t ant s o f $1 i ce t o be:
10.0
m
Ev = 1 1 . 581 1 - - 1 . 4 1 8 X 1 0 - 3 ( T- - To) ]
EH =9.48[1- 1.418x lO-3( T - To) ]
o~
9.0
$ 2 ICE
( T =-16C )
8 . 0 L i i i i J i i
(a ) 0 1o 20 30 4o 50 60 7o 80 90
m
Gv = 2 . 9 5 [ 1 - 1 . 41 8 X 1 0 - 3 ( T - To) ]
GH = 3 . 3 5 [ 1 - - 1 . 41 8 X 1 0 - 3 ( T - To) ] ( 2 1 )
3 . 8
whe r e T, To are i n C and To i s t he me l t i ng t e m-
perat ure ( - 0 . 2 C f or f res hwat er i c e ) . The s e re-
3.6
l a t i o ns hi ps are r e pr e s e nt e d i n Fi g. 5. Fo r $2 i ce,
t hi s de p e n de n c e c o r r e s po ndi ng t o Re us s ' s as-
s ump t i o n i s o bt a i n e d by s ubs t i t ut i ng Eqs. ( 1 7 a ) ~
3 . 4
and ( 1 9 ) i nt o Eq. ( 1 8 ) ( s e e Fi g. 6 ):
3 . 2
' ' ' - , ~ ' ' S l I C E ' ' ' /
" ~ (T = -16C) /
' , E l / /
i i i i i i t i
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
~, ANGLE FROM VERTICAL (~)
12.0
11.0
10.0
Z
9.0
O
3 . 8
S l I CE
( T = -16C )
G t G a
0 10 20 30 40 50 6O 70 S0 b 9o
(~, ANGLE FROM VERTICAL
(a )
8.0
3.6
O 3 . 4
~ 3 . 2
3.0
( b )
Fi g. 7. Ani s ot r opy o f t he el ast i c c ons t ant s o f $1 i ce at - 1 6 C
as a f unc t i on o f t he angl e 0. ( a ) Young' s modul us ; ( b) rig-
i di t y modul us .
~, ANGLE FROM VERTICAL
$ 2 ICE
( T = -16C )
~ 63
3.0 J i I i i i i i
( b} 0 1 0 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
~, ANGLE FROM VERTICAL (~)
90
Fi g. 8. Ani s ot r opy o f t he el ast i c cons t ant s o f $2 i ce at - 1 6 C
as a f unc t i on o f t he angl e . ( a ) Young' s modul us ; ( b) rig-
i di t y modul us .
m
Ev = 9 . 4 8 1 1 - 1 .41 8)< 1 0 - 3 ( T - To) ]
EH = 9 . 2 2 [ 1 - - 1 . 41 8X 1 0 - 3 ( T - To) ]
Gv = 3 . 1 4 [ 1 - 1 .41 8 x 1 0 - 3 ( T - To) ]
GH =3.46[1- 1.418Xl O- 3(T - T o)] ( 2 2 )
The t e mpe r at ur e de p e n de n c e o f t he f i v e el ast i c
c o mpl i a nc e s o bt a i n e d us i ng t he c or r e s pondi ng
si ngl e crystal c o mpl i a nc e s o f Da nt l ( 1 9 6 9 ) i s
gi v e n i n Ap p e n di x D.
The el asti c mo dul i o f S 1 and $2 i ce s ho w a mi l d
de p e n de n c e o n t e mpe r at ur e (Eqs . 21 and 2 2 ) .
The c o ns t a nt s i ncreas e by 1 .4 % per 1 0C drop
i n t e mpe r at ur e for t e mpe r at ur e s i n t he rel ev ant
range f or mo s t engi neeri ng appl i c at i ons ( 0 C t o
- 5 0 C ) . The t e mpe r at ur e de p e n de n c e o f t he
si ngl e crystal el ast i c c o ns t a nt s o f Ga mmo n et al.
164 S. Nanthikesan, S. Shyam Sunder / Cold Regions Science and Technology 22 (1994) 149-169
14. 0
= 12. 0
J ai -
l 0. 0

z 8.0
O
6.0
(a )
~to = 40 S3 I CE
= 30 - - . ~ (T = - 16 C)
~o = 90~
UNIFORM DISTRIBUTION
i i r i i i i i
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
ANGLE FROM MEAN C- AXI S DI RECTI ON (o)
6.0
K.3 5.0
,..l

4.0
3.0
(b)
$3 IC E
cr = -16C
;' " Z \
:200 / \ k
= 30
= 40 - -
= 90
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
ANGLE FROM MEAN C-AXIS DIRECTION (o)
Fi g. 9. Ani s ot r opy o f t he el as t i c c ons t ant s o f $3 i ce wi t h uni -
f or m di s t r i but i on o f c- axi s ori ent at i ons i n t he preferred an-
gular zo n e as a f unc t i on o f scatter angl e, ~Uo. ( a ) Young' s
modul us ; ( b) ri gi di t y modul us .
