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Summary
In both prokaryotes and eukaryotes, the second function of DNA (the first was replication) is to
provide the information needed to construct the proteins necessary so that the cell can perform all of
its functions. To do this, the DNA is read or transcribed into anmRNA molecule. The mRNA then
provides the code to form a protein by a process called translation. Through the processes of
transcription and translation, a protein is built with a specific sequence of amino acids that was
originally encoded in the DNA. This module discusses the details of transcription.
The Central Dogma: DNA Encodes RNA; RNA
Encodes Protein
The flow of genetic information in cells from DNA to mRNA to protein is described by the central
dogma (Figure), which states that genes specify the sequences of mRNAs, which in turn specify the
sequences of proteins.
The central dogma states that DNA encodes
RNA, which in turn encodes protein.
The copying of DNA to mRNA is relatively straightforward, with one nucleotide being added to the
mRNA strand for every complementary nucleotide read in the DNA strand. The translation to protein
is more complex because groups of three mRNA nucleotides correspond to one amino acid of the
protein sequence. However, as we shall see in the next module, the translation to protein is still
systematic, such that nucleotides 1 to 3 correspond to amino acid 1, nucleotides 4 to 6 correspond
to amino acid 2, and so on.
Transcription: from DNA to mRNA
Both prokaryotes and eukaryotes perform fundamentally the same process of transcription, with the
important difference of the membrane-bound nucleus in eukaryotes. With the genes bound in the
nucleus, transcription occurs in the nucleus of the cell and the mRNA transcript must be transported
to the cytoplasm. The prokaryotes, which include bacteria and archaea, lack membrane-bound
nuclei and other organelles, and transcription occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell. In both prokaryotes
and eukaryotes, transcription occurs in three main stages: initiation, elongation, and termination.
Initiation
Transcription requires the DNA double helix to partially unwind in the region of mRNA synthesis. The
region of unwinding is called atranscription bubble. The DNA sequence onto which the proteins
and enzymes involved in transcription bind to initiate the process is called a promoter. In most
cases, promoters exist upstream of the genes they regulate. The specific sequence of a promoter is
very important because it determines whether the corresponding gene is transcribed all of the time,
some of the time, or hardly at all (Figure).
The initiation of transcription begins when
DNA is unwound, forming a transcription bubble. Enzymes and other proteins involved in
transcription bind at the promoter.
Elongation
Transcription always proceeds from one of the two DNA strands, which is called the template
strand. The mRNA product is complementary to the template strand and is almost identical to the
other DNA strand, called the nontemplate strand, with the exception that RNA contains a uracil (U)
in place of the thymine (T) found in DNA. During elongation, an enzyme called RNA
polymerase proceeds along the DNA template adding nucleotides by base pairing with the DNA
template in a manner similar to DNA replication, with the difference that an RNA strand is being
synthesized that does not remain bound to the DNA template. As elongation proceeds, the DNA is
continuously unwound ahead of the core enzyme and rewound behind it (Figure).
During elongation,
RNA polymerase tracks along the DNA template, synthesizes mRNA in the 5' to 3' direction, and
unwinds then rewinds the DNA as it is read.
Termination
Once a gene is transcribed, the prokaryotic polymerase needs to be instructed to dissociate from the
DNA template and liberate the newly made mRNA. Depending on the gene being transcribed, there
are two kinds of termination signals, but both involve repeated nucleotide sequences in the DNA
template that result in RNA polymerase stalling, leaving the DNA template, and freeing the mRNA
transcript.
On termination, the process of transcription is complete. In a prokaryotic cell, by the time termination
occurs, the transcript would already have been used to partially synthesize numerous copies of the
encoded protein because these processes can occur concurrently using multiple ribosomes
(polyribosomes) (Figure). In contrast, the presence of a nucleus in eukaryotic cells precludes
simultaneous transcription and translation.
Multiple polymerases can transcribe
a single bacterial gene while numerous ribosomes concurrently translate the mRNA transcripts into
polypeptides. In this way, a specific protein can rapidly reach a high concentration in the bacterial
cell.
Eukaryotic RNA Processing











Importance
Bacteria are present in large numbers in raw wastewater, in biological treatment
plants, in plant effluent, in natural waters, and throughout our environment. In the
wastewater treatment plant, they form part of the slime on trickling filters and on the
discs of rotating biological contactors. They are also present in activated sludge.
Bacteria are heterotrophs, meaning that they get their food from eating other
organisms or from eating organic matter. (In contrast, organisms like plants which
make their own food are known as autotrophs.) As a result, bacteria are important to
the wastewater operator since the bacteria are able to digest a large amount of the
waste in wastewater. On the other hand, some bacteria get their food from living
inside organisms such as humans, in which case they can cause disease.


