Technische Thermodynamica

(191141010)
Bachelor cursus voor
Werktuigbouwkundestudenten
Answers
Universiteit Twente
Genie Stoels
2011 - 2012
Thermodynamics: Answers Preface
Preface
This document contains answers to the exercises for the Bachelor course Engineering Thermo-
dynamics for students Mechanical Engineering at the University of Twente. The exercises
are provided in a separate document. The chapter numbers and titles refer to the chapters of the book
used in this course. This book is: Thermodynamics: An Integrated Learning System, by Philip
S. Schmidt, Ofodike A. Ezekoye, John R. Howell en Derek K. Baker. The exercises of this course are
based on exercises given in this book. Beside the book Thermodynamics, An Engineering Approach,
by Y.A. Cengel and M.A. Boles is used for inspiration.
Part of the exercises will be treated during the working classes. See the table on the next page
for the division of the chapters and exercises over the classes. The other exercises can serve as extra
practice for the students. At the beginning of each chapter there are some conceptual questions about
theoretical aspects. However, most of the questions are about application of the material. The answers
to the exercises, ordered in this document, are provided during the course. After the working class(es)
of a chapter is (are) nished, the answers of that chapter are made available for the students.
The exercises and answers in the chapters 9, 10 and 11 are representative for the exercises of the
exam. However, the exercises of the rst eight chapters provide a basis to be able to understand and
make the exercises of the last chapters.
Although answers are present for the greater part of the exercises, some of the exercises (less
than 5%) do not have answers jet. However, there are always silimar exercises that can be used as an
example, to solve the exersises without answer.
For the exercises taken from the book used in this course the answers are, mostly, taken from
the solution manual of the book. The answers of the rest of the exercises are made by myself,
G.G.M. Stoels. A lot of them are typed in English, but also a lot of the answers are hand written in
Dutch and scanned in order to make them available to the students. This is specially the case for the
more complicated and elaborate answers in the last chapters (9, 10, 11 and 14). The quality of the
scans is not always optimal. It is planned to improve the quality of the hand written answers in the
future.
Furthermore it has to be noted that in some answers tables from a dierent book (Cengel and
Boles) are mentioned. This mostly concerns the tables with the data for water, the tables 4, 5, 6,
and 7 refer to the tables 10, 11, 12 and 13 of the book used in this course. Also this can happen for
refrigerant 134A, the tables 11, 12, 13 and 14 refer to the tables 14, 15, 16 and 17 of the book used in
this course.
Finally I have to mention that there can be mistakes in the answers, I am not perfect, if you
see mistakes please mention them to me. I hope the students can benet from the answers in this
document in the preparation of the exam.
Genie Stoels
March 2009
iii
Thermodynamics: Answers Course content
Content of the course
The course Engineering Thermodynamics is covered in eighteen lecture classes and eighteen working
classes. The table below contains an overview of the division of the dierent chapters over the classes
as well as an overview of the exercises treated during the working classes. This table follows the order
of the subjects in the book. However from year to year the order of the classes in which the chapters
9, 10 and 11 are treated can changed in order to be consistent with project C. Chapter 14, exergy, is
mosly treated after chapter 8. At the end of this document the answers of a test exam are included.
# Subject Chapter Exercises
1 Introduction to thermodynamics 1 1.1, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, 1.8,
1.13, 1.14
2 Energy, work, heat transfer, mass transfer, enthalpy 2 2.2, 2.6, 2.9, 2.11,
2.12, 2.8
3 State principle, phase transitions, liquids, saturated
mixture, superheated steam, tables en diagrams
3.1 -3.7 3.6, 3.9, 3.10, 3.11,
3.12, 3.14
4 Gases, ideal gas law, specic heat, internal energy
and enthalpy of gases
3.8 - 3.16 3.17, 3.20, 3,21, 3.22,
3.18
5 The rst law (conservation of energy) for open and
closed systems
4 4.3, 4.5, 4.7, 4.9,
4.11, 4.12, 4.13, 4.17
6 Reversible and irreversible processes, friction and
temperature, entropy
5, 6.1 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 5.4, 5.5,
5.6, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3
7 Entropy change open and closed systems, the second
law (entropy always increases), isentropic processes
6 6.4, 6.8, 6.15, 6.16,
6.19
8 Applications of the second law, isentropic (ideal) and
non-isentropic systems, Bernoulli
7 7.4, 7.6, 7.12, 7.7, 7.9
9 Thermodynamic cycles, Carnot cycle, eciencies
and COPs, perpetual mobiles
8 8.5, 8.6, 8.7, 8.8,
8.10, 8.13
10 Gas cycles, Stirling, Otto en Diesel cycles 9.1 - 9.5 9.2, 9.7, 9.11, 9.5, 9.9
11 Simple Brayton cycle (gas turbine) 9.6 9.16, 9.15, 9.13
12 Brayton cycle with improvements (inter cooling, re-
heating, regeneration), jet engines
9.6 - 9.7 9.18, 9.17, 9.19, 9.14
13 Simple Rankine (vapor) cycle (steam turbine), com-
pare to Carnot, design parameters
10.1 - 10.3 10.2, 10.4, 10.6, 10.8,
10.19
14 Rankine cycle with improvements (reheating, feed
water heating)
10.4 -10.5 10.11, 10.9, 10.12,
10.16, 10.17
15 Co-generation, binary cycles, combined cycles, or-
ganic Rankine cycle
10.6 10.13, 10.15, 10.18
16 Cooling and heat pumps, reversed Rankine cycle,
coecient of performance (COP)
11 11.2, 11.4, 11.5, 11.7,
11.9
17 Exergy (second law analysis), quality of energy,
Sankey and Grassmann diagrams