( 1 9 8 3) , gi ven i n Eq. ( 1 9 ) , assi gns t he s ame l i n-
ear vari at i on wi t h t emperat ure f or all t he con-
stants. As a result, t he pol ycryst al l i ne mo dul i ob-
t ai ned f rom Eqs. ( 1 7a , b) di spl ay t he s ame l i near
vari at i on. Anot he r c ons e que nc e o f Eq. ( 1 9 ) is
t hat t he predi ct ed Poi s s on' s rati o, #H, ( s e e Eq.
20) is i nde pe nde nt o f t emperat ure. As me n-
t i one d earlier, experi ment al meas urement s on sea
ice by Langl eben and Pounde r ( 1 963 ) s ho w t hat
t he Poi s s on' s rati o is i nde pe nde nt o f t empera-
ture i n t he range o f - 3 . 6 t o - 1 5C .
5.6. Magni tude of anisotropy in el astic constants
The ani s ot ropy o f S 1 i ce i s represent ed in Fig.
7 where t he el ast i c mo dul i are pl ot t e d as a f unc-
t i on o f t he or i e nt at i on angl e @ ( t he angle be-
t we e n t he c- axi s and the vertical gl obal axi s ) . The
12.0
11.o
=
D 10.0
9.0
8.0
7.0
(a)
$3 ,CE m G
6oc
BETA DISTRIBUTION
1 i i i i i
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
ANGLE FROM MEAN C-AXIS DIRECTION ()
5.5
~" 5.0
I ~= 4.5
4.0
3.5
3.0 ,v
2.5
(b )
s3 , cE
m - o o / X ( T =-I6C)
= 30
= I 0
= 3
BETA DISTRIBUTION
i i t i i i
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
ANGLE FROM MEAN C-AXIS DIRECTION ()
Fig. 1 0. Ani s ot r opy o f t he el ast i c cons t ant s o f $3 i ce wi t h
s ymme t r i c f l - di st ri but i on o f c- axi s ori ent at i ons i n t he pre-
ferred angul ar zone correspondi ng to @' 0=90 as a f unc t i on
of m. ( a ) Young' s modul us ; ( b) ri gi di t y modul us .
Young' s modul i vary by up t o 4 1 % wi t h ori en-
t at i on. Thi s ma xi mum vari at i on i s hi gher t han
t he di f f erence o f 23 % be t we e n t he Young' s mod-
ul i i n t he verti cal and hori zont al pl anes cons i d-
ered by Si nha ( 1 9 8 9 ) . The el asti c const ant s o f
$2 i ce are consi derabl y l ess ani s ot ropi c (Fi g. 8 ).
For i nst ance, t he corres pondi ng vari at i on o f t he
Young' s mo dul i is about 1 0 %.
The ani sot ropy in t he el asti c cons t ant s o f $3
i ce de pe nds on t he di st ri but i on o f c- axi s ori en-
t at i ons i n t he hori zont al pl ane ( s e e Fig. 2c for
geomet ri c de t ai l s ) . The Young' s modul us i n t he
verti cal di rect i on i s i dent i cal t o t hat o f $2 i ce
(Eqs. 1 7a, b) and, cons equent l y, di s cus s i on is re-
S. Nanthikesan, S. Shyam Sunder / Cold Regions Science and Technology 22 (1994) 149-169 165
stricted to the elastic anisotropy in the horizon-
tal plane.
The elastic anisotropy is the largest when the
c-axes are all parallel. The corresponding maxi-
mum variation in the Young' s moduli is 41%.
The anisotropy is reduced when the scatter angle
~u of the c-axis orientation increases (Fig. 9 ). The
limiting case of this situation occurs when the
scatter angle is 90 , i.e., uniform distribution of
c-axes in the horizontal plane. The ice is then of
$2 type and shows the least anisotropy for col-
umnar ice.
