Human Dignity and Bioethics: Essays Commissioned by

the President's Council on Bioethics

The President's Council on Bioethics
Washington, D.C.
March 2008
Part 4: The Source and Meaning o Dignit!
Chapter 12: Defending Human Dignity
"eon #. $ass
It is difficult to define what human dignity is. It is not an organ to be discovered in our
body, it is not an empirical notion, but without it we would be unable to answer the simple
question: what is wrong with slavery? %"es&e' $ola'o(s'i1
)n *+erican discussions o ,ioethical +atters, hu+an dignit!, (here it is not neglected
altogether, is a -ro,le+atic notion. There are disagree+ents a,out its i+-ortance relati.e to
other hu+an goods, such as reedo+ or /ustice. There are dierences o o-inion a,out
e0actl! (hat it +eans and (hat it rests on, a diicult! -ainull! e.ident (hen a--eals to
1hu+an dignit!1 are in.o'ed on o--osite sides o an ethical de,ate, or e0a+-le, a,out
(hether -er+itting assisted suicide or -atients suering ro+ degrading illnesses (ould
ser.e or .iolate their hu+an dignit!. There are also disagree+ents a,out the e0tent to (hich
considerations o hu+an dignit! should count in deter+ining -u,lic -olic!.
We riends o hu+an dignit! +ust ac'no(ledge these diiculties, ,oth or -ractice and or
thought. )n contrast to continental 2uro-e and e.en Canada, hu+an dignit! has not ,een a
-o(erul idea in *+erican -u,lic discourse, de.oted as (e are instead to the language o
rights and the -ursuit o e3ualit!. *+ong us, the .er! idea o 1dignit!1 s+ac's too +uch o
aristocrac! or egalitarians and too +uch o religion or secularists and li,ertarians.
Moreo.er, it see+s to ,e too -ri.ate and .ague a +atter to ,e the ,asis or legislation or
-u,lic -olic!.
4et, that said, (e *+ericans actuall! care a great deal a,out hu+an dignit!, e.en i the
ter+ co+es not easil! to our li-s. )n ti+es -ast, our successul ,attles against sla.er!,
s(eatsho-s, and segregation, although ought in the na+e o ci.il rights, (ere at ,otto+
ca+-aigns or hu+an dignit!%or treating hu+an ,eings as the! deser.e to ,e treated,
solely because of their humanity. "i'e(ise, our ta,oos against incest, ,estialit!, and
canni,alis+, as (ell as our conde+nations o -rostitution, drug addiction, and sel%
+utilation% ha.ing little to do (ith deending li,ert! and e3ualit!%all see' to deend hu+an
dignit! against 5.oluntar!6 acts o self %degradation. Toda!, hu+an dignit! is o -ara+ount
i+-ortance es-eciall! in +atters ,ioethical. *s (e ,eco+e +ore and +ore i++ersed in a
(orld o ,iotechnolog!, (e increasingl! sense that (e neglect hu+an dignit! at our -eril,
es-eciall! in light o gathering -o(ers to inter.ene in hu+an ,odies and +inds in (a!s that
(ill aect our .er! hu+anit!, li'el! threatening things that e.er!one, (hate.er their .ie(
o hu+an dignit!, holds dear. Truth to tell, it is ,eneath our hu+an dignit! to ,e indierent
to it.
*s -art o its eort to de.elo- and -ro+ote a 1richer1 ,ioethics, the President's Council on
Bioethics, in its -re.iousl! -u,lished (or's, has -aid considera,le attention to .arious
as-ects o hu+an dignit! that are at ris' in our ,iotechnological age: the dignit! o hu+an
-rocreation, threatened ,! cloning%to%-roduce%children and other -ro/ected or+s o
1+anuacture17 the dignit! o nascent hu+an lie, threatened ,! treating e+,r!onic hu+an
,eings as +ere ra( +aterial or e0-loitation and use in research and co++erce7 the dignit!
o the hu+an dierence, threatened ,! research that (ould -roduce +an%ani+al or +an%
+achine h!,rids7 the dignit! o ,odil! integrit!, threatened ,! traic'ing in hu+an ,od!
-arts7 the dignit! o -s!chic integrit!, threatened ,! che+ical inter.entions that (ould erase
+e+ories, create actitious +oods, and transor+ -ersonal identit!7 the dignit! o hu+an
sel%co++and, threatened ,! +ethods o ,eha.ior +odiication that ,!-ass hu+an agenc!7
the dignit! o hu+an acti.it! and hu+an e0cellence, threatened ,! reliance on
-eror+ance%enhancing or -eror+ance%transor+ing drugs7 the dignit! o li.ing
deli,eratel! and sel%consciousl!, +indul o the hu+an lie c!cle and our initude,
threatened ,! eorts to den! or eli+inate aging and to con3uer +ortalit!7 the dignit! o
d!ing (ell 5or o li.ing (ell (hile d!ing6, threatened ,! e0cessi.e +edical inter.ention at
the end o lie7 and the dignit! o hu+an ,eing as such, threatened ,! the -ros-ect o
euthanasia and other 1technical solutions1 or the +iseries that oten acco+-an! the hu+an
condition.
2
Be!ond these -ractical issues, the Council has also tried to call attention to the
dignit! o -ro-er hu+an sel%understanding, threatened ,! shallo( 1scientistic1 thin'ing
a,out hu+an -heno+ena%or e0a+-le, .ie(s o hu+an lie that see organis+s as +ere
+eans or the re-lication o their genes, the hu+an ,od! as a lieless +achine, or hu+an
lo.e and +oral choice as +ere neuroche+ical e.ents.
3
)n +! o(n -ersonal (ritings on
,iolog! and hu+an aairs, s-anning o.er thirt!%i.e !ears, ) ha.e dealt (ith +an! o the
sa+e as-ects o hu+an dignit! and the dangers the! ace ro+ the ne( ,iolog!, ,oth to our
-ractice and to our thought.

4et neither the Council nor ) ha.e tried to articulate a ull theoretical account o hu+an
dignit!7 neither ha.e (e tried to reconcile so+e o the co+-eting .ie(s that are held ,! the
.arious +e+,ers, all ,idding air to gain our assent. This essa! is oered as a contri,ution
to(ard the de.elo-+ent o such a conce-tual account. S-eciicall!, it ai+s to do three
things: to deend a ro,ust role in ,ioethics or the idea o hu+an dignit!7 to +a'e clearer
(hat hu+an dignit! is and (hat it rests on7 and to tr! to sho( the relationshi- ,et(een t(o
e3uall! i+-ortant ,ut so+eti+es co+-eting ideas o hu+an dignit!: the basic dignit! o
hu+an being and the full dignit! o ,eing 5acti.el!6 human , o hu+an flourishing.
i
!hy Bioethics "ust Care #bout Human Dignity: $ld and %e& Concerns
*ttention to hu+an dignit! is i+-ortant in nearl! all arenas o ,ioethical concern: clinical
+edicine7 research using hu+an su,/ects7 uses o no.el ,iotechnologies 1,e!ond thera-!1
5es-eciall! or so%called 1enhance+ent1 -ur-oses67 and 1transhu+anist1 acti.ities ai+ed at
altering and transcending hu+an nature. But ,ecause the central ethical concerns in these
do+ains dier, each realm of bioethics gives special salience to a different aspect of human
dignity.
)n clinical +edicine, a -ri+ar! ethical ocus is on the need to res-ect the e3ual (orth and
dignit! o each -atient at e.er! stage o his or her lie%regardless o race, class or gender,
condition o ,od! and +ind, se.erit! o illness, nearness to death, or a,ilit! to -a! or
ser.ices rendered. Deenders o hu+an dignit! rightl! insist that e.er! -atient deser.es%
ro+ e.er! -h!sician, nurse, or hos-ital%e3ual res-ect in s-eech and deed and e3ual
consideration regarding the selection o a--ro-riate treat+ent. Moreo.er, the! also rightl!
insist that no lie is to ,e dee+ed (orthier than another and that under no circu+stances
should (e loo' u-on a ello( hu+an ,eing as i he or she has a 1lie un(orth! o lie1 and
deser.es to ,e +ade dead. The ground o these o-inions, and o the res-ect or hu+an
dignit! the! ,eto'en, lies not in the -atient's autono+! or an! other o his -ersonal 3ualities
or e0cellences, ,ut rather in the -atient's .er! ,eing and .italit!. Doctors should al(a!s
res-ect the lie the -atient has, all the +ore ,ecause he has entrusted it to their care in the
,elie that the! (ill indeed res-ect it to the .er! last.
#egarding research (ith hu+an su,/ects, the +a/or ethical issues concern not onl!
saeguarding the su,/ect's lie and health ,ut also res-ecting the su,/ect's hu+anit!, e.en as
he is ,eing treated as an e0-eri+ental ani+al. Concern or hu+an dignit! ocuses on
enlisting the hu+an su,/ect as a 'no(ing and (illing co%-artner in the research enter-rise.
Soliciting .oluntar! inor+ed consent -a!s tri,ute to the hu+anit! o the hu+an su,/ect,
e.en as that hu+anit! (ill ,e largel! o.erloo'ed in the research -rotocol. Bioethicists
usuall! ,elie.e that res-ecting hu+an dignit! here +eans res-ecting su,/ect autono+!%the
reedo+ o the su,/ect's (ill%and so it does7 ,ut there is +ore to it. )t in.ol.es res-ecting
also the su,/ect's courage in acce-ting ris's and disco+orts, his -hilanthro-ic desire to
contri,ute to a (orth! cause, and his generosit! o ti+e and trou,le in e+,racing acti.ities
ro+ (hich he (ill recei.e no direct ,eneit.
)n these do+ains o clinical +edicine and research in.ol.ing hu+an su,/ects, a--eals to
hu+an dignit!, (hile tacitl! e+-lo!ing an ideal o -ro-er treat+ent and res-ect, unction
e0-licitl! and +ainl! as ,ul(ar's against a,use: -atients should not ,e reduced to 1thing%
hood1 or treated as +ere ,odies7 research su,/ects should not ,e utili&ed as +ere +eans or
treated onl! as e0-eri+ental ani+als. This 1negati.e1 unction o the conce-t o hu+an
dignit! in these do+ains +a'es -erect sense, inas+uch as it is intended%and needed%to
restrain the strong in their dealings (ith the (ea'. )t +a'es e.en +ore sense once (e
re+e+,er the origins o +odern ,io+edical ethics: a concern or hu+an dignit! ho.ers
o.er all o +odern ,io+edical ethics o(ing to the (orld's horror at the 8a&i atrocities,
atrocities in (hich 9er+an scientists and 9er+an doctors (ere dee-l! i+-licated. The!
+ore than lent a hand (ith eugenic sterili&ation, ,ar,aric hu+an e0-eri+entation, and +ass
e0ter+ination o the 1unit1%all underta'en, +ind !ou, in order to -roduce 1a +ore -erect
hu+an.1 The rise to -ro+inence o the idea o 1hu+an dignit!1 in -ost%World%War%))
2uro-e, e0-ressed in the la(s o +an! nations and es-eciall! in the :nited 8ations'
Universal Declaration of Human ights, (as surel! intended to ensure that no hu+an
,eings should e.er again ,e so a,used, degraded, and dehu+ani&ed%and, o course,
annihilated.
But a +ore ro,ust notion o hu+an dignit! is needed (hen (e turn ro+ these traditional
do+ains o +edical ethics to the +oral challenges raised ,! ne( ,iotechnological -o(ers
and the no.el -ur-oses to (hich the! are ,eing -ut, and (hen (e turn ro+ concerns (ith
a,use o -o(er that the strong inlict u-on the (ea' to concerns (ith ethicall! du,ious uses
o -o(ers that the strong%indeed, +ost o us%(ill choose to e0ercise or and on oursel.es.