4.5 Enzymes
http://biologyforlife.wordpress.com/2011/09/09/4
-5-enzymes/
Biology for Life

How are enzymes synthesized?

JulieyumiAnswered Last
Enzymes are proteins that are first transcribed from DNA into mRNA, then translated from
mRNA to proteins.
ecialized Cell Structure and Function
Protein Synthesis
Specialized Cell Structure and Function
Introduction
Modifications and Adaptive Functions
Cellular Respiration
Protein Synthesis
The making of the various types of protein is one of the most important events for a cell because protein
not only forms structural components of the cell, it also composes the enzymes that catalyze the
production of the remaining organic biomolecules necessary for life. In general, the genotype coded for in
the DNA is expressed as a phenotype by the protein and other enzyme-catalyzed products.
The DNA housed in the nucleus is too large to move through the nuclear membrane, so it must be copied
by the smaller, single-stranded RNA (transcription), which moves out of the nucleus to ribosomes located
in the cytoplasm and rough endoplasmic reticulum to direct the assembly of protein (translation). The
genes do not actually make the protein, but they provide the blueprint in the form of RNA, which directs
the protein synthesis.
Transcription
Transcription occurs in the cell nucleus and represents the transfer of the genetic code from DNA to a
complementary RNA. The enzyme RNA polymerase
Attaches to and unzips the DNA molecule to become two separate strands.
Binds to promoter segments of DNA that indicate the beginning of the single strand of DNA to be
copied.
Moves along the DNA and matches the DNA nucleotides with a complementary RNA nucleotide
to create a new RNA molecule that is patterned after the DNA.
The copying of the DNA continues until the RNA polymerase reaches a termination signal, which is a
specific set of nucleotides that mark the end of the gene to be copied and also signals the disconnecting
of the DNA with the newly minted RNA.
The three types of RNA are
mRNA (messenger RNA) is transcribed from DNA and carries the genetic information from the
DNA to be translated into amino acids.
tRNA (transfer RNA) interprets the three-letter codons of the nucleic acids to the one-letter
amino acid word
rRNA (ribosomal RNA) is the most abundant type of RNA, and along with associated proteins
compose the ribosomes.
When the RNA polymerase is finished copying a particular segment of DNA, the DNA reconfigures into
the original double-helix structure. The newly created mRNA moves out of the nucleus and into the
cytoplasm.
Translation
Translation is the conversion of information contained in a sequence of mRNA nucleotides into a
sequence of amino acids that bond together to create a protein. The mRNA moves to the ribosomes and
is read by tRNA, which analyzes sections of three adjoining nucleotide sequences, called codons, on
the mRNA and brings the corresponding amino acid for assembly into the growing polypeptide chain. The
three nucleotides in a codon are specific for a particular amino acid. Therefore, each codon signals for the
inclusion of a specific amino acid, which combines in the correct sequence to create the specific protein
that the DNA coded for.
The assembly of the polypeptide begins when a ribosome attaches to a start codon located on the
mRNA. Then tRNA carries the amino acid to the ribosomes, which are made of rRNA and protein and
have three bonding sites to promote the synthesis. The first site orients the mRNA so the codons are
accessible to the tRNA, which occupy the remaining two sites as they deposit their amino acids and then
release from the mRNA to search for more amino acids. Translation continues until the ribosome
recognizes a codon that signals the end of the amino acid sequence. The polypeptide, when completed,
is in its primary structure. It is then released from the ribosome to begin contortions to configure into the
final form to begin its function.
Bionote
Each codon on the mRNA specifies a particular amino acid, which is recognized by the anticodon of the
complementary tRNA. There are 20 different amino acids; there are also 20 different tRNA molecules.


After the proteins are made, they are packaged and transported to their final destination in an interesting
pathway that can be described in three steps involving three organelles:
1. Vesicles transport the proteins from the ribosomes to the Golgi apparatus, a.k.a Golgi complex,
where they are packaged into new vesicles.
2. The vesicles migrate to the membrane and release their protein to the outside of the cell.
3. Lysosomes digest and recycle the waste materials for reuse by the cell.
Enzymes within the Golgi apparatus modify the proteins and enclose them in a new vesicle that buds
from the surface of the Golgi apparatus. The Golgi apparatus is often seen as the packaging and
distribution center of the cell.
Vesicles are small, membrane-enclosed envelopes that are usually made in the endoplasmic reticulum or
Golgi apparatus and are used to transport substances through the cell.
Lysosomes are a special type of vesicle that contains the digestive enzymes for the cell and are useful in
breaking down leftover waste products of proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids into their
component parts for reassembly and reuse by the cell.