For a non-uniform distribution of c-axis ori-
entations, the elastic anisotropy in the horizon-
tal plane increases. A symmetric Beta distribu-
tion (Eq. 12) for a scatter angle ~ = 90 is
considered in this analysis. By choosing the dis-
tribution parameter m, which determines the
standard deviation of the distribution, the effec-
tive scatter angle can be varied. At m = 0, the dis-
tribution is uniform, corresponding to the lowest
anisotropy level ($2 ice). At m = oo, the c-axes
are all parallel (scatter angle ~,= 0 ) leading to
the largest anisotropy (S 1 ice ). Fig. 10 shows the
variation of one of the Young' s moduli and a sin-
gle rigidity modul us in the horizontal plane with
orientation for different values of m. It can be
seen that the elastic anisotropy is bounded by
these two limits ( m= 0 and m= oo) and in-
creases with increasing m.
6 . C o n c l u s i o n s
This paper has presented a theoretical model
to predict the complete elasticity tensor of an an-
isotropic ice aggregate from that of its constitu-
ent crystals. The upper and lower limits of elastic
moduli of the generally anisotropic aggregate is
predicted by generalizing the earlier methods of
Voigt (1910) and Reuss (1929), respectively,
that were developed for isotropic polycrystals.
The bounds are obtained by averaging the elastic
moduli and compliances over a representative
volume by weighting them with the relative fre-
quency of their crystallographic orientations in
the anisotropic fabric. The model is subse-
quently specialized for the case of three c o m-
monly occurring types of ice, namely, S 1, $2, $3.
The results are presented as closed-form func-
tions of single crystal elasticity for S 1 and $2 ice
and for $3 ice with a uniform distribution of
crystallographic orientations in a preferred an-
gular zone. For $3 ice with a non-uniform distri-
bution of c-axis orientations, the solutions are
obtained through a simple numerical integration
scheme. In-situ experimental measurements must
be obtained to estimate the actual probability
distribution function for the c-axis orientations.
For elastic properties of single ice crystals, the
studies of Dantl (1969) and Gammon et al.
(1983) are considered in this paper. The elastic
constants presented by Dantl (1969) violate the
inverse relationship between the compliance
matrix and the moduli matrix. The principal
compliances of ice crystals reported in Dantl
(1969) are within 2.5 % of the corresponding
compliances determined by Gammon et al.
(1983), with the exception ofS13 which is 24.8
% smaller. On the other hand, the compliances
determined by inverting the moduli matrix of
Dantl (1969), are higher by a maxi mum of 11.9
% than those reported by Gammon et al. (1983).
The V- R bounds for columnar ice are shown
to give either exact results (for S1 ice and $3 ice
with c-axes all parallel) or provide limits which
are close enough to be comparable to the resolu-
tion of the available experimental measurements
(for $2 ice). Therefore, either one of the bounds
or an average of these bounds can be taken to
give the approximate solution. The predictions
are in excellent agreement with the limited re-
ported experimental measurements for $2 ice
(Sinha, 1978, 1988) as well as with previous
theoretical approximations of Michel ( 1978 ).
Of the three types of ice considered, S 1 ice dis-
plays the most anisotropy. The elastic constants
vary by as much as 41% with orientation. $2 ice
shows the least anisotropy with a maxi mum of
10.3 % variation in the elastic moduli with ori-
entation. The anisotropy of $3 ice is determined
by the scatter angle and the distribution of crys-
tallographic orientations but is bound by the so-
lutions for S 1 and $2 ice. With small scatter an-
gle and parallel c-axes orientation the behavior
is similar to S 1 ice. When the scatter angle is large
166 S. Nanthikesan, S. Shyam Sunder / Cold Regions Science and Technology 22 (1994) 149-169
and the c-axes are uniformly distributed the be-
havior approximates $2 ice.
The elasticity of the ice polycrystals in this pa-
per show very mild t emperat ure dependence in
the temperature range of 0C to - 50 C. All
constants show the same linear dependence on
temperature with a 1.4 % decrease in value for
every 10 C drop in temperature.
In summary, the three main contributions of
this paper are that: (1) Consistent and closed
form expressions are derived to predict the com-
plete tensor of elastic constants for the most
commonl y encountered types of polycrystalline
ice with anisotropic fabric; (2) the proposed
theory predicts values of Poisson' s ratios that are
physically correct and in agreement with the ex-
perimental data; and (3) the paper resolves the
anomaly posed by the discrepancy between the
experimentally determined values of Poisson' s
ratio and that predicted by the theory used in
Sinha (1989).