;ur desires or a ,etter lie do not end (ith health, and the uses o ,iotechnolog! are not
li+ited to thera-!. )ts -o(ers to alter the (or'ings o ,od! and +ind are attracti.e not onl!
to the sic' and suering, ,ut to e.er!one (ho desires to loo' !ounger, -eror+ ,etter, eel
ha--ier, or ,eco+e +ore 1-erect.1
We ha.e alread! entered the age o ,iotechnical enhance+ent: gro(th hor+one to +a'e
children taller7 -re%i+-lantation genetic screening to acilitate eugenic choice 5no( to rule
out deects, soon to rule in assets67 #italin and other sti+ulants to control ,eha.ior or ,oost
-eror+ance on e0a+s7 Pro&ac and other drugs to ,righten +oods and alter te+-era+ents%
not to +ention Boto0, <iagra, and ana,olic steroids. "oo'ing ahead, other in.itations are
alread! .isi,le on the hori&on: Drugs to erase -ainul or sha+eul +e+ories or to si+ulate
alling in lo.e. 9enes to increase the si&e and strength o +uscles. 8ano%+echanical
i+-lants to enhance sensation or +otor s'ills. Techni3ues to slo( ,iological aging and
increase the +a0i+u+ hu+an lies-an. Than's to these and other inno.ations, .enera,le
hu+an desires%or ,etter children, su-erior -eror+ance, ageless ,odies, and ha--! souls%
+a! increasingl! ,e satisied (ith the aid o ,iotechnolog!. * ne( ield o 1transhu+anist1
science is rall!ing thought and research or (holesale redesign o hu+an nature, e+-lo!ing
genetic and neurological engineering and +an%+achine h!,rids, en route to (hat has ,een
,lithel! called a 1-osthu+an uture.1
8either the a+iliar -rinci-les o conte+-orar! ,ioethics%res-ect or -ersons, ,eneicence
5or 1non%+aleicence16, and /ustice% nor our ha,itual concerns or saet!, eicac!,
autono+!, and e3ual access (ill ena,le us to assess the true -ro+ise and -eril o the
,iotechnolog! re.olution. ;ur ho-es or sel%i+-ro.e+ent and our dis3uiet a,out a
1-osthu+an1 uture are +uch +ore -roound. *t sta'e are the 'ind o hu+an ,eing and the
sort o societ! (e (ill ,e creating in the co+ing age o ,iotechnolog!. *t sta'e are the
dignit! o the hu+an ,eing%including the dignit! or (orth o hu+an acti.it!, hu+an
relationshi-s, and hu+an societ!%and the nature o hu+an lourishing.
To ,e sure, the ,iotechnological re.olution +a!, as the o-ti+ists ,elie.e, ser.e to enhance
hu+an dignit!. )t +a! ena,le +ore and +ore -eo-le to reali&e the *+erican drea+ o
li,ert!, -ros-erit!, and /ustice or all. )t +a! ena,le +an! +ore hu+an ,eings%,iologicall!
,etter%e3ui--ed, aided ,! -eror+ance%enhancers, li,erated ro+ the constraints o nature
and ortune%to li.e li.es o achie.e+ent, content+ent, and high sel%estee+, co+e (hat
+a!.
But there are reasons to (onder (hether lie (ill reall! ,e ,etter i (e turn to
,iotechnolog! to ulill our dee-est hu+an desires. There is an old e0-ression: to a +an
ar+ed (ith a ha++er, e.er!thing loo's li'e a nail. To a societ! ar+ed (ith ,iotechnolog!,
the acti.ities o hu+an lie +a! co+e to ,e seen in -urel! technical ter+s, and +ore
a+ena,le to i+-ro.e+ent than the! reall! are. We +a! get +ore easil! (hat (e as'ed or
onl! to reali&e it is .astl! less than (hat (e reall! (anted. Worse, (e +a! get e0actl! (hat
(e as' or and fail to recogni&e (hat it cost us in coin of our humanity .
We +ight get ,etter children, ,ut onl! ,! turning -rocreation into +anuacture or ,!
altering their ,rains to gain the+ an edge o.er their -eers. We +ight -eror+ ,etter in the
acti.ities o lie, ,ut onl! ,! ,eco+ing +ere creatures o our che+ists or ,! turning
oursel.es into ,ionic tools designed to (in and achie.e in inhu+an (a!s. We +ight get
longer li.es, ,ut onl! at the cost o li.ing carelessl! (ith di+inished as-iration or li.ing
(ell or ,eco+ing -eo-le so o,sessed (ith our o(n longe.it! that (e care little a,out the
ne0t generations. We +ight get to ,e 1ha--!,1 ,ut onl! ,! +eans o a drug that gi.es us
ha--! eelings (ithout the real lo.es, attach+ents, and achie.e+ents that are essential or
true hu+an lourishing. *s *ldous =u0le! -ro-heticall! (arned us, in his d!sto-ian no.el
!rave "ew #orld , the un,ridled !et (ell%+eaning -ursuit o the +aster! o hu+an nature
and hu+an trou,les through technolog! can issue in a (orld -eo-led ,! creatures o hu+an
sha-e ,ut o shrun'en hu+anit!%engaged in tri.ial -ursuits7 lac'ing science, art, religion,
and sel%go.ern+ent7 +issing lo.e, riendshi-, or an! true hu+an attach+ents7 and getting
their /ollies ro+ high%tech a+use+ents and a ,ottle o so+a.
This is not the -lace to argue (hether (e ha.e +ore to ear than to ho-e ro+
,iotechnological enhance+ent or the -ursuit o a -ost%hu+an uture. ) ha--en to share
=u0le!'s (orries, and ) surel! see no reason to ado-t the o-ti+is+ o the transhu+anists%
es-eciall! ,ecause the! cannot -ro.ide a -lausi,le -icture o 1the ne( -osthu+an ,eing,1
and, (orse, can oer no standards or /udging (hether their ne( 1creature1 (ill ,e better
than Homo sapiens . But or -resent -ur-oses, +! -oint is si+-l! this: (e cannot e.aluate
any -ro-osed enhance+ents or alterations o our hu+anit! unless (e ha.e so+e idea o
hu+an dignit!, so+e notion o (hat is esti+a,le and (orth! and e0cellent a,out ,eing
hu+an. )n order to 'no( (hether change is -rogress rather than degradation, (e need a
standard o the un degraded and the ad+ira,le. We need to understand the nature and (orth
o hu+an lourishing in order to recogni&e ,oth the true -ro+ise o sel%i+-ro.e+ent and
the ha&ards o sel%degradation7 (e need to understand the nature and (orth o hu+an
agenc! and hu+an acti.it! in order to recogni&e ,oth enhance+ent and corru-tion o our
(a!s o encountering the (orld and one another7 (e need to understand the nature and
(orth o hu+an as-iration and hu+an ulill+ent in order to assess not onl! the +eans ,ut
also the ends that (e (ill ,e -ursuing in the co+ing age o ,iotechnolog!, ,oth or
oursel.es as indi.iduals and or our societ!. We need, in short, (isdo+ a,out hu+an
dignit! and (hat sustains and enhances it% and (hat destro!s it.
Concerns or hu+an dignit! in ,ioethical +atters ta'e +ainl! t(o or+s: concerns or the
dignit! o lie around the edges 5the 1lie and death1 issues6 and concerns or the dignit! o
lie in its ullness and lourishing 5the 1good lie1 and 1dehu+ani&ation1 issues7 the 1Bra.e
8e( World1 issues6. )n the or+er case are 3uestions regarding (hat (e o(e to nascent lie
5including etal and e+,r!onic lie, in vivo and in vitro 6 that has !et to attain ull
de.elo-+ent o hu+an -o(ers, and (hat (e o(e to ading or d!ing hu+an lie, lie not
onl! -ast its -ri+e ,ut, in +an! cases, lie (ith the +ost hu+an o our -o(ers d(indling to
near%nothingness. 2s-eciall! -oignant are those cases in (hich%oten than's to -re.ious
+edical successes, and the ease o co+,ating -otentiall! lethal inections%indi.iduals are
sustained, oten or !ears, in greatl! degraded conditions, inca-a,le o li.ing digniiedl!
(hile d!ing or ha.ing a ti+el! end to their lie. )n the latter case are 3uestions regarding
(hat +a'es or true hu+an lourishing and ho( to 'ee- hu+an lie hu+an, in the ace o
the soul%lattening and dehu+ani&ing dangers o a Bra.e 8e( World. 2s-eciall! diicult
here (ill ,e discerning (hich -ro-osed enhance+ents o ,od! or +ind actuall! conduce to
hu+an dignit! and to li.ing (ell and (hich do not%and (hich, tragicall!, at once i+-ro.e
and degrade.
De-ending on (hich o the t(o dangers +ost trou,le us, deenders o hu+an dignit! (ill
e+-hasi&e either the ,asic dignit! o hu+an being or the ull dignit! o ,eing
5lourishingl!6 human.
ii
) one ,elie.es that the greatest threat (e ace co+es in the or+ o
death and destruction%sa!, in the -ractices o euthanasia and assisted suicide, e+,r!o
research, or e.en /ust denial o treat+ent to the less than ull! it%then one (ill ,e -ri+aril!
concerned to u-hold the e3ual dignit! o e.er! still%li.ing hu+an ,eing, regardless o
condition. ), con.ersel!, one thin's that the greatest threat (e ace co+es not ro+ 'illing
the creature +ade in 9od's i+age ,ut either ro+ tr!ing to redesign hi+ ater our o(n
antasies or ro+ self %a,ase+ent o(ing to shrun'en .ie(s o hu+an (ell%,eing 5> la
8iet&sche's 1last +an16, then one (ill ,e -ri+aril! concerned to u-hold the ull dignit! o
hu+an e0cellence and rich hu+an lourishing.
The t(o as-ects o hu+an dignit! do not al(a!s ha.e the sa+e deenders, es-eciall! (hen
concerns or e3ualit! and lie see+ to ,e at odds (ith concerns or e0cellence and li.ing
(ell. )ndeed, deenders o one as-ect o dignit! so+eti+es ignore the clai+s +ade on
,ehal o the other. Certain -ro%liers a--ear to care little (hether ,a,ies are cloned or e.en
1,orn1 in ,ottles, so long as no e+,r!o dies in the -rocess7 and others insist that lie +ust
,e sustained co+e (hat +a!, e.en i it +eans ,eing co+-licit in -rolonging the
degradation and +iser! o lo.ed ones. Con.ersel!, certain ad.ocates o so%called 1death
(ith dignit!1 a--ear to care little (hether the (ea' and the un(anted (ill ,e dee+ed
un(orth! o lie and s(e-t o the stage, so long as they get to e0ercise control o.er ho(
their own lie ends7 and -atrons o e0cellence through ,iotechnological enhance+ent oten
ha.e little -atience (ith the need to care, here and no(, or those (hose da!s o e0cellence
are long gone. Mean(hile, those (ho drea+ o -osthu+an su-er+en a--ear to care not a
ig either or the dignit! o hu+an ,eing or or the dignit! o ,eing hu+an, since the!
estee+ not at all the dignit! o us ordinar! +ortals, ne.er +ind those o us (ho are e.en
less than +erel! ordinar!.
4et there is no reason (h! riends o hu+an dignit! cannot ,e% and, indeed, should not ,e%
deenders o all as-ects o hu+an dignit!, ,oth the dignit! o 1the lo(1 and the dignit! o
1the high.1 4es, there (ill ,e ti+es (hen there (ill ,e tensions ,et(een the+, de+anding
-rudent and lo.ing attention lest (e +a'e +a/or +ista'es. 4es, each as-ect i e+-hasi&ed
single%+indedl! +a! a--ear to threaten the other: concern or the dignit! o hu+an
lourishing +a! a--ear to loo' do(n in.idiousl! on the less than e0cellent7 concern or the
dignit! o 51+ere16 hu+an ali.eness +a! a--ear (illing to le.el all higher hu+an
-ossi,ilities. But -recisel! to a.oid the dangers o +!o-ic single%+indedness, (e can, and
+ust, deend ,oth the dignit! o hu+an being and the dignit! o ,eing human . )n act, as )
(ill suggest at the end, (hen -ro-erl! understood, the t(o notions are +uch +ore
intert(ined than the! are o--osed. But irst, (e need to loo' at each +ore closel!,
,eginning (ith the dignit! o ,eing hu+an%the dignit! o hu+an lourishing, the dignit! o
li.ing (ell.