Read more: Specialized Cell Structure and Function: Protein Synthesis |
Infoplease.com http://www.infoplease.com/cig/biology/protein-synthesis.html#ixzz3CqTikKYp
remember that enzymes are proteins so how they are made can be explained by the process of protein
synthesis.

1.) The cell receives a signal that loosens the DNA and makes the wanted gene available for
transcription.

2.) Transcription: The information provided by DNA is then transcribed into RNA. RNA processing takes
place in the nucleus before it leaves for the cytoplasm. This RNA strand is the "messenger RNA" or
mRNA for short.

3.) Translation: The mRNA then leaves the nucleus and goes through translation in the cytoplasm. Here,
ribosomes meet the mRNA and translates the nucleotides into amino acids. A combination of three
nucleotides (codon) = one amino acid. Remember that amino acids are the building blocks of proteins.

4.) The amino acids are then covalently bonded to one another. This produces a polypeptide, another
name for protein.

5.) The polypeptide chain will then fold up to accordingly and may go to the rough ER for further
modifications and/or the Golgi Body for transportation in/around/out the cell, depending on the protein's
function.

After making changes to the protein in the Golgi Body, then the protein is ready to work! Enzymes vary in
structure and therefore vary in their function. They can work inside the cell, or they can be secreted.

I hope that helps!
Source:
I took AP bio
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Daksha D answered 6 years ago
Making Enzymes
As long as a cell's membrane is intact and it is making all of the enzymes it needs to function properly, the
cell is alive. The enzymes it needs to function properly allow the cell to create energy from glucose,
construct the pieces that make up its cell wall, reproduce and, of course, produce new enzymes.

So where do all of these enzymes come from? And how does the cell produce them when it needs them?
If a cell is just a collection of enzymes causing chemical reactions that make the cell do what it does, then
how can a set of chemical reactions create the enzymes it needs, and how can the cell reproduce?
Where does the miracle of life come from?

The answer to these questions lies in the DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid. You have certainly heard of
DNA, chromosomes and genes. DNA guides the cell in its production of new enzymes.

The DNA in a cell is really just a pattern made up of four different parts, called nucleotides or bases.
Imagine a set of blocks that has only four different shapes, or an alphabet that has only four different
letters. DNA is a long string of blocks or letters. In an E. coli cell, the DNA pattern is about 4 million blocks
long. If you were to stretch out this single stand of DNA, it would be 1.36 mm long -- pretty long
considering the bacteria itself is 1,000 times smaller. In bacteria, the DNA strand is like a wadded-up ball
of string. Imagine taking 1,000 feet (300 meters) of incredibly thin thread and wadding it up -- you could
easily hold it in your hand. [A human's DNA is about 3 billion blocks long, or almost 1,000 times longer
than an E. coli's. Human DNA is so long that the wadded-up approach does not work. Instead, human
DNA is tightly wrapped into 23 structures called chromosomes to pack it more tightly and fit it inside a
cell.]

The amazing thing about DNA is this: DNA is nothing more than a pattern that tells the cell how to make
its proteins! That is all that DNA does. The 4 million bases in an E. coli cell's DNA tell the cell how to
make the 1,000 or so enzymes that an E. coli cell needs to live its life. A gene is simply a section of DNA
that acts as a template to form an enzyme.

Let's look at the entire process of how DNA is turned into an enzyme so you can understand how it
works.


I think the first part is the most important.

If you want find out more go on this website.

http://science.howstuffworks.com/cell5.h...

By what process are Enzymes made in the cell?
I know that enzymes are produced by living cells with each cell containing about several hundred
enzymes. I am just curious to know by what process are enzymes are made in the cell?
Best Answer Asker's Choice

lippy19850528 answered 8 years ago

The general idea of how enzyme is made in the cell can be considered as follow:
enzyme is made of proteins and proteins are made of many individual amino acids connected by peptide
bond N-C=O. thus protein can be known as chain of amino acids.
the synthesis of protein is controlled within the nucleus through gene regulation, and the DNA is what
codes for the order of amino acid in a protein chain. there are many genes which codes for different
protein hence enzyme, some enzymes do consist of more than one polypeptide chain thus eptistacy can
act on such enzyme. it will be quite difficult for you to understand about the process detail without any
background knowledge in genetics, but i stil tell you the simplified version, for example the synthesis of
enzyme A, a piece of DNA contains numerous bases attached to a sugar phosphate backbone and each 3
bases codes for one amino acid, there are 4 bases (adenine, tymine, cytosine and guanine) for example
CUG codes for the amino acid leucine. this piece of DNA is transcribed into mRNA for which thymine
becomes uracil, the mRNA is translocated into the cytosol from the nucleus to the rough endoplasmic
reticulum where ribosomes will attached to the mRNA and start the synthesis of the enzyme, the start
codon AUG coding for amino acid methionine will be recognised by tRNA with anticodon 3'UAC5' since
than base A will base pair with base U and base C with base pair with G. the tRNA is responsible for
assembling the amino acids into a chain, one the protein is complete it will than leaves the RER and send
to the place inside the cell where it's needed via vesicle. If you really want to understand how enzyme is
synthesised, you should be reading a book.^^
Source:
My brain
Asker's rating & comment