14.1 - 14.2 14.2, 14.4, 14.7, 14.8,
14.9, 14.10
18 Exam preparation, questions 1 - 11, 14.2 testexam
iv
Thermodynamics: Answers Contents
Contents
1 Thermodynamic Concepts and Terminology: Answers 1
1.1 Open, closed and isolated systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 State and thermodynamic variables or properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 Intensive and extensive properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.4 Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.5 Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.6 Mass and volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.7 Ideal gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.8 Galileo thermometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.9 Acceleration and force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.10 Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.11 Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.12 Pressure on a diver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.13 Pressure and height . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.14 Pressure in a tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.15 Pressure and manometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.16 Pressure in a cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2 Energy, Work and Heat Transfer: Answers 9
2.1 Basics of Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2 Energy transfer mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.3 Energy transfer by work and power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.4 Work of a piston-cylinder device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.5 Work done by compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.6 Work done by lifting a mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.7 Heat transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.8 Work and heat transfer of a piston-cylinder device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.9 Flow work and enthalpy 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.10 Flow work and enthalpy 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.11 Enthalpy of steam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.12 Energy and power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.13 Energy and Environment 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.14 Energy and Environment 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3 Thermodynamic Properties of Pure Substances: Answers 15
3.1 Phases of matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.2 T v diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.3 Incompressible liquid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.4 Mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.5 Quality of a mixture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.6 Use of tables: water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.7 Use of tables, refrigerant 134a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.8 Boiling of water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.9 Vessel with 2 kg refrigerant 134a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.10 Vessel with refrigerant 134a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.11 Water mixture of liquid and vapor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.12 Vaporization of water at constant pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.13 Work done by heating 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.14 Work done by heating 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.15 Perfect gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
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Thermodynamics: Answers Contents
3.16 A balloon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.17 An automobile tire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.18 Two tanks with air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.19 Enthalpy change of nitrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.20 Heat transfer and work at constant enthalpy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.21 Air in a turbine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.22 Oxygen in a rigid tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.23 Two closed rigid system in thermal equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.24 Two closed movable systems in equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4 The First Law of Thermodynamics: Answers 29
4.1 First law of thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4.2 Conservation of mass principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4.3 Conservation of mass in a nozzle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.4 Conservation of mass in a hair dryer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.5 Energy transfer by mass in a compressor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.6 Cooling a closed system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.7 An insulated rigid tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.8 Nozzle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.9 Steam turbine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.10 Refrigerant compressor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.11 Throttling valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.12 Feedwater heater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.13 Steam/water heat exchanger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.14 Steam turbine 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.15 Turbine with Argon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.16 Helium compressor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.17 Mixing chamber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.18 Refrigerant-134a heat exchanger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5 Reversible and Irreversible Processes: Answers 37