'ull Human Dignity: (he Dignity of Being Human
Discussions o hu+an dignit! are, alas, not generall! 'no(n or their concreteness. The
ter+ itsel is a,stract and highl! a+,iguous,
iii
as are +an! o the notions%or e0a+-le,
1hu+an (orth1 or 1high +oral standing1%(e in.o'e (hen tr!ing to e0-lain (hat (e +ean
,! 1dignit!.1 4et des-ite these diiculties, (e can in act readil! recogni&e dignit!, ,oth
(hen (e see it shining and (hen (e see it e0tinguished. =ere are so+e .i.id e0a+-les,
one -ositi.e and one negati.e.
*+ong the +an! +o.ing songs ro+ the *+erican Ci.il War, one in -articular al(a!s
gi.es +e gooselesh: the 1?irst *r'ansas Marching Song,1 (ritten or and sung ,! a
regi+ent +ade u- entirel! o e0%sla.es ighting on the side o the :nion:
i)
;h (e're the ,ull! soldiers o the 1?irst o *r'ansas,1
We are ighting or the :nion, (e are ighting or the la(7
We can hit a #e,el urther than a (hite +an e.er sa(,
*s (e go +arching on.
5Chorus: 9lor!, glor!, hallelu/ah, etc.6
We are done (ith hoeing cotton, (e are done (ith hoeing corn,
We are colored 4an'ee soldiers, no(, as sure as !ou are ,orn7
When the +asters hear us !elling, the! (ill thin' it's 9a,riel's horn,
*s (e go +arching on.
Then all in, colored ,rethren, !ou'd ,etter do it soon,
Can't !ou hear the dru+s a%,eating the 4an'ee Doodle tune7
We are (ith !ou no( this +orning, (e'll ,e ar a(a! at noon,
*s (e go +arching on.
De,ased e0%sla.es, onl! recentl! hoeing cotton and corn or their +asters, transor+
the+sel.es into ,ra.e soldiers 1ighting or the :nion.ighting or the la(.1 *lthough
or+all! e+anci-ated ,! "incoln's -rocla+ation +onths earlier, the! (ere trul! lited u-
ro+ sla.er! not ,! another's largesse ,ut ,! their o(n -o(er and choice. The! cele,rate
here their ne( estate, singing out their ne(l! ound dignit! and ,ec'oning others to /oin the
cause. ;ur heart is stirred ,! this si+-le dis-la! o no,le hu+anit!, es-eciall! ,ecause it
acti.el! re.erses their -re.ious degradation and ,ecause it ull! reutes the dehu+ani&ing
conclusions so+e had dra(n ro+ their -rior ser.itude and su,+issi.eness, na+el!, that
an!one (ho acce-ts a lie in sla.er! +ust ha.e a sla.ish soul. ) a+ -articularl! +o.ed ,!
the e0%sla.es' dedication to a cause higher than their o(n ad.antage. *nd +! i+agination
thrills to the -icture o their +arching through Southern to(ns and -ast sla.e%holding
-lantations, su++oning their ,rethren to air+ their o(n dignit! ,! -utting their li.es also
in the ser.ice o reedo+ and :nion.
;--osite to this e0a+-le o dignit! triu+-hing o.er degradation is the sel%inlicted
dehu+ani&ation o =err Proessor )++anuel #ath in the classic 9er+an +o.ie, $he !lue
%ngel 5@AB06.
*
* strict, u-right, g!+nasiu+ 2nglish teacher, Proessor #ath goes to the
local night clu, to re-ri+and his (a!(ard students (ho ha.e ,een attracted there ,! the
siren singer, "ola "ola, and to scold her or corru-ting the !oung. But on entering into her
-resence, #ath is s+itten ,! "ola's char+s, and he returns the ne0t night illed (ith desires
o his o(n. When he gallantl! 1deends her honor1 against a ,rutish sea ca-tain see'ing
se0ual a.ors, "ola, touched ,! his chi.alr! on her ,ehal, in.ites hi+ to s-end the night.
20-osed in school the ne0t +orning ,! his students, the honora,le -roessor declares his
intention to +arr! "ola "ola, or (hich decision he is -ro+-tl! dis+issed ro+ his
-osition. *ter laughing uncontrolla,l! at his -ro-osal, "ola "ola unaccounta,l! acce-ts
hi+7 !et at the (edding east, in ront o all the guests, #ath is +ade to coc'%a%doodle%do
li'e a rooster in lo.e. The +arried -roessor no( /oins the tra.eling sho(, irst as "ola's
ser.ant, later as a -eror+ing clo(n. 2.entuall!, (hen the tra.eling entertainers return to
his ho+eto(n, Proessor #ath is +ade co%star o the .aude.ille sho(. With her latest lo.er
at her side, "ola orces #ath to -la! a 5cuc'olded6 cro(ing rooster (hile eggs are crac'ed
u-on his s'ull ,eore a ull house o roaring s-ectators, including his or+er students and
neigh,ors. )t is a scene o hu+an a,ase+ent that is un,eara,le to (atch.
What hu+an goods and e.ils are at issue in these t(o .ignettesC 8ot li,ert! or e3ualit! or
health or saet! or /ustice, ,ut -ri+aril! the gain or loss o (orth! hu+anit!%in short, the
dis-la! or the li3uidation o hu+an dignit!. )n the irst case, degraded hu+an ,eings
'no(ingl! assert their hu+anit! and their +anhood, co++itting their li.es to the cause o
reedo+, union, and la(7 an!one (ho is not hu+anl! stunted ad+ires and a--lauds their
no,ilit!, their courage, and their de.otion to a righteous -ur-ose higher than the+sel.es. )n
the second case, an u-right and -ro-er +an o learning loses, irst, his (its and his
-roession to his inatuation and, inall!, e.er! shred o digniied hu+anit!, as he shrin's to
i+-ersonate an inarticulate ,arn!ard ani+al7 an!one (ho is not hu+anl! stunted shudders
at his utter degradation, not(ithstanding the act that he ,rought it on hi+sel.
With these e0a+-les o dignit! and its degradation ,eore us, let +e tr! to s-eci! (hat )
thin' (e should +ean ,! the 1dignit! o ,eing hu+an.1 ;n an!one's account, the idea o
1dignit!1 con.e!s a s-ecial standing or the ,eings that -ossess or dis-la! it. Both
historicall! and linguisticall!, 1dignit!1 has al(a!s con.e!ed so+ething ele.ated,
so+ething deser.ing o res-ect. The central notion, et!+ologicall!, ,oth in 2nglish and in
its "atin root 5 dignitas 6,
)
is that o (orthiness, ele.ation, honor, no,ilit!, height%in short,
o e0cellence or .irtue. )n all its +eanings it is a ter+ o distinction7 dignit! (as not
so+ething that, li'e a nose or a na.el, (as to ,e e0-ected or ound in e.er! li.ing hu+an
,eing. Dignitas (as, in -rinci-le, 1aristocratic,1 less in the sense o social class, +ore in the
sense o hu+an e0cellence 5 aristos , ro+ the 9ree', +eans 1,est16. 2.en in de+ocratic
ti+es, as the soldiers o the ?irst o *r'ansas +a'e clear, 1dignit!1 still con.e!s the
-resence and acti.e dis-la! o (hat is hu+anl! ,est.
Beore atte+-ting urther s-eciication o dignit!'s su,stance, let +e address a cou-le o
o,/ections that ) antici-ate e.en to (hat little ) ha.e alread! said. So+e -eo-le co+-lain
that all notions o dignit! are +erel! social constructs, -ro/ections o the -re/udices o
5aristocratic6 societies and conerred or attri,uted ro+ the outside%as are honor and oice.
)n the sa+e s-irit, others o,/ect that notions o dignit! that a--eal to e0cellence necessaril!
den! hu+an dignit! to +an! or +ost -eo-le, ,ecause the! are essentiall! comparative . But
i careull! e0a+ined, these co+-laints are not /ustiied. 4es, societies accord honor to
hu+an e0cellence%and, !es, dierent societies estee+ dierent .irtues dierentl!%,ut in
+an! 5i not +ost6 cases the .irtues estee+ed are trul! +ar's o su-erior hu+anit!: the
ire+an (ho rushes into a ,urning ,uilding to sa.e a child or the soldier (ho alls on a
grenade to sa.e his ,uddies is deser.ing o our ad+iration, and he (ill (in it in +an! i not
all societies. Mother Theresa and the Dalai "a+a /ustl! earn nearl! uni.ersal a--lause7
Sadda+ =ussein and Pol Pot /ustl! earn nearl! uni.ersal conde+nation. The dignit! o the
?irst o *r'ansas is dis-la!ed ro+ (ithin, not conerred ro+ (ithout7 the dehu+ani&ation
o )++anuel #ath is sel%e.ident and intrinsic, not sti-ulated or attri,uted.
*lthough (e oten do contrast the .irtue o one -erson (ith the .ice o another%as ) ha.e
/ust done%such /udg+ents o e0cellence and its o--osite are, in act, onl! accidentally
co+-arati.e. When (e recogni&e the su-erior dignit! o Mother Theresa (e do so not ,!
co+-aring her against Sadda+ =ussein or e.en against +erel! +oderatel! .irtuous hu+an
,eings. We /udge not that she is ,etter than others 5as (e do in co+-etiti.e s-orts6%though,
in act, it ha--ens that she is%,ut rather that she +easures u- to and e.en e0ceeds a high
standard o e0cellent character and digniied conduct. We are not co+-aring indi.iduals
against each other7 (e are +easuring the+ against a standard o goodness. Proo:
courageous or generous deeds (ould still ,e courageous or generous deeds%e3uall!
digniied and e3uall! honora,le%e.en i everyone -racticed the+ regularl!. Thus, the
see+ingl! inegalitarian nature o dignit! grounded in e0cellence o character is not in its
essence unde+ocratic, e.en i ethical .irtue is not, in act, dis-la!ed e3uall! ,! e.er!one.
)ndeed, the act that +ost o us estee+ and honor conduct ,etter than our o(n is strong
e.idence that (e do not eel oursel.es di+inished ,! it. ;n the contrar!, /ust as taste honors
those (ho appreciate genius al+ost as +uch as it honors those (ho display genius, so the
a--reciation o e0e+-lar! hu+an dignit! honors also the dignit! o those (ho can
recogni&e and estee+ it. 20cellence is onl! accidentall! in.idious7 and the need to +a'e
discri+inating /udg+ents is no reason to sh! a(a! ro+ caring or dignit!.
The trou,le (ith dignit! is not that dignit! is con.entional rather than natural, ascri,ed or
attri,uted rather than intrinsic, or that it in.ol.es +a'ing discri+inations o (orthiness that,
alas, ind so+e -eo-le lac'ing. The serious diicult! in s-ea'ing a,out dignit! is entirel!
su,stanti.e: #hich intrinsic e0cellences or 1ele.ations1 are at the heart o hu+an dignit!
and gi.e their ,earers s-ecial (orth and standingC "et +e re.ie( so+e candidates,
,eginning (ith the dignit! o heroes.
*lthough the! did not ha.e the ter+, dignit! as honor lin'ed to e0cellence or .irtue (ould
certainl! ,e the .ie( o the ancient 9ree's.
)n the (orld o the -oets, the true or ull hu+an ,eing, the hero (ho dre( honor and -ri&es
as his dignit!, dis-la!ed his (orthiness in no,le and glorious deeds. Su-re+e (as the .irtue
o courage: the (illingness to ace death in ,attle, ar+ed onl! (ith !our o(n -ro(ess,
going orth against an e3uall! (orth! o--onent%thin' *chilles against =ector%(ho, li'e
!ou, sought a .ictor! not onl! o.er his ad.ersar! ,ut, as it (ere, o.er death itsel. This
heroic dignit!, estee+ed ,ecause it does not hide ro+ the aront o our +ortalit! ,ut goes
or(ard to +eet it ace to ace, is -oles a-art ro+ our ,ourgeois ear o death and lo.e o
+edicine, though, -arado0icall!, it honors the hu+an ,od! as a thing o ,eaut! to a degree
unsur-assed in hu+an histor!. =eroic e0cellence, ollo(ing the Socratic turn, (as later
su--lanted in 9ree' -hiloso-h! ,! the .irtue o (isdo+7 the ne( hero is not the glorious
(arrior ,ut the +an singularl! de.oted to (isdo+, li.ing close to death not on the ield o
,attle ,ut ,! a single%+inded 3uest or 'no(ledge eternal.