A c k n o w l e dg me n t s
The authors acknowledge the financial sup-
port of the Office of Naval Research through its
Sea Ice Mechanics Accelerated Research Initia-
tive (Grant No. N00014-92-J -1208) and from an
industry consortium consisting of Amoco, Arco,
BP America, Chevron, Conoco, Exxon and Mo-
bil through the MIT Center for Scientific Excel-
lence in Offshore Engineering. The authors are
indebted to R.E. Gagnon and R.L. Brown for
their helpful comments.
Ap p e n di x A
Experimental results for the elastic constants of
single ice crystals
Dantl (1969)
Measured moduli (in GPa):
C~ ~ (T) = 12.904 [ 1 - 1.489 )< 10- 3T
- 1. 85 10- 6T 2 ] + 0. 3%
C33(T) = 14.075 [ 1 - 1.629)< 10- 3T
- 2. 93) < 10- 6T 2 ] +0. 4%
C44(T) =2. 819[ 1 - 1.601 10-3T
- 3. 62 10- 6T 2 ] +0. 7%
C~2(T) =6. 487[ 1- 2. 072 10-3T
- 3. 62 10- 6T 2 ] ___2%
G3( T) = 5. 622[ 1- 1. 874 10-3T] +7%
Report ed compliances (in GPa - x ):
S~ (T) = 10.40)< 10- 2[ 1 + 1.070
)< 10- 3T+ 1. 87 10- 6T 2 ] -I- 1%
$33 ( T) = 8. 48 10-2[ 1 + 1.405)< 10-3T
+4. 66)< 10- 6T 2 ] + 1%
$44(T) =33. 42 10-z[ 1 + 1.505
)< 10-3T+4. 04)< 10-6T 2 ] _ 1%
SI2(T) = - - 4. 42 10-2[ 1 +0. 463
10- 3T- 2. 06) < 10- 6T 2 ] +6%
St 3( T) = - - 1. 89 10- 2[ 1+ 1.209
10- 3T+6. 15 10- 6T 2 ] +__20%
where T is the temperature in C.
Gammon et al. (1983) (at - 16C)
Measured moduli (GPa):
Cll = 13. 929+0. 41%
C33 = 15. 010+0. 46%
C44 =3. 014+0. 11%
C12 = 7.082 + 0.39%
C13 = 5.765 + 0.23%
Report ed compliances (in GPa - ~ ):
S~ = 10. 318 10-2+0. 50%
833 =8. 441 )< 10- 2+ 0. 45%
$44 =33. 179 10-2+0. 06%
Sl2 = - 4. 287) < 10-2+ 1.05%
S. Nanthikesan, S. Shyam Sunder / CoM Regions Science and Technology 22 (1994) 149-169 167
S13 : - 2. 3168 10-2+_0.73%
Appendix B
Elastic compl i ances of single ice crystals with
respect to an arbitrary coordinate f r ame
8'~, = ( 1 - ! ~ ) 28, ~ +14833
+132(I - 12) [28~3 +344]
833 ( 1 , 2 + n4833 t = - - n. ~) a l l
+n~(1 - n 2 ) [28~3 -Jl- S44 ]
t 2 2
$44 = 2 ( 1 - m~ - n 2 - 2m2n~ ) Sl ~ + 4m 3n 3833
+ 2( l _ m2_ nZ ) S~ z - 2 2
8m3n3S13
+ [n2(1 --m32) +m32( 1 --m~) + 2m2n2 ]$44
8' 12 2 2 " Jl- 833 -- S44 ) (1 2 2
=13m3($11 -- --13 - - m3) Sl 2
-- (l~ + m3 - 212m2) S~ 3
S'13 2 z
= / 3n3( S11 " ~ 833 - - 844 ) -- ( 1 --15 - - n2) 812
-- ( l~ + n 2 - 212n2) S13 (B. I)
Correspondi ng elastic stiffness constants
C'~ = (1 -/2)2C11 +14C33
+212(1 - 12) [C,3 +2C44 ]
C33 ._~ ( 1 2 2 +n4C33 t _n3) CI 1
+ 2 n2 ( 1 - n 2 ) [ C 13 ll- 2C44 ]
C~ 4= 2( 1- m 2 - n2 - z m2nz ) C~ t ~
+ 4mZ n] C33 +2( 1 - m2 - n~ ) C, 2
2 2
- 8m3n3C13 + [ nZ ( 1- m 2)
+m2(1 - m 2) - 2m] n~ ] C44
, 2 2
C12 =13m3(C~ ~ +C33 - 46" 44) - ( 1 - l 2 -
m2) C, 2
(12 2 2 2
-- + m 3 -213m3)C13
2 2 .~.. C33 _ 4C44 ) ( 1_12_n2) C12 C' 13=13n3(C11
- (l 2 + n~ -21~ n2)C~ 3 ( a2)