5.1 Reversible and Irreversible Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5.2 Coee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5.3 Insulated piston-cylinder device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5.4 Frictionless piston-cylinder device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
5.5 Rigid adiabatic systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
5.6 Steady ow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
6 Entropy and The Second Law: Answers 41
6.1 Basics of entropy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.2 Basics of the second law of thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.3 Isothermal expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
6.4 Entropy change of an ideal gas in a rigid tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
6.5 Entropy change of compressed air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
6.6 Radiator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
6.7 Non adiabatic compressor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
6.8 Entropy change of a copper block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
6.9 Entropy change of an iron block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
6.10 Entropy change of an aluminum block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
6.11 Entropy change of an ideal gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
6.12 Entropy change of ideal gases in an isothermal process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
6.13 Entropy change of ideal gases in isentropic process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
6.14 Entropy change of oxygen in piston-cylinder device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
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Thermodynamics: Answers Contents
6.15 Entropy change of nitrogen in piston-cylinder device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
6.16 Reversible condensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
6.17 Reversible isothermal expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
6.18 Reversible processes for helium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
6.19 Melting ice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
6.20 Adiabatic steady ow device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
6.21 Throttling valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
7 Second Law Applications: Answers 55
7.1 Neon in an insulated container . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
7.2 Air in the cylinder of an automobile engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
7.3 Isentropic eciencies of steady devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
7.4 Adiabatic steam turbine 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
7.5 Adiabatic steam turbine 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
7.6 Refrigerant compressor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
7.7 Steam turbine coupled to an air compressor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
7.8 Two stage compressor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
7.9 Nozzle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
7.10 Adiabatic device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
7.11 Steady-state steady-ow adiabatic device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
7.12 Venturi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
8 Analysis of Thermodynamic Cycles: Answers 73
8.1 Thermodynamic cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
8.2 Thermal eciency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
8.3 Coecient of performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
8.4 Carnot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
8.5 Geothermal energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
8.6 A heat pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
8.7 Carnot engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
8.8 Air conditioner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
8.9 Refrigerator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
8.10 Heat engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
8.11 Nuclear power plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
8.12 Steam cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
8.13 Perpetual - motion machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
8.14 Combined engine and heat pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
9 Gas Power Cycles: Answers 81
9.1 Basics of the Stirling cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
9.2 Stirling cycle 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
9.3 Stirling cycle 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
9.4 Basics of the ideal Otto cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
9.5 Thermal eciency Otto engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
9.6 Otto cycle 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
9.7 Otto cycle 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
9.8 Basics of the ideal Diesel cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
9.9 Thermal eciency Diesel cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
9.10 Diesel cycle 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
9.11 Diesel cycle 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
9.12 Closed Brayton cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
9.13 Carnot versus Stirling versus Brayton cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