4et attracti.e though these candidates are 5(e can still read a,out *chilles and Socrates
(ith ad+iration6, the 9ree' e0e+-lars are o little -ractical use in de+ocratic ti+es and,
es-eciall!, in ,ioethical +atters. True enough, courage and (isdo+ still contri,ute to
dignit!, and the! are ad+ira,le ,e!ond the conines o (ar or -hiloso-hical -ursuit. ?or
e0a+-le, -art o (hat (e +ean ,! 1digniied d!ing1 is seen in the courage (ith (hich
death is aced and in the degree to (hich the d!ing -erson 'no(s the score and does not
shrin' ro+ the gri+ truth. 8e.ertheless, the dehu+ani&ation e.ident in =u0le!'s !rave
"ew #orld is not -ri+aril! that it lac's glorious (arriors or outstanding -hiloso-hers 5or
artists or scientists or states+en6% though the act that the! are not a--reciated in such a
(orld is telling. The ,asic -ro,le+ is the a,sence o 'inds o hu+an dignit! +ore
a,undantl! ound and uni.ersall! shared.
)n Western -hiloso-h! the +ost high%+inded atte+-t to su--l! a teaching o uni.ersal
hu+an dignit! ,elongs to $ant, (ith his doctrine o res-ect or persons . Persons, all
-ersons or rational ,eings 5hu+an or not6, deser.e res-ect not ,ecause o so+e reali&ed
e0cellence o achie.e+ent ,ut ,ecause o a uni.ersall! shared -artici-ation in +oralit! and
the a,ilit! to li.e under the +oral la(. =o(e.er (e +a! inall! /udge it, there is so+ething
highl! digniied in $ant's eort to ind a -lace or hu+an reedo+ and dignit! in the ace
o the 8e(tonian (orld .ie( that ca-tures e.en the hu+an ,eing, o+itting onl! the rational
(ill. *nd there is so+ething austerel! digniied in the $antian reusal to conuse reason
(ith rationali&ation, dut! (ith inclination, and the right and the good (ith ha--iness
5-leasure6. Whate.er -ersists o a non%utilitarian ethic in conte+-orar! acade+ic ,ioethics
descends largel! ro+ this -rinci-led +oralistic .ie(.
)i
8e.er +ind that, or +ost -eo-le,
hu+an 1autono+!1 no longer +eans li.ing under the uni.ersali&a,le la( that sel%
legislating reason -rescri,es or itsel, ,ut has co+e to +ean 1choosing or !oursel,
(hate.er !ou choose,1 or e.en 1asserting !oursel authenticall!, reason ,e da+ned.1
"ur'ing e.en in this de,ased .ie( o the 1autono+ous -erson1 is an idea o the hu+an
,eing as so+ething +ore than a ,undle o i+-ulses see'ing release and a ,ag o itches
see'ing scratching. 1Personhood,1 understood as genuine +oral agenc!, +a! indeed ,e
threatened ,! -o(ers to iddle around (ith hu+an a--etites through -s!choacti.e drugs or
co+-uter chi-s i+-lanted in ,rains. We are not (rong to see' to -rotect it.
4et $ant's res-ect or -ersons is largel! or+al, a,stracting ro+ ho( -ersons actuall!
e&ercise their reedo+ o (ill. ), as he suggests, uni.ersal hu+an dignit! is grounded in the
+oral lie, in that e.er!one aces and +a'es +oral choices and is ca-a,le o li.ing under
the +oral la(, greater dignit! (ould see+ to attach to ha.ing a good +oral lie, that is, on
choosing well and on choosing rightly . )s there not +ore dignit! in the courageous than in
the co(ardl!, in the +oderate than in the sel%indulgent, in the righteous than in the (ic'ed,
in the honest +an than in the liarC
)ii
Should (e not distinguish ,et(een the ,asic dignit! o
having reedo+ and the greater dignit! o using it well?
But there is a dee-er diicult! (ith the $antian dignit! o 1-ersonhood.1 )t is inall!
inade3uate or our -ur-oses, not ,ecause it is unde+ocratic or too de+anding, ,ut ,ecause
it is, in an i+-ortant res-ect, inhu+an. Precisel! ,ecause it dualisticall! sets u- the conce-t
o 1-ersonhood1 in o--osition to nature and the ,od!, it ails to do /ustice to the concrete
realit! o our e+,odied li.es, li.es o ,egetting and ,elonging no less than o (illing and
thin'ing. Precisel! ,ecause it is uni.ersalisticall! rational, it denies the i+-ortance o lie's
concrete -articularit!, li.ed al(a!s locall!, cor-oreall!, and in a uni3ue tra/ector! ro+
&!gote in the (o+, to ,od! in the coin. Precisel! ,ecause 1-ersonhood1 is distinct ro+
our li.es as e+,odied, rooted, connected, and as-iring ,eings, the dignit! o rational choice
-a!s no res-ect at all to the dignit! (e ha.e through our lo.es and longings%central as-ects
o hu+an lie understood as a gro(n%togetherness o ,od! and soul. 8ot all o hu+an
dignit! consists in reason or reedo+.
)t is, ) note in -assing, eas! to see (h! the notion o 1-ersonal dignit!1 is o li+ited .alue
in the real+ o ,ioethics. *lthough the ,ioethics o -ersonhood is .er! good at deending
those as-ects o hu+an dignit! tied to res-ect or autono+! against .iolations o hu+an
(ill, including ailures to gain inor+ed consent and e0cessi.e -aternalistic ,eha.ior ,!
e0-erts and -h!sicians, this +oral teaching has .er! little to oer in the ,attle against the
dehu+ani&ing ha&ards o a Bra.e 8e( World. ?or it is, in act, -erectl! co+orta,le (ith
e+,r!o ar+ing, surrogate +otherhood, cloning, the sale o organs, -eror+ance%enhancing
drugs, doctoring o +e+or!, che+ical ha--iness, +an%+achine h!,rids, and e.en e0tra%
cor-oreal gestation% Wh!C%,ecause these -eculiar treat+ents o the ,od! or uses o our
e+,odi+ents are no har+ to that ho+unculus o -ersonhood that resides so+e(here
ha--il! in a +orall! dise+,odied -lace. 'ace $ant, the ans(er or the threat to hu+an
dignit! arising ro+ sacriicing the hu+anl! high to the hu+anl! urgent, the soul to the
,od!, is not a teaching o hu+an dignit! that se.ers +ind ro+ ,od!, that ignores the
urgent, or that denies dignit! to hu+an ,odil! lie as li.ed. The deense o (hat is hu+anl!
high re3uires an e3ual deense o (hat is see+ingl! 1lo(.1
The account o hu+an dignit! (e ,adl! need in ,ioethics goes ,e!ond the said dignit! o
1-ersons1 to e+,race the (orthiness o e+,odied hu+an lie, and there(ith o our natural
desires and -assions, our natural origins and attach+ents, our senti+ents and re-ugnances,
our lo.es and longings. What (e need is a deense o the dignit! o (hat Tolsto! called
1real lie,1 lie as ordinaril! li.ed, e.er!da! lie in its concreteness. ;ur theories a,out
hu+an dignit! need to catch u- (ith its (ides-read, not to sa! u,i3uitous, e0istence.
*s (e learn ro+ e.er!da! lie, the dignit! o ,eing hu+an is -erectl! at ho+e in ordinar!
lie, and ) (ould add, in de+ocratic ti+es. Courage, +oderation, generosit!, righteousness,
and the other hu+an .irtues are not solel! conined to the e(. Man! o us stri.e or the+,
(ith -artial success, and still +ore o us do oursel.es honor (hen (e recogni&e and ad+ire
those -eo-le no,ler and iner than oursel.es. We re3uentl! gi.e our (a!(ard neigh,ors
the ,eneit o the dou,t, and (e strongl! ,elie.e in the -ossi,ilit! o a second chance. 8o
one e.er 'no(s or sure (hen a -erson hitherto see+ingl! (ea' o character (ill rise to the
occasion, actuali&ing an e.er%-resent -otential or (orth! conduct. 8o one 'no(s (hen, as
in the case o the e0%sla.es o the ?irst o *r'ansas, hu+an dignit! (ill su++on itsel and
shine orth ,rightl!. With suita,le +odels, -ro-er rearing, and ade3uate encourage+ent%or
e.en /ust the itting occasion%+an! o us can ,e and act +ore in accord (ith our higher
natures.
)n truth, i (e 'no( ho( to loo' (e ind e.idence o hu+an dignit! all around us, in the
.aliant eorts ordinar! -eo-le +a'e to +eet necessit!, to co+,at ad.ersit! and
disa--oint+ent, to -ro.ide or their children, to care or their -arents, to hel- their
neigh,ors, to ser.e their countr!. "ie -ro.ides nu+erous hard occasions that call or
endurance and e3uani+it!, generosit! and 'indness, courage and sel%co++and. *d.ersit!
so+eti+es ,rings out the ,est in a +an, and oten sho(s ,est (hat he is +ade o. *s the
e0a+-le o Tolsto!'s ).an )llich sho(s, e.en conronting our o(n death -ro.ides an
o--ortunit! or the e0ercise o ad+ira,le hu+anit!, or the s+all and great ali'e.
Be!ond the dignit! o .irtue and the dignit! o endurance, there is also the si+-le ,ut dee-
dignit! o hu+an acti.it!%se(ing a dress, thro(ing a -ot, ,uilding a ire, coo'ing a +eal,
dressing a (ound, singing a song, or oering a ,lessing +ade in gratitude. There is the
si+-le ,ut dee- dignit! o inti+ate hu+an relations%,athing a child, recei.ing a guest,
e+,racing a riend, 'issing one's ,ride, consoling the ,erea.ed, dancing a dance, or raising
a glass in gladness. *nd there is the si+-le ,ut dee- dignit! o certain enno,ling hu+an
-assions%ho-e, (onder, trust, lo.e, s!+-ath!, gratitude, a(e, and re.erence or the di.ine.
8o account o the dignit! o ,eing hu+an is (orth its salt (ithout the+. *nd no
technologicall! dri.en (orld o the uture that ails to saeguard the dignit! o e.er!da! lie
deser.es our assent.
Basic Human Dignity: (he Dignity of Human Being
The hu+anit! that shines orth in hu+an ,eings, (hether in the great or in the s+all, is
al(a!s so+ething that arouses our ad+iration and our res-ect. 2.en (hen uni.ersali&ed, it
retains the character o e0cellence or (orthiness. 4et there are -artisans o hu+an dignit!
(ho (ill ha.e none o these /udg+ents o e0cellence or (orth. 2.en (hen the! gladl!
ac'no(ledge the dierence ,et(een .irtue and .ice, the! are loath to sa! that one -erson
li.es a lie +ore (orth! than another. The! insist that hu+an dignit!, rightl! understood, is
so+ething all hu+an ,eings%the ,ase as (ell as the no,le, the (ic'ed as (ell as the
righteous%en/o! equally , si+-l! ,! .irtue o their hu+an being.
)iii
Wh! do the! do so, and
(hat can (e +a'e o this clai+C
To ,egin (ith, the! assert the e3ual dignit! o e.er! hu+an ,eing or certain e0-ress
-ur-oses, li+ited ones to ,e sure, ,ut crucial or an! decent societ!: to -re.ent the dis-la!
o conte+-t, and es-eciall! (capital( conte+-t (ith lethal conse3uences, or those (ho do
not 1+easure u-.1 The! see' to insure a solid le.el o hu+an (orth that no one can den! to
an! ello( hu+an ,eing7 the! (ish to lean against the (ides-read tendenc! to treat the
oreigner and the ene+!, the +isit and the de.iant, or the de+ented and the disa,led as
less hu+an or less (orth! than onesel%and es-eciall! as un(orth! o ,asic res-ect and
continued e0istence. *nd, ollo(ing the uns-ea'a,le horrors -er-etrated in the 20th
centur!, the! (ish at the .er! least to -ro.ide a +oral ,arrier against the li3uidation o
hu+an ,eings% (hether in genocide or in euthanasia%oten -racticed ,! those (ho act in the
na+e o their o(n sense o su-erior (orth.
