Lab 1

The Geiger Counter

Theory:
Radiation has an inherent property capable of ionizing gases. This is measured by the
Geiger counter in the form of current due to the decay of the radioactive material. Every
element has a defined number of positive protons and have isotopes of the species in the form
of neutron differences. This can be shown in carbon where Carbon 12 has 6 protons and 6
neutrons while Carbon 14 has 6 protons and 8 neutrons. Radioactivity is the decay of a
molecule due to instability and that decay is measured in half-lives where a half-life is the time
it takes the original species to decay into a more stable species. There are three types of
radiation: alpha, beta and gamma. Alpha radiation is the most common and is simply when an
element such as polonium [Po] decays giving off an alpha [] particle (2 protons and 2
neutrons) and converting itself into the more stable element lead [Pb].

There are 2 types of beta radiation, beta plus and beta minus. In beta minus, a neutron
is converted into a proton, and an electron and anti-neutrino are given off. In other words, the
parent element is converted into a new element, due to the proton addition, and keeps the
same total mass while giving off an electron and anti-neutrino.

Where T is the total of neutrons and protons, P is the amount of protons, e is the
electron/positron and v is a neutrino/anti-neutrino.
In beta plus, a proton is converted into a neutron, in addition a positron and neutrino
are given off effectively giving off a positive particle and becoming an isotope of an element
with one less proton.

This can also occur by electron capture where a free electron is pulled into the atom and
only a neutron and neutrino are produced.

Gamma decay is composed of high-energy photons where the molecule does not
change but a gamma ray is emitted due to a highly excited state releasing its energy to form a
lower, more stable state.

In the decay of strontium 90, the Geiger counter detects the beta particles in the form
of the electrons given off from the beta minus radiation. The electrons are capable of creating
a cumulative ionization where the free electrons ionize the argon matrix inside a cylinder in the
Geiger counter causing an avalanche of ionizing energy. Instead, the energy is carried up a thin
wire inside a tube that has a positive charge in comparison to the cylinder. The electrons are
measured in a circuit, and the counter ticks per a certain amount of electrons. The potential
difference in the wire must be high enough to attract the electrons, but not too much to where
it damages the instrument. The best count will occur in the plateau range of the tube but
discharge and damage will occur if you it goes higher than this. The count rate at the plateau
range will be inverse to its radius squared due to the fact that the number of particles entering
the wire will be equal to the same number of particles sent in every other direction from the
source in a sphere.

Procedure
1. Find the threshold voltage for the Geiger-Muller tube. Reset the voltage knobs to zero
and place the Strontium 90 sample 5 cm from the tube. Turn the counter on and set the
timer to manual, press reset, then press count, and make sure test isnt pressed. Slowly
turn the coarse voltage knob to higher voltages until a count appears on the screen. Lower
the same knob one increment while increasing the fine voltage setting. When the counts
reappear, record this number as threshold voltage.
2. Determine the characteristic curve for the tube. Press reset, set the timer to 0.5
minutes, and keep the sample at 5 cm. Set the voltage to the thresh hold value and press
count. The counter will stop counting every 0.5 minutes. After every 0.5 minute count
increase the voltage by 20 pts. Record all the values and pay attention to notice a pattern of
a plateau and a sharp increase on the counter. Stop measuring after that increase. On
Cartesian graph paper, plot the data as count rate versus tube voltage. Find the best
operating voltage from the middle of the plateau region of counts.
3. Record the background radiation by moving the sample to the far end of the table.
Record 3-0.5 minute trials and average them.
4. Find out the relationship between the intensity of radiation and the distance from the
source. Set the tube to the recorded operating voltage. Vary the distance and take a 0.5
minute count at distances 6 to 22 cm. Record them and average them. Subtract the average
background from the radiation counts to obtain a corrected count for each distance and
record these values. Plot the corrected radiation count versus distance graph.
Results:
Threshold Voltage: 845 V Operating Voltage: 965 V
Background Radiation (counts/0.5 min)
Trial 1= 15 Trial 2= 4 Trial 3= 14 Average= 11
Table 1.1 Characteristic Curve for Geiger-Muller Tube
Tube Voltage (v) Count Rate (per half-minute)
845 206
865 264
885 260
905 274
925 303
945 313
965 318
985 317
1005 311
1025 344
1045 387
1065 436
1085 480
1105 560