Just what I was looking for. Thorough and infomative,... Thanks!
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Kish answered 8 years ago
enzymes are essentially complex proteins. proteins are formed in living cells by the process of
translation and then transcription.

translation is the process of forming a messenger-RNA from part of the DNA that codes for the
production of the protein. it takes place in the nucleus. the m-RNA formed leaves the nucleus via the
nuclear pore into the cytoplasm of the cell where translation takes place.

translation is the process where proteins are formed from m-RNA and amino acids that are found freely-
floating in the cytoplasm. this process also requires ribosomes that are either found freely-floating in the
cytoplasm or the ones that are membrane bound to the smooth endoplasmic reticulum.

at the end of translation, a protein strand is formed. the protein next enters the golgi apparatus where
they get modified and made more complex. some become glycoproteins while other gets lipids attached
to them forming lipoproteins. it is here where proteins that are destined to be enzymes accquire their
specific shape and structure that is characteristic of an enzyme.

the enzyme that is now formed leaves the golgi apparatus in a vesicles that gets transfered through the
cytoplasm where it fuses with the cell membrane of the cell and releases the enzyme out of the cell via
exocytosis.

some enzymes of course are used within a cell itself. in this case the vesicle that contains the enzyme
will fuse with another vesicle that contains the matter that needs to be digested.

this is of course a really watered down version. the detailed steps for translation, transcription,
modification and transport out of the cell via exocytosis are explained further in the links below.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcripti...
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation...
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golgi_appar...
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exocytosis

hope this helped though!


Where does protein and enzyme synthesis take place?
Hi guys, Im wondering about this question just for the sake of it. I appreciate your help on helping me
solve it. Thank you.
Best Answer

unhrdof answered 8 years ago

Enzymes are a type of protein, so they are made at the same place.

Protein and Enzyme synthesis take place in cells through translation. With translation, DNA in the
nucleus is unraveled to make mRNA. This mRNA leaves the nucleus and goes out into the cell where
tRNA is made from the mRNA. The mRNA has a series of codons (3 nucleotides per amino acid). Amino
acids are the building blocks of proteins. The tRNA makes anticodons that match with amino acids in the
cell. This occurs at cellular organelles called ribosomes. The amino acids link together to form chains
through peptide bonds.

There are 4 levels of structure that proteins have.

Primary: Amino acid chain
Secondary: The chain folds and spirals into alpha helices and beta sheets.
Tertiary: These spirals and folds coil through other bonds such as sulphide bonds.
Quaternary: Multiple groups of these chains combine to create a protein.

I hope that this helped.
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CBRRider answered 8 years ago
Protein synthesis takes place on the ribosomes.

Enzymes are essentially proteins which act as a biological catalyst to speed up chemical reactions, it is
synthesized the same as the proteins.
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gibbie99 answered 8 years ago
None of these answers are totally correct, yes protein translation occurs in ribosome, but ribosomes
exist both in the cytoplasm and the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER).
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jawajames answered 8 years ago
Proteins are synthesized on ribosomes, either free floating in the cytosol, or attached to the
endoplasmic reticulum.
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St. Judy's comet answered 8 years ago
Yes it does happen on the ribosomes but they are physically located in the cytosol.
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miz answered 8 years ago
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS: TRANSLATION

takes place in ribosomes IN CYTOPLASM



2. What are Enzymes...
An enzyme is a protein that acts as a catalyst. The enzyme is responsible for accelerating the rate of a
reaction in which various substrates are converted to products through the formation of an enzyme-
substrate complex. In general, each type of enzyme catalyzes only one type of reaction and will operate on
only one type of substrate. This is often referred to as a "lock and key" mechanism. As a consequence,
enzymes are highly specific and are able to discriminate between slightly different substrate molecules. In
addition, enzymes exhibit optimal catalytic activity over a narrow range of temperature, ionic strength and
pH