Directions cosines
XI
Z2
Z3
ZI ~2 ~3
Ii 12 13
ml m2 m3
nl n2 n3
(B3)
Direction cosines f or crystal and global
coordinate f rames and 0 as def i ned in Fig. 2a
(Rotation 0 about x2 axis)
X, X2X 3
x~ cos0 0 - s i n0 (B4)
X2 0 1 0
X3 sin0 0 cos0
I I =COS~; 12 = 0; /3 = - sin0; ml =0; mE----l;
m3 = 0; n I = sin0; n 2 = 0; n 3 = COS~. Substituting i n
Eq. (B1),
E'l = S'll - l = [sin 4 ~811 +cos 4 q~$33
+cos 2 0sin z 0(844+2813) ] -~ (B5)
E~ = S~3 - 1= [COS 4 0Sl l +si n 4 0833
+cos 2 0sin 2 ~(844+2Si3) ] -1 (B6)
Direction cosines f or crystal and global
coordinate f rames and 0 as def i ned in Fig. 2a
(Rotation about x3 axis )
3 1 ~(2 Z3
Z~ 0 COS0 sinO
Z2 0 sin0 cosO
1 0 0
(B7)
11=0; /2=COS0; /3 = - si n0; m~ = 0; m2= s i n0;
m3----- cos0;, n I = 1; n2= 0 , n3= 0.
168 S. Nanthikesan, S. Shyam Sunder / Cold Regions Science and Technology 22 (1994) 149-169
Determination of elastic compliances of $2 ice
(Reuss's method) -- a sample calculation
From Eq. (13a),
z~/2
S,1 =-2 f S',,dO (B8)
7~
0
Substituting for direction cosines in Eq. (B7),
S'11 becomes:
al l =COs40SI 1 +sin40S33
+ cos20sin20[2Sl3 +$44] (B9)
Substituting Eq. (B9) in Eq. (B8) and
integrating,
1
S'~ =~ (3S11 -I- 3S33 3L S44 -k- 2S13) (B10)
Similarly, expressions for the other four compli-
ance constants can be determined.
A p p e n di x C
Consider transversely isotropic SI and $2 ice
with the axis of symmetry (x3 axis) along the
vertical direction. The elastic moduli can be ex-
pressed in terms of the compliances as (Sih and
Chen, 1981):
~7H = El l ( =E22 ) = 1/$11 (C1)
VH = V12 = -S12/ Sll (C2)
GH =G12 = 1/$66 = 1/2 (S~, -$12) (C3)
Substituting Eqs. ( e l ) and (C2) in Eq. (C3)
G. =G,2 =bS11/2 ( 1 " q-~12 )
=bTH/2 ( 1 +~H) (C4)
Eq. (20) can be obtained by rearranging Eq.
(C4).
A p p e n di x D
Based on the compliances of single ice crystals
determined by Gammon et al. (1983), the prin-
cipal compliances
ture dependence )
and ( 1 9 ) , a s :
Sll =0. 10844/ (1
S33 =0. 10522/ (1
S44 =0. 31899/ (1
of $2 ice (and their tempera-
are predicted from Eqs. (17a)
- 1 . 4 1 8 X 1 0 - 3 T)
- 1 . 4 1 8 X 1 0 - 3 T)
- 1 . 4 1 8 X 1 0 - 3 T)
S12 = - 0. 03619/ ( 1 - 1.418 X 10-3T)
$13 = - 0. 03377/ ( 1 - 1.418X 10-3T) (D1)
where T is the temperature in C. The compli-
ances are in GPa- 1.
Similarly, based on the single crystal moduli
data of Dantl (1969), the compliances of $2 ice
in the principal directions are predicted from Eq.
(17a). The results are approximated to the fol-
lowing form using regression analysis:
$1~ =0. 11412/ ( 1 - 1.183 X 10-3T)
$33 =0. 11148/ ( 1-0. 981 x 10-3T)
$44 =0. 33320/ ( 1 - 1.107X 10-3T)
$12 = - 0. 03896/ ( 1 - 1.283 X 10-3T)
S~3 = - 0. 03558/ ( 1- 0. 691X 10-3T) (D2)
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