9.14 Jet propulsion cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
vii
Thermodynamics: Answers Contents
9.15 Simple open Brayton cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
viii
Thermodynamics: Answers 1 Thermodynamic Concepts and Terminology
1 Thermodynamic Concepts and Terminology: Answers
1.1 Open, closed and isolated systems
a: A system is a part of the universe that has to be analysed. The system boundary separates the
system from the rest of the universe (it is the boundary between the system and the surround-
ings/environment).
b: In a closed system energy can cross the boundary of a system, but the mass is xed an no mass
can go into or out the system. In an open system both mass and energy are allowed to cross the
system boundary.
c: In an isolated system no energy or mass can cross the boundary.
d: This is an open system as mass (the water) can leave the radiator (it crosses the boundary of
the system).
e: The can is a closed system as only heat can cross the boundary of the system.
1.2 State and thermodynamic variables or properties
a: A property is any characteristic that denes a system, a thermodynamic property is a char-
acteristic that describes the mass and energy of a thermodynamic system. Some examples of
frequently used thermodynamic properties are: temperature, pressure, mass, volume, energy,
entropy, enthalpy and the amount of mass. Some other more general properties are: viscosity,
thermal conductivity, modulus of elasticity, thermal expansion coecient, electric resistivity,
velocity, specic heat.
b: A thermodynamic state is a set of thermodynamic properties that describes completely the
condition of the thermodynamic system. A thermodynamic state is mathematically described
by a function consisting of several thermodynamic properties. At a given state all the properties
have xed values.
c: Two properties are independent if one property can vary while the other one is held constant.
Dependent properties are properties that are dened in terms of other ones, one is a function
of the other. Which are dependent and independent properties depends on the situation. For
water for example the volume is independent of the pressure and the temperature. However for
a gas the volume depends on the temperature and pressure.
d: The state postulate: Any two independent intensive thermodynamic properties are sucient to
describe the state of a system containing a single pure substance.
e: The change of a system to an other state is called a process.
f: A system of which the properties are not changing with time is said to be in a steady state. In
thermodynamics this is called thermodynamic equilibrium. Thermodynamic equilibrium implies
a state of balance of the system where there are no driving forces (like temperature dierences)
within the system.
1.3 Intensive and extensive properties
a: Intensive variables are independent of the size of the system. Examples are pressure, tempera-
ture, chemical potential, density.
b: Extensive properties are directly proportional to the mass or size of the system. They can be
written as per kg [/kg]. Examples are mass, volume, energy, entropy, enthalpy.
1
Thermodynamics: Answers 1 Thermodynamic Concepts and Terminology
c: Intensive properties.
d: Dividing an extensive property by mass gives a specic property. It is the property per unit
mass. e.g. the specic volume (v) is the volume per unit mass, v = V/m in m
3
/kg or the specic
energy is the energy per unit mass e = E/m in J/kg.
e: The temperature and pressure are intensive properties, they do not change if the volume is
multiplied. The mass and the energy are extensive properties, they scale with the system, if
the volume is multiplied by a factor the mass and energy are also multiplied by a factor .
The specic energy, which is the energy per unit mass, does not change as this is an intensive
property. Compare if you double the size of a room the temperature and pressure remain the
same but the amount of air and so the mass doubles and also the energy contained in the air
doubles. The specic energy which is the energy per unit mass remains the same as the total
energy doubles but also the mass.
1.4 Processes
a: An isothermal process is a process in which the temperature is constant. An isobaric process
is a process in which the pressure is constant. An isochoric processes is a process in which the
volume is constant.
b: An adiabatic process is a process during which there is no heat transfer to the surroundings.
c: A steady-ow process, is a process that remains constant in time, so time independent.
d: In a cyclic process one returns to the original starting point. After a cycle the properties of the
state are not changed.
e: During a quasi-equilibrium (or quasi-static) process, the system remains practically in equilib-
rium at all times. Note that a quasi-equilibrium process is an idealized process and not a true
representation of an actual process. But many actual processes closely approximate it and they
can be modeled as quasi-equilibrium with negligible error. Engineers are interested in such pro-
cesses as they are easy to analyze. Furthermore work-producing devices deliver the most work
when they operate on quasi-equilibrium processes.
1.5 Dimensions
a: The seven fundamental dimensions are:
1: Mass, in general denoted by M in kilogram [kg].
2: Length, in general denoted by x in meters [m].
3: Temperature, in general denoted by T in Kelvin [K].
4: Time, in general denoted by t in seconds [s].
5: Amount of matter, in general denoted by n in mole [mol].
6: Electric current, in general denoted by I in ampere [A].
7: Amount of light, in general denoted by I in candela [cd].
b: The rst four.
c: Force = Mass acceleration F = M a
[N] = [kg]