But e.en granting the soundness o the -ur-ose%(hich ) e+,race (holeheartedl! and
(ithout reser.ation% asserting that (e all ha.e 1e3ual dignit!1 does not, ,! itsel, +a'e it
so. Mere assertion (ill not con.ince the s'e-tic nor reute the deniers o hu+an dignit!. We
need to e0a+ine the grounds or thin'ing that all hu+an ,eings%digniied or not in their
conduct%actuall! ha.e, or should ,e treated as if they had , ull and e3ual hu+an dignit!.
The irst%and -erha-s ,est%ground re+ains -ractical and -olitical, not theoretical and
ontological. ) !ou or !our go.ern+ent 5or +! doctor or health +aintenance organi&ation6
(ants to clai+ that ) a+, or reasons o race or ethnicit! or disa,ilit! or de+entia,
su,hu+an, or at least not !our e3ual in hu+anit!, and, urther, i !ou +ean to /usti!
har+ing or neglecting +e on the ,asis o that clai+, the assertion o uni.ersal hu+an
dignit! e0ists to get in !our (a!. The ,urden o -roo shits to !ou, to sho( (h! ) a+ not
hu+anl! s-ea'ing !our e3ual: you +ust -ro.e (h! !ou are entitled to -ut a saddle and
,ridle on +e and ride +e li'e a horse, or to den! +e the ,read that ) ha.e earned (ith the
s(eat o +! ,ro(, or to dis-atch +e ro+ this (orld ,ecause ) lead a su,hu+an e0istence.
4ou (ill, in act, ace an i+-ossi,le tas': !ou (ill ,e una,le to -ro.e that !ou -ossess 9od%
li'e 'no(ledge o the (orth o indi.idual souls or carr! the -ro-er scale o hu+an (orth
or inding +e insuicientl! 1(eight!1 to deser.e to continue to ,reathe the air. )n this
a--roach to grounding ,asic hu+an dignit!, ) oer not a +eta-h!sicall! ,ased -roo ,ut a
rhetoricall! eecti.e de+onstration%sho(n -recisel! ,! +! asserting +! e3ual dignit!%that
), li'e !ou, a+ a so+e,od!, li'e !ou ,orn o (o+an and destined to die, li'e !ou a +e+,er
o the hu+an s-ecies each o (hose +e+,ers 'no(s ro+ the inside the goodness o his
o(n lie and li,ert!.
Mention o lie and li,ert! re+inds us that, or *+ericans as *+ericans, the doctrine o
hu+an e3ualit! and e3ual hu+anit! has its +ost a+ous and no,lest e0-ression in the
Declaration o )nde-endence. )t is, in act, to the -rinci-les o the Declaration that so+e
-eo-le re-air in see'ing to ground the dignit! o hu+an ,eing, and it +a'es so+e sense to
tr! to do so. We *+ericans, in declaring oursel.es a se-arate -eo-le, ,egan ,! asserting our
,elie in the sel%e.ident truth, 1That all +en are created e3ual.1 =o(e.er hu+an ,eings
+a! dier in talent, acco+-lish+ent, social station, race, or religion, the! are, according to
the Declaration, sel%e.identl! e3ual, at least in this: 1That the! are endo(ed ,! their
Creator (ith certain unaliena,le rights, that a+ong these are "ie, "i,ert!, and the Pursuit
o =a--iness.1
) !ield to no one in +! ad+iration o these -assages, and the! ha.e al(a!s see+ed to +e to
,e, e0actl! as clai+ed, sel%e.identl! true%neither re3uiring -roo nor ad+itting o -roo,
!et e.ident on their ace. But the! do not go ar enough in -ro.iding a ground or the equal
dignity o hu+an ,eing as such. True, so+e inter-reters o these -assages, -lacing great
(eight on the (ords (created( e3ual and 1 by their )reator ,1 suggest that hu+an ,eings
ha.e dignit! ,ecause 9od, in creating hu+an'ind, gave it to the+. But the Declaration does
not sa! that the Creator ga.e all +en dignit!7 indeed, it does not s-ea' o e3ual dignit! ,ut
o e3ual rights . The thrust o the assertion o hu+an e3ualit! ato- the list o sel%e.ident
truths 5(hose enu+eration is ulti+atel! intended to reach and esta,lish a right o re.olution
against go.ern+ents that ail to saeguard rights6 alls or(ard onto the clai+ o e3ualit! o
unaliena,le rights: all hu+an ,eings qua human -ossess so%called natural rights%rights not
de-endent on -ositi.e la( or hu+an agree+ent% the rights to lie, to li,ert!, and to -ursue
5that is, 1-ractice16 ha--iness as each -erson sees it.
The relation ,et(een -ossessing rights and -ossessing hu+an dignit! is, ho(e.er, still
unclear. ) one traces the -edigree o the idea o natural rights ,ac' to their sources in
=o,,es and "oc'e, one disco.ers that these rights rest not on an!thing hu+anl! lot! 5such
as dignit!6 ,ut instead on so+ething hu+anl! lo( 5na+el!, sel%lo.e6. The natural 1right to
lie1 in its @8th%centur! +eaning is not a right to be or to stay alive or e.en a right not to be
*illed or harmed . )t is rather a right to -ractice acti.e sel%-reser.ation, the right to deend,
-rotect, and -reser.e !our lie not onl! against those (ho threaten !our lie ,ut also in the
ace o those (ho (ould den! the rightulness o !our li,ert! to do so 5or e0a+-le, ,!
insisting that !ou +ust 1turn the other chee'16. The right to lie is a 5negati.e6 right against
intererence (ith acts o sel%-reser.ation7 and it rests, in short, on the -recariousness o
hu+an lie, the e3ual 1'ill%a,ilit!1 o e.er! hu+an ,eing, and es-eciall! on the sel%
conscious -assion that each o us legiti+atel! has or our o(n continued e0istence.
)t ollo(s that hu+an dignit! is not the oundation o these inaliena,le rights, nor is dignit!
ours ,! .irtue o the +ere act that (e -ossess the+. =u+an dignit! is to ,e ound, rather,
in asserting !our rights, and, e.en +ore, in standing up or the+, in deending !our rights
and the rights o ello( hu+an ,eings against those (ho threaten or den! the+ or (ho
interere (ith their e0ercise. The true +aniestation o dignit! in the *+erican ?ounding is
ound at the end o this re.olutionar! declaration, as the signers declare, 1*nd or the
su--ort o this Declaration, (ith a ir+ reliance on the -rotection o Di.ine Pro.idence, we
mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor 1 5e+-hasis
added6. Having e3ual natural rights is neutral 5or less6 (ith res-ect to dignit!7 e&ercising
the+ in the ace o their denial carries the dignit! o sel%assertion7 defending (ith one's lie
and honor the rights o a (hole -eo-le is high dignit! indeed.
So+e -eo-le suggest that our e3ual dignit! resides not in our rights ,ut in that +ore
unda+ental truth that +a'es rights necessar!: our co++on +ortal ate and our
consciousness o this act.
i+
But as (as true (ith rights, so (ith .ulnera,ilit!: our e3ual
hu+an dignit! cannot reside in our e3ual +ortalit! or our e3ual ca-acit! to suer. There is,
truth to tell, nothing digniied in .ulnera,ilit! as such or in the act o suering -er se7 a
suerer as sufferer +erel! undergoes, +erel! recei.es%as -assi.e -atient%(hat is inlicted
,! the acti.e 1agent,1 natural, hu+an, or di.ine. To ,e sure, or Christians, Christ on the
Cross +a! ,e regarded as the su-re+e e0e+-lar o hu+an dignit!, not(ithstanding the act
that the i+age o the cruciied +an%9od is, deli,eratel!, a co+-lete in.ersion o (hat
(ould ordinaril! and e.er!(here ,e regarded as 1digniied1 or 1ele.ated.1 But e.en here, it
is not suering as such ,ut suering understood and acce-ted as sacrificial and as
redemptive that alone +a'es the cruciied Desus the e-ito+e o dignit!. Sel%inlicted
suering or sel%+utilation or no higher -ur-ose is utterl! undigniied, and there is no
dignit! in ,eing +erel! an o,/ect to (hich so+ething ha--ens, no dignit! in ,eing 1a
-atient1 in the sense o ,eing -assi.e. ) there is dignit! to ,e ound in the .icinit! o
suering, it consists either in the -ur-ose or (hich suering is ,orne or in the +anner in
(hich it is endured. The .irtue o 1-atience1 in the -resence o suering is itsel an!thing
,ut -assi.e. Dignit! (ith res-ect to suering, li'e dignit! (ith res-ect to rights, is a +atter
o .irtue or strength o soul. 8ot e.er!one has it, and it thereore cannot ,e the ,asis o the
e3ual dignit! o hu+an ,eing.
* dee-er ground or our e3ual hu+an dignit!%natural and ontological, not +erel! -olitical%
+a! -erha-s ,e ound in our e3ual +e+,ershi- in the hu+an s-ecies.
+
*ll +e+,ers o the
class Homo sapiens are e3uall! +e+,ers o that class, and share there,! in (hate.er
standing and dignit! adheres to the class as a (hole, es-eciall!, or e0a+-le, in contrast
(ith the dignit! o other ani+als. There is surel! so+ething to this suggestion. 2.en (hen
(e conde+n or sho( conte+-t or another -erson%and e.en (hen such conde+nation and
conte+-t are richl! deser.ed, as, or e0a+-le, or a Stalin or a =itler%(e cannot hel- ,ut
notice that he is, alas, 1one o us.1 )ndeed, the conde+nation co+es -recisel! ro+ the great
ga- ,et(een his des-ica,le deeds and (hat (e ha.e good reason to e0-ect ro+ another
+e+,er o our s-ecies7 (e do not ind ault (ith lions and tigers or their -redator! and
lethal conduct.
*s it ha--ens, the recognition o the hu+an 1s-ecies%or+1 or gestalt %u-right -osture, e!es
to the hori&on, hands it or gras-ing, ingers or -ointing, ar+s or e+,racing or cradling,
and +ouths it or s-ea'ing and 'issing no less than or eating%unctions silentl! !et surel!
to elicit a -ri+ordial recognition ro+ our ello( s-ecies +e+,ers. Such +utual
identiication is the ,asis o hos-italit! to strangers, acts o good Sa+aritans, or e.en /ust a
nod o recogni&ed hu+an 'inshi- (hen (e -ass one another on the street. The salutar!
re+inder o co++on hu+anit!, e.en in the ace o se.ere deor+it! or degradation, -uts a
li+it on -ossi,le tendencies to ,anish another hu+an ,eing, in thought or in deed, ro+ the
real+ o hu+an concern and connectedness or e.en ro+ the (orld o the li.ing. ;ur
al+ost untutored a,ilit! to recogni&e the humanum in the other -re.ents +an! an outrage
and +an! a .iolation, and it encourages +an! a s!+-athetic (ord and +an! a charita,le
deed.
So ar so good. 4et once again, trou,le co+es i (e are co+-elled to ans(er /ust (hat it is
a,out +e+,ershi- in Homo sapiens that /ustiies allo(ing our 1s-ecies -ride1 or sense o
s-ecial (orthiness to ser.e as guarantor o the in.iola,ilit! o our lie and ,eing. The
5higher6 ani+als too are not (ithout their s-ecial dignit! and s-ecial standing.
+i
Thus, the
dignit! that attaches to us as hu+an ,eings cannot ,e grounded si+-l! in our ,eing ali.e or
in ,eing +e+,ers o a closed inter,reeding -o-ulation7 the sa+e -ro-erties, to re-eat,
,elong also to chi+-an&ees and cheetahs and 'angaroos. ;nce again, the ele.ated +oral
status o the hu+an s-ecies +ust turn on the s-ecial ca-acities and -o(ers that are ours and
ours alone a+ong the creatures.