General characteristics of enzymes
1. Enzymes work very rapidly
One molecule of enzyme can turn thousands or millions of substrate molecules into products per minute. For
example, catalyse can transform approximately six million hydrogen peroxide molecules into oxygen and water
molecules per minute.
2. Enzymes are not destroyed by the reactions which that catalyse
Since enzymes are not altered by the reactions they catalysed, they can be used again. A smaill concentration
of enzymes can bring about a large amount of biochemical reactions
3. Enzyme-catalysed reactions are reversible
o lactose + water lactase> glucose + galactose
o lactose + water <lactase glucose + galactose
The enzyme which catalyses a reaction works in such a way that the reaction can proceed from left to right or
from right to left, depending on circumstances. Note the two way arrows.
4. Enzymes are extremely specific
Most enzymes are specific to one particular substrate molecule. Thus, a given enzyme will catalyse only one
reaction or one type of reaction. Maltase, for example, acts only on maltose.
5. Enzymes are denatured by high temperature
An enzyme inactive at very low temperature. As temperature rises, its activity increases until the optimum
temperature is reached. The optimum temperature is around 40 C. Above the optimum temperature, the rate of
reaction decline rapidly, ceasing altogether at about 60 C. This is because enzymes are made of protein, so
they are denatured at high temperature. When an enzyme becomes denatured, the bonds are broken and the
polypeptide chains open up. The enzyme loses its normal shape and becomes inactive.
6. Enzymes are sensitive to pH
Every enzymes has its own optimum pH in which it functions best. Small changes in the pH of the medium will
denature the enzyme and render its activity. Alterations in the ionic charges of the acidic and basic groups of
the enzyme change the shape of the enzyme.
Intracellular and extracellular enzymes
Enzymes can be divided into two groups: intracellular and extracellular.
Enzymes formed and retained in the cell are known as intracellular enzymes, and occur in the cytoplasm,
organelles or the nucleus. Examples of intracellular enzyme are DNA polymerase, RNA polymerase and ATP
synthetase.
Extracellular enzymes are produced in the cell then packed and secreted from the cell, Extracellular enzymes
caralyse their reactions outside the cell. Most digestive enzymes are extracellular enzymes. For example,
amylase, cellulase and zymase.
Site of Enzyme Synthesis
Since enzymes are made of proteins, they are synthesised by ribosomes.
Intracellular enzymes are synthesised on free ribosomes.
Extracellular enzymes are synthesised on ribosomes attached to the endoplasmic reticulum.

Formation and secretion of extracellular enzymes:
1. The instruction for making the extracellular enzyme is transcribes from deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) to
ribonucleic acid (RNA) in the nucleus.
2. The RNA then leaves the nucleus through the nuclear pore and attaches itself to the ribosome located on the
endoplasmic reticulum.
3. When the enzyme synthesis has completed, it is extruded into the interior of the endoplasmic reticulum.
4. The enzyme is then encapsulated in a transport vesicle.
5. The transport vesicle fuses with the Golgi apparatus, releasing the enzyme into the Golgi apparatus.
6. In the Golgi apparatus the enzyme is further modified before packing the enzyme in a secretory vesicle.
7. The secretory vesicle transports the enzyme to the plasma membrane.
8. The secretory vesicle membrane fuses with the plasma membrane and the enzyme is release outside the cell.
Mechanism of enzyme action
Each enzyme molecule has a region with very precise shape called the active site.
The substrate molecule fits into the active site of the enzyme like a key into a lock.
Various types of bonds including hydrogen bonds and ionic bonds hold the substrate(s) in the active site to
form a enzyme-substrate complex.
The enzyme then changes the substrate(s) either by splitting it apart (for example, hydrolysis) or linking them
together (for example, condensation)
Once formed, the products no longer fit into the active site and escape into the surrounding medium, leaving
the active site free to receive further substrate molecules.
enzyme+substrate enzyme-substrate complex> enzyme+product
The explanation of enzyme action is known as the lock and key hypothesis, where the substrate is like a key
whose shape is complementary to the enzyme or lock.
The lock and key hypothesis is able to explain why enzymes are specific and why any change in enzyme
shape alters its effectiveness.


The production of extracellular enzymes


In the nucleus, the DNA double helix unwinds & exposes its two strands for the synthesis of mRNA
strand.
The mRNA (messenger RNA) leaves the nucleus through the nuclear pore and moves to a ribosome.
The mRNA attaches itself to the ribosome.
Proteins are synthesised & transported through the space within the rough ER.
Proteins depart from rough ER wrapped in vesicles (transport vesicle) that bud off from the membrane.
The transport vesicle then fuse with Golgi apparatus. The proteins are further modified, packaged, sorted
(eg. carbohydrates are added to proteins --> glycoproteins)
Secretory vesicles then bud off from the Golgi apparatus & travel to plasma membrane.
They then diffuse with the plasma membrane before being released outside.
he role of enzymes in organisms

Metabolisms are chemical reactions that occur within a living organism.
Enzymes regulate almost all the cellular reactions.
Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up biochemical reactions in the cell.