m
s
2

kgm
s
2

(1)
2
Thermodynamics: Answers 1 Thermodynamic Concepts and Terminology
Pressure = Force per area P = F/A
[Pa] =

N
m
2

kgm
s
2
m
2

kg
ms
2

(2)
Energy = Force distance E = F x
[J] = [N][m] =

kgm
s
2

[m] =

kgm
2
s
2

(3)
Or energy = Mass velocity of light squared E = M c
2
[J] = [kg]

m
s

kgm
2
s
2

(4)
Power = energy per time

E = E/t
[W] =
[J]
[s]
=

kgm
2
s
2

1
s
=

kgm
2
s
3

(5)
d: Kinetic energy = half mass velocity squared E
kin
=
1
2
Mv
2
[kg]

m
s

kgm
2
s
2

= [J] (6)
Potential energy = mass acceleration of gravity height E
pot
= Mgh
[kg]

m
s
2

[m] =

kgm
2
s
2

= [J] (7)
1.6 Mass and volume
a: The mass of the substance is M
substance
= V = (lbh) [kg] and the mass of the combined system
is M
comb
= M
tank
+ M
substance
= M
tank
+ V = M
tank
+ (lbh) [kg].
The specic volume (v) is dened as the total volume (V ) per mass (M). The specic volume
of the substance is v
substance
= V
substance
/M
substance
= lbh/(lbh) = 1/ [m
3
/kg]. Note that the
specic volume is the reciproce of the density.
The specic volume of the combined system is the volume of the combined system divided by
the mass of the combined system v
comb
= V
comb
/M
comb
= lbh/(M
tank
+ (lbh)) [m
3
/kg].
b:
water
= 1000 kg/m
3
=M
water
= 1000(10.40.5) = 200 kg and M
comb
= 3+1000(10.40.5) =
3 + 200 = 203 kg.
The specic volume of the water is v
water
= 1/ = 1/1000 = 10
3
m
3
/kg. The specic volume
of the combined system is v
comb
= V
comb
/M
comb
= (1 0.4 0.5)/203 = 9.85 10
4
m
3
/kg.
c:
air
= 1.225 kg/m
3
=M
air
= 1.225(1 0.4 0.5) = 0.245 kg and M
comb
= 3+1.225(1 0.4 0.5) =
3 + 0.245 = 3.245 kg. In the case of air the weight of the air can be neglected compared to the
weight of the tank. Whereas in the case of water the weight of the tank can be neglected
compared to the water.
The specic volume of air is v
air
= 1/
air
= 0.816 m
3
/kg and the specic volume of the combined
system is v
comb
= V
comb
/M
comb
= (1 0.4 0.5)/3.245 = 0.0616 m
3
/kg.
3
Thermodynamics: Answers 1 Thermodynamic Concepts and Terminology
1.7 Ideal gases
Use the ideal gas law to calculate the specic volume v, v = RT/P. In the formula T should be
in Kelvin 42