Thus, to s-ea' o dignit! as -redica,le o all hu+an ,eings, sa! in contrast to ani+als, is to
tie dignit! to those distincti.el! hu+an eatures o hu+an ani+als, such as the ca-acities
or thought, i+age%+a'ing, reedo+ and +oral choice, a sense o ,eaut!, lo.e and
riendshi-, song and dance, a+il! and ci.ic lie, the +oral lie, and the i+-ulse to (orshi-.
4et once (e introduce these +aterial -ro-erties, (e (ill ,e hard -ressed not to assess the
dignit! o -articular hu+an ,eings in ter+s o the degree to (hich the! actually manifest
these attri,utes and acti.ities o lie. ?or the uni.ersal attri,ution o dignit! to hu+an
,eings on the ,asis o the s-eciic attri,utes o our hu+anit! -a!s tri,ute onl! to hu+an
potentiality , to the possibilities or hu+an e0cellence. Because, as the scholastics rightl!
taught, 1actualit!1 is -rior%,oth in s-eech and in ,eing%to 1-otentialit!,1 full dignit!, or
dignit! -ro-erl! so%called, (ill de-end on the reali+ation o these -ossi,ilities.
?or -artisans o the 1e3ual dignit! o hu+an ,eing,1 the search or its content has reached a
trou,ling -oint: the ground o our dignit! lies in the hu+anl! s-eciic -otentialities o the
hu+an s-ecies, ,ut this ,asic dignit! is not dignity in full , is not the reali+ed dignit! o ine
hu+an activity . Euestions again arise regarding the dignit! o those +e+,ers o our
s-ecies (ho ha.e lost or (ho ha.e ne.er attained these ca-acities, as (ell as those (ho use
the+ ,adl! or (ic'edl!. The hori&ontal ground o the egalitarian dignit! o hu+an ,eing
a--ears to ,e shiting in the direction o the .ertical scale o ,eing 5+ore and less6 actuall!
and acti.el! hu+an.
=a.ing no( co+e at hu+an dignit! ro+ t(o directions%,eginning the irst ti+e ro+ the
dignit! o lourishing hu+anit! at its heroic -ea', and ,eginning the second ti+e ro+ the
dignit! o hu+an lie at its -ri+ordial le.el o +ere e0istence%(e note a curious
coincidence: the +ore 1aristocratic1 account could not hel- ,ut ,e uni.ersali&ed and
de+ocrati&ed, once (e learned ho( to ind .irtue and read (orthiness in the doings o
e.er!da! lie7 and the +ore 1egalitarian1 account could not hel- ,ut introduce standards o
-articular e0cellences, once (e (ere orced to s-eci! (hat it is a,out hu+an ,eings that
gi.es the+ s-ecial dignit!. This con.ergence o the t(o accounts in.ites the suggestion that
the t(o as-ects o dignit! actuall! ha.e so+ething to do (ith one another, indeed, that the!
+a! ,e +utuall! i+-licated and interde-endent. The inal section o this -a-er ,riel!
oers se.eral suggestions as to ho( and (h! this +ight ,e true.
(he Dignity of Being ,-n.Bet&een,: Human #spiration/ (ranscendent
Possibilities
"et +e suggest three as-ects o the relationshi- ,et(een the dignit! o hu+an ,eing and the
dignit! o ,eing hu+an: +utual de-endence7 the ground o hu+an as-iration7 and
inti+ations o transcendence.
?irst, the 5lo(er6 dignit! o hu+an ,eing and the 5higher6 dignit! o ,eing hu+an are
+utuall! interde-endent, ,ut in dierent (a!s. The lourishing o hu+an -ossi,ilit!%in
each o its +an! ad+ira,le or+s%de-ends a,solutel! on acti.e hu+an .italit!, that is, on
the goodness and (orth o life as such . The hu+anl! high de-ends for its very e&istence on
the hu+anl! lo(, on the +ere e0istence and (ell%(or'ing o the enli.ened hu+an ,od!.
;ne i+age or this relation o de-endence is that ,et(een ceiling and loor: no loor, no
ceiling.
+ii
But the architectural co+-arison is +isleading, or it suggests inde-endent and
se-arate 1structures1 -iled one ato- the other. )nstead, the li.ing relation ,et(een the high
and the lo( is%no sur-rise% organic and integral : the hu+an ,eing, in e.er! stage o lie
and degree o health, is a -s!cho-h!sical unit!, (ith all its -o(ers and all as-ects o its
acti.it! gro(n%together and interconnected.
*s a conse3uence, /ust as the higher hu+an -o(ers and acti.ities de-end u-on the lo(er
or their e0istence, so the lo(er de-end on the higher or their standing7 the! gain their
(orth or dignit! +ainl! ,! .irtue o ,eing integrated (ith the higher%,ecause the nature o
the ,eing is human . What ) ha.e ,een calling the basic dignit! o hu+an being %so+eti+es
e0-ressed as the 1sanctit! o hu+an lie,1 or the 1res-ect o(ed to hu+an lie1 as such%in
act de-ends on the higher dignit! o ,eing human .
This +utual de-endence o the t(o as-ects o hu+an dignit! can ,e clearl! illu+inated i
(e as' (h! +urder is (rong, (h! (e 5and all ci.ili&ed -eo-le6 hold innocent lie to ,e
in.iola,le%a su,/ect ) ha.e e0-lored else(here.
0
Particularl! hel-ul is a -hiloso-hical
e0a+ination o the ,i,lical stor! o the 8oahide la( and co.enant 5 ,enesis A6, (here a
-aradig+atic la( against +urder is e0-licitl! -ro+ulgated or all hu+an'ind united, (ell
,eore there are De(s or Christians or Musli+s. :nli'e the +ore a+ous enunciation o a
si+ilar -rohi,ition in the Ten Co++and+ents 51Thou shalt not +urder17 -&odus 206, the
earlier or+ulation oers a s-eciic reason (h! +urder is (rong.
+iii
The -rohi,ition o +urder%or, to ,e +ore -recise, the institution o retri,ution or shedding
hu+an ,lood%is -art o the ne( order ollo(ing the ?lood. Beore the ?lood, hu+an ,eings
li.ed in the a,sence o la( or ci.il societ!. The result a--ears to ,e so+ething li'e (hat
=o,,es called the state o nature, characteri&ed as a condition o (ar o each against all.
Might alone +a'es right, and no one is sae7 in conse3uence the (orld descends into chaos.
The ?lood (ashes out hu+an lie in its natural 5that is, unci.ili&ed6 state, the re+ed! or
(hich not nature ,ut onl! reason and la( can -ro.ide.
)++ediatel! ater the ?lood, -ri+ordial la( and /ustice are instituted, and nascent ci.il
societ! is ounded.
*t the oreront o the ne( order is a ne(l! articulated res-ect or hu+an lie,
+i)
e0-ressed
in the announce+ent o the -unish+ent or ho+icide:
Whoe.er sheddeth +an's ,lood, ,! +an shall his ,lood ,e shed7 or in the i+age o 9od
(as +an +ade 5A:F6.
)n this cardinal la(, co+,ining s-eech and orce, the threat o ca-ital -unish+ent stands as
a deterrent to +urder and -ro.ides a +oti.e or o,edience. But the +easure o the
-unish+ent is instructi.e. B! e3uating a lie or a lie%no more than a lie or a lie, and the
lie onl! o the +urderer, not also, or e0a+-le, o his (ie and children%the threatened
-unish+ent i+-licitl! teaches the equal (orth o each hu+an lie. Such e3ualit! can ,e
grounded onl! in the e3ual humanity o each hu+an ,eing. *gainst our o(n nati.e sel%
-reerence, and against our tendenc! to o.er.alue (hat is our o(n, ,lood%or%,lood
con.e!s the +essage o uni.ersalit! and e3ualit!.
But +urder is to ,e a.oided not onl! to a.oid the -unish+ent. That +a! ,e a +oti.e, (hich
s-ea's to our ears7 ,ut there is also a reason, (hich s-ea's to our +inds and our lotier
senti+ents. The dee- reason that +a'es +urder (rong%and that e.en /ustiies -unishing it
ho+icidall!G%is +an's di.ine%li'e status.
+)
*n! +an's very being re3uires that (e res-ect his
lie. =u+an lie is to ,e res-ected +ore than ani+al lie%Wh!C%,ecause +an is +ore than
an ani+al7 +an is said to ,e god%li'e. Please note that the truth o the Bi,le's assertion does
not rest on ,i,lical authorit!: +an's +ore%than%ani+al status is in act -eror+ati.el!
-ro.ed (hene.er hu+an ,eings 3uit the state o nature and set u- lie under such a la(%as
onl! the god%li'e ani+al can do. The la( that esta,lishes that +en are to ,e la(%a,iding
,oth insists on, and there,! de+onstrates the truth o, the su-eriorit! o +an.
=o( is +an god%li'eC ,enesis @%(here it is irst said that +an is created in 9od's i+age%
introduces us to the di.ine activities and powers : 5@6 9od s-ea's, co++ands, na+es, and
,lesses7 526 9od +a'es and +a'es reel!7 5B6 9od loo's at and ,eholds the (orld7 546 9od
is concerned (ith the goodness or -erection o things7 5H6 9od addresses solicitousl! other
li.ing creatures. )n short: 9od e0ercises s-eech and reason, reedo+ in doing and +a'ing,
and the -o(ers o conte+-lation, /udg+ent, and care.
Dou,ters +a! (onder (hether this is trul! the case a,out 9od%ater all, it is onl! on
,i,lical authorit! that (e regard 9od as -ossessing these -o(ers and acti.ities. But e.en
atheists recogni&e that (e hu+an ,eings ha.e the+, and that the! lit us a,o.e the -lane o
a +erel! ani+al e0istence. =u+an ,eings, alone a+ong the earthl! creatures, s-ea', -lan,
create, conte+-late, and /udge. =u+an ,eings, alone a+ong the creatures, can articulate a
uture goal and ,ring it into ,eing ,! their o(n -ur-osi.e conduct. =u+an ,eings, alone
a+ong the creatures, can thin' a,out the (hole, +ar.el at its +an!%s-lendored or+ and
articulated order, (onder a,out its ,eginning, and eel a(e in ,eholding its grandeur and in
-ondering the +!ster! o its source.
* co+-le+entar!, -ree+inentl! +oral, gloss on the 1i+age o 9od1 is -ro.ided%3uite
e0-licitl!%in ,enesis B, at the end o the so%called second creation stor!. Co++enting on
the signiicance o +an's 5diso,edient6 eating ro+ the tree o the 'no(ledge o good and
,ad, the "ord 9od co++ents:
8o( the +an is ,eco+e li*e one of us 'no(ing good and ,ad..5B:227 e+-hasis added6
+)i
=u+an ,eings, unli'e the other ani+als, distinguish good and ,ad, ha.e o-inions and care
a,out their dierence, and constitute their (hole lie in the light o this distinction. *ni+als
+a! suer good and ,ad, ,ut the! ha.e no notion o either. )ndeed, the .er!
-ronounce+ent, 1Murder is ,ad1%and the (illingness to -unish it% constitute -roo o this
god%li'e 3ualit! o hu+an ,eings.
)n su+, the hu+an ,eing has s-ecial dignit! ,ecause he shares in the godli'e -o(ers o
reason, reedo+, /udg+ent, and +oral concern, and, as a result, li.es a lie reighted (ith
+oral sel%consciousness%a lie a,o.e and ,e!ond (hat other ani+als are ca-a,le o.
S-eech and reedo+ are used, a+ong other things, to -ro+ulgate +oral rules and to -ass
+oral /udg+ents, irst a+ong (hich is that ho+icide is to ,e -unished in 'ind ,ecause it
.iolates the dignit! o such a +oral ,eing. We reach a crucial conclusion: the inviolability
o hu+an lie rests a,solutel! on the higher dignity %the god%li'e%ness%o hu+an ,eings.
4et +an is, at +ost, onl! god ly 7 he is not 9od or a god. To ,e an i+age is also to ,e
different ro+ that o (hich one is an i+age. Man is, at +ost, a mere li'eness o 9od. With
us, the see+ingl! godl! -o(ers and concerns /ust descri,ed occur con/oined (ith our
ani+alit!. 9od's i+age is tied to ,lood, (hich is the lie.