The general

1.


Naming of enzymes

1. The name of enzyme is derived from the name of the substrate it catalyses.
2. The name of most enzymes are derived by adding suffix ase to the name of the
substrates they hydrolyse. For example:

Substrate Enzyme
Lactose Lactase
Sucrose Sucrase
Lipid lipase

3. However, there are some enzymes that were named before a systematic way of
naming enzymes was formulated. For example, pepsin, trypsin and rennin.

Synthesis of enzymes

1. Ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis. Since enzymes are proteins,
ribosomes are also the sites of enzymes synthesis.
2. The information for the synthesis of enzymes is carried by the DNA. The different
sequences of bases in the DNA are codes to make different proteins. During the
process, messenger RNA is formed to translate the codes into a sequence of amino
acids. These amino acids are bonded together to form specific enzymes according to
DNAs codes.

Intracellular enzymes and extracellular enzymes

1. Enzymes are synthesised by specific cells.
2. Enzymes which are produced and retained in the cell for the use of the cell itself are
called intracellular enzymes. These enzymes are found in the cytoplasm, nucleus,
mitochondria and chloroplasts. For example, the enzymes oxireductase catalyses
biological oxidation and reduction in mitochondria.
3. Enzymes which are produced in the cell but secreted from the cell to function externally
are called extracellular enzymes. For example, digestive enzymes produced by the
pancreas are not used by the cell in the pancreas but are transported to the duodenum,
which is the actual site of the enzymatic reaction.

Production of extracellular enzymes

1. Many enzymes produced by specialised cells are secreted outside the cell. For
example, pancreatic cells secrete pancreatic amylase outside the cells to be transported
to the target organ (duodenum).

The production of extracellular enzymes
a. The nucleus contains DNA which carries the information for the synthesis of enzymes.
b. Protein that are synthesised at the ribosomes are transported through the space within
the rough endoplasmic reticulum (rough ER).
c. Proteins depart from the rough ER wrapped in vesiscles that bud off from the
membranes of the rough ER.
d. These transport vesicles then fuse with the membrane of the Golgi apparatus and
empty their contents into the membranous space.
e. The proteins are further modified during their transport in the Golgi apparatus, for
example, carbohydrates are added to protein to make glycoproteins.
f. Secretory vesicles containing these modified proteins bud off from the Golgi apparatus
and travel to the plasma membrane.
g. These vesicles will then fuse with the plasma membrane before releasing the protein
outside the cell as enzymes.


Mechanism of enzyme action

1. Each enzyme molecule has a region with a very precise shape called the active site.
2. The substrate molecule fits into the active site of the enzyme like a key into a lock.
3. Various types of bonds including hydrogen bonds and ionic bonds hold the
substrate(s) in the active site to form an enzyme-substrate complex.
4. The enzyme then changes the substrate(s) either by splitting it apart (as in hydrolysis)
or linking them together (as in condensation).
5. Once formed, the products no longer fit into the active site and escape into the
surrounding medium, leaving the active site free to receive other substrate molecule.

Enzyme + substrateenzyme-substrate complexenzymes + products

6. The explanation of enzyme action is known as the lock and key hypothesis, where
the substrate is like a key whose shape is complementary to the enzyme or lock.
7. The lock and key hypothesis is able to explain:
a. why enzymes are specific, and
b. why any change in the shape of enzyme alters its effectiveness.



1. SITES OF ENZYME SYNTHESIS o Enzymes are synthesized by ribosomes which are attached to
the rough endoplasmic reticulum. o Information for the synthesis of enzyme is carried by DNA. o
Amino acids are bonded together to form specific enzyme according to the DNAs codes.
2. INTRACELLULAR AND EXTRACELLULAR ENZYMES o o o
3. Intracellular enzymes are synthesized and retained in the cell for the use of cell itself.
4. They are found in the cytoplasm, nucleus, mitochondria and chloroplast. Example : Oxydoreductase
catalyses biological oxidation. Enzymes involved in reduction in the mitochondria. Extracellular
enzymes are synthesized in the cell but secreted from the cell to work externally. Example :
Digestive enzyme produced by the pancreas, are not used by the cells in the pancreas but are
transported to the duodenum.