C = 315 K. The pressure should be in Pascal, 1.2 Bars = 120 kPa = 120 kN/m
2
.
This results in v = (0.14304 315)/120 = 0.375 m
3
/kg. That the outcome is the specic volume in
m
3
/kg follows by looking to the dimensions, (kJ/kgK)(K)(m
2
/kN) = m
3
/kg. The total volume V is
V = v m = 0.375 1.5 = 0.563 m
3
. The density of the gas is the reciproce of the specic volume
= 1/v, = 1/0.375 = 2.667 kg/m
3
.
1.8 Galileo thermometer
a: If the outside temperature is 30 degree Celsius all bubbles are too heavy and they are all on the
bottom. If the outside temperature is only 10 degree Celsius all bubbles are too light and all
the bubbles are on the the top.
b: The bubble that indicates the right temperature oats in the water somewhere in the middle
between the bubbles that have a too low temperature tag on the bottom and the bubbles that
have a too high temperature tag on the top.
c: The bubble with the 18 degree Celsius tag is the heaviest and the bubble with the 24 temperature
tag is the lightest.
d: The 20 degree Celsius bubble is oating in the middle of the thermometer. Therefore, the upward
force, F
u
, that the bubble encounters is equal to the weight of water displaced by the bubble.
The weight of the displaced water is the product of the density of water at 20 degree,
20
, the
gravitational acceleration, g and the volume of the bubble, V
b
= 4/3r
3
F
u
= gV
b
= 4/3
20
gr
3
.
As the bubble oats the upward force is equal to the gravitational force, F
g
, which is equal to
the mass of the bubble, M
b20
, times the gravitational acceleration
F
g
= M
b20
g.
Equate the two forces together results in: F
u
= 4/3
20
gr
3
= F
g
= M
b20
g
M
b20
= 4/3
20
r
3
. Filling in r =
1
2d
= 0.0125 m and
20
= 998.2071 kg/m
3
gives
M
b20
= 8.1666 10
3
kg = 8.1666 grams.
e: Lowest temperature tag is the 18 degree bubble, its mass is: M
b18
= 4/3
18
r
3
= 8.1698 grams.
Highest temperature tag is the 24 degree bubble, its mass is: M
b24
= 4/3
24
r
3
= 8.1591 grams.
The mass dierence between both bubbles is: M
b18
M
b24
= 0.0107 grams = 10.7 milligrams.
The mass of the 19 degree bubble is: M
b19
= 4/3
19
r
3
= 8.1682 grams.
The mass of the 23 degree bubble is: M
b23
= 4/3
23
r
3
= 8.1611 grams.
Mass dierence between 18 and 19 degree bubble: M
b18
M
b19
= 0.0016 grams = 1.6 milligrams.
Mass dierence between 23 and 24 degree bubble: M
b23
M
b24
= 0.0020 grams = 2.0 milligrams.
As the relation between the temperature and the density of the water is not linear (you can
easily see this in the graph, the line is not straight but a bit curved) the mass dierence between
two successive bubbles is not constant. The mass dierence between the bubbles increases with
temperature.
The relative mass dierence of the 18 and 19 degree bubble is:
0.0016
8.1591
100% = 0.0196%
The relative mass dierence of the 23 and 24 degree bubble is:
0.0020
8.1611
100% = 0.0245%
So, also the relative mass dierence between the bubbles increases with temperature, and varies
around 0.02% of the mass of the bubbles.
They could build these thermometers in Galileos time, as the mass dierences between the
individual bubbles are in the order of milligrams. These dierences can be determined using a
simple balance scale which was already know in Galileos time.
4
Thermodynamics: Answers 1 Thermodynamic Concepts and Terminology
1.9 Acceleration and force
a: Force = Mass acceleration, F = M a with a = 6g = F
aircraft
= 6Mg [N].
b: F
moon
= 0.17Mg [N].
c: g = 9.8 m/s
2
= F
man
aircraft
= 5292 N, F
woman
aircraft
= 3234 N, F
man
moon
= 150 N, F
woman
aircraft
= 91.6 N.
1.10 Temperature
a: The absolute zero temperature is the lowest theoretically attainable possible temperature, this
is the temperature at which all movements of molecules are frozen. Absolute temperatures use
a reference state of zero at absolute zero. They can never be negative. The unit is Kelvin.
b: A relative temperature is a temperature measured relative to a non-absolute zero temperature.
It can be negative.
c: The most common temperature scales in the SI system are are the Celsius scale and the Kelvin
scale. The are related by a factor of 273.15 T(K) = T(C) + 273.15.
d: The boiling and freezing point of water.
1.11 Pressure
a: Pressure is dened as the normal force per unit acting on a surface, P =
force [N]
area [m
2
]
=
F
A
. The
unit of pressure is N/m
2
=Pa.
b: Vacuum pressure is zero pressure and atmospheric pressure is the pressure of the atmosphere
outside. The absolute pressure is the pressure measured related to the vacuum pressure and
the gauge pressure is the pressure measured related to the atmospheric pressure. They can be
related P
absolute
= P
atmosphere
+ P
gauge
.
1.12 Pressure on a diver
a: The relative pressure on the diver is the pressure exerted by the water P
rel
= P
water
= gh.
The absolute pressure is the pressure of the water and the atmospheric pressure P
abs
= P
atm
+
P
water
= P
atm
+ gh.
b: At h = 15 m P
rel
= 1000 9.81 15 = 147150 Pa = 147.2 kPa and P
abs
= 248.2 kPa.
At h = 30 m P
rel
= 1000 9.81 30 = 294300 Pa = 294.3 kPa and P
abs
= 395.2 kPa.
c: The relative pressure is doubled if the diver goes two times deeper below the water level. The
absolute pressure is not doubled.
d: The density of seawater is 1030 kg/m
3
.
At h = 15 m P
rel
= 1030 9.81 15 = 151565 Pa = 151.6 kPa and P
abs
= 252.6 kPa.
At h = 30 m P
rel
= 1030 9.81 30 = 303129 Pa = 303.1 kPa and P
abs
= 403.1 kPa.
e: P
atm
= P
read

seawater
gh P
atm
= 398800 1030 9.81 30 = 95671 Pa = 95.7 kPa.
1.13 Pressure and height
a: P
barometric
= g
air
h
b: P = g
air
h h =
P
g
air
=
(930780)10
2
9.71.2
= 1287 m.
d: Assume the tower is 40 m (13 oors and each oor about 3 meter) P
barometric
= g
air
h =
9.81 1.2 40 = 471 Pa = 4.71 mBar.
5
Thermodynamics: Answers 1 Thermodynamic Concepts and Terminology
1.14 Pressure in a tank
a: It is assumed that the pressure in the tank is uniform (i.e. its variation with elevation is negligible
due to its low density), and thus we can determine the pressure at the water-air interface.
Starting with the pressure at the water-air interface and moving along the tube by adding or
subtracting the gh terms until we reach the outside mercury-air interface and setting the result
equal to P
atm
since the tube is open to the atmosphere gives
P
airtank
+
water
gh
1
+
oil
gh
2