Graph 1 Characteristic Curve for Geiger-Muller Tube

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Tube Voltage (V)
Table 1.2 Count Rate vs Distance from Source
Distance
(cm)
Count Rate
(per 0.5 min)
Avg Count Rate-
Background
6 378 367
7 294 283
8 220 209
9 208 197
10 164 153
12 132 121
14 96 85
16 67 56
18 62 51
20 62 51
22 45 34

Graph 1.2 Count Rate vs Distance from Source

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Distance from Source (cm)
Graph 1.3 Log(distance from source) vs Log(count rate-background)

Calculate Slope of Graph 1.3
Rise=log (N)= log(34)-log(357)= -1.02
Run=log(r)= log(22)-log(6)= 0.564
Slope=rise/run=1.03/0.564= -1.81

Conclusion:
The Geiger counter seemed to be very reliable tool when measuring radiation. It is able
to measure the beta emissions of Strontium, which has an emittance of 0.1 Ci. The best
reading were measured at a fairly close distance. When the distance was slowly increased the
Geiger counter showed less particles, which tells us that distance is inversely proportional to
count rate. The graph showed this with having a slope of -1.81. This slope is close to the
expected slope of -2, but with experiment being performed in an environment that allows for
interaction with outside radiation, there is the possibility of errors. Even with slight errors the
experiment conclusions support the theory behind them.



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log(Distance from Source) (cm)
Avg Count Rate-
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Linear (Avg Count Rate-
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Linear (Avg Count Rate-
Background)
Questions:
Lab 1: The Geiger Counter

Questions:

1. What three types of particles or rays are commonly seen as emissions during radioactive
decay? Name each, give its symbol, and briefly explain its nature.
Alpha radiation: () Alpha particles are made of 2 protons and 2 neutrons. This means that
they have a charge of +2 and a mass of 4 amu (atomic mass units). Alpha particles are relatively
slow and heavy, and because they have a large charge, alpha particles ionize other atoms
strongly.
Beta radiation: () Beta particles have a charge of minus 1, and a mass of about 1/2000
th
of a
proton. This makes a beta particle the same as an electron. They are fast and light. Beta
particles ionize atoms they pass, but not as strongly as alpha particles do.
Gamma radiation: () Gamma rays are waves, not particles. This means that they have no mass
and no charge. Gamma rays do not directly ionize other atoms, although they may cause atoms
to emit other particles that will then cause ionization.
2.

spontaneously undergoes beta-minus decay. Write an equation for its decay reaction,
including the symbol for the element in which

converts.

3. What does an avalanche of electrons in a Geiger-Mller tube mean?
A Geiger-Mller tube consists of a sealed metallic tube filled with argon or another noble gas
mixed with a small amount of alcohol vapor or bromine gas. When a radioactive particle enters
the tube it ionizes an argon atom. The resulting electron is accelerated towards the metal wire
or anode. As the electron approaches the metal wire it experiences an increasing electric field
strength, which in turn applies a greater accelerating force on the electron. The accelerating
force becomes so strong that on collision with other argon atoms the electron can ionize them.
The electrons from these ionizations can go onto generate a cascade of further electrons, an
effect called the avalanche effect.

4. What is meant by dead time of a Geiger-Mller tube?
Dead time is the interval after the initiation of a normal size pulse during which the tube is
insensitive to further ionization events.
5. Why do we expect to find an inverse square relationship between the count rate and the
distance from the source? What role does the assumption that the source is a point source
have?
The inverse square law is important as it gives a measure of how intensity of radiation falls
off with distance from a source. This has implications for the storage and use of radioactive
sources.
6. There is probably a discrepancy between the expected value of -2 and the measured value
for the power in the inverse relationship between N and r.
(a) Discuss the role of the point source assumption on this discrepancy.
For a point source located a distance r from the tube, which emits equally in all
directions, the count rate by the Geiger-Mller tube should be inversely
proportional to r
2
.
(b) Discuss the role of the dead time of the Geiger-Mller tube.
Dead time is the interval after the initiation of a normal size pulse during which the
tube is insensitive to further ionization events.