What is enzyme? What are enzymes?
Enzymes are proteins that are also biological catalysts
Some of the characteristics of enzymes:
They are proteins
They are biological catalysts
Catalysts are substances that are used to speed up the rates of chemical reactions by
lowering the activation energy. They are not changed at the end of the reaction
Enzymes will remain unchanged during a reaction
Enzymes of substrate specific
Substrates are substances that typically apart of the starting materials of a reaction.
They are what enzymes act upon.
The substrate binds onto the active site of the enzyme that is specific to the
substrate.


Making Enzymes
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As long as a cell's membrane is intact and it is making all of the enzymes it needs to function properly, the
cell is alive. The enzymes it needs to function properly allow the cell to create energy from glucose,
construct the pieces that make up its cell wall, reproduce and, of course, produce new enzymes.
So where do all of these enzymes come from? And how does the cell produce them when it needs them?
If a cell is just a collection of enzymes causing chemical reactions that make the cell do what it does, then
how can a set of chemical reactions create the enzymes it needs, and how can the cell reproduce?
Where does the miracle of life come from?
The answer to these questions lies in the DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid. You have certainly heard of
DNA,chromosomes and genes. DNA guides the cell in its production of new enzymes.
The DNA in a cell is really just a pattern made up of four different parts, called nucleotides or bases.
Imagine a set of blocks that has only four different shapes, or an alphabet that has only four different
letters. DNA is a long string of blocks or letters. In an E. coli cell, the DNA pattern is about 4 million blocks
long. If you were to stretch out this single stand of DNA, it would be 1.36 mm long -- pretty long
considering the bacteria itself is 1,000 times smaller. In bacteria, the DNA strand is like a wadded-up ball
of string. Imagine taking 1,000 feet (300 meters) of incredibly thin thread and wadding it up -- you could
easily hold it in your hand. [A human's DNA is about 3 billion blocks long, or almost 1,000 times longer
than an E. coli's. Human DNA is so long that the wadded-up approach does not work. Instead, human
DNA is tightly wrapped into 23 structures called chromosomes to pack it more tightly and fit it inside a
cell.]
The amazing thing about DNA is this: DNA is nothing more than a pattern that tells the cell how to make
its proteins! That is all that DNA does. The 4 million bases in an E. coli cell's DNA tell the cell how to
make the 1,000 or so enzymes that an E. coli cell needs to live its life. A gene is simply a section of DNA
that acts as a template to form an enzyme.
Let's look at the entire process of how DNA is turned into an enzyme so you can understand how it works


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Image courtesy U.S. Department of Energy Human Genome Program
DNA
You have probably heard of the DNA molecule referred to as the "double-helix." DNA is like two strings
twisted together in a long spiral.
DNA is found in all cells as base pairs made of four different nucleotides. Each base pair is formed from
two complementary nucleotides bonded together. The four bases in DNA's alphabet are:
Adenine
Cytosine
Guanine
Thymine
Adenine and thymine always bond together as a pair, and cytosine and guanine bond together as a pair.
The pairs link together like rungs in a ladder:

Base pairs in DNA bond together to form a ladder-like structure. Because bonding occurs at angles between the
bases, the whole structure twists into a helix.
In an E. coli bacterium, this ladder is about 4 million base pairs long. The two ends link together to form a
ring, and then the ring gets wadded up to fit inside the cell. The entire ring is known as the genome, and
scientists have completely decoded it. That is, scientists know all 4 million of the base pairs needed to
form an E. coli bacterium's DNA exactly. The human genome project is in the process of finding all 3
billion or so of the base pairs in a typical human's DNA.
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A gene consists of a promoter, the codons for an enzyme and a stop codon. Two genes are shown above. The long
strand of DNA in an E. coli bacterium encodes about 4,000 genes, and at any time those genes specify about 1,000
enzymes in the cytoplasm of an E. coli cell. Many of the genes are duplicates.
The Big Question
You may remember from a previous section that enzymes are formed from 20 different amino acids
strung together in a specific order. Therefore the question is this: How do you get from DNA, made up of
only four nucleotides, to an enzyme containing 20 different amino acids? There are two answers to this
question:
1. An extremely complex and amazing enzyme called a ribosome reads messenger RNA, produced from
the DNA, and converts it into amino-acid chains.
2. To pick the right amino acids, a ribosome takes the nucleotides in sets of three to encode for the 20
amino acids.
What this means is that every three base pairs in the DNA chain encodes for one amino acid in an
enzyme. Three nucleotides in a row on a DNA strand is therefore referred to as acodon. Because DNA
consists of four different bases, and because there are three bases in a codon, and because 4 * 4 * 4 =
64, there are 64 possible patterns for a codon. Since there are only 20 possible amino acids, this means
that there is some redundancy -- several different codons can encode for the same amino acid. In
addition, there is a stop codon that marks the end of a gene. So in a DNA strand, there is a set of 100 to
1,000 codons (300 to 3,000 bases) that specify the amino acids to form a specific enzyme, and then a
stop codon to mark the end of the chain. At the beginning of the chain is a section of bases that is called
a promoter. A gene, therefore, consists of a promoter, a set of codons for the amino acids in a specific
enzyme, and a stop codon. That is all that a gene is.
To create an enzyme, the cell must first transcribe the gene in the DNA into messenger RNA. The
transcription is performed by an enzyme called RNA polymerase. RNA polymerase binds to the DNA
strand at the promoter, unlinks the two strands of DNA and then makes a complementary copy of one of
the DNA strands into an RNA strand. RNA, or ribonucleic acid, is very similar to DNA except that it is
happy to live in a single-stranded state (as opposed to DNA's desire to form complementary double-
stranded helixes). So the job of RNA polymerase is to make a copy of the gene in DNA into a single
strand of messenger RNA (mRNA).
The strand of messenger RNA then floats over to a ribosome, possibly the most amazing enzyme in
nature. A ribosome looks at the first codon in a messenger RNA strand, finds the right amino acid for that
codon, holds it, then looks at the next codon, finds its correct amino acid, stitches it to the first amino acid,
then finds the third codon, and so on. The ribosome, in other words, reads the codons, converts them to
amino acids and stitches the amino acids together to form a long chain. When it gets to the last codon --
the stop codon -- the ribosome releases the chain. The long chain of amino acids is, of course, an
enzyme. It folds into its characteristic shape, floats free and begins performing whatever reaction that
enzyme performs.