mercury
gh
3
= P
atm
. (8)
We are interested in the gauge pressure, which is the pressure in the tank relative to the atmo-
spheric pressure and thus we write:
P
gauge
= P
airtank
P
atm
=
mercury
gh
3

water
gh
1

oil
gh
2
. (9)
Note that jumping horizontally from one tube to the next and realizing that pressure remains
the same in the same uid simplies the analysis considerably.
b: Filling in the numbers gives: P
gauge
= 13600 9.81 0.46 1000 9.81 0.2 850 9.81 0.3 =
56907.81 Pa = 56.9 kPa.
c: If the oil in the tube is replaced by mercury and you assume that the values of the height
stay the same the pressure inside the tank is lower P
gauge
=
mercury
g(h
3
h
2
)
water
gh
1
=
13600 9.81 (0.46 0.3) 1000 9.81 0.2 = 19384.56 Pa = 19.4 kPa.
If you assume that the pressure inside the tank does not change if you replace the oil by mercury
the level of h
1
and h
3
changes (h
2
has no meaning anymore). How the levels change can not be
calculated.
d: If both oil and mercury are taken out and the level h
1
stays the same the pressure inside the
tank drops to P
gauge
=
water
gh
1
= 1000 9.81 0.1 = 981 Pa = - 0.98 kPa. This pressure is
negative, that means that the pressure inside the tank is larger than the atmospheric pressure.
That is easily seen by the fact that the water in the tube is at a lower level than the water in
the tank.
If is assumed that the pressure inside the tank does not change the water level h
1
becomes:
h
1
=
P
gauge

water
g
=
57907.81
10009.81
= 5.9 m. This is 5.9 meters above the water surface!
e: Oil has a lower density than water while mercury has a higher density than water. This implies
that in a manometer tube the oil reaches a height hinger than water while the mercury reaches
a height lower than water. If the pressure is very high it is preferred to use mercury as the tube
can be shorter than in the case of water. If the pressure is very low oil has the preference as the
accuracy that can be reached is higher (the oil will be higher than water of mercury and thus is
easier to read).
1.15 Pressure and manometer
a: The pressure in the duct is above the atmospheric pressure as the pressure in the duct is the
uid in the right leg of the manometer is higher. Pressure in the duct atmospheric pressure plus
the pressure exerted by the uid.
b: P
rel
= gh and P
abs
= gh + P
atm
.
c: h = 15 mm P
rel
= 147.15 Pa and P
abs
= 100147.15 Pa.
h = 30 mm P
rel
= 294.30 Pa and P
abs
= 100294.30 Pa.
The relative pressure doubles if the height doubles while the absolute pressure increases only a
little bit, only about 0.15%. In the absolute pressure the atmospheric pressure dominates.
6
Thermodynamics: Answers 1 Thermodynamic Concepts and Terminology
d: h = 15 mm P
rel
= 2001.24.15 Pa and P
abs
= 102001.24 Pa.
h = 30 mm P
rel
= 4002.48 Pa and P
abs
= 104002.48 Pa.
The relative pressure in the duct is much higher than in the case the uid is water. This is
because the density of mercury is about 14 times higher than the density of water. The relative
pressure is about 14 times higher. The dierence with the absolute pressure in c is less than
with the relative pressure as the atmospheric pressure has a large contribution to the absolute
pressure compared to the relative pressure.
e: If the absolute pressure in the duct is two times the atmospheric pressure the relative pressure
in the duct is equal to the atmospheric pressure. P
rel
= P
atm
= gh h =
P
atm
g
.
For water h =
100000
10009.81
= 10.1 m.
For mercury h =
100000
136009.81
= 0.75 m.
For mercury you need a much shorter tube.
1.16 Pressure in a cylinder
a: P
cylinder
= P
atm
+ P
piston
+ P
spring
= P
atm
+
Mg
A
+
F
A
= P
atm
+
Mg+F
A
.
b: P
cylinder
= 95000 +
49.81+60
3510
4
= 123354 Pa. The pressure inside the cylinder is 123.4 kPa.
c: P
cylinder
= P
atm
+
Mg+F
A
= 2P
atm
P
atm
=
Mg+F
A
F = P
atm
AMg.
F = 95000 35 10
4
4 9.81 = 293.26 N.
7