The -oint is crucial, and 5li'e the -re.ious insight a,out +an's su-erior dignit!6 stands
a-art ro+ the te0t that teaches it: e.er!thing high a,out hu+an lie%thin'ing, /udging,
lo.ing, (illing, acting% de-ends a,solutel! on e.er!thing lo(%+eta,olis+, digestion,
res-iration, circulation, e0cretion. )n the case o hu+an ,eings, 1di.init!1 needs ,lood%or
1+ere1 lie%to sustain itsel. *nd ,ecause o (hat it holds u-, hu+an ,lood%that is, hu+an
lie%deser.es s-ecial res-ect, ,e!ond (hat is o(ed to lie as such: the lo( ceases to ,e the
lo(. 5Modern -h!siological e.idence could ,e adduced in su--ort o this thesis: in hu+an
,eings, -osture, gestalt, res-iration, se0ualit!, and etal and inant de.elo-+ent, a+ong
other things, all sho( the +ar's o the co%-resence o rationalit!.6 The ,i,lical te0t
elegantl! +irrors this truth a,out its su,/ect, su,tl! +erging ,oth high and lo(: though the
reason gi.en or -unishing +urder concerns +an's godliness , the in.unction itsel concerns
+an's blood . #es-ect the godli'e7 don't shed its ,loodG #es-ect or an!thing human
re3uires res-ecting everything hu+an, re3uires res-ecting hu+an being as such.
)n a (ord, the (anton s-illing o hu+an ,lood is a .iolation and a desecration, not onl! o
our la(s and (ills ,ut o ,eing itsel. There is, inall!, no o--osition ,et(een the dignit! o
hu+an being 5or 1the sanctit! o lie16 and the dignit! o ,eing human . 2ach rests on the
other. ;r, rather, the! are +utuall! i+-licated, as inse-ara,le as the conca.e and the
con.e0. Those (ho see' to -ull the+ a-art are, ) su,+it, also engaged in (anton, al,eit
intellectual, .iolence.
+)ii
The dignit! o ,eing hu+an de-ends not onl! or its e&istence on the -resence and (orth o
hu+an .italit!7 our dignit!'s ull reali&ation in ad+ira,le hu+an acti.it! de-ends or its
active pursuit and attainment %the second as-ect o their relationshi-%on hu+an aspiration ,
(hich, although directed to(ard the high, is dri.en ,! sources in ani+ate .italit! itsel.
2.er!thing hu+anl! high gets its energi&ing as-iration ro+ (hat is hu+anl! lo(.
8ecessit! is not onl! the +other o in.ention7 it is also the +other o e0cellence, lo.e, and
the ties that ,ind and enrich hu+an lie. =u+an lie is li.ed al(a!s (ith and against
necessit!, struggling to +eet and ele.ate it, not to eli+inate it. "i'e the do(n(ard -ull o
gra.it! (ithout (hich the dancer cannot dance, the do(n(ard -ull o ,odil! necessit! and
ate +a'es -ossi,le the digniied /ourne! o a trul! hu+an lie. )t is a lie that (ill use our
a(areness o need, li+itation, and +ortalit! to crat a (a! o ,eing that has engage+ent,
de-th, ,eaut!, .irtue, and +eaning%not des-ite our e+,odi+ent ,ut because o it.
+)iii
=u+an
as-iration de-ends a,solutel! on our ,eing creatures o need and initude, and hence o
longings and attach+ents. Pure reason and -ure +ind ha.e no as-iration7 the rational
ani+al as-ires in large -art ,ecause he is an ani+al.
This disco.er! gi.es rise to (hat +ight see+ to ,e a -arado0: hu+an dignit! is ours in -art
,ecause o our 1ani+alit!,1 ,ecause (e are not incor-oreal +inds, angels, or gods. )ndeed,
once again it is our in%,et(een status%at once god%li'e and ani+al%that is the dee- truth
a,out our nature, the ground o our s-ecial standing, and the (here(ithal o our
lourishing. 4et, at the sa+e ti+e, hu+an dignit! is not on all ours (ith the dignit! o the
other ani+als, e.en i it is lin'ed to theirs and ,elongs to us onl! ,ecause (e, li'e the!, are
e+,odied creatures.
Perha-s the +ost -roound account o hu+an as-iration is contained in Socrates' s-eech
a,out eros in Plato's /ymposium . -ros , according to Socrates' account, is the heart o the
hu+an soul, an ani+ating -o(er ,orn o lac' ,ut -ointed u-(ard. -ros e+erges as ,oth
sel%see'ing and o.erlo(ingl! generati.e: it is said to ,e the longing 1or the good to ,e
one's o(n al(a!s,1 as (ell as 1o gi.ing ,irth and i++ortalit!.1 *t ,otto+, eros is the ruit
o the -eculiar con/unction o and co+-etition ,et(een t(o conlicting as-irations
con/oined in a single li.ing ,od!, ,oth tied to our initude: the i+-ulse to sel%-reser.ation
and the urge to re-roduce. The irst is a sel%regarding concern or our o(n -ersonal
-er+anence and satisaction7 the second is a sel%orgetting%and, inall!, sel%den!ing%
as-iration or so+ething that transcends our o(n inite e0istence, and or the sa'e o (hich
(e s-end and e.en gi.e our li.es.
;ther ani+als, o course, li.e (ith these t(in and o--osing dri.es. *nd, as Socrates
suggests, eros is a ruling -o(er also in the li.es o other ani+als. But eros in the other
ani+als, (ho are unaware o the tension ,et(een these t(in and o--osing dri.es, +aniests
itsel e0clusi.el! in the acti.it! o -rocreation and the care o their os-ring%an essential
as-ect o the dignit! o all ani+al lie. Socrates s-ea's o the no,le sel%sacriice oten
dis-la!ed ,! ani+als on ,ehal o their !oung. *nd ) (ould add that all ani+al lie, ,! one
-ath or another, i+itates the 1no,le1 +odel o the sal+on, s(i++ing u-strea+ to s-a(n
and die.
But eros co+es ull! into its o(n as the arro( -ointing u-(ard onl! in the hu+an ani+al,
(ho is conscious o the dou,leness in his soul and (ho is dri.en to de.ise a lie ,ased in
-art on the tension ,et(een the o--osing orces. =u+an eros , ,orn o this sel%a(areness,
+aniests itsel in e0-licit and conscious longings or so+ething higher, so+ething (hole,
so+ething eternal%longings that are ours -recisel! ,ecause (e are a,le to ele.ate the
as-iration ,orn o our ,odil! dou,leness and to direct it u-(ards to(ard the good, the true,
and the ,eautiul. )n the hu+an case, the ruits o 1erotic gi.ing,irth1 are not onl! hu+an
children, ,ut also the arts and crats, song and stor!, no,le deeds and custo+s, ine
character, the search or (isdo+, and a reaching or the eternal and di.ine%all concei.ed ,!
resourceulness to o.erco+e e0-erienced lac' and li+itation, and all guided ,! a di.ination
o that (hich (ould ,e (holl! good and lac'ing in nothing.
*s-iration, ) a+ suggesting, is the +other o all as-ects o the dignit! o ,eing hu+an.
Though ,orn o our railt! and ,odil! neediness, it is sired also ,! a di.ine s-ar' to (hich%
+iraculousl!%Being has -re-ared the hu+an ani+al to recogni&e and -ursue. This
transcendent -ossi,ilit! is the third as-ect o the relationshi- ,et(een (hat is hu+anl! lo(
and (hat is hu+anl! high7 indeed, it is a -ossi,ilit! that -oints us to (hat is high, indeed
highest, si+-l!.
;nce again, an ancient stor! sho(s us the -oint. )n the 9arden o 2den, the ser-ent te+-ts
the (o+an into diso,edience, ,! -ro+ising her that i she eats ro+ the or,idden tree o
the 'no(ledge o good and ,ad her e!es (ill ,e o-en and she 1(ill ,e as gods, 'no(ing
good and ,ad1 5 ,enesis B:H6. But, as the te0t co++ents (ith iron!, (hen the hu+an -air
diso,e!ed 1their e!es (ere o-ened and the! sa( that the! (ere na'ed1 5B:I6. ?ar ro+
,eing as gods, the! disco.ered their o(n se0ualit!, (ith its sha+eul i+-lications: their
inco+-leteness, their a,/ect neediness o one another, their su,/ection to a -o(er (ithin
the+ that +o.es the+ to(ard a goal the! do not understand, and the un godl! ,odil! (a!s
in (hich this -o(er insists on ,eing satisied%not standing u-right conte+-lating hea.en
,ut l!ing do(n e+,racing necessit!.
*s in Socrates' account, the disco.er! o hu+an lo(liness is the s-ur to rise, ,ut here it
co+es in t(o stages, one -urel! hu+an, the other so+ething +ore. ?irst, the hu+an ,eings,
reusing to ta'e their sha+e l!ing do(n, ta'e +atters into their o(n hands: 1and the! se(ed
ig lea.es and +ade the+sel.es girdles1 5B:I6. Co.ering their na'edness, out o a concern
or a--ro,ation one ro+ the other, hu+an lust is turned into eros , into a longing or
so+ething +ore than se0ual satisaction. Sha+e and lo.e are ,orn t(ins, deli.ered (ith the
hel- o the arts o +odest! and ,eautiication.
But there is +ore. )++ediatel! ater co.ering their na'edness, re-orts the te0t, 1the! heard
the .oice o the "ord 9od (al'ing in the 9arden1 5B:86, the irst re-orted instance o
hu+an recognition o and attention to the di.ine. ?or it is onl! in recogni&ing our lo(liness
that (e hu+an ,eings can also disco.er (hat is trul! high. The turn to(ard the di.ine is
ounded on our disco.er! o our o(n lac' o di.init!, indeed, o our o(n insuicienc!.
)t is a delicate +o+ent: ha.ing ollo(ed e!es to alluring te+-tations, -ro+ising (isdo+,
hu+an ,eings co+e to see, again through their e!es, their o(n insuicienc!. Still trusting
a--earances ,ut see'ing ne0t to ,eauti! the+, the! set a,out adorning the+sel.es, in order
to ind a.or in the sight o the ,elo.ed. "ustul e!es ga.e (a!, s-eechlessl!, to ad+iring
ones, ,! +eans o inter.ening +odest! and art. 4et sight and lo.e do not alone ull!
disclose the truth o our hu+an situation. =u+an ,eings +ust o-en their ears as (ell as
their e!es, the! +ust hear'en to a calling, or (hich sight and the ,eautiul ,elo.ed do not
suicientl! -re-are the+. The -rotot!-ical hu+an -air, o-ened ,! sha+eaced lo.e, is in
act a,le to hear the transcendent .oice.
Thus, awe is also ,orn t(in to sha+e, and it is soon ela,orated into a desire to close (ith
and to ha.e a relationshi- (ith the di.ine. The dignit! o ,eing hu+an, rooted in the dignit!
o lie itsel and lourishing in a +anner see+ingl! issuing onl! in hu+an -ride, co+-letes
itsel and stands tallest (hen (e ,o( our heads and lit our hearts in recognition o -o(ers
greater than our o(n. The ullest dignit! o the god%li'e ani+al is reali&ed in its
ac'no(ledge+ent and cele,ration o the di.ine.
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'oot%$(E1
i. *--lication to s-eciic ,ioethical to-ics and de,ates o an! conce-tual clariications
ound in this essa! +ust a(ait su,se3uent e0-loration. The -ur-ose o this -a-er is entirel!
-hiloso-hical7 and it intends no i++ediate or direct i+-lications or -u,lic -olic! in an!
su,stanti.e ield o ,ioethics.
ii. The /ustiication and +eaning o the na+es gi.en here (ill ,e +ade clearer in sections
t(o and three o this -a-er. *nother set o ter+s ) considered using (ere 1 human dignit!1
and 1hu+an dignity ,1 the or+er to stress the hori&ontal di+ension o uni.ersal 1hu+an%
all%too%hu+an1%ness, carried ,! the ter+ 1hu+an,1 the latter to stress the .ertical di+ension
o e0cellence or (orthiness, carried ,! the ter+ 1dignit!.1 ;nce again, the discussion ,elo(
should clari! +atters ,e!ond such atte+-ts at inding the right shorthand -hrases.
iii. ?or a +ost .alua,le e0-lication o the +ost -ro+inent understandings o hu+an dignit!,
see the essa! ,! *da+ Schul+an in this .olu+e.
i.. Sung to the tune o 1Dohn Bro(n's Bod!.1 There are se.en .erses, o (hich ) use the
irst, third, and last. * ull te0t can ,e ound online at
(((.ci.il(ar-oetr!.orgKunionKsongsKar'ansas.ht+l.