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No Simple Task
Obviously, the process described on the previous page is not a simple one. A ribosome is an extremely
complex structure of enzymes and ribosomal RNA (rRNA) bonded together into a large molecular
machine. A ribosome is helped by ATP, which powers it as it walks along the messenger RNA and as it
stitches the amino acids together. It is also helped by transfer RNA (tRNA), a collection of 20 special
molecules that act as carriers for the 20 different individual amino acids. As the ribosome moves down to
the next codon, the correct tRNA molecule, complete with the correct amino acid, moves into place. The
ribosome breaks the amino acid off the tRNA and stitches it to the growing chain of the enzyme. The
ribosome then ejects the "empty" tRNA molecule so it can go get another amino acid of the correct type.
As you can see, inside every cell there are a variety of processes keeping the cell alive:
There is an extremely long and very precise DNA molecule that defines all of the enzymes the cell needs.
There are RNA polymerase enzymes attaching to the DNA strand at the starting points of different genes
and copying the DNA for the gene into an mRNA molecule.
The mRNA molecule floats over to a ribosome, which reads the molecule and stitches together the string
of amino acids that it encodes.
The string of amino acids floats away from the ribosome and folds into its characteristic shape so it can
start catalyzing its specific reaction.
The cytoplasm of any cell is swimming with ribosomes, RNA polymerases, tRNA and mRNA molecules
and enzymes, all carrying out their reactions independently of each other.
As long as the enzymes in a cell are active and all of the necessary enzymes are available, the cell is
alive. An interesting side note: If you take a bunch of yeast cells and mistreat them (for example, place
them in a blender) to release the enzymes, the resulting soup will still do the sorts of things that living
yeast cells do (for example, produce carbon dioxide and alcohol from sugar) for some period of time.
However, since the cells are no longer intact and therefore are not alive, no new enzymes are produced.
Eventually, as the existing enzymes wear out, the soup stops reacting. At this point, the cells and the
soup have "died."
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1. An enzyme or any other protein that is destined to be exported out of the cell, is made on the
ribosomes that are attached to the membranes of the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER).

2. As they are being made, the protein molecules pass through pores in the RER membranes, into the
cisterns (spaces) of the RER.

3. Inside the RER, the enzymes are packaged into vesicles, which then pinch off the membranes and are
carried along cytoskeleton filaments to the Golgi.

4. The vesicles fuse with the membranes of the Golgi bodies, dumping the enzyme molecules into the
cisterns of the Golgi.

5. In the Golgi, the enzyme molecules are chemically labeled and sorted into other vesicles.

6. These new vesicles pinch off from the Golgi and are carried along cytoskeleton filaments to the
plasmalemma (cell membrane).

7. These vesicles fuse with the plasmalemma in such a way that the enzyme molecules are dumped
outside the cell.

8. This is secretion of the enzymes, which are now extracellular.

9. This is what happens to pepsin, for example, which functions in the lumen (space) of the stomach after
being secreted by cells of the stomach lining.