.. *dditional linguistic e.idence +a! enrich our in3uir!. Dignitas +eans 5@6 a ,eing
(orth!, (orthiness, +erit, desert, 526 dignit!, greatness, grandeur, authorit!, ran', and 5B6
5o inani+ate things6 (orth, .alue, e0cellence. The noun is cognate (ith the ad/ecti.e
dignus 5ro+ 9ree' and Sans'rit roots D-I0 and DI) , +eaning 1to ,ring to light,1 1to
sho(,1 1to -oint out16, literall!, 1-ointed out1 or 1sho(n,1 and hence, 1(orth!1 or
1deser.ing1 5o -ersons6, and 1suita,le,1 1itting,1 1,eco+ing,1 or 1-ro-er1 5o things6.
1Dignit!,1 in the 1&ford -nglish Dictionary, is said to ha.e eight +eanings, the our
rele.ant ones ) re-roduce here: 5@6 The 3ualit! o ,eing (orth! or honoura,le7 (orthiness,
(orth, no,leness, e0cellence 5or instance, 1The real dignit! o a +an lies not in (hat he
has, ,ut in (hat he is,1 or 1The dignit! o this act (as (orth the audience o 'ings167 526
=onoura,le or high estate, -osition, or esti+ation7 honour, degrees o esti+ation, ran' 5or
instance, 1Stones, though in dignitie o nature inerior to -lants,1 or 1Cla! and cla! diers
in dignit!, (hose dust is ,oth ali'e167 5B6 *n honoura,le oice, ran', or title7 a high oicial
or titular -osition 5or instance, 1=e.distri,uted the ci.il and +ilitar! dignities a+ong his
a.orites and ollo(ers167 546 8o,ilit! or ,eitting ele.ation o as-ect, +anner, or st!le7
,eco+ing or it stateliness, gra.it! 5or instance, 1* dignit! o dress adorns the 9reat16.
.i. The res-ect or -ersons so (idel! cele,rated in the canons o ethics go.erning hu+an
e0-eri+entation is in act a descendant o $ant's -rinci-le o hu+an autono+! and the
need to -rotect the (ea' against the -o(erul.
.ii. This is not to sa! that one should treat other -eo-le, including those (ho li.e i++orall!
and esche( dignit!, as i the! lac'ed it. To the contrar!, it +a! ,e salutar! to treat -eo-le
on the ,asis o their ca-acities to li.e hu+anl! and (ith dignit!, des-ite e.en great allings
short or e.en (illul sel%degradation. 4et this (ould re3uire that (e e0-ect and de+and o
-eo-le that the! ,eha.e (orthil! and that (e hold the+ res-onsi,le or their o(n conduct.
.iii. See, or e0a+-le, the essa! ,! 9il,ert Meilaender in this .olu+e.
i0. Consider, or e0a+-le, Pascal: 1Man is ,ut a reed, the +ost ee,le thing in nature7 ,ut he
is a thin'ing reed. The entire uni.erse need not ar+ itsel to crush hi+. * .a-or, a dro- o
(ater suices to 'ill hi+. But, i the uni.erse (ere to crush hi+, +an (ould still ,e +ore
no,le than that (hich 'illed hi+, ,ecause he *nows that he dies , and the ad.antage (hich
the uni.erse has o.er hi+7 the uni.erse 'no(s nothing o this. *ll our dignit! consists,
then, in thought.1 5Blaise Pascal, 'ens2es , trans. Willia+ ?. Trotter L8e( 4or': Dutton,
@AH85@FI0M, -ensNe no. B4I, -. AI7 e+-hasis added.6
0. ?or ela,orations o this .ie(, see the essa!s ,! Daniel P. Sul+as! and ,! Patric' "ee and
#o,ert P. 9eorge in this .olu+e.
0i. ?or ,eautiul -resentations o this -oint, see *dol Port+ann, %nimal 3orms and
'atterns 5"ondon: ?a,er and ?a,er, @AF47 -a-er,ac', 8e( 4or': Schoc'en Boo's, @AFI6
and %nimals as /ocial !eings 58e( 4or': <i'ing Press, @AF@6.
0ii. ) ha.e +!sel used hal o such an i+age, in s-ea'ing a,out 1,asic1 dignit!, the dignit!
o the ,ase or oundation, though the counter%-ole ) ha.e e+-lo!ed, 1ull dignit!,1 is not
architectural.
0iii. 8on%religious readers +a! rightl! e0-ress sus-icion at +! a--eal to a ,i,lical te0t or
(hat ) (ill clai+ is a uni.ersal or -hiloso-hical e0-lanation o the ta,oo against +urder.
This sus-icion (ill ,e urther increased ,! the content o the te0t cited. 8e.ertheless,
-ro-erl! inter-reted, ) ,elie.e the teaching o the -assage stands ree o its es-eciall!
,i,lical roots and oers a -roound insight into the ground o our res-ect or hu+an lie.
0i.. This res-ect or hu+an lie, and the sel%conscious esta,lish+ent o societ! on this
-re+ise, se-arates hu+an ,eings ro+ the rest o the ani+als. This se-aration is +ade
e+-hatic ,! the institution o +eat%eating 5A:@%46, -er+itted to +en here or the irst ti+e.
5;ne can, ) ,elie.e, sho( that the -er+ission to eat +eat is a concession to hu+an ,lood
lust and .oracit!, not so+ething cheerull! and ha--il! endorsed.6 4et, curiousl!, e.en
ani+al lie +ust ,e treated (ith res-ect: the ,lood, (hich is identiied as the lie, cannot ,e
eaten. =u+an lie, as (e shall see +ore clearl!, is thus ,oth continuous and discontinuous
(ith ani+al lie.
0.. The second -art o .erse A:F see+s to +a'e t(o -oints: +an is in the i+age o 9od
5that is, +an is god%li'e6, and +an (as +ade thus ,! 9od. The decisi.e -oint is the irst.
Man's creatureliness cannot ,e the reason or a.oiding ,loodshed7 the ani+als too (ere
+ade ,! 9od, !et -er+ission to 'ill the+ or ood has /ust ,een gi.en. The ull (eight rests
on +an's being 1in the i+age o 9od,1 on +an's god%li'e%ness.
0.i. )n the irst creation%stor!, ,enesis @%2:B, +an is created straighta(a! in 9od's li'eness7
in this second account, +an is, to ,egin (ith, +ade o dust, and he acquires god%li'e
3ualities onl! at the end, and then onl! in transgressing.
0.ii. The rest o the essa!, 1Death (ith Dignit! and the Sanctit! o "ie,1 goes on to e0-lore
the i+-lications o this insight or s-eciic ethical 3uestions regarding end%o%lie care and
end%o%lie decision%+a'ing. *rgu+ents are +ade as to (h! euthanasia and assisted%suicide
cannot ,e deended ,! a--eals to hu+an dignit!.
0.iii. ?or an ela,oration o these 1,lessings o +ortalit!,1 see +! 1 45)haim and )ts "i+its:
Wh! 8ot )++ortalit!C1 in 4ife, 4iberty and the Defense of Dignity: $he )hallenge for
!ioethics.
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End%$(E1
@. "es&e' $ola'o(s'i, 1What )s "et o Socialis+,1 3irst $hings @2F 5;cto,er 20026: 42%
4F.
2. See, a+ong other -laces, Human )loning and Human Dignity: %n -thical Inquiry
520026, es-eciall! cha-ter H, 1The 2thics o Cloning%to%Produce%Children,1 and cha-ter F,
1The 2thics o Cloning%or%Bio+edical%#esearch17 6onitoring /tem )ell esearch 520046,
es-eciall! cha-ter B, 1#ecent De.elo-+ents in the 2thical and Polic! De,ates17 !eyond
$herapy: !iotechnology and the 'ursuit of Happiness 520046, all cha-ters, and es-eciall!
the discussion o 1The Dignit! o =u+an *cti.it!1 in cha-ter B, 1Su-erior Peror+ance17
eproduction and esponsibility: $he egulation of "ew !iotechnologies 5200H6,
es-eciall! the section on 1The Character and Signiicance o =u+an Procreation1 in 5the
introductor!6 cha-ter @, cha-ter F on 1Co++erce,1 and the section on 1Targeted "egislati.e
Measures1 in cha-ter @0, 1#eco++endations17 !eing Human: eadings from the
'resident5s )ouncil on !ioethics 520046, es-eciall! cha-ter @0, 1=u+an Dignit!17 and
$a*ing )are: -thical )aregiving in 1ur %ging /ociety 5200H6, es-eciall! cha-ters B and 4,
1The 2thics o Caregi.ing: 9eneral Princi-les,1 and 1The 2thics o Caregi.ing: Princi-le
and Prudence in =ard Cases.1 *ll o these ,oo's e0ce-t or !eing Human are a.aila,le
online at (((.,ioethics.go..
B. The readings in !eing Human (ere collected and oered to -ro.ide the hu+anistic
(here(ithal or thin'ing a,out and res-onding to these and other inade3uate .ie(s o our
hu+anit!. See es-eciall! the cha-ters on 1The Pursuit o Perection,1 1*re We ;ur Bodies,1
1*+ong the 9enerations,1 1Wh! 8ot )++ortalit!,1 1The Meaning o Suering,1 1"i.ing
)++ediatel!,1 and, o course, 1=u+an Dignit!.1 This antholog! has ,een re-u,lished ,! W.
W. 8orton, under the title !eing Human: )ore eadings in the Humanities 520046.
4. See, a+ong other -laces, 4ife, 4iberty and the Defense of Dignity: $he )hallenge for
!ioethics 5San ?rancisco, Caliornia: 2ncounter Boo's, 20026, es-eciall! the )ntroduction,
the discussion o the 1Proundit! o Se01 in cha-ter H, 1Cloning and the Post =u+an
?uture,1 cha-ter F, 1;rgans or Sale: Pro-riet!, Pro-ert!, and the Price o Progress,1 cha-ter
8, 1Death (ith Dignit! and the Sanctit! o "ie,1 and cha-ter A, 1 45)haim and )ts "i+its:
Wh! 8ot )++ortalit!17 $oward a 6ore "atural /cience: !iology and Human %ffairs 58e(
4or': The ?ree Press, @A846, es-eciall! cha-ters 2, B, and 4 on re-roducti.e technologies
and genetic screening, cha-ter @0, 1Thin'ing *,out the Bod!,1 and +ost es-eciall! cha-ter
@B, 1"oo'ing 9ood: 8ature and 8o,ilit!17 an essa! on 1The #ight to "ie and =u+an
Dignit!,1 in $he "ew %tlantis @F 5S-ring 200I6, --. 2B%407 $he Hungry /oul: -ating and
the 'erfecting of 1ur "ature 58e( 4or': The ?ree Press, @AA47 Chicago: :ni.ersit! o
Chicago Press, @AA86, es-eciall! cha-ter 2, 1The =u+an ?or+: ;+ni.orosus 2rectus17 and
$he !eginning of #isdom: eading ,enesis 58e( 4or': The ?ree Press, 200B7 Chicago:
:ni.ersit! o Chicago Press, 200F6, es-eciall! cha-ters 2 and B on the anthro-olog! o the
9arden o 2den stor! and cha-ter F on the 8oahide "a( and its oundations.
H. Der !laue -ngel 5 $he !lue %ngel 6 , directed ,! Dose .on Stern,erg, :ni.ersu+ ?il+
and Para+ount Pictures, @AB0.
F. 1Death (ith Dignit! and the Sanctit! o "ie,1 in 4ife, 4iberty and $he Defense of
Dignity , and 12le+entar! Dustice: Man, *ni+als and the Co+ing o "a( and Co.enant,1
in $he !eginning of #isdom: eading ,enesis , ,oth cited a